What is OSI Model?

The OSI model, created in 1984 by ISO , is a reference framework that

explains the process of transmitting data between computers. It is divided
into seven layers that work together to carry out specialised network
functions , allowing for a more systematic approach to networking.

OSI Model
Data Flow In OSI Model
When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7
layers of OSI model. First data travels down through 7 layers from the
sender’s end and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver’s end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
 Application Layer: Applications create the data.
 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
 Network Layer : Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted
physically.
Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its
destination correctly, and these steps are reversed upon arrival.

What Are The 7 Layers of The OSI Model?

The OSI model consists of seven abstraction layers arranged in a top-down
order:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
 3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Physical Layer – Layer 1
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The
physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for
transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data,
this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send
them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the
synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls
both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit
level.
 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission
rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh
topology.
 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data
flows between the two connected devices. The various transmission
modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Note:
 Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
 Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known
as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers .

Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet
arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the
Host using its MACaddress .
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames
depending on the frame size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also
encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address
Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP
address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a
way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the
receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns
to the beginning and end of the frame.
 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer
adds physical addresses ( MAC addresses ) of the sender and/or
receiver in the header of each frame.
 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else
the data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the
amount of data that can be sent before receiving an
acknowledgment.
 Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared
by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps
to determine which device has control over the channel at a given
time.
Note:
 Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
 Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and
device drivers of host machines.
 Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

Network Layer – Layer 3

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the
other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e.
selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of
routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP address es are placed in the
header by the network layer.
Functions of the Network Layer
 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is
suitable from source to destination. This function of the network
layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network
uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The
sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely
and universally.
Note:
 Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet .
 Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as
routers and switches.
Transport Layer – Layer 4
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes
services from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to
as Segments . It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete
message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from
the upper layers, performs Segmentation , and also implements Flow and
error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and
Destination port number s in its header and forwards the segmented data to
the Network Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the
receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or
manually. For example, when a web application requests a web server, it
typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to
web applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its
header and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective
application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented
data.
Functions of the Transport Layer
 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message
from the (session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units.
Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it.
The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct
process, the transport layer header includes a type of address
called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this
address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is
delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes:
 Connection Establishment
 Data Transfer
 Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment,
back to the source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type
of transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data
Transfer. In this type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge
receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication
between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than
connectionless Service.
Note:
 Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments .
 Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of
the OS and communicates with the Application Layer by making
system calls.
 The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.
 Device or Protocol Use : TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP

Session Layer – Layer 5

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of
sessions, and authentication, and also ensures security.
Functions of the Session Layer
 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The
layer allows the two processes to establish, use, and terminate a
connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints
that are considered synchronization points in the data. These
synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is
re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
Note:
 All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a
single layer in the TCP/IP model as the “Application Layer”.
 Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application
itself. These are also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.
 Device or Protocol Use : NetBIOS, PPTP.

Example
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through
some Messenger application running in their browser. The “ Messenger ”
here acts as the application layer which provides the user with an interface to
create the data. This message or so-called Data is compressed, optionally
encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so
that it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Presentation Layer – Layer 6

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer . The data from
the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required
format to transmit over the network.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC .
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into
another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the
ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key
value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be
transmitted on the network.
Note: Device or Protocol Use: JPEG, MPEG, GIF.
Application Layer – Layer 7
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data to be transferred over the network. This layer
also serves as a window for the application services to access the network
and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example : Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
Device or Protocol Use : SMTP .
Functions of the Application Layer
The main functions of the application layer are given below.
 Network Virtual Terminal(NVT): It allows a user to log on to a
remote host.
 File Transfer Access and Management(FTAM): This application
allows a user to
 access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and
manage or
control files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database
sources
and access for global information about various objects and
services.