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Module 2

Digital Electronics Fundamentals:

Difference between analog and digital signals, Number Systems-Binary, Hexadecimal,
Conversion - Decimal to Binary, Hexadecimal to Decimal and vice versa. Boolean Algebra, Basic
and Universal gates, Half adder and Full adder, Multiplexer, Decoder,

Difference between analog and digital signals Example: 123.34 = 1 x 102 + 2 x 101 + 3 x 100 + 3 x 10-1 + 4 x 10-2 =100 + 20 + 3 + 0.3 + 0.04 =
123.43
 Analog or Continuous Signal: The signal may acquire any value in a range of the independent
variable (time). Example: Analog Signal 2. Binary Number System: In binary numbering systems only two digits 0 and 1 are used to represent
 Discrete or Digital Signal: The signal can have any value but it would remain constant over periods any number. It will go like 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, 111, 1000 and so on. It is the numbering
of time called sampling period. Digital signals or numbers are processed by digital system using the system used in computers. In this system the next position to the left from the binary point represents
concept of binary numbers and Boolean algebra. units, 2’s, 4’s, 8’s etc. and the next position to the right after the binary point
represents ’s, ( ’s, ’s etc.
Digits are: 0, 1 and Base value: 2
Example: 1010.101 = 1 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20 + 1 x 2-1 + 0 x 2-2 + 1 x 2-3
= 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 + 0.5 + 0 + 0.125 = 10.625

3. Octal Number System: In octal numbering system combination of eight digits from 0 to 7 are used
to represent a number. It will go from 0…7, a two digit sequence is from 10..77 and a three digit
sequence is from 100…777 and so on. It is used to shorten the binary numbers.
Digits are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and Base value: 8
Example: 376 = 3 x 82 + 7 x 81 + 6 x 80 = 192 + 56 + 6 = 254

4. Hexadecimal Number System: In hexadecimal numbering system combination of 16 digits from

Number Systems: There are four number systems that are used in the digital systems. 0 to 9 and A to F are used to represent a number. It will go from 0…F, a two digit sequence is from
10…FF and a three digit sequence from 100…FFF and so on. It is used to represent data’s and
memory addresses.
Digits are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F and Base value: 16
Example: 2A3B = 2 x 163 + 10 x 162 + 3 x 161 + 11 x 160 = 8192 + 2560 + 48 + 11 = 10811

Conversions:

1. Decimal Number System: It is the most commonly used numbering system in day-to-day life to
count, measure and label. Combination of ten digits from 0 to 9 are used to represent any number.
In this system the next position to the left from the decimal point represents units, tens, hundreds,
thousands etc. and the next position to the right after the decimal point represents ’s,

’s, ’s, etc.

Digits are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and Base value: 10

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Decimal to Binary:
Binary to Decimal Conversion:
Integer Part: To convert the decimal integer to binary, divide the number by 2 and the successive
quotients by 2. The successive remainders (which can be only 0 or 1) written in reverse order form the  To convert the binary number to its equivalent decimal, multiply the binary digits by its
equivalent binary number. corresponding weights, and then add them.
Weights from the left of binary point are: , , , , etc
Fractional Part: To convert decimal fractions to binary, multiply the number by 2 repeatedly until the Weights from the right of binary point are: , , , , etc
fraction product is 0 (or until the desired number of binary places). The whole digits of the multiplication
results produce the answer, with first as MSB and the last as LSB. Example: Convert the binary decimal
Example 1: Convert 156.188 decimal to binary.

Example 2: Convert 12.125 decimal to binary.

(12)10 = (?)2
12 ÷ 2 ⟹ Q = 6, R = 0
6 ÷ 2 ⟹ Q = 3, R = 0
3 ÷ 2 ⟹ Q = 1, R = 1
(12)10 = (1100)2

0.125 x 2 = 0.25 ⟹ Carry 0

0.25 x 2 = 0.5 ⟹ Carry 0 Example: Convert (1100.001)2 to decimal
0.5 x 2 = 1.0 ⟹ Carry 1
(0.122)10 = (0.001)2

Therefore, (12.125)10 = (1100.001)2

Assignment:
Assignment Problems: 1. Convert the following binary number to equivalent decimal number.
1. Convert the following decimal number to binary up to four binary places. (a) (1101)2 = ( )10
(a) (47.8125)10 = ( )2 (b) (10101)2 = ( )10
(b) (100.974)10 = ( )2 (c) (11001.011)2 = ( )10
(c) (29.3749)10 = ( )2 (d) (11001.110)2 = ( )10
(d) (105.202)10 = ( )2
(e) (1024.625)10 = ( )2
(f) (555)10 = ( )2
(g) (0.825)10 = ( )2

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Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion: Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion:

 To convert the hexadecimal number to its equivalent decimal, multiply the hexadecimal digits by Integer Part: To convert a decimal integer to hexadecimal, divide the number by 16 and the successive
its corresponding weights, and then add them. quotients by 16. The successive remainders (which can be only 0 to 9 or A to F) written in reverse order
Weights from the left of hexadecimal point are: , , , , etc form the equivalent octal number.
Weights from the right of hexadecimal point are: , , , , etc Fractional Part: To convert decimal fractions to octal, multiply the number by 8 repeatedly until the
fraction product is 0 (or until the desired number of octal places). The whole digits of the multiplication
Example: Convert the octal number (A37E.5C2)16 to decimal. results produce the answer, with first as MSD and the last as LSD.

Example: Convert (10766.342)10 to hexadecimal.

Example: Convert (5386.345)10 to hexadecimal.

5386 ÷ 16 ⟹ Q =336, R = 10 (A)
336 ÷ 16 ⟹ Q =21, R = 0
21 ÷ 16 ⟹ Q =1, R = 5
(5386)10 = (150A)16

0.345 x 16 = 5.52 ⟹ Carry 5

0.52 x 16 = 8.32 ⟹ Carry 8
Example: Convert the hexadecimal number (3A1.4)16 to decimal. 0.32 x 16 = 5.12 ⟹ Carry 5
0.12 x 16 = 1.92 ⟹ Carry 1
(0.345)10 = (0.5851)16
Therefore, (5386.345)10 = (150A.5851)16
Assignment:
2. Convert the following hexadecimal number to equivalent decimal number. Assignment Problems:
(a) (AF)16 = ( )10 3. Convert the following decimal number to hexadecimal.
(b) (B6A)16 = ( )10 (a) (57345)10 = ( )16
(c) (ABC.CD)16 = ( )10 (b) (342.56)10 = ( )16
(d) (9FC1)16 = ( )10

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Relationship between Decimal, Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal number: Example 2: Add (28)10 and (15)10 by converting them into binary.
1 1 ⟵ Carry
Hexadecimal Decimal Octal Binary (28)10 = 1 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0000 (15)10 = 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 0001 1 0 1 0 1 1
2 2 2 0010 Binary Subtraction:
3 3 3 0011 The rules of binary subtraction are:
4 4 4 0100 0–0=0
5 5 5 0101 1–0=1
6 6 6 0110 1–1=0
7 7 7 0111 0 – 1 = 1 (Taking barrow from outside)
8 8 10 1000 Examples:
9 9 11 1001
A 10 12 1010
B 11 13 1011
C 12 14 1100
D 13 15 1101
E 14 16 1110
F 15 17 1111 Binary Subtraction Using 1’s Complement:
1. Take 1’s complement of subtrahend and add it to minuend.
2. If carry is generated, then result is positive. Add carry to the result to get final result.
Complement of Binary Numbers: 3. If carry is not generated, then result is negative and in 1’s complement form.
 There are two types of complements for binary numbers and are used to perform subtraction using
addition.
i. 1’s complement: Obtained by changing all 0’s to 1’s and all 1’s to 0’s.
ii. 2’s complement: Obtained by adding 1 to 1’s complement of a number.

Binary Addition:
The rules of binary addition are:
0+0=0
0+1=1 Example 1: Perform (28)10 – (19)10 using 1’s complement.
1+0=1
1 + 1 = 0 (with carry 1)
Example 1: Perform addition of (11001100)2 and (11011010)2
1 1 1 ⟵ Carry
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0

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Example 2: Perform (15)10 – (28)10 using 1’s complement. (i) Covert (57345)10 = ( )16

(ii) Subtract (28)10 – (19)10 using 2’s complement method.

(28)10 = (11100)2 11100
– (19)10 = (10011)2 ⟹ 2’s Complement: 01100 +01101
+1 1)01001
01101
Discard the carry, result is positive in true form: 010001 = 9
Binary Subtraction Using 2’s Complement: Perform the following:
1. Take 2’s complement of subtrahend and add it to minuend. i. Subtract 10.0101 – 101.1110 using 1’s complement method.
2. If carry is generated, then result is positive and discard the carry.
3. If carry is not generated, then result is negative and in 2’s complement form. (i) 10.0101 – 101.1110 ;using 1’s complement
(2.3125)10 ← 010.0101 010.0101
Example 1: Perform (28)10 – (19)10 using 2’s complement. – (5.8750)10 ← 101.1110 ⟹ 1’s Complement: +010.0001
100.0110
No carry hence result is negative in 1’s complement form: 100.0110 = 11.1001 = –
3.5625d

Subtract (19)10 from (15)10 using 1s and 2s complement methods.

Solution: (15)10 – (19)10

(15)10 = (01111)2 01111
– (19)10 = (10011)2 ⟹ 1’s Complement: +01100
11011
No carry hence result is negative in 1’s complement form: 11011 = 00100 = – 4

Example 2: Perform (15)10 – (28)10 using 2’s complement. (15)10 = (01111)2 01111
– (19)10 = (10011)2 ⟹ 2’s Complement: 01100 +01101
+1 11100
01101
No carry hence result is negative in 2’s complement form: 11100 = 00011 + 1 = 00100 = – 4
Subtract the following using 2’s complement method:
i) (101011)(2) from (111001)(2)
ii) (111001)(2) from (101011)(2)

Solution: (i) (101011)(2) from (111001)(2)

111001(57) 111001
–101011(43) ⟹ 2’s Complement: 010100 +010101
+1 1)001110
010101
Discard the carry, result is positive in true form: 001110 = 14
Perform the following:
i. Covert (57345)10 = ( )16
ii. Subtract (28)10 – (19)10 using 2’s complement method.

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(ii) (111001)(2) from (101011)(2) Add carry to the result: 00101 = +5

101011(43) 101011
–111001(57) ⟹ 2’s Complement: 000110 +000111 Using 2’s complement:
+1 110010 (23)10 = (10111)2 10111
000111 (18)10 = (10010)2 ⟹ 2’s Complement: 01101 +01110
No carry hence result is negative in 2’s complement form: 110010 = 001101 + 1 = 001110 = – 14 +1 1)00101
01110
4. Perform the subtraction Discard the carry, result is positive in true form: 00101 = +5
i) (11010)2 – (10000)2 using 1’s complement.
ii) (1000100)2 – (1010100)2 using 1’s complement. June/July.2016, 15ELN15/25, 04 6. Subtract (111001)2 from (101011)2 using 2’s complement method.
Marks Solution: (101011)2 – (111001)2

Solution: (i) (11010)2 – (10000)2 using 1’s complement. 0111000(56) 0111000

11010(26) 11010 –1001111(79) ⟹ 2’s Complement: 0110000 +0110001
–10000(16) ⟹ 1’s Complement: +01111 +1 1101001
1)01001 0110001
+1 No carry hence result is negative in 2’s complement form: 1101001 = 0010110 + 1 = 0010111 = –
01010 23
Add carry to the result: 01010 = +10
7. i) Subtract (1000.01)2 from (1011.10)2 using 1’s and 2’s complement method.
(ii) (1000100)2 – (1010100)2 using 1’s complement. ii) Add (7AB.67)16 with (15C.71)16.
1000100(68) 1000100 Solution:
–1010100(84) ⟹ 1’s Complement: +0101011 i) (1011.10)2 – (1000.01)2
1101111 Using 1’s Complement:
No carry hence result is negative in 1’s complement form: 1101111 = 0010000 = –16 1011.10 (11.50) 1011.10
–1000.01 (08.25) ⟹ 1’s Complement: +0111.10
5. Perform the following operations using 1’s and 2’s complement technique. 0011.01 (03.25) 1)0011.00
i) (56)10 – (79)10 ii) (23)10 – (18)10. +1
0011.01 = 3.25d
Solution: (i) (56)10 – (79)10
Using 1’s complement: Using 2’s Complement:
(56)10 = (0111000)2 0111000 1011.10 (11.50) 1011.10
(79)10 = (1001111)2 ⟹ 1’s Complement: +0110000 –1000.01 (08.25) ⟹ 1’s Complement: 0111.10 + 0111.11
1101000 0011.01 (03.25) +1 1)10011.01 = 3.25d
No carry hence result is negative in 1’s complement form: 1101000 = 0010111 = –23 0111.11

Using 2’s complement: ii) (7AB.67)16 + (15C.71)16

(56)10 = (0111000)2 0111000 7AB.67
(79)10 = (1001111)2 ⟹ 2’s Complement: 0110000 +0110001 + 15C.71
+1 1101001 907.D8
0110001 8. Subtract (111)2 from (1010)2 using 1’s and 2’s complement method.
No carry hence result is negative in 2’s complement form: 1101001 = 0010110 + 1 = 0010111 = – Solution:
23

Using 1’s complement:

(ii) (23)10 – (18)10. 1010 (10d) 1010
Using 1’s complement: –0111 (07d) ⟹ 1’s Complement: +1000
(23)10 = (10111)2 10111 0011 (03d) 1)0010
(18)10 = (10010)2 ⟹ 1’s Complement: +01101 +1
1)00100 0011 = 3d
+1
00101

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Using 2’s Complement: i) Perform (FC02A)16 – (D052)16 using 16’s complement

1010 (10d) 1010
–0111 (07d) ⟹ 1’s Complement: 1000 + 1001 Solution:
0011 (03d) +1 1)0011 = 3d i. (FC02A)16 – (D052)16
1001
9. Use 1’s complement to perform the binary subtraction
01111 – 11010 repeat by 2’s complement method.
Solution:
Using 1’s complement:
01111 (15d) 01111
–11010 (26d) ⟹ 1’s Complement: +00101
1)10101 (–11d) 10100 ⟹ 1’s Complement: 01011 = 11d

Using 2’s Complement:

01111 (15d) 01111 Boolean Algebra
–11010 (26d) ⟹ 1’s Complement: 00101 + 00110
1)10101 (–11d) +1 10101 Boolean Algebra Laws:
00110
Since no carry, result is negative and represented in 2’s complement form: A=A
10101 ⟹ 1’s Complement: 01010 1. Law of Identity
+1
01011 = 11d 2. Commutative Law
Perform subtraction using 2’s complement method 1101 – 1010.
Solution:
3. Associative Law
Using 2’s Complement:
1101 (13d) 1101
–1010 (10d) ⟹ 1’s Complement: 0101 + 0110 4. Idempotent Law
0011 (03d) +1 1)0011
0110 5. Double Negative Law
Discard the carry, result is positive: 0011 = 3
6. Complementary Law
Perform the following operations:
7. Law of Insertion
a. (CAD.F1)16 + (BE1.54)16
Solution:
8. Law of Union
a. (CAD.F1)16 + (BE1.54)16
9. Distributive Law

10. Law of Absorption

11. Law of Common Identities

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De Morgan suggested two theorems: State De Morgan’s theorem for 4 – variables and prove them by the method of perfect induction.
Solution:
1. The complement of product is equal to the sum of complements of individual.
1. The complement of product is equal to the sum of complements of individual.
Proof: Two variables:
A B AB Proof: Four variables:
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 A B C D ABCD
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
2. The complement of sum is equal to the product of complements of individual. 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
Proof: Two variables: 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
A B A+B
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
State and prove De Morgan’s theorem for three variables. 2. The complement of sum is equal to the product of complements of individual.
The complement of product is equal to the sum of complements of individual.
Proof: Two variables:
A B C D
Proof: Three variables:
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
A B C ABC
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
The complement of sum is equal to the product of complements of individual. 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
Proof: Two variables: 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
A B C 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0

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1. Simplify, .
Solution:
5. Show that:

Solution:

OR:

2. Simplify
Solution:

3. Simplify using De Morgan’s theorem.

Solution:

4. Simplify the following expressions:

Solution:
(a)

(b)

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Basic and Universal Gates NOT Gate Realization Using Transistor:

Digital Circuits:  When +5V is applied to A, the transistor will be fully turned ON,
 A digital circuit is a circuit where the signal must be one of two discrete levels. Each level is drawing maximum collector current, hence the entire Vcc = 5V will
interpreted as one of two different states (for example, on/off, 0/1, true/false). Digital circuits use drop across R, thereby sending 0V to Z. Therefore, output Z = 0 (0V).
transistors to create logic gates in order to perform Boolean logic. Digital circuits are less  When 0V is applied to A, the transistor will be cut-off, hence the
susceptible to noise or less degradation in quality than analog circuits. It is also easier to perform entire Vcc = 5V will be pulled to Z. Therefore, output Z = 1 (5V).
error detection and correction with digital signals.  In either cases, it is seen that output is opposite of input.
 Digital Circuits are classified into two major categories:
1. Combinational Circuits: The output depends on present input only.
2. Sequential Circuits: The output depend on both present inputs and past outputs. Also sequential
circuits have memory.
OR Gate:
Logic Gates:  It is an electronic circuit having two or more inputs and only one output. The output is zero, when
 Logic gates are an electronic circuit which accepts binary input and produces a binary output namely all the inputs are zero, otherwise output is one. It is a physical realization of Boolean-Addition
0 and 1. They are basic building blocks of digital circuits. They are used to create digital circuits operation.
and even complex integrated circuits.
 Combination of logic gates form circuits designed with specific tasks
Examples: Adders: to add binary numbers,
Flip-Flops: set or reset bits of memory,
 Complex integrated circuits are complete circuits ready to perform several functions.
Examples: Microprocessors and Microcontrollers
 There three categories of logic gates:
i. Basic Gates: NOT, OR & AND
ii. Derived Gates: EX-OR & EX-NOR
iii. Universal Gates: NAND & NOR
3-Input Symbol:
Basic gates AND, OR and NOT gates with truth tables.

NOT Gate:
 It is an electronic circuit having only one input and only one output. The output signal is always
opposite to the input signal and it is a physical realization of Boolean-Complement operation. It is
also called as inverter.
Expression: Y = A + B + C

OR Gate Using Switches:

NOT Gate Using Switch: Function Table:

A B L
Open Open OFF
Open Close ON
Function Table: Close Open ON
A L Close Close ON
Open (Low) ON (High) When Input = 0 ;Switch is Opened
Close (High) OFF (low) When Input = 1 ;Switch is Closed
When Input = 0 ;Switch is Opened Fig: Realization of OR Gate Using Switches
When Input = 1 ;Switch is Closed
OR Gate Realization Using Diodes:
 When A = 0 and B = 0:
Both the diodes D1 & D2 do not conduct, since they are reverse biased, hence no current flows
through RL, and no voltage develops across RL. Therefore Z = 0 (0V).

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 When A = 0 and B = 1:
Diode D1 does not conduct, since it is reverse biased. D2 conducts, since voltage B is high (5V) 3-Input Symbol:
hence current flows through RL, then voltage develops across RL that is approximately equal to
voltage B. Therefore Z = 1 (5V).

Expression: Y = A . B . C

A and B: Input Voltages (0 or 5V)

Z: Output Voltage (0 or 5V)
AND Gate Realization Using Diodes:

Fig: Realization of OR Gate Using Diodes

A and B: Input Voltages (0 or 5V)
 When A = 1 and B = 0: Z: Output Voltage (0 or 5V)
Diode D2 does not conduct, since it is reverse biased. D1 conducts, since voltage A is high (5V)
hence current flows through RL, then voltage develops across RL that is approximately equal to
voltage A. Therefore Z = 1 (5V).
 When A = 1 and B = 1:
Both the diodes D1 & D2 conducts, since they are forward biased, hence current flows through RL Fig: Realization of AND Gate Using Diodes
and voltage approximately equal voltage A or B is developed across RL. Therefore Z = 1 (5V).  When A = 0 and B = 0:
The cathodes of both diodes D1 & D2 are grounded. The diodes get forward biased and hence
AND Gate: conduct and current flows through the resistor RL, then no voltage drop across the diode. Therefore,
 It is an electronic circuit having two or more inputs and only one output. The output is one, when output Z = 0 (0V), practically Z = 0.7V ≃ 0V.
all the inputs are one, otherwise output is zero. It is a physical realization of Boolean-  When A = 0 and B = 1:
Multiplication operation. The cathode of diode D2 is 5V, the diode becomes reverse biased, hence it does not conducts and
no current flow through resistor RL. But the cathode of diode D1 is grounded, the diode becomes
forward biased, hence conduct and current flows through the resistor RL, then no voltage drop across
the diode. Therefore, output Z = 0 (0V), practically Z = 0.7V ≃ 0V.
 When A = 1 and B = 0:
The cathode of diode D1 is 5V, the diode becomes reverse biased, hence it does not conducts and
no current flow through resistor RL. But the cathode of diode D2 is grounded, the diode becomes
forward biased, hence conduct and current flows through the resistor RL, then no voltage drop across
AND Gate Using Switches: the diode. Therefore, output Z = 0 (0V), practically Z = 0.7V ≃ 0V.
 When A = 1 and B = 1:
Function Table: The cathodes of both diodes D1 & D2 are connected to 5V. The diodes become reverse biased, hence
A B L both does not conduct and no current flows through the resistor RL, then output voltage pulled to
Open Open OFF +Vcc i.e., 5V. Therefore, output Z = 1 (5V).
Open Close OFF
Close Open OFF Exclusive – OR (EX-OR) Gate:
When Input = 0 ;Switch is Opened Close Close ON Design of logic circuit, symbol and truth table of exclusive – OR gate.
When Input = 1 ;Switch is Closed
Fig: Realization of AND Gate Using Switches  It is an electronic circuit having two or more inputs and only one output. The output is zero, when
even number of inputs are one, and output is one, when odd number of inputs are one.
Application: It is used to implement magnitude comparator, gray code converter, adder/subtractor
circuits, parity generator, modulo-2 adder etc.

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2-Input Symbol:
3-Input Symbol:

Expression:
Logic Circuit:

Expression:

Universal Gates:

3-Input Symbol: NAND Gate:

 It is an electronic circuit having two or more inputs and only one output. The output is complement
of AND gate output. It is also called as universal gate, because it can be used to realize all other
gates.
Expression:

Expression:

2-Input Symbol:

Exclusive – NOR (EX-NOR) Gate:

Symbol, truth table and final expression for NAND and Ex-OR gate (For two I/Ps).

 It is an electronic circuit having two or more inputs and only one output. The output is
complement of EX-OR gate output.
2-Input Symbol:

3-Input Symbol:

Expression:

Logic Circuit:

NOR Gate:
 It is an electronic circuit having two or more inputs and only one output. The output is complement
of OR gate output. It is also called as universal gate, because it can be used to realize all other gates.

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2-Input Symbol:

3-Input Symbol:
EX-NOR Gate:

Realization of Logic Gates using Universal Gates (NAND & NOR):

NOT Gate:
Realization Using NOR Gate:
1. Implement EX-NOR gate using only NOR gates. Dec.2013/Jan.2014, 10ELN15/25, 04 Marks
AND Gate:
NOT Gate:

OR Gate:

AND Gate:

NOR Gate:

OR Gate:

EX-OR Gate:
NAND Gate:

EX-NOR Gate:

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OR
OR

2. Realize using NAND gate. Dec.2017/Jan.2018, 17ELN15/25, 06 Marks

Solution:

3. Y = A + B + AB simplify and implement using logic gates and NOR gates.

Dec.2017/Jan.2018, 17ELN15/25, 06
Marks
Solution:
EX-OR Gate:

Using Logic Gates: Using NOR Gates:

4. Simplify the following Boolean expressions and realize them using basic gates and universal
gates.
(a)
(b)
Algebraic Simplification and Realization using Logic Gates: (c)
1. Simplify the expression and realize using basic gates . (d)
Solution: (e)
(f)
Solution:
(a)

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Realization:
Basic Gate: NAND Gate: NOR Gate:

(b)

(d)

Realization:
Realization: Basic Gate: NAND Gate: NOR Gate:
Using Basic Gate: Using NAND Gate:

(e)

Realization:
Using NOR Gate: Basic Gate: NAND Gate:

NOR Gate:
(c)

Realization:
Using Basic Gate: Using NAND Gate:

(f)

NOR Gate:

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Realization:
Using Basic Gate: Using NAND Gate:
NOR Realization:

Using NOR Gate:

(ii)
NAND Realization:

5. Simplify the following expression and realize using basic gates:

June/July.2016, 15ELN15/25, 04
Marks
Solution:

Realization using Basic Gates: NOR Realization:

6. Simplify and realize the following expressions using only NAND and NOR.
7. Simplify the given Boolean equation Y = (A + ) (CD + E) and realize using NAND gates only.
.
June/July 2017, 15ELN15/25,
Dec.2015/Jan.2016, 15ELN15/25, 10 Marks
04 Marks
Solution:
Solution:
(i)

Realization using NAND gates:

NAND Realization:

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Implementation Using Basic Gates:

11. Simplify and realize using basic gates:

i) ABC + A C + AB + BC
ii) Dec.2014/Jan.2015, 14ELN15/25, 06 Marks
Solution:
8. Simplify . Implement using 2 inputs NAND gates.
i)
Dec.2014/Jan.2015, 10ELN15/25, 06
Marks
Solution:

Implementation Using NAND Gates: Implementation Using Basic Gates:

9. Simplify and realize the Boolean expression using two inputs NAND gates only (A + + C) ( + ii) ter
B + C). Dec.2017/Jan.2018, 15ELN15/25, 05 Marks ;Apply De Morgan’s law to 1st term and multiply 2nd & 3rd
Solution: ms

Implementation Using NAND Gates: Implementation Using Basic Gates:

12. Simplify the following expressions and implement using only NAND Gates:
June/July.2014, 10ELN15/25,
08 Marks
10. Write logic circuit using basic gates for the simplified expression: . a.
Dec.2015/Jan.2016, 10ELN15/25, 04 b.
Marks
Solution: c.
; Apply De Morgan’s Law Solution:
a.
; Apply De Morgan’s Law to individual terms

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Circuit Diagram:
Implementation Using NAND Gates:
Using Logic Gates: Using Basic Gates:

b. ; Apply De Morgan’s law

Half Adder using NAND Gates:

Implementation Using NAND Gates: & Carry = AB =

c.
Implementation Using NAND Gates:

Sum =
Carry = AB =

Half Adder:

 The combinational circuit that performs addition of two bits is called Half Adder. The half adder
operation needs two binary inputs: Augend & Addend and provides two binary outputs: Sum &
Carry.

Expressions:
Carry (Cout) = AB

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Full Adder:

 The combinational circuit that performs addition of three bits is called Full Adder. The full adder
has three binary inputs: Augend, Addend & Carry from previous operation and provides two
binary outputs: Sum and Carry.
Block Diagram:

A & B :Represents the two significant bits to be added. Realization Using NAND Gates:
:Represent the carry from previous lower significant position.
S :Sum bit
:Carry to next higher significant position.

Expressions:

Logic Diagram: Using Basic Gates:

and

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Problems:
Full Adder Using Two Adders: 1. Design a combinational circuit that has 3 inputs and one output. The output is at logic 1 or logic
high only when even number of inputs are at logic 1.

Expression:

Logic Diagram Using Basic Gates:

Expressions:
2. Design a logic circuit using basic gates with three inputs A, B & C and one output Y that goes
low only when A is high and B and C are different.
Expression:

Fig: Realization Using Logic Gates

Fig: Realization Using NAND Gates

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