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Saponification Process and Soap Chemistry

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INOSR APPLIED SCIENCES 12(2):51-56, 2024 ISSN: 2705-165X

©INOSR PUBLICATIONS INOSR12.2.5156
International Network Organization for Scientific Research
https://doi.org/10.59298/INOSRAS/2024/12.2.515600

Saponification Process and Soap Chemistry

Benedict Nnachi Alum

Department of Research and Publications, Kampala International University, Uganda

Email:[email protected]
ORCID: https://orcid.org/my-orcid?orcid=0009-0005-14855776

ABSTRACT
Saponification is the process of converting fats or oils into glycerol and soap by reacting with alkalis such as
potassium or sodium hydroxide. This process is crucial for understanding the chemical makeup of soap and its
applications. This review article focuses on the product's historical and modern applications while providing a
thorough understanding of the chemistry and saponification process. This article explains the process of
saponification, which turns natural fats or oils into soap and glycerol by using an alkali like KOH or NaOH. We
explain the steps involved in saponification, which include the hydrolysis of the ester link, the creation of soap
molecules, and the impact of the fatty acid chain on the soap's properties. Glycerol, another economically useful
byproduct, has multiple uses across many industries and a reputation for sustainability. We also assess the impact
of several factors on the soaps, such as temperature, alkali content, mixing techniques, curing times, and additive
usage. This paper reviews the valid literature in depth using a thorough historical, scientific, and industrial
examination of soap manufacture, including saponification techniques and soap chemistry. Using the bibliometric
approach, this review draws attention to the scientific and technological elements of soap manufacture, as well as its
wide range of uses in the disciplines of pharmacy, hygiene, and cosmetics.
Keywords: Saponification, Soap chemistry, Alkali, Fatty Acids, Glycerol.

INTRODUCTION
Soap's historical use as a cleaning agent for washing alkali to produce a soap molecule. The type of alkali
clothes and personal items attests to the used—potassium hydroxide for soft soap, and sodium
saponification process's contribution to its cleaning hydroxide for firm soap—determines the soap's
and emulsifying properties. Saponification, the characteristics. Potassium hydroxide creates softer
process that underpins soap production worldwide, soaps that are soluble in water, while sodium
involves converting natural fats or oils into alkalis hydroxide makes harder soaps that are more suited
[1]. Beyond the soap applications, research into the for cleaning [4]. The different affinities of potassium
chemistry underlying its creation and usage offers a and sodium ions to the carboxylate anions are what
deeper understanding of the fundamental molecular cause this different impact. This is because they
structures governing its efficacy. The interaction of determine the structure and character of the soap that
glycerides, typically derived from plants or animals, is made during the saponification process. The
with a strong base like potassium hydroxide (KOH) chemical makeup of the fats and oils used also has a
or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) theoretically results in significant impact on the soap's composition.
saponification [2]. This reaction produces metal salts Different properties of the three types of fatty acids,
of fatty acids, or soap molecules, as well as glycerol, such as skin softening, lather creation, and cleaning.
also known as glycerin. During the saponification Triglyceride molecules' hardness, stability, and
process, a base acting as a nucleophile hydrolyzes the texture, which influence consumer preferences and
ester linkages in the triglyceride structure [3]. The industrial applications, depend on the proportion of
process entails cleavage of the ester connection that these fatty acids integrated into them. Furthermore,
links the fatty acid chain to the glycerol molecule. saponification is an operation that is dependent on
This releases free fatty acids, which react with the several variables, including temperature, stirring, and
51
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reactant purity [5]. Favorable conditions support the cosmetics, underscoring the economic significance of
achievement of a homogeneous soap quality and the soap production. In conclusion, centuries of scientific
greatest yield of fats or oils in soap. To create the invention and discovery have resulted in the process
necessary qualities for soap production, certain of saponification, which involves chemistry, biology,
formulations and environmental conditions must be and industrial technology. Even though soap has a
satisfied. The final product must also pass stringent straightforward chemical makeup, scientists have
quality criteria to attest to its efficacy and safety. gradually learned more about its molecular structure,
Apart from its use in bathing and cleaning, the which has improved soap's manufacturing and
chemistry of soap reveals its versatility in various efficiency and led to the discovery of new uses. As a
applications like pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and result, soap is now one of the most important cleaning
industrial uses. Hence, saponification produces products in the modern world.
glycerin, which is valuable in food, medicine, and
Chemical Reactions Saponification
A simple chemical process called saponification turns i. Three fatty acid chains join a glycerol
fats or oils into products like soap and glycerol. This molecule with the structure R-COO to form
is a brief explanation of its chemical reaction: The a triglyceride molecule.
term "saponification" describes the procedure of ii. Triglycerides have ester bonds (-COO-) that
using a strong base, typically potassium hydroxide react with hydroxide ions (OH⁻) that are
(KOH) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH), to break the given off by sodium or potassium hydroxide.
ester bonds in molecules of triglycerides (fats or oils) These ions act as nucleophiles and remove
[6]. electrons from the nucleus.
Triglyceride+3 NaOH→Glycerol+3 Soap Molecules iii. Hydrolysis, which breaks the ester bonds
or and produces three molecules of soap and
Triglyceride+3 KOH→Glycerol+3 Soap Molecules glycerol, also called glycerin.
[7]. iv. The fatty acid salts (RCOONa or K), which
In this reaction: are soluble in water and surface-active
substances, are often the molecules that
makeup soap.
Key points about the chemical reaction of saponification
i. Hydrolysis: The hydroxide ions break the forms soft bar soaps. This is because the
ester bonds, forming glycerol and physical properties of the soap affect the size
carboxylate ions, which are salts of fatty and characteristics of the sodium and
acids. potassium ions.
ii. Soap Formation: The products produced, iv. Soap Creation Application: The first step in
fatty acid salts, or soaps, exhibit both the process of creating soap is saponification,
hydrophilic, or water-loving, and and achieving the ideal soap quality requires
hydrophobic, or water-hating, phases. adjusting concentrations, stirring speeds,
Because of this property, soaps can aid in the and temperatures. Knowing how
emulsification of dirt and oil during washing. saponification works helps explain how soap
iii. Alkali Influence: Sodium hydroxide forms is made and used to improve global hygiene.
hard bar soaps, while potassium hydroxide
The Role of Alkali in Saponification
Understanding the chemical process of using fats or hydrolysis process, fatty acids liberate from
oils to make glycerol and soap necessitates glycerol (glycerin) to produce the soap
considering alkali in saponification. molecules as sodium or potassium salts.
i. Catalytic Action: The saponification iii. Types of Soap Produced: The qualities of
process uses alkalis such as potassium the soap to be made will depend on the alkali
hydroxide (KOH) and sodium hydroxide used (KOH or NaOH) [9]. Sodium
(NaOH). These enzymes cause the release of hydroxide (NaOH) is the raw material for
hydroxide ions (OH⁻), which accelerate and hard soap, which is ideal for bar soap and a
catalyse the triglyceride molecules' ester strong wash. KOH produces a milder, more
bond breakdown [8]. soluble soap that is appropriate for
ii. Triglyceride Hydrolysis: The hydroxide producing liquid soap with comparatively
ions from the alkali saponify the ester bonds little cleaning power.
(-COO-) connecting the fatty acids to the
glycerol in the triglycerides. During this
52
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iv. pH Adjustment: It also regulates the pH of vi. Economic Importance: The production of
the soap that is generated, depending on the glycerol during saponification is highly
alkali concentration used [10]. beneficial not only for soap production, but
v. Industrial Application: To ensure good also for the food, medicine, and cosmetics
saponification reactions and high-quality industries [12]. Its extraction and
soaps, industrial soap production maintains purification are crucial when determining
the concentration and purity of the alkali to how economically viable soap production
high standards [11]. Sodium soaps tend to procedures are. Because of this,
have an alkaline nature with a pH ranging understanding how alkali functions in
from 9 to 10, while potassium soaps have a saponification is critical when creating soap
pH of around 8 to 9. We adjust the formulas that meet consumer demands and
temperature, speed of stirring, and duration have the appropriate cleaning capabilities
to provide the necessary properties for soap. and skin type compatibility.
Types of Fatty Acids and Soap Properties
All else being equal, the types of fatty acids in fats or caprylic acid make softer and more soluble
oils determine the properties of the soap that soaps, long-chain fatty acids like lauric and
saponification produces. myristic acid yield tougher soaps and
i. Saturated Fatty Acids: Palmitic acid and cleaning agents.
stearic acid, two examples of these fatty iv. Combinations: Different fatty acid
acids, lack double bonds in their carbon percentage proportions make up the
chains due to their saturation with hydrogen majority of natural fats and oils. The
atoms [13]. Hard bar soaps with proportion of unsaturated to saturated fatty
outstanding lathering and cleaning acids in a given oil determines the soap's
properties are among the soaps produced composition. Lauric acid, a saturated fatty
from oils that have a high S.F.A. content. acid present in coconut oil, contributes to the
Although these soaps exhibit stability and foam and cleanliness of soap, but on its own,
good sedimentation qualities, their tendency it can be drying.
to dry out the skin necessitates the careful v. Soap Properties: The kind and amount of
addition of moisturizing ingredients. fatty acids in the triglycerides involved in
ii. Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Fatty acids with the saponification process determine the
one or more double bonds between their physical properties of the soap, including its
carbon atoms include oleic and linoleic acids hardness, litheness, cleansing effectiveness,
[14]. In general, unsaturated, fatty acid-rich and emollience [2]. Formulators can blend
oils produce softer, more moisturizing soaps these oils to maximize their properties and
than saturated oil-based soaps. They may create soaps that cater to specific skin types
not foam as much as soaps made from and preferences.
saturated fatty acids, but their mildness The varieties of fatty acids in oils and how they affect
makes them desirable. the qualities of soap enable the soap maker to create
iii. Chain Length: This suggests that the oils that address a variety of consumer needs and
length of the carbon chain in fatty acids also desires, such as cleansing, moisturising, sensory, and
influences the soap's characteristics. While skin concerns.
short-chain fatty acids like capric and
Glycerin (Glycerol) as a Byproduct
Another crucial substance that is created as a substance has a propensity to collect and
byproduct of the saponification process needed to hold onto water molecules because it is
make soap is glycerol, sometimes known as glycerin. hygroscopic and water-soluble.
i. Formation: In a process known as iii. Industrial Uses: Glycerol finds numerous
saponification, triglycerides, fats, or oils, applications in the sectors listed below.
react with an alkali such as potassium a. Cosmetics and Personal Care: Because it
hydroxide or sodium hydroxide to produce functions as a humectant to maintain skin
glycerin and soap. The component glycerol moisture, it is a common ingredient in
is produced when ester linkages in the skincare products such as lotions, creams,
triglyceride molecule break down. and moisturisers.
ii. Chemical Properties: Glycerol is a b. Pharmaceuticals: Among other
pleasant, colourless, odourless trihydroxy formulation uses, glycerol can serve as a
sugar alcohol that is not toxic [15]. This solvent, sweetener, or preservative in
53
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original work is properly cited.
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oral liquids, suspensions, and finds widespread use across various sectors
suppositories [16]. worldwide.
c. Food and Beverage: It is extensively v. Sustainability: Glycerol is more
used in candies, baked goods, and environmentally friendly than its synthetic
beverages, as well as a humectant and equivalents because it comes from natural
sweetening agent in food fats and oils, which are renewable supplies
manufacturing. [18]. The company's sustainable
d. Industrial Applications: Glycerol is used manufacturing profile is in line with the
as a raw material in the production of evolving ideals of its customers, who are
other chemicals, such as propylene becoming more environmentally sensitive.
glycol, and as a component of antifreeze As a result, glycerol is a useful byproduct of
mixtures and lubricating solutions in a saponification with a broad range of applications in
variety of industries [17]. the culinary, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and other
iv. Economic Importance: The extraction and industries. These qualities highlight the material's
purification of glycerol from the soap- economic significance and suitability for modern
making process partially offsets the cost of industrial processes, making it indispensable across a
the saponification operations. This product range of industries.
Factors Affecting Soap Quality
As will be discussed below, several factors can homogeneity and stability of the soap by
influence the quality of soap produced via the improving the distribution of the
saponification method. constituents, enhancing the soap's
i. Ingredients: The type and amount of fats or homogeneity and stability.
oils used will influence the final soap's v. Curing and Ageing: We allow the soap to
quality. The amounts of saturated and age for a few weeks after saponification,
unsaturated fatty acids in different oils affect which enhances its hardness, mildness, and
soap's overall qualities, such as hardness, longevity. Curing removes moisture from
lathering power, cleaning effectiveness, and the soap, resulting in a firmer, less abrasive
moisturizing effect [19]. feel that enhances lather and extends its
ii. Alkali Concentration: During the useful life [22].
saponification process, the concentration vi. Fragrances and additions: Botanicals,
and purity of the alkali—typically potassium essential oils, colourants, and moisturisers
or sodium hydroxide—are crucial. The are examples of soap additions that can
effectiveness, texture, and pH level of the improve the soap's qualities and make it
soap are all determined by the mole ratio and more appealing to consumers. However, we
accurate measurements of oils, lye, and must carefully choose and add additives at
essential oils [20]. the right stage of the process to maintain the
iii. Temperature: Because saponification soap's stability and effectiveness.
reactions are exothermic, temperature vii. Quality Control: We use random checks
variations might affect them. Temperature and various methods of quality assurance
conditions are regulated since they promote and control to uphold the standard and
reaction speeds and aid in preserving the adhere to the established soap specifications.
soap's quality. The converse is true for low We must evaluate daily sanitation, pH,
temperatures, which have a slow rate of moisture content, hardness, lather quality,
saponification. High temperatures are also and sensory qualities to satisfy QC
beneficial in accelerating saponification, requirements and consumer expectations
although the heat may also affect the texture [2].
and colour of the soap. To create high-quality soaps that provide end users
iv. Agitation and Mixing: During the with correct cleaning, skin moisturizing, and feel,
saponification process, proper mixing and soap producers must recognise and regulate these
stirring are necessary to make sure that all variables. Changing such aspects makes it easier to
of the ingredients are well combined and adjust the technology of soap compositions to meet
improve the alkali's distribution in the fat or market demands and consumer preferences.
oil sample [21]. Proper mixing enhances the
CONCLUSION
As a result, the crucial chemical step of saponification technique uses alkalis, such as potassium or sodium
is what turns fats or oils into glycerol and soap. This hydroxide, to break ester bonds inside triglycerides
54
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original work is properly cited.
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to produce glycerin and soap. The type of alkali used include temperature, mixing, curing, and additions.
determines the type of soap formed; potassium Not only does saponification serve hygienic purposes,
hydroxide is used to make gentle soaps for emulsion but it also facilitates the production of glycerol, a
applications, whereas sodium hydroxide is used to valuable product in various sectors. This makes
make hard soaps for cleaning. Aside from fatty acid saponification both environmentally and
makeup, other factors influencing soap quality economically advantageous.
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Presented at the October 1 (2019)

55
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original work is properly cited.
 https://www.inosr.net/inosr-applied-sciences/ Alum

CITE AS: Benedict Nnachi Alum (2024). Saponification Process and Soap Chemistry. INOSR APPLIED
SCIENCES 12(2):51-56. https://doi.org/10.59298/INOSRAS/2024/12.2.515600

56
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