lOMoARcPSD|49608131

G11 - 2ND Quarter - GEN BIO 1 Reviewer

Physical Science (HUMSS-11) (Tanza National Comprehensive High School)

Scan to open on Studocu

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Danniah Chavez ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|49608131

Th Rol of ATP i Energ Couplin an At the heart of ATP is the nucleotide adenosine

Transfe
monophosphate (AMP). Like the other nucleotides AMP is
composed of a nitrogenous base (an adenine molecule)
Mechanical Work bonded to a ribose molecule and a single phosphate group.
The addition of a second phosphate group to this core
● beating the cilia, contraction of muscle, the flow of
molecule results in the formation of adenosine diphosphate
cytoplasm within the cell and the movement of
(ADP); the addition of a third phosphate group forms
chromosomes during cellular reproduction.
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Transport Work
● pumping of substances across membranes against
the direction of spontaneous movement.

Chemical Work
● pushing of endergonic reactions that would not
occur spontaneously, such as the synthesis of polymers from
monomers.

HYDROLYSIS OF ATP

The triphosphate bond of ATP is unstable and the bond

between the phosphate groups can be broken by hydrolysis.
An appreciable amount of energy is released when one of
these bonds is broken in a hydrolysis (water-mediated
breakdown) reaction.

COUPLED REACTION PROCESSES

● Carbohydrates: most commonly broken down to
make ATP
A. ENDERGONIC AND EXERGONIC REACTIONS ● Lipids: store the most energy
➢ Endergonic reactions require an input of energy. ● Proteins: least likely to be broken down to make ATP
An example of an endergonic reaction in the living system is

Phot synthesi
photosynthesis. An exergonic reaction releases energy. An
example of exergonic reaction is cellular respiration.

ENDERGONIC EXERGONIC

DEFINITION Absorbing energy Releasing energy

NATURE Non spontaneous Spontaneous and

and unfavorable favorable

PRODUCTS Products contain Products contain

higher energy less energy than
than reactants reactants

B. HYDROLYSIS OF ATP AND ENDERGONIC

DEHYDRATION PROCESS

-Hydrolysis of ATP - it is the process of breaking complex

macromolecules.
-Dehydration of ATP - this reaction reverses the hydrolysis of
ATP by regenerating ATP.
Chlorophyll absorbs all wavelength colors except green, which
ATP STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION is reflected off giving plants their green appearance.

Downloaded by Danniah Chavez ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|49608131

These pigments harvest light energy packets or photons when Photons are absorbed by the pigments to power photosystem
they absorb sunlight. I and photosystem II.

Chloroplasts are where photosynthesis occurs. Photosystem II splits water molecules into two protons (H+)
and oxygen atoms are expelled as O2 gas through the stomata.
Chloroplasts are full of round flattened discs called thylakoids.
Protons cross the thylakoid membrane and power protein
A stack of thylakoids is called a granum. complex ATP synthase to make ATP.

Stroma is the space inside chloroplasts NADP+ is powered up by photosystem I to make NADPH to
be used in the dark reactions
What is Photosynthesis?
➢ process used by plants and other organisms to Light dependent reactions finish with charged NADPH, ATP,
convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be and released O2.
released to fuel the organisms' activities. This chemical energy
is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are DARK REACTION/LIGHT INDEPENDENT
synthesized from carbon dioxide and water – hence the name REACTION/CALVIN’S CYCLE
photosynthesis comes from the Greek phōs, "light", and ● do not need light energy to power
synthesis, "putting together". ● can occur day or night.
● Discovered by three scientists, the
These organisms are known as photoautotrophs or producers Calvin-Bensen-Bassham cycle or just Calvin Cycle.
meaning they make their own food and energy from the sun. ● occur in the stroma of chloroplasts
● Carbon dioxide, ATP, and NADPH (reactants)
Consumers such as herbivores and carnivores depend on the ● G3P (products)
products of photosynthesis that producers make to live.
CARBON FIXATION
LIGHT REACTION/LIGHT DEPENDENT ➔ 3 molecules of CO2 (from the atmosphere) are
joined to 3 molecules of RuBP (a 5-carbon sugar) by Rubisco
REACTION (an enzyme also known as RuBP carboxylase)
● capture light energy to power photosynthesis. ➔ This forms 3-PGA
Light reactions occur during the day time.
● take place in the thylakoids REDUCTION
● pigments in the thylakoid membranes form protein ➔ Since the intermediate of combined RuBP and CO2
complexes called Photosystem I and Photosystem II. is unstable; it quickly splits in half and forms 2 molecules of
3-PGA which are stable.
-Photons
-Water ATP One of these “extra” 3- carbon G3P molecules will exit the
-ADP NADPH cycle and be used to form ½ a glucose molecule.
-NADP + Oxygen (by products)
Once the Calvin Cycle “turns” twice (well, actually 6 times),
➢ When a photon of light hits the reaction center, a those 2 molecules of G3P (a 3-carbon carbohydrate) will
pigment molecule such as chlorophyll releases an electron. combine to form 1 molecule of glucose.
The released electron manages to escape by traveling through
an electron transport chain, which generates the energy REGENERATION OF RUBP
needed to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate, a source of ➔ The remaining 5 G3P molecules (3-carbons each!)
chemical energy for cells) and NADPH. The "electron hole" in get rearranged (using ATP) to form 3 RuBP molecules
the original chlorophyll pigment is filled by taking an electron (5-carbons each).
from water. As a result, oxygen is released into the
atmosphere. BROAD OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• The Light Reactions (Phase 1) capture the energy in sunlight

and convert it to chemical energy in the form of ATP and
NADPH.
• The Calvin Cycle (Phase 2) uses the energy transformed by
the light reactions along with carbon dioxide to produce
organic compounds.

Cellula Respiratio
Breathing versus Cellular Respiration

Downloaded by Danniah Chavez ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|49608131

● Breathing: physical process that allows animals and

humans to come into contact with gasses in the air.

● Cellular respiration: chemical process that releases

energy from organic compounds (food), gradually
converting it into energy that is stored in ATP
molecules

Aerobic Respiration- If oxygen present, it will lead to two

other pathways that release a lot of energy: Krebs cycle &
Electron Transport Chain.

Anaerobic Respiration- If oxygen absent glycolysis is followed

by a different pathway: Alcoholic Fermentation or Lactic Acid
Fermentation.

Redox Reactions
GLYCOLYSIS

❖ Oxidation ➢ Process takes place in the cytosol of the cytoplasm

Loss of electrons outside of mitochondria; converts glucose with the help of 2
ATP molecules and eventually releases 4 ATP molecules; for a
❖ Reduction net gain of 2 ATP molecules.
Gain of electrons
-Produces 4 ATP + 2 NADH – energy payoff
-NET production = 2 ATP + 2 NADH

- Most of glucose energy is stored in Pyruvate

STAGE 1
NAD+ - nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide is a coenzyme that A phosphate group is added to glucose in the cell cytoplasm,
transports electrons from glucose to the electron transport by the action of enzyme hexokinase. In this, a phosphate group
chain to make ATP is transferred from ATP to glucose forming
glucose,6-phosphate.
NAD+ is reduced to NADH + H+ (remove a pair of H atoms
from food molecule, oxidized) STAGE 2
Glucose-6-phosphate is converted into fructose,6-phosphate
NADH Carries electrons to the ETC (electron transport chain) by the enzyme phosphoglucomutase.
to release free energy
STAGE 3
A second ATP molecule is used to phosphorylate
fructose-6-phosphate, producing fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.
This step is catalyzed by phosphofructokinase.

STAGE 4
The enzyme aldolase converts fructose 1,6-bisphosphate into
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate(GAP) and dihydroxyacetone
phosphate(DHAP), which are isomers of each other.

STEP 5
Triose-phosphate isomerase converts dihydroxyacetone
phosphate into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate which is the
substrate in the successive step of glycolysis.
MITOCHONDRIA
STEP 6
This step undergoes two reactions:

The enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase

(GAPDH) transfers 1 hydrogen molecule from glyceraldehyde
phosphate to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide to form
NADH + H+.

Downloaded by Danniah Chavez ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|49608131

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase adds a

phosphate to the oxidized glyceraldehyde phosphate to form STEP 2
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. -The citrate is rearranged to form an isomeric form,
isocitrate.The enzyme aconitase catalyzes this reaction.
STEP 7
Phosphate is transferred from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to
ADP to form ATP with the help of phosphoglycerate kinase.
Thus two molecules of phosphoglycerate and ATP are
obtained at the end of this reaction.

STEP 8
Phosphoglyceromutase converts the two 3 PGA molecules
into 2-phosphoglycerate molecules (2 PGA). 3 PGA and 2 PGA STEP 3
are isomers of one another. -The 6-carbon isocitrate is oxidized and a molecule of carbon
dioxide is removed producing the 5-carbon molecule
STEP 9 alpha-ketoglutarate. During this oxidation, NAD+ is reduced
The enzyme enolase removes a water molecule from to NADH and H+. Isocitrate dehydrogenase catalyzes the
2-phosphoglycerate to form phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). reaction.

STEP 10
A phosphate from phosphoenolpyruvate is transferred to ADP
to form pyruvate and ATP by the action of pyruvate kinase.
Two molecules of pyruvate and ATP are obtained as the end
products.

NET PRODUCTS
● 2 ATP
STEP 4
● 2 PYRUVATE
-Alpha-ketoglutarate is oxidized, carbon dioxide is removed,
● 2 NADH
and coenzyme A is added to form the 4-carbon compound
succinyl-CoA. During this oxidation, NAD+ is reduced to
CITRIC ACID CYCLE – KREBS CYCLE NADH + H+. The reaction is catalyzed by the 𝝰-ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase enzyme complex.

-Occurs in the Mitochondrial Matrix

-Converts 2 Acetyl CoA - 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP and 4CO2
-The CAC must turn twice for each molecule of glucose

-Named after Hans Krebs, British biochemist in 1937

➢ Here pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon

dioxide in a series of energy-extracting reactions.

STEP 1
STEP 5
-The first step is the condensation of acetyl CoA with 4-carbon
-Succinyl CoA forms succinate. The enzyme succinyl CoA
compound oxaloacetate to form 6C citrate, coenzyme A is
synthetase catalyzes the reaction. This is coupled with
released. The reaction is catalyzed by citrate synthase.
substrate-level phosphorylation of GDP to get GTP. GTP
transfers its phosphate to ADP forming ATP.

Downloaded by Danniah Chavez ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|49608131

to the endpoint of the chain, where the electrons reduce

molecular oxygen, producing water.
STEP 6
-Succinate is oxidized by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase ● NADH is very good at donating electrons in redox
to fumarate. In the process, FAD is converted to FADH2. reactions (that is, its electrons are at a high energy level), so it
can transfer its electrons directly to complex I, turning back
into NAD +. As electrons move through complex I in a series of
redox reactions, energy is released, and the complex uses this
energy to pump protons from the matrix into the
intermembrane space.

● FADH2 is not as good at donating electrons as NADH

(that is, its electrons are at a lower energy level), so it cannot
transfer its electrons to complex I. Instead, it feeds them into
STEP 7 the transport chain through complex II, which does not pump
-Water is added to fumarate to form malate. The enzyme protons across the membrane.
catalyzing this reaction is fumarase.
COMPLEX 1: NADH-COENZYME Q

OXIDOREDUCTASE

It comprises enzymes consisting of iron-sulfur and Flavin

Mononucleotide (FMN). Here two electrons are carried out to
the first complex aboard NADH. FMN is derived from vitamin
B2.
STEP 8
-Malate is oxidized to produce oxaloacetate, the starting COMPLEX 2: SUCCINATE-Q REDUCTASE
compound of the citric acid cycle. During this oxidation, NAD+
is reduced to NADH. Malate dehydrogenase catalyzes the
FADH2 that is not passed through complex 1 is received
reaction.
directly from complex 2. The Q molecule is soluble in water
and moves freely in the hydrophobic core of the membrane. In
this phase, an electron is delivered directly to the electron
protein chain. The number of ATP obtained at this stage is
directly proportional to the number of protons that are
pumped across the inner membrane of the mitochondria.

COMPLEX 3: CYTOCHROME C REDUCTASE

➢ The NADH + H+ and FADH2 carry protons and The third complex is composed of Fe-S protein, Cytochrome b,
electrons to the electron transport chain to generate and Cytochrome c proteins. Cytochrome proteins consist of
additional ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. the heme group. Complex 3 is responsible for pumping
protons across the membrane. It also passes electrons to the
PRODUCTS cytochrome c where it is transported to the 4th complex of
enzymes and proteins. Here, Q is the electron donor and
● 6 NADH +
Cytochrome C is the electron acceptor.
● 2 FADH2 +
● 2 ATP+
● 4CO2 COMPLEX 4: CYTOCHROME C OXIDASE

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN The 4th complex is composed of cytochrome c, a and a3. There
are two heme groups where each of them is present in
cytochromes c and a3. The cytochromes are responsible for
-Occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane
holding oxygen molecules between copper and iron until the
-Inner membrane of mitochondria
oxygen content is reduced completely. In this phase, the
-Electrons from Krebs cycle are passed to electron transport
reduced oxygen picks two hydrogen ions from the surrounding
chain by NADH & FADH2
environment to make water.
Chemiosmosis & Electron Transport
➢ The electron transport chain is the final component
of aerobic respiration and is the only part of glucose
● Proteins carry electrons through the ETC while H+
metabolism that uses atmospheric oxygen. Electron transport
pumps (oxidizing NADH to NAD+) pump H+ out into
is a series of redox reactions that resemble a relay race.
the cristae
Electrons are passed rapidly from one component to the next

Downloaded by Danniah Chavez ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|49608131

● The H+’s create an electrochemical gradient

● As H+’s pass through the enzyme ATP synthase, ATP

is made powered by flow of H+ across the membrane

Anaerobic Respiration: Fermentation

➔ This occurs after glycolysis when oxygen absent, thus

anaerobic process.
➔ In this process cells convert NADH to NAD+ by
passing high-energy electrons back to pyruvic acid
➔ – Now glycolysis has NAD+ and can continue
producing ATP

There are 2 types of fermentation:

➔ Alcoholic fermentation
➔ Lactic acid fermentation

Alcoholic Fermentation
-Yeast and a few other microorganisms use alcoholic
fermentation, forming ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide as
wastes

Equation for alcoholic fermentation:

pyruvic acid + NADH ethyl alcohol + CO2 + NAD

Lactic Acid Fermentation

-Many cells convert accumulated pyruvic acid from glycolysis
to lactic acid; lactic acid fermentation regenerates NAD+ so
glycolysis can continue

Equation for lactic acid fermentation:

pyruvic acid + NADH lactic acid + NAD

Equation for Cellular Respiration:

6O2 + C6H12O6 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (ATP)

Equation for Photosynthesis:

6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (sunlight) 6O2 +
C6H12

Downloaded by Danniah Chavez ([email protected])