LECTURE NOTES

RENEWABLE AND DISTRIBUTED ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES (R&DET)

(PROFESSIONAL ELECTIVE – III)

UNIT – III: Solar PV Systems: Present and new technological developments in photovoltaic
- estimation of solar irradiance - components of solar energy systems - solar-thermal system
applications to power generation - heating - Types of PV systems - Modelling of PV cell -
current-voltage and power-voltage characteristics - Effects of temperature - Solar array
simulator - Sun tracking - Peak power operations - PV system - MPPT techniques - Effects of
partial shading on the characteristic curves and associated MPPT techniques - Solar park
design outline.
SOLAR PV SYSTEMS: PRESENT AND NEW TECHNOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENTS IN PHOTOVOLTAIC

Solar energy efficiency has improved significantly in the last decade, driven by technological
advancements, increased production, and competition among manufacturers. As a result,
solar panels are now more efficient and cost-effective than ever before.

In 2010, the average commercial silicon solar cell had an efficiency of around 15%. Today,
the average efficiency of commercial silicon solar cells is over 22%, and some solar cells
have achieved efficiencies of over 25%. Some research cells have achieved efficiencies of
over 47%.

This increase in efficiency is due to a number of factors, including:

 Improved cell design: Researchers have developed new solar cell designs that are
more efficient at converting sunlight into electricity.

 New materials: New materials, such as perovskites and organic semiconductors, have
been developed that can be used to create more efficient solar cells.

 Better manufacturing processes: Manufacturing processes have improved, leading to

more consistent and higher-quality solar cells.

Photovoltaics (often shortened as PV) gets its name from the process of converting light
(photons) to electricity (voltage), which is called the photovoltaic effect. This phenomenon
was first exploited in 1954 by scientists at Bell Laboratories who created a working solar cell
made from silicon that generated an electric current when exposed to sunlight. Solar cells
were soon being used to power space satellites and smaller items such as calculators and
watches. Today, electricity from solar cells has become cost competitive in many regions and
photovoltaic systems are being deployed at large scales to help power the electric grid.

Silicon Solar Cells

The vast majority of today's solar cells are made from silicon and offer both reasonable prices
and good efficiency (the rate at which the solar cell converts sunlight into electricity). These
cells are usually assembled into larger modules that can be installed on the roofs of
residential or commercial buildings or deployed on ground-mounted racks to create huge,
utility-scale systems.

Thin-Film Solar Cells

Another commonly used photovoltaic technology is known as thin-film solar cells because
they are made from very thin layers of semiconductor material, such as cadmium telluride or
copper indium gallium diselenide. The thickness of these cell layers is only a few
micrometers—that is, several millionths of a meter. Thin-film solar cells can be flexible and
lightweight, making them ideal for portable applications—such as in a soldier’s backpack—
or for use in other products like windows that generate electricity from the sun. Some types
of thin-film solar cells also benefit from manufacturing techniques that require less energy
and are easier to scale-up than the manufacturing techniques required by silicon solar cells.

Thin-film solar cells based on cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium diselenide
(CIGS), and gallium arsenide (GaAs) have been the most developed and have become
commercially available in the last 10–15 years mainly because of their potential highest
efficiencies on the basis of their band gaps. Among these, CdTe panels achieved the most
commercial success because of their low cost of production. However, since 2010, silicon
cells achieved the same cost reductions because of improved manufacturing technologies and
high efficiencies. Multijunction GaAs cells have achieved efficiencies of 44% under
concentrated sunlight. Achievement of high efficiencies under highly concentrated sunlight
has given rise to a kind of PV device, known as concentrated PV or CPV. Figure 9.14 shows
general schematics of CdTe and CIGS solar cells. Figure 9.15 shows a schematic of a triple-
junction GaAs solar cell.
III-V Solar Cells

A third type of photovoltaic technology is named after the elements that compose them. III-V
solar cells are mainly constructed from elements in Group III—e.g., gallium and indium—
and Group V—e.g., arsenic and antimony—of the periodic table. These solar cells are
generally much more expensive to manufacture than other technologies. But they convert
sunlight into electricity at much higher efficiencies. Because of this, these solar cells are often
used on satellites, unmanned aerial vehicles, and other applications that require a high ratio of
power-to-weight.

Next-Generation Solar Cells

Solar cell researchers at NREL and elsewhere are also pursuing many new photovoltaic
technologies—such as solar cells made from organic materials, quantum dots, and hybrid
organic-inorganic materials (also known as perovskites). These next-generation technologies
may offer lower costs, greater ease of manufacture, or other benefits. Further research will
see if these promises can be realized.

Reliability and Grid Integration Research

Photovoltaic research is more than just making a high-efficiency, low-cost solar cell.
Homeowners and businesses must be confident that the solar panels they install will not
degrade in performance and will continue to reliably generate electricity for many years.
Utilities and government regulators want to know how to add solar PV systems to the electric
grid without destabilizing the careful balancing act between electricity supply and demand.

Multi-junction Solar Cells

The limits imposed on solar cells owing to band gap can be partially overcome by using
multiple layers of solar cells stacked on top of each other, each layer with a band gap higher
than the layer below it. For example (Figure 9.12), if the top layer is made from a cell of
material A (band gap corresponding to λΑ), solar radiation with wavelengths less than λΑ
would be absorbed to give an output equal to the hatched area A. The solar radiation with
wavelength greater than λΑ would pass through A and be converted by the bottom layer cell
B (band gap corresponding to λΒ) to give an output equal to the hatched area B. The total
output and therefore the efficiency of this tandem cell would be higher than the output and
the efficiency of each single cell individually. The efficiency would increase with the number
of layers. For this concept to work, each layer must be as thin as possible, which puts a very
difficult if not an insurmountable constraint on crystalline and polycrystalline cells to be
made multijunction. As a result, this concept is being investigated mainly for thin-film
amorphous solar cells. At present, a triple-junction a-Si solar cell is under development. This
cell consists of layers of cells made from a-Si,C:H (an amorphous silicon, carbon, and
hydrogen alloy) with a band gap of 2.0 eV, a-Si:H (an amorphous silicon and hydrogen alloy)
with a band gap of 1.75 eV, and a-Si,Ge:H (an amorphous silicon, germanium, and hydrogen
alloy) with a band gap of 2.3 eV. The efficiency of a multijunction cell can be approximately
50% higher than a corresponding single cell. Figure 9.13 shows a conceptual device structure
of a triple-junction a-Si cell (Crandall and Luft 1995).
ESTIMATION OF SOLAR IRRADIANCE

Solar energy is in the form of electromagnetic radiation with the wavelengths ranging from
approximately 0.3 μm (10−6 m) to over 3 μm, which correspond to ultraviolet (less than 0.4
μm), visible (0.4 and 0.7 μm), and infrared (over 0.7 μm). Most of this energy is concentrated
in the visible and the near-infrared wavelength range (see Figure 2.16). The incident solar
radiation, sometimes called insolation, is measured as irradiance, or the energy per unit time
per unit area (or power per unit area). The units most often used are watts per square meter
(W/m2), British thermal units per hour per square foot (Btu/h・ft2), and Langleys per minute
(calories per square centimeter per minute, cal/cm2・min).

The average amount of solar radiation falling on a surface normal to the rays of the sun
outside the atmosphere of the earth (extraterrestrial) at mean earth–sun distance (D0) is called
the solar constant, I0. Measurements by NASA indicated the value of the solar constant to be
1353 W/m2 (1.6%), 429 Btu/h・ft2 or

FIGURE 2.16: Extraterrestrial solar radiation spectral distribution. Also shown are
equivalent black-body and atmosphere-attenuated spectra.

As extraterrestrial solar radiation, I, passes through the atmosphere, a part of it is reflected

back into space, a part is absorbed by air and water vapor, and some gets scattered by
molecules of air, water vapor, aerosols, and dust particles (Figure 2.18). The part of solar
radiation that reaches the surface of the earth with essentially no change in direction is called
direct or beam radiation. The scattered diffuse radiation reaching the surface from the sky is
called the sky diffuse radiation.

Although extraterrestrial radiation can be predicted with certainty,* radiation levels on the
earth are subject to considerable uncertainty resulting from local climatic interactions. The
most useful solar radiation data are based on long-term (30 years or more) measured average
values at a location, which unfortunately are not available for most locations in the world. For
such locations, an estimating method (theoretical model) based on some measured climatic
parameter may be used. This chapter describes several ways of estimating terrestrial solar
radiation; all have large uncertainties (as much as +/- 30%) associated with them.

FIGURE 2.18: Attenuation of solar radiation as it passes through the atmosphere.

Measurement of Solar Radiation

Solar radiation measurements of importance to most engineering applications, especially

thermal applications, include total (integrated over all wavelengths) direct or beam and sky
diffuse values of solar radiation on instantaneous, hourly, daily, and monthly bases. Some
applications such as photovoltaics, photochemical, and daylighting require knowledge of
spectral (wavelength specific) or band (over a wavelength range—e.g., ultraviolet, visible,
infrared) values of solar radiation. This section describes some of the instrumentation used to
measure solar radiation and sunshine and some sources of long-term measured data for
different parts of the world. Also described briefly in this section is the method of satellite-
based measurements.

FIGURE 2.25: A sample spectral irradiance prediction compared with measured data for
Golden, Colorado. (Taken from http://www.solarconsultingservices.com/smarts.php.)

There are two basic types of instruments used to measure solar radiation, pyranometer and
pyrheliometer. A pyranometer has a hemispherical view of the surroundings and therefore is
used to measure total, direct, and diffuse solar radiation on a surface. A pyrheliometer, on the
other hand, has a restricted view (approximately 5°) and is, therefore, often used to measure
the direct or beam solar radiation by pointing it toward the sun. Pyranometers are also used to
measure the sky diffuse radiation by using a shadow band to block the direct sun view.

COMPONENTS OF SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS

Solar energy can be used directly to produce electrical energy using solar PV panels. Or there
is another way to produce electrical energy that is concentrated solar energy. In this type of
plant, the radiation energy of solar first converted into heat (thermal energy) and this heat is
used to drive a conventional generator. This method is difficult and not efficient to produce
electrical power on a large scale.
The four major components of a solar energy system are the panels, inverter(s), racking and
solar battery storage unit(s) (if desired).

Solar panels

PV panels or Photovoltaic panel is a most important component of a solar power plant. It is

made up of small solar cells. This is a device that is used to convert solar photon energy into
electrical energy.

Generally, silicon is used as a semiconductor material in solar cells. The typical rating of
silicon solar cells is 0.5 V and 6 Amp. And it is equivalent to 3 W power. The number of
cells is connected in series or parallel and makes a module. The number of modules forms a
solar panel.

According to the capacity of power plants, a number of plates are mounted and a group of
panels is also known as Photovoltaic (PV) array.

Technology – Polycrystalline or Monocrystalline Panels?

Monocrystalline panels consist of singular large crystals, are darker in colour, even in
aesthetic consistancy and, as a result of the production process, the corners of cells are
usually missing.

Polycrystalline panels consist of multiple smaller crystals, can be light or dark blue in colour
and have variation in texture where some patches are lighter than others.

Historically, monocrystalline panels were seen to have an advantage as the superior

technology in the Australian market. Historically, monocrystalline solar cells were producing
higher peak efficiency as large crystal sizes tend to be more absorbent, and the technology
was more readily available than polycrystalline solar cells. However, over time both
technologies have matured and improved, making the difference quite negligible in most
regions. In essence, both monocrystalline and polycrystalline panels are great for any solar
energy system in Australian climates.
Inverters

Inverters are a crucial part of any solar energy system. Their purpose is to convert the DC
electricity that the solar panels produce into 240V AC electricity, which is what powers
everything in your home. The inverter is a hardworking piece of equipment that works
constantly throughout the lifetime of your system – so it tends to be the piece most likely to
have faults. This means they usually only have a warranty of around 10 years. For this
reason, we will always recommend that you choose a high quality inverter that is easily
serviceable such as Fronius, ABB, Sungrow or SolarEdge.

Inverter Technology – String Inverters vs Microinverters

The two main types of inverters are string inverters and microinverters. A string inverter is
installed onto a wall in a shaded area and will convert the energy from a string of panels (for
residential systems this is usually the entire system) into AC electricity to be used in your
home or business. Microinverters are installed on the back of each panel, allowing the energy
from the panels to exist independently from each other. When partial shading occurs on one
panel in a string inverter system, the performance of the rest of the panels are also affected
(as demonstrated below). Microinverters are the solution to this, as they allow the panels to
operate independently but also come with an increase in price. There are also power
optimizers, which are the middle-of-the-road approach between the two, as they are cheaper
than microinverters but somewhat less effective. Shading isn’t always a critical issue so
microinverters aren’t always necessary. To find out, our experts will help you assess your
particular situation.
A string inverter is a standalone box that is typically installed close to your main service
panel and electricity meter. There is typically only one single inverter, or possibly two string
inverters on each residential solar installation; it really depends on the overall solar power
system size. A string inverter functions in a series circuit, with there usually being 6 to 12
individual solar panels in what is known as a "series string." SMA is a leading manufacturer
of string inverters.

What is a microinverter?

Microinverters perform the same basic function as string inverters, except they are installed
underneath each solar panel on your roof. Each of these microinverters is about the size of an
internet router. The big difference between microinverters and string inverters is that a solar
panel installation with microinverters will typically have the same number of microinverters
as there are solar panels (Note: there are microinverters that accept two or four solar panels).

Racking

The third main component of a solar energy system is the racking/mounting. This is what
securely attaches your panels to your roof. Also called photovoltaic mounting systems, a
solar racking system is used to safely fix solar panels to various surfaces such as roofs,
building facades, or the ground.
Racking / mounting will not be a decision you need to lose sleep over. Any reputable solar
provider will use quality racking equipment from brands like Radiant or Sunlock, which are
Australian made. What is most important is that the installers of the solar energy system are
CEC approved and that the company you go with has a reputation for quality installations.
Many companies rely on quantity over quality, which means that they rush through multiple
installations per day in a race to get as many done as possible and, ultimately, putting your
home at risk! Volume-based, cheap and non-accredited installers are well known to cut
corners, leave holes in rooves, leave loose live wires and other critical safety violations.
While the initial cost may seem higher, companies such as ours will spend the extra time to
ensure correct procedures are followed and that the performance and safety of your solar
energy system and family are guaranteed.

Batteries

Batteries are used to store energy generated during the day to be used throughout the night
when the system is no longer generating power. Battery technology is quickly developing
into a more feasible option for those who primarily use their energy in the evenings. We have
installed battery systems for major clients such as PCYC Queensland and schools like
Bundaberg Christian College, who operate sporting facilities and boarding colleges that
require energy throughout the night.

Charge Controller

A charge controller is used to control the charging and discharging of the battery. The charge
controller is used to avoid the overcharging of the battery. The overcharging of a battery may
lead to corrosion and reduce plate growth. And in the worst condition, it may damage the
electrolyte of the battery.

Sometimes, the charge controller is termed a solar battery charger. There are many
technologies used to make a charge controller. For example, the most popular technique is the
MPPT charge controller that is known as ―Maximum Power Point Tracking‖. This algorithm
is used to optimize the production of PV cells.
System balancing component

It is a set of components used to control, protect and distribute power in the system. These
devices ensure that the system working in proper condition and utilize energy in the proper
direction. And it ensures maximum output and security of other components of a solar power
plant.

Blocking diode

The solar PV panels are connected with a battery. And these panels are used to charge the
battery during sunlight is available. During charging of the battery, the current flows from
panel to battery. But when the sunlight is not available, the current can be flow in a reverse
direction and it may harm the solar panel. So, the blocking diode is a diode that is connected
between the battery and panel to avoid reversal current from battery to panel.

Voltage regulator

The output of solar panels depends on sunlight. And the sunlight is not constantly available.
It is continuously varying. Similarly, the output of the solar panel is also varying with respect
to sunlight. This results in fluctuation in load current. The voltage regulators are used to
maintain fluctuation within an acceptable range.

Standalone System with Battery Storage

This type of system can be operating while sunlight is not available. During the daytime
when sunlight is available, the solar panel is used to charge the battery. And the battery is
used to supply power during the night. This system is cheap as it is not using a charge
controller. But, in this system, the battery may overcharge or fully discharge and it reduces
the life of the battery. The block diagram of this system is shown in the figure below.

Standalone System with Battery and Charge Controller

The charge controller is used to control the charging and discharging of the battery. The cost
of this system is high. But, the life of this system is high. Due to the charge controller, the
battery works efficiently compared to the standalone system without a charge controller. The
block diagram of this system is shown in the figure below.
Standalone System with AC and DC Loads

The output of the solar panel is in the form of DC power. Hence, DC load can directly
connect with the solar system. But if you need to connect the AC load, the inverter is
necessary to convert the DC power into AC power. Generally, this plant is connected with
other AC sources also. And this source is used to charge a battery during sunlight is not
available. The block diagram of this system is shown in the figure below.

Grid-connected System

This type of system is used to generate bulk power and transmit it to the load by a grid.
Hence, this plant is known as a grid-connected power plant. In this system, a greater number
of solar panels are used to generate more power. And it requires a large area to build a power
plant.

The grid power is in the form of AC. And if we need to supply power to the grid, we need the
output of solar plants similar to the power of the grid. In this system, the most important
condition is that the output frequency and voltage must be matched with the grid’s frequency
and voltage. And also, the power quality maintains the grid standard. The block diagram of
this system is shown in the figure below.
SOLAR-THERMAL SYSTEM APPLICATIONS TO POWER GENERATION

FIGURE 9-1: Solar thermal power plant schematic for generating electricity.
The solar thermal power system collects the thermal energy in solar radiation and uses at high
or low temperature. The low temperature applications include water and space heating for
commercial and residential buildings. Producing electricity using the steam-turbine-driven
electrical generator is a high temperature application

In this plant, the solar energy is collected by thousands of sun-tracking mirrors, called
heliostats, that reflect the sun’s energy to a single receiver atop a centrally located tower. The
enormous amount of energy focused on the receiver is used to generate high temperature to
melt a salt. The hot molten salt is stored in a storage tank, and is used, when needed, to
generate steam and drive the turbine generator. After generating the steam, the used molten
salt at low temperature is returned to the cold salt storage tank. From here it is pumped to the
receiver tower to get heated again for the next thermal cycle. The usable energy extracted
during such a thermal cycle depends on the working temperatures. The maximum
thermodynamic conversion efficiency that can be theoretically achieved with the hot side
temperature T hot and the cold side temperature T cold is given by the Carnot cycle
efficiency, which is as follows:

where the temperatures are in absolute scale. The higher the hot side working temperature
and lower the cold side exhaust temperature, the higher the plant efficiency of converting the
captured solar energy into electricity. The hot side temperature Thot, however, is limited by
the properties of the working medium. The cold side temperature Tcold is largely determined
by the cooling method and the environment available to dissipate the exhaust heat.

The collector is the main component of a solar thermal system and would in most cases be
installed on the roof of the property. The collector contains specially coated reinforced glass
pipes to capture the radiation emitted from the sun, which can then be transferred into heat.
The pipes themselves will be embedded in an insulated container to prevent heat energy
being lost. The heat transfer fluid in the pipes will include eco-friendly antifreeze and will
circulate through the collector and hot water tank.

It is a common misconception that the climate of the United Kingdom makes it unsuitable for
the use of solar technology. Solar collectors do not require bright sunlight in order to
function; they simply require light and while bright sunlight is obviously ideal, they can still
heat water even on cloudy days as solar radiation is still present. It will be necessary to use a
boiler or immersion heater as a backup system to provide an extra boost to your property’s
hot water generation during winter. A solar thermal system is designed in most cases to meet
up to 100% of water heating needs during summer allowing the regular heating system to
remain unused. Over the course of a year it will meet in the region of 50% to 60% of needs.

Ultimately the determining factors for usage will come from the type of climate and the size
of the solar thermal system that you have installed. The overall rate of water usage will also
be a determining factor. In most cases hot water usage will remain consistent which will
impact positively on cost effectiveness.

The main ideal application for this technology would be in a residential setting where there is
a need to reduce a large energy bill although the technology can also be applied to a
commercial setting. The most cost benefit will be will be to facilities with high energy
demands and which have heating systems that are expensive to operate.

A major benefit of this scheme is that it incorporates the thermal energy storage for duration
in hours with no degradation in performance, or longer with some degradation. This feature
makes the technology capable of producing high-value electricity for meeting peak demands.
Moreover, compared to the solar photovoltaic, the solar thermal system is economical, as it
eliminates the costly semiconductor cells.

HEATING

Solar water-heating systems represent the most common application of solar energy at the
present time. Small systems are used for domestic hotwater applications while larger systems
are used in IPH applications. There are basically two types of water-heating systems: natural
circulation or passive solar system (thermosyphon) and forced circulation or active solar
system. Natural circulation solar water heaters are simple in design and low cost. Their
application is usually limited to nonfreezing climates, although they may also be designed
with heat exchangers for mild freezing climates. Forced-circulation water heaters are used in
freezing climates and for commercial and IPH.

FIGURE 5.5: Passive solar water heaters: (a) compact model using combined collector and
storage, (b) section view of the compact model, and (c) tank and collector assembly

Fig. 1. Natural circulation system of solar water heater

Natural circulation system

The process inside the solar collector is as follows: after absorbing heat from the sun, the
water temperature rises and density lessens and travels to storage tank. Then, cold water
inside collects at the bottom towards the solar collector that makes a natural convection cycle
as a system to heat up the water. The natural circulation system is commonly used in
household.
The natural tendency of a less dense fluid to rise above a denser fluid can be used in a simple
solar water heater to cause fluid motion through a collector. The density difference is created
within the solar collector where heat is added to the liquid. As water gets heated in the
collector, it rises to the tank, and the cooler water from the tank moves to the bottom of the
collector, setting up a natural circulation loop. It is also called a thermosyphon loop. Since
this water heater does not use a pump, it is a passive water heater. For the thermosyphon to
work, the storage tank must be located higher than the collector.

Fig. 2. Forced Cycle type of Solar water Heater

Forced circulation solar water heater

The temperature controller forces water inside storage tank to flow through the solar collector
and bring solar radiation heat back to the heat storage by using collector circuit pump. This is
mainly used in large-scale solar heating systems. According to Khalifa’s research, the
efficiency of solar water heating system under forced circulation is higher than those under
natural circulation by 35-80%. However, the additional costs for circulation pump, the
manner of operation, and maintenance (such as leakage) and other issues must be considered
before purchasing the solar water system. Fig. 2. Forced Cycle type of Solar water Heater

Overview of Previous Products

First generation solar water heating tank Why the solar heater is not the most energy-efficient
way for water heating? It is because the solar heater has to heat by electric energy in cloudy
and rainy days. Besides, when hot water is being used, cold water is replenished into the
storage tank simultaneously so that the temperature of the stored hot water will decrease.
Once the temperature is not hot enough, heating by electric energy is necessary.

TYPES OF PV SYSTEMS
PRINCIPLE OF PV CELL

The physics of the pv cell is very similar to the classical p-n junction diode (Figure 8-1).
When light is absorbed by the junction, the energy of the absorbed photons is transferred to
the electron system of the material, resulting in the creation of charge carriers that are
separated at the junction. The charge carriers may be electron-ion pairs in a liquid electrolyte,
or electronhole pairs in a solid semiconducting material. The charge carriers in the junction
region create a potential gradient, get accelerated under the electric field and circulate as the
current through an external circuit. The current squared times the resistance of the circuit is
the power converted into electricity. The remaining power of the photon elevates the
temperature of the cell. The origin of the photovoltaic potential is the difference in the
chemical potential, called the Fermi level, of the electrons in the two isolated materials.
When they are joined, the junction approaches a new thermodynamic equilibrium. Such
equilibrium can be achieved only when the Fermi level is equal in the two materials. This
occurs by the flow of electrons from one material to the other until a voltage difference is
established between the two materials which have the potential just equal to the initial
difference of the Fermi level. This potential drives the photocurrent.

FIGURE 8-1: Photovoltaic effect converts the photon energy into voltage across the p-n
junction.
 FIGURE 8-2: Basic construction of pv cell with performance enhancing features (current
collecting mesh, anti-reflective coating and cover glass protection).

Figure 8-2 shows the basic cell construction. For collecting the photocurrent, the metallic
contacts are provided on both sides of the junction to collect electrical current induced by the
impinging photons on one side. Conducting foil (solder) contact is provided over the bottom
(dark) surface and on one edge of the top (illuminated) surface. Thin conducting mesh on the
remaining top surface collects the current and lets the light through. The spacing of the
conducting fibers in the mesh is a matter of compromise between maximizing the electrical
conductance and minimizing the blockage of the light. In addition to the basic elements,
several enhancement features are also included in the construction. For example, the front
face of the cell has anti-reflective coating to absorb as much light as possible by minimizing
the reflection. The mechanical protection is provided by the coverglass applied with a
transparent adhesive.
 FIGURE 8-3: Several pv cells make a module and several modules make an array.

MODELLING OF PV CELL - CURRENT-VOLTAGE AND POWER-VOLTAGE

CHARACTERISTICS

Equivalent Electrical Circuit

The complex physics of the pv cell can be represented by the equivalent electrical circuit
shown in Figure 8-6. The circuit parameters are as follows.
 FIGURE 8-6: Equivalent electrical circuit of pv module, showing the diode and ground
leakage currents.

The last term, the ground-leakage current, in practical cells is small compared to IL and ID,
and can be ignored. The diode-saturation current can, therefore, be determined
experimentally by applying voltage Voc in the dark and measuring the current going into the
cell. This current is often called the dark current or the reverse diode-saturation current.

Open Circuit Voltage and Short Circuit Current

The two most important parameters widely used for describing the cell electrical performance
is the open-circuit voltage Voc and the short-circuit current Isc. The short-circuit current is
measured by shorting the output terminals, and measuring the terminal current under full
illumination. Ignoring the small diode and the ground-leakage currents under zero-terminal
voltage, the short-circuit current under this condition is the photocurrent IL. The maximum
photovoltage is produced under the open-circuit voltage. Again, by ignoring the ground-
leakage current, Equation 8-3 with I = 0 gives the open-circuit voltage as the following:
The constant KT/Q is the absolute temperature expressed in voltage (300°K = 0.026 volt). In
practical photocells, the photocurrent is several orders of magnitude greater than the reverse
saturation current. Therefore, the open-circuit voltage is many times the KT/Q value. Under
condition of constant illumination, IL/ID is a sufficiently strong function of the cell
temperature, and the solar cell ordinarily shows a negative temperature coefficient of the
open-circuit voltage.

i-v and p-v Curves

FIGURE 8-7: Current versus voltage (i-v) characteristics of the pv module in sunlight and in
dark.

The electrical characteristic of the pv cell is generally represented by the current versus
voltage (i-v) curve. Figure 8-7 shows the i-v characteristic of a pv module under two
conditions, in sunlight and in dark. In the first quadrant, the top left of the i-v curve at zero
voltage is called the shortcircuit current. This is the current we would measure with the
output terminals shorted (zero voltage). The bottom right of the curve at zero current is called
the open-circuit voltage. This is the voltage we would measure with the output terminals open
(zero current). In the left shaded region, the cell works like a constant current source,
generating voltage to match with the load resistance. In the shaded region on the right, the
current drops rapidly with a small rise in voltage. In this region, the cell works like a constant
voltage source with an internal resistance. Somewhere in the middle of the two shaded
regions, the curve has a knee point.
If the voltage is externally applied in the reverse direction, say during a system fault transient,
the current remains flat and the power is absorbed by the cell. However, beyond a certain
negative voltage, the junction breaks down as in a diode, and the current rises to a high value.
In the dark, the current is zero for voltage up to the breakdown voltage which is the same as
in the illuminated condition.

The power output of the panel is the product of the voltage and the current outputs. In Figure
8-8, the power is plotted against the voltage. Notice that the cell produces no power at zero
voltage or zero current, and produces the maximum power at voltage corresponding to the
knee point of the i-v curve. This is why pv power circuits are designed such that the modules
operate closed to the knee point, slightly on the left hand side. The pv modules are modeled
approximately as a constant current source in the electrical analysis of the system.

Current voltage (I-V) curve of a solar cell. To get the maximum power output of a solar cell it
needs to operate at the maximum power point, PMP.

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE

Like all other semiconductor devices, solar cells are sensitive to temperature. Increases in
temperature reduce the bandgap of a semiconductor, thereby effecting most of the
semiconductor material parameters. The decrease in the band gap of a semiconductor with
increasing temperature can be viewed as increasing the energy of the electrons in the
material. Lower energy is therefore needed to break the bond. In the bond model of a
semiconductor bandgap, a reduction in the bond energy also reduces the bandgap. Therefore
increasing the temperature reduces the bandgap.

In a solar cell, the parameter most affected by an increase in temperature is the open-circuit
voltage. The impact of increasing temperature is shown in the figure below.

Fig. The effect of temperature on the IV characteristics of a solar cell.

There are various factors that can influence the performance of solar PV modules, including
temperature and irradiance.The open circuit voltage of a PV module varies with cell
temperature. As the temperature increases, due to environmental changes or heat generated
by internal power dissipation during energy production, the open circuit voltage (Voc)
decreases. This in turn reduces the power output. The design of a solar PV system must take
into account the PV module temperature coefficient, comparing the expected average cell
temperature in its operational environment, against the STC data used to calculate the module
output.In the same way, irradiance will also affect module performance, with a reduction of
sunlight resulting primarily in a reduction in current and consequentially a reduced power
output.
The power output of a PV panel is affected by the amount of sunshine it gains and the
daytime temperature. Manufacturers state that the power output of PV modules is calculated
under Standard Test Conditions (STC), at which all solar panels can be more accurately
compared and rated against each other.

The open-circuit voltage decreases with temperature because of the temperature dependence
of I0. The equation for I0 from one side of a p-n junction is given by;

where:
 q is the electronic charge given in the constants page;
 A is the area;
 D is the diffusivity of the minority carrier given for silicon as a function of doping in
the Silicon Material Parameters page;
 L is the minority carrier diffusion length;
 ND is the doping; and
 ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration given for silicon in the Silicon Material
Parameters.
In the above equation, many of the parameters have some temperature dependence, but the
most significant effect is due to the intrinsic carrier concentration, ni. The intrinsic carrier
concentration depends on the bandgap energy (with lower bandgaps giving a higher intrinsic
carrier concentration), and on the energy which the carriers have (with higher temperatures
giving higher intrinsic carrier concentrations). The equation for the intrinsic carrier
concentration is;
where:
T is the temperature;
h and k are constants given in the constants page;
me and mh are the effective masses of electrons and holes, respectively;
EGO is the bandgap linearly extrapolated to absolute zero; and
B is a constant which is essentially independent of temperature.

Substituting these equations back into the expression for I0, and assuming that the
temperature dependencies of the other parameters can be neglected, gives;

where B' is a temperature independent constant. A constant, γ, is used instead of the number 3
to incorporate the possible temperature dependencies of the other material parameters. For
silicon solar cells near room temperature, I0 approximately doubles for every 10 °C increase
in temperature.
VOC
The impact of I0 on the open-circuit voltage can be calculated by substituting the equation for
I0 into the equation for Voc as shown below;

where EG0 = qVG0. Assuming that dVoc/dT does not depend on dIsc/dT, dVoc/dT can be found
as;

The above equation shows that the temperature sensitivity of a solar cell depends on the
open-circuit voltage of the solar cell, with higher voltage solar cells being less affected by
temperature. For silicon, EG0 is 1.2, and using γ as 3 gives a reduction in the open-circuit
voltage of about 2.2 mV/°C;

An alternate approach to determining VOC with temperature is from the variation of ni with
temperature. We have seen that:

ISC
The short-circuit current, Isc, increases slightly with temperature since the bandgap energy,
EG, decreases and more photons have enough energy to create e-h pairs. However, this is a
small effect, and the temperature dependence of the short-circuit current from a silicon solar
cell is typically;

or 0.06% per °C for silicon.

The change of ISC with temperature is more dependent upon the design of the cell than the
semiconductor material properties. A lower performance cell with little light trapping and a
poor performance in long wavelengths near the band edge will have very little change in
ISC with temperature. Conversely, a cell with a high response near the band edge will see a
much larger change in ISC with temperature. In either case, the change of ISC with
temperature is smaller than the change of VOC.

SOLAR ARRAY SIMULATOR

SUN TRACKING

PEAK POWER OPERATIONS

PV SYSTEM

Design of a PV System

Solar cells may be connected in series, parallel, or both to obtain the required voltage and
current. When similar cells or devices are connected in series, the output voltages and current
are as shown in Figure 9.18. A parallel connection results in the addition of currents as shown
in Figure 9.19. If the cells or devices 1 and 2 have dissimilar characteristics, the output
characteristics will be as shown in Figure 9.20. Cells are connected to form
modules,modulesare connected to form panels, and panels are connected to form arrays.
Principles shown in Figures 9.18 and 9.19 apply to all of these connections.
MPPT TECHNIQUES

Direct method uses voltage and/or current information, prior knowledge of PV panel is not
required various techniques which can be used are: Hill climbing/ Perturb and observe;
Incremental conductance; Fuzzy logic; and Slide control.

Fractional Open circuit voltage method: Operating point of SPV array is kept near MPP by
regulating array voltage and matching it to fixed reference voltage Vref.

Fractional short circuit method: Operating point of SPV array is kept near MPP by
regulating array current and matching it to fixed reference current Iref.

Perturb and Observe algorithm: P&O algorithm continuously perturbs the operating point
of system causing PV array terminal voltage to fluctuate around the MPP voltage even if
solar irradiance and cell temperature varies. P&O algorithms operate periodically perturbing
(i.e. incrementing or decrementing) the array terminal voltage and comparing PV array output
power with that of previous perturbation cycle. If the PV array operating voltage changes and
power increases (dP/dV>0), control system moves the PV array operating point in that
direction, otherwise operating point is moved in the opposite direction.

Figure 3: Solar PV and IV characteristics

Perturb & Observe Algorithm

The Perturb & Observe algorithm states that when the operating voltage of the PV panel is
perturbed by a small increment, if the resulting change in power ∆P is positive, then we are
going in the direction of MPP and we keep on perturbing in the same direction. If ∆P is
negative, we are going away from the direction of MPP and the sign of perturbation supplied
has to be changed.

Figure 4.1 shows the plot of module output power versus module voltage for a solar panel at
a given irradiation. The point marked as MPP is the Maximum Power Point, the theoretical
maximum output obtainable from the PV panel. Consider A and B as two operating points.
As shown in the figure above, the point A is on the left hand side of the MPP. Therefore, we
can move towards the MPP by providing a positive perturbation to the voltage. On the other
hand, point B is on the right hand side of the MPP. When we give a positive perturbation, the
value of ∆P becomes negative, thus it is imperative to change the direction of perturbation to
achieve MPP. The flowchart for the P&O algorithm is shown in Figure 4.2.
 Figure 4.2 : Flowchart of Perturb & Observe algorithm

Limitations of Perturb & Observe algorithm

In a situation where the irradiance changes rapidly, the MPP also moves on the right hand
side of the curve. The algorithm takes it as a change due to perturbation and in the next
iteration it changes the direction of perturbation and hence goes away from the MPP as
shown in the figure. However, in this algorithm we use only one sensor, that is the voltage
sensor, to sense the PV array voltage and so the cost of implementation is less and hence easy
to implement. The time complexity of this algorithm is very less but on reaching very close to
the MPP it doesn’t stop at the MPP and keeps on perturbing in both the directions. When this
happens the algorithm has reached very close to the MPP and we can set an appropriate error
limit or can use a wait function which ends up increasing the time complexity of the
algorithm.

Implementation of MPPT
It is important to ensure that the solar cells in a system are operating at the ―maximum power
point (MPP)‖ as seen in Figures 9.8 and 9.9. There are several methods that can be used for
maximum power point tracking (MPPT). They include simple methods (e.g., method of
determining Vmp as equal to kVoc or determining Imp as equal to kIsc) as well as more
involved methods (perturb and observe [P&O], incremental conductance [IC], artificial
neural networks, and fuzzy logic methods). Each method uses a DC–DC converter consisting
of inductors and capacitors in a parallel circuit to measure the operating point of the cell and
to change the output voltage to Vmp using a control algorithm. The parallel circuit consists of
either a DC/DC singleended primary inductor converter (SEPIC) or a buck–boost converter
or a modification of these. Figure 9.10 shows a schematic of a SEPIC converter and Figure
9.11 shows a schematic of a buck–boost converter. Although a detailed analysis of these
converters is outside the scope of this book, opening and closing the switches allows the
current to pass from the source through the inductor or from the capacitor to the load. The
switching speed determines the output voltage seen by the load. The differences in the MPPT
methods consist of how the Vmp is determined. The simplest methods use a fixed constant
―k‖ to determine it either from Voc or Isc. Both Voc and Isc change with insolation and the
temperature of the cell and therefore will not always give the best values of Vmp. The P&O
method is much more accurate and more common in use. In a P&O algorithm, the output
voltage is increased or decreased (perturbed) and the output power is compared with the
power before perturbation. If the power increases (dP/dV > 0), then the voltage is increased
more and vice versa. The method runs into problems if the insolation changes rapidly during
a perturbation. IC is a similar method in which current I and voltage V are measured before
and after a perturbation and dI/dV is compared with I/V.

At MPP

If the MPP is to the right of the perturbed point, then (dI/dV + I/V) > 0 and vice versa.

EFFECTS OF PARTIAL SHADING ON THE CHARACTERISTIC CURVES AND

ASSOCIATED MPPT TECHNIQUES

SOLAR PARK DESIGN OUTLINE