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ILOCOS SUR COMMUNITY COLLEGE

Quirino Stadium, Zone V, Bantay, ISCC Barangay Demo

Ilocos Sur, Philippines 2727 Farm Campus
Tel. No. (077) 604-0285 Barangay Labnig, San
e-mail address: Juan, Ilocos Sur

COURSE TITLE PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES TOWARDS HEALTH AND

FITNESS: MOVEMENT COMPETENCY TRAINING
COURSE CODE PATHFIT NUMBER OF UNITS 2 UNITS
1
COURSE PRE-
REQUISITE/S
MODULE TITLE PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES TOWARDS HEALTH AND
FITNESS 1
CONTACT JOHN ROMMEL P. SOLIVEN
INFORMATION OF Contact number: 09474729115
THE INSTRUCTOR FB account: John Rommel Soliven
Email: [email protected]

Cooperative Management Department Contact No: 09171927422

Module I: Introduction of Physical Education

I. Introduction to Movement Education

1.1 Definition of Movement Education in Physical Education

 Movement Education is an approach that focuses on teaching students how to move

their bodies efficiently and effectively. It emphasizes understanding movement
concepts, developing motor skills, and applying them in various physical activities.
It aims to foster physical literacy, which is the ability to move with competence and
confidence in a variety of physical activities.

1.2 History and Philosophy of Movement Education

 History: Movement education originated in the early 20th century, influenced by

pioneers like Rudolf Laban, who developed a system of analyzing and teaching
movement. Over the years, it evolved to incorporate ideas from dance, physical
therapy, and physical education.
 Philosophy: The philosophy behind movement education is rooted in the belief that
all individuals should have the opportunity to develop their physical abilities. It
emphasizes creativity, exploration, and the use of movement as a means of self-
expression and communication.

1.3 Concepts and Elements of Movement Education

 Basic Movement Concepts:

o Space: Understanding how the body moves in relation to the environment
(e.g., direction, levels, pathways).
o Time: The rhythm, speed, and duration of movement.
o Force: The amount of energy used in a movement (e.g., strong, light,
sustained, sudden).
o Flow: The smoothness and continuity of movement.
 Elements of Movement:
o Body Awareness: Knowing what the body is doing, which parts are
moving, and how they interact.
o Spatial Awareness: Understanding how to move in space, including
concepts like personal and general space.
o Effort: The quality of movement and the energy used.
o Relationships: Interaction with objects, other people, and the environment.

1.4 Importance of Movement Education

 Movement education is essential for developing motor skills, coordination, balance,

and overall physical literacy. It helps children and adults alike improve their

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physical abilities, enhances cognitive function through the connection between

movement and brain activity, and fosters social interaction and teamwork.

II. Components of Physical Fitness

2.1 Health-Related Components

 Body Composition: Refers to the relative amount of muscle, fat, bone, and other
vital parts of the body. It is crucial for understanding an individual’s overall health
and fitness.
 Flexibility: The ability of a joint to move through its full range of motion.
Flexibility is important for injury prevention and overall physical performance.
 Muscular Strength: The amount of force a muscle can produce in a single effort. It
is vital for daily activities, athletic performance, and overall body health.
 Muscular Endurance: The ability of a muscle to sustain repeated contractions or
continue applying force against a fixed object. It’s important for prolonged physical
activity and overall muscular health.
 Cardiorespiratory Endurance: The ability of the heart, lungs, and blood vessels
to supply oxygen to the body during sustained physical activity. It’s essential for
overall cardiovascular health and stamina.

2.2 Skill-Related Components

 Agility: The ability to quickly and efficiently change the direction of the body. It is
crucial in many sports and physical activities.
 Balance: The ability to maintain equilibrium while stationary or moving. Balance is
key for preventing falls and maintaining stability during physical activities.
 Coordination: The ability to use different parts of the body together smoothly and
efficiently. Coordination is important for complex movements and activities
requiring precision.
 Speed: The ability to move quickly. Speed is important in many sports and
activities that require rapid movements.
 Power: The ability to exert maximum force in a short amount of time. Power is
important in explosive movements like jumping or sprinting.
 Reaction Time: The time it takes to respond to a stimulus. Quick reaction time is
critical in many sports and daily activities.

III. Physical Fitness Test Assessment

3.1 Benefits of Physical Fitness Test/Assessment

 Monitoring Fitness Levels: Fitness assessments help individuals understand their

current fitness status and identify strengths and areas for improvement.
 Setting Realistic Goals: Assessments provide a baseline from which individuals
can set achievable fitness goals.

Cooperative Management Department Contact No: 09171927422

e-mail:[email protected]
ILOCOS SUR COMMUNITY COLLEGE
Quirino Stadium, Zone V, Bantay, ISCC Barangay Demo
Ilocos Sur, Philippines 2727 Farm Campus
Tel. No. (077) 604-0285 Barangay Labnig, San
e-mail address: Juan, Ilocos Sur
 Tracking Progress: Regular assessments allow individuals to track their progress
over time, which can be motivating and help adjust training programs as needed.
 Identifying Health Risks: Fitness assessments can help identify potential health
risks, such as cardiovascular issues or musculoskeletal imbalances.

IV. Principles of Physical Training and FITT Principles

4.1 Principles of Physical Training

 Specificity: Training should be specific to the goals you want to achieve. For
example, if you want to improve your running speed, you should focus on speed
training.
 Progression: The intensity and volume of exercise should gradually increase to
avoid plateaus and continue making progress.
 Overload: To improve fitness, the body must be challenged with more stress than it
is accustomed to. This can be done by increasing the weight lifted, the duration of
exercise, or the intensity.
 Adaptation: The body adapts to the demands placed on it. This principle explains
why consistent training leads to improvements in fitness.
 Recovery: Adequate rest and recovery are crucial for allowing the body to repair
and strengthen itself after exercise.

4.2 FITT Principles (Frequency, Intensity, Time, and Type)

 Frequency: Refers to how often you exercise. It’s important to exercise regularly
to maintain and improve fitness levels.
 Intensity: Refers to how hard you exercise. Intensity can be measured in various
ways, such as heart rate, weight lifted, or speed.
 Time: Refers to the duration of each exercise session. The amount of time spent
exercising can affect the results achieved.
 Type: Refers to the kind of exercise performed. Different types of exercise (e.g.,
aerobic, strength training, flexibility) are important for overall fitness.

V. Human Body Systems Responsible for the Body’s Function

Human beings are arguably the most complex organisms on this planet. Imagine billions
of microscopic parts, each with its own identity, working together in an organized manner
for the benefit of the total being. The human body is a single structure but it is made up of
billions of smaller structures of four major kinds:

Cells
Cells have long been recognized as the simplest units of living matter that can maintain life
and reproduce themselves. The human body, which is made up of numerous cells, begins
as a single, newly fertilized cell.

Tissues

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e-mail:[email protected]
ILOCOS SUR COMMUNITY COLLEGE
Quirino Stadium, Zone V, Bantay, ISCC Barangay Demo
Ilocos Sur, Philippines 2727 Farm Campus
Tel. No. (077) 604-0285 Barangay Labnig, San
e-mail address: Juan, Ilocos Sur
Tissues are somewhat more complex units than cells. By definition, a tissue is an
organization of a great many similar cells with varying amounts and kinds of nonliving,
intercellular substance between them.

Organs
Organs are more complex units than tissues. An organ is an organization of several
different kinds of tissues so arranged that together they can perform a special function. For
example, the stomach is an organization of muscle, connective, epithelial, and nervous
tissues. Muscle and connective tissues form its wall, epithelial and connective tissues form
its lining, and nervous tissue extends throughout both its wall and its lining.

Systems
Systems are the most complex of the component units of the human body. A system is an
organization of varying numbers and kinds of organs so arranged that together they can
perform complex functions for the body. Ten major systems compose the human body:

 Skeletal
 Muscular
 Nervous
 Endocrine
 Cardiovascular
 Lymphatic
 Respiratory
 Digestive
 Urinary
 Reproductive

Body Functions
Body functions are the physiological or psychological functions of body systems. The
body's functions are ultimately its cells' functions. Survival is the body's most important
business. Survival depends on the body's maintaining or restoring homeostasis, a state of
relative constancy, of its internal environment.

More than a century ago, French physiologist, Claude Bernard (1813-1878), made a
remarkable observation. He noted that body cells survived in a healthy condition only
when the temperature, pressure, and chemical composition of their environment remained
relatively constant. Later, an American physiologist, Walter B. Cannon (1871-1945),
suggested the name homeostasis for the relatively constant states maintained by the body.
Homeostasis is a key word in modern physiology. It comes from two Greek words -
"homeo," meaning the same, and "stasis," meaning standing. "Standing or staying the
same" then is the literal meaning of homeostasis. However, as Cannon emphasized,
homeostasis does not mean something set and immobile that stays exactly the same all the
time. In his words, homeostasis "means a condition that may vary, but which is relatively

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Homeostasis depends on the body's ceaselessly carrying on many activities. Its major
activities or functions are responding to changes in the body's environment, exchanging
materials between the environment and cells, metabolizing foods, and integrating all of the
body's diverse activities.

The body's ability to perform many of its functions changes gradually over the years. In
general, the body performs its functions least well at both ends of life - in infancy and in
old age. During childhood, body functions gradually become more and more efficient and
effective. During late maturity and old age the opposite is true. They gradually become less
and less efficient and effective. During young adulthood, they normally operate with
maximum efficiency and effectiveness.

Life Process
All living organisms have certain characteristics that distinguish them from non-living
forms. The basic processes of life include organization, metabolism, responsiveness,
movements, and reproduction. In humans, who represent the most complex form of life,
there are additional requirements such as growth, differentiation, respiration, digestion, and
excretion. All of these processes are interrelated. No part of the body, from the
smallest cell to a complete body system, works in isolation. All function together, in fine-
tuned balance, for the well being of the individual and to maintain life. Disease such
as cancer and death represent a disruption of the balance in these processes.

The following are a brief description of the life process:

Organization-At all levels of the organizational scheme, there is a division of labor. Each
component has its own job to perform in cooperation with others. Even a single cell, if it
loses its integrity or organization, will die.

Metabolism- Metabolism is a broad term that includes all the chemical reactions that occur
in the body. One phase of metabolism is catabolism in which complex substances are
broken down into simpler building blocks and energy is released.

Responsiveness- Responsiveness or irritability is concerned with detecting changes in the

internal or external environments and reacting to that change. It is the act of sensing a
stimulus and responding to it.

Movement- There are many types of movement within the body. On the cellular level,
molecules move from one place to another. Blood moves from one part of the body to
another. The diaphragm moves with every breath. The ability of muscle fibers to shorten
and thus to produce movement is called contractility.

Reproduction- For most people, reproduction refers to the formation of a new person, the
birth of a baby. In this way, life is transmitted from one generation to the next through
reproduction of the organism. In a broader sense, reproduction also refers to the formation

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of new cells for the replacement and repair of old cells as well as for growth. This is
cellular reproduction. Both are essential to the survival of the human race.

Growth- Growth refers to an increase in size either through an increase in the number of
cells or through an increase in the size of each individual cell. In order for growth to occur,
anabolic processes must occur at a faster rate than catabolic processes.

Differentiation- Differentiation is a developmental process by which unspecialized cells

change into specialized cells with distinctive structural and functional characteristics.
Through differentiation, cells develop into tissues and organs.

Respiration- Respiration refers to all the processes involved in the exchange

of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the cells and the external environment. It
includes ventilation, the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and the transport of the
gases in the blood. Cellular respiration deals with the cell's utilization of oxygen and
release of carbon dioxide in its metabolism.

Digestion- Digestion is the process of breaking down complex ingested foods into simple
molecules that can be absorbed into the blood and utilized by the body.

Excretion- Excretion is the process that removes the waste products of digestion and
metabolism from the body. It gets rid of by-products that the body is unable to use, many
of which are toxic and incompatible with life.

The ten life processes described above are not enough to ensure the survival of the
individual. In addition to these processes, life depends on certain physical factors from the
environment. These include water, oxygen, nutrients, heat, and pressure.

Anatomical Terminology

Before we get into the following learning units, which will provide more detailed
discussion of topics on different human body systems, it is necessary to learn some useful
terms for describing body structure. Knowing these terms will make it much easier for us
to understand the content of the following learning units. Three groups of terms are
introduced here:

 Directional Terms
 Planes of the Body
 Body Cavities

Directional Terms
Directional terms describe the positions of structures relative to other structures or
locations in the body.

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e-mail:[email protected]
ILOCOS SUR COMMUNITY COLLEGE
Quirino Stadium, Zone V, Bantay, ISCC Barangay Demo
Ilocos Sur, Philippines 2727 Farm Campus
Tel. No. (077) 604-0285 Barangay Labnig, San
e-mail address: Juan, Ilocos Sur
Superior or cranial - toward the head end of the body; upper (example, the hand is part of
the superior extremity).

Inferior or caudal - away from the head; lower (example, the foot is part of the inferior
extremity).

Anterior or ventral - front (example, the kneecap is located on the anterior side of the
leg).

Posterior or dorsal - back (example, the shoulder blades are located on the posterior side
of the body).

Medial - toward the midline of the body (example, the middle toe is located at the medial
side of the foot).

Lateral - away from the midline of the body (example, the little toe is located at the lateral
side of the foot).

Proximal - toward or nearest the trunk or the point of origin of a part (example, the
proximal end of the femur joins with the pelvic bone).

Distal - away from or farthest from the trunk or the point or origin of a part (example, the
hand is located at the distal end of the forearm).

Planes of the Body

Coronal Plane (Frontal Plane) - A vertical plane
running from side to side; divides the body or any
of its parts into anterior and posterior portions.

Sagittal Plane (Lateral Plane) - A vertical plane

running from front to back; divides the body or any
of its parts into right and left sides.

Axial Plane (Transverse Plane) -

A horizontal plane; divides the body or any of its
parts into upper and lower parts.

Median plane - Sagittal plane through the midline

of the body; divides the body or any of its parts
into right and left halves.

Body Cavities
The cavities, or spaces, of the body contain
the internal organs, or viscera. The two main
cavities are called the ventral and dorsal cavities.
The ventral is the larger cavity and is subdivided
into two parts (thoracic and abdominopelvic

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Thoracic cavity

The upper ventral, thoracic, or chest cavity contains the heart, lungs, trachea, esophagus,
large blood vessels, and nerves. The thoracic cavity is bound laterally by the ribs (covered
by costal pleura) and the diaphragm caudally (covered by diaphragmatic pleura).

Abdominal and pelvic cavity

The lower part of the ventral (abdominopelvic) cavity can be further divided into two
portions: abdominal portion and pelvic portion. The abdominal cavity contains most of
the gastrointestinal tract as well as the kidneys and adrenal glands. The abdominal cavity is
bound cranially by the diaphragm, laterally by the body wall, and caudally by the pelvic
cavity. The pelvic cavity contains most of the urogenital system as well as the rectum. The
pelvic cavity is bounded cranially by the abdominal cavity, dorsally by the sacrum, and
laterally by the pelvis.

Dorsal cavity

The smaller of the two main cavities is called the dorsal cavity. As its name implies, it
contains organs lying more posterior in the body. The dorsal cavity, again, can be divided
into two portions. The upper portion, or the cranial cavity, houses the brain, and the lower
portion, or vertebral canal houses the spinal cord.

5.1 Muscular System

 The muscular system consists of muscles that enable movement, maintain posture,
and produce heat. Muscles work by contracting and are essential for both voluntary
and involuntary movements.

Introduction to the Muscular System

The muscular system is composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers. Their
predominant function is contractibility. Muscles, attached to bones or internal organs
and blood vessels, are responsible for movement. Nearly all movement in the body is the
result of muscle contraction. Exceptions to this are the action of cilia, the flagellum on
sperm cells, and amoeboid movement of some white blood cells.

The integrated action of joints, bones, and skeletal muscles produces obvious movements
such as walking and running. Skeletal muscles also produce more subtle movements that
result in various facial expressions, eye movements, and respiration.

In addition to movement, muscle contraction also fulfills some other important functions in
the body, such as posture, joint stability, and heat production. Posture, such as sitting and
standing, is maintained as a result of muscle contraction. The skeletal muscles are

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e-mail:[email protected]
ILOCOS SUR COMMUNITY COLLEGE
Quirino Stadium, Zone V, Bantay, ISCC Barangay Demo
Ilocos Sur, Philippines 2727 Farm Campus
Tel. No. (077) 604-0285 Barangay Labnig, San
e-mail address: Juan, Ilocos Sur
continually making fine adjustments that hold the body in stationary positions. The tendons
of many muscles extend over joints and in this way contribute to joint stability. This is
particularly evident in the knee and shoulder joints, where muscle tendons are a
major factor in stabilizing the joint. Heat production, to maintain body temperature, is an
important by-product of muscle metabolism. Nearly 85 percent of the heat produced in the
body is the result of muscle contraction.

Structure of Skeletal Muscle

A whole skeletal muscle is

considered an organ of
the muscular system. Each organ
or muscle consists of
skeletal muscle tissue, connective
tissue, nerve tissue,
and blood or vascular tissue.

Skeletal muscles vary

considerably in size, shape, and
arrangement of fibers.
They range from extremely tiny
strands such as the stapedium
muscle of the middle ear to large
masses such as the muscles of the
thigh. Some skeletal muscles are
broad in shape and some narrow. In some muscles the fibers are parallel to the long axis of
the muscle; in some they converge to a narrow attachment; and in some they are oblique.

Each skeletal muscle fiber is a single cylindrical muscle cell. An individual skeletal muscle
may be made up of hundreds, or even thousands, of muscle fibers bundled together and
wrapped in a connective tissue covering. Each muscle is surrounded by a connective tissue
sheath called the epimysium. Fascia, connective tissue outside the epimysium, surrounds
and separates the muscles. Portions of the epimysium project inward to divide the muscle
into compartments. Each compartment contains a bundle of muscle fibers. Each bundle of
muscle fiber is called a fasciculus and is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called
the perimysium. Within the fasciculus, each individual muscle cell, called a muscle fiber, is
surrounded by connective tissue called the endomysium.

Skeletal muscle cells (fibers), like other body cells, are soft and fragile. The connective
tissue covering furnish support and protection for the delicate cells and allow them to
withstand the forces of contraction. The coverings also provide pathways for the passage of
blood vessels and nerves.

Commonly, the epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium extend beyond the fleshy part
of the muscle, the belly or gaster, to form a thick ropelike tendon or a broad, flat sheet-
like aponeurosis. The tendon and aponeurosis form indirect attachments from muscles to
the periosteum of bones or to the connective tissue of other muscles. Typically a muscle

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ILOCOS SUR COMMUNITY COLLEGE
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e-mail address: Juan, Ilocos Sur
spans a joint and is attached to bones by tendons at both ends. One of the bones remains
relatively fixed or stable while the other end moves as a result of muscle contraction.

Skeletal muscles have an abundant supply of blood vessels and nerves. This is directly
related to the primary function of skeletal muscle, contraction. Before a skeletal muscle
fiber can contract, it has to receive an impulse from a nerve cell. Generally, an artery and at
least one vein accompany each nerve that penetrates the epimysium of a skeletal muscle.
Branches of the nerve and blood vessels follow the connective tissue components of the
muscle of a nerve cell and with one or more minute blood vessels called capillaries.

Muscle Types

In the body, there are three types of muscle: skeletal (striated), smooth, and cardiac.

Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle, attached to bones, is responsible for skeletal movements.
The peripheral portion of the central nervous system (CNS) controls the skeletal muscles.
Thus, these muscles are under conscious, or voluntary, control. The basic unit is the
muscle fiber with many nuclei. These muscle fibers are striated (having transverse streaks)
and each acts independently of neighboring muscle fibers.

Smooth Muscle
Smooth muscle, found in the walls of the hollow internal organs such as blood vessels,
the gastrointestinal tract, bladder, and uterus, is under control of the autonomic nervous
system. Smooth muscle cannot be controlled consciously and thus acts involuntarily. The
non-striated (smooth) muscle cell is spindle-shaped and has one central nucleus. Smooth
muscle contracts slowly and rhythmically.

Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle, found in the walls of the heart, is also under control of the autonomic
nervous system. The cardiac muscle cell has one central nucleus, like smooth muscle, but it
also is striated, like skeletal muscle. The cardiac muscle cell is rectangular in shape.
The contraction of cardiac muscle is involuntary, strong, and rhythmical.

Smooth and cardiac muscle will be discussed in detail with respect to their appropriate
systems. This unit mainly covers the skeletal muscular system.

Muscle Groups

There are more than 600 muscles in the body, which together account for about 40 percent
of a person's weight.

Most skeletal muscles have names that describe some feature of the muscle. Often several
criteria are combined into one name. Associating the muscle's characteristics with its name
will help you learn and remember them. The following are some terms relating to muscle

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 Size: vastus (huge); maximus (large); longus (long); minimus (small); brevis
(short).
 Shape: deltoid (triangular); rhomboid (like a rhombus with equal and parallel
sides); latissimus (wide); teres (round); trapezius (like a trapezoid, a four-sided
figure with two sides parallel).
 Direction of fibers: rectus (straight); transverse (across); oblique (diagonally);
orbicularis (circular).
 Location: pectoralis (chest); gluteus (buttock or rump); brachii (arm); supra-
(above); infra- (below); sub- (under or beneath); lateralis (lateral).
 Number of origins: biceps (two heads); triceps (three heads); quadriceps (four
heads).
 Origin and insertion: sternocleidomastoideus (origin on the sternum and clavicle,
insertion on the mastoid process); brachioradialis (origin on the brachium or arm,
insertion on the radius).
 Action: abductor (to abduct a structure); adductor (to adduct a structure); flexor (to
flex a structure); extensor (to extend a structure); levator (to lift or elevate a
structure); masseter (a chewer).

Muscles of the Head and Neck

Humans have well-developed muscles in the face that permit a large variety
of facial expressions. Because the muscles are used to show surprise, disgust, anger, fear,
and other emotions, they are an important means of nonverbal communication. Muscles of
facial expression include frontalis, orbicularis oris, laris oculi, buccinator, and
zygomaticus.

These muscles of facial expressions are identified in the illustration below.

There are four pairs of muscles that

are responsible for chewing
movements or mastication. All of
these muscles connect to the mandible
and they are some of the strongest
muscles in the body. Two of the
muscles, temporalis and masseter, are
identified in the illustration above.

There are numerous muscles

associated with the throat, the hyoid
bone and the vertebral column; only
two of the more obvious
and superficial neck muscles are identified in the illustration: sternocleidomastoid and

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Muscles of the Trunk

The muscles of the trunk include those that move the vertebral column, the muscles that
form the thoracic and abdominal walls, and those that cover the pelvic outlet.

The erector spinae group of

muscles on each side of the
vertebral column is a
large muscle mass that extends
from the sacrum to the skull.
These muscles are primarily
responsible for extending the
vertebral column to maintain
erect posture. The deep back
muscles occupy the space
between the spinous
and transverse processes of
adjacent vertebrae.

The muscles of the thoracic wall are involved primarily in the process of breathing. The
intercostal muscles are located in spaces between the ribs. They contract during
forced expiration. External intercostal muscles contract to elevate the ribs during the
inspiration phase of breathing. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that forms a
partition between the thorax and the abdomen. It has three openings in it for structures that
have to pass from the thorax to the abdomen.

The abdomen, unlike the thorax and pelvis, has no bony reinforcements or protection. The
wall consists entirely of four muscle pairs, arranged in layers, and the fascia that envelops
them. The abdominal wall muscles are identified in the illustration below.

The pelvic outlet is formed by two muscular sheets and their associated fascia.

Muscles of the Upper Extremity

The muscles of the

upper extremity include those
that attach the scapula to the
thorax and generally move the
scapula, those that attach
the humerus to the scapula and
generally move the arm, and
those that are located in the arm
or forearm that move the
forearm, wrist, and hand. The
illustration below shows some

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Muscles that move the shoulder and arm include the trapezius and serratus anterior.
The pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, deltoid, and rotator cuff muscles connect to the
humerus and move the arm.

The muscles that move the forearm are located along the humerus, which include the
triceps brachii, biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis. The 20 or more muscles that
cause most wrist, hand, and finger movements are located along the forearm.

Muscles of the Lower Extremity

The muscles that move the thigh have their origins on some
part of the pelvic girdle and their insertions on the femur. The
largest muscle mass belongs to the posterior group, the gluteal
muscles, which, as a group, adduct the thigh. The iliopsoas,
an anterior muscle, flexes the thigh. The muscles in
the medial compartment adduct the thigh. The illustration
below shows some of the muscles of the lower extremity.

Muscles that move the leg are located in the thigh region.
The quadriceps femoris muscle group straightens the leg at
the knee. The hamstrings are antagonists to the quadriceps
femoris muscle group, which are used to flex the leg at the
knee.

The muscles located in the leg that move the ankle

and foot are divided into anterior, posterior,
and lateral compartments. The tibialis anterior, which dorsiflexes the foot, is antagonistic
to the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles, which plantar flex the foot.

5.2 Skeletal System

 The skeletal system is made up of bones and joints. It provides structure, support,
and protection to the body, facilitates movement by serving as points of attachment
for muscles, and stores minerals like calcium.

Introduction to the Skeletal System

Humans are vertebrates, animals having a vertabral column or backbone. They rely on a
sturdy internal frame that is centered on a prominent spine. The human skeletal
system consists of bones, cartilage, ligaments and tendons and accounts for about 20
percent of the body weight.

The living bones in our bodies use oxygen and give off waste products in metabolism.
They contain active tissues that consume nutrients, require a blood supply and change
shape or remodel in response to variations in mechanical stress.

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Bones provide a rigid framework, known as the skeleton, that support and protect the soft
organs of the body.

The skeleton supports the body against the pull of gravity. The large bones of the lower
limbs support the trunk when standing.

The skeleton also protects the soft body parts. The fused bones of the cranium surround
the brain to make it less vulnerable to injury. Vertebrae surround and protect the spinal
cord and bones of the rib cage help protect the heart and lungs of the thorax.

Bones work together with muscles as simple mechanical lever systems to produce body
movement.

Bones contain more calcium than any other organ. The

intercellular matrix of bone contains large amounts of calcium salts, the most important
being calcium phosphate.

When blood calcium levels decrease below normal, calcium is released from the bones so
that there will be an adequate supply for metabolic needs. When blood calcium levels are
increased, the excess calcium is stored in the bone matrix. The dynamic process of
releasing and storing calcium goes on almost continuously.

Hematopoiesis, the formation of blood cells, mostly takes place in the red marrow of the
bones.

In infants, red marrow is found in the bone cavities. With age, it is largely replaced by
yellow marrow for fat storage. In adults, red marrow is limited to the spongy bone in
the skull, ribs, sternum, clavicles, vertebrae and pelvis. Red marrow functions in the
formation of red blood cells, white blood cells and blood platelets.

Structure of Bone Tissue

There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. The names imply that the two
types differ in density, or how tightly the tissue is packed together. There are three types of
cells that contribute to bone homeostasis. Osteoblasts are bone-forming cell, osteoclasts
resorb or break down bone, and osteocytes are mature bone cells. An equilibrium between
osteoblasts and osteoclasts maintains bone tissue.

Compact Bone

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Compact bone consists of
closely packed osteons
or haversian systems.
The osteon consists of
a central canal called the
osteonic (haversian) canal,
which is surrounded by
concentric rings (lamellae)
of matrix. Between the
rings of matrix, the bone
cells (osteocytes) are
located in spaces
called lacunae. Small
channels (canaliculi)
radiate from the lacunae to the osteonic (haversian) canal to provide passageways through
the hard matrix. In compact bone, the haversian systems are packed tightly together to form
what appears to be a solid mass. The osteonic canals contain blood vessels that are parallel
to the long axis of the bone. These blood vessels interconnect, by way of perforating
canals, with vessels on the surface of the bone.

Spongy (Cancellous) Bone

Spongy (cancellous) bone is lighter and less dense than compact bone. Spongy bone
consists of plates (trabeculae) and bars of bone adjacent to small, irregular cavities that
contain red bone marrow. The canaliculi connect to the adjacent cavities, instead of a
central haversian canal, to receive their blood supply. It may appear that the trabeculae are
arranged in a haphazard manner, but they are organized to provide maximum strength
similar to braces that are used to support a building. The trabeculae of spongy bone follow
the lines of stress and can realign if the direction of stress changes.

Bone Development & Growth

The terms osteogenesis and ossification are often used synonymously to indicate
the process of bone formation. Parts of the skeleton form during the first few weeks
after conception. By the end of the eighth week after conception, the skeletal pattern is
formed in cartilage and connective tissue membranes and ossification begins.

Bone development continues throughout adulthood. Even after adult stature is attained,
bone development continues for repair of fractures and for remodeling to meet changing
lifestyles. Osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts are the three cell types involved in the
development, growth and remodeling of bones. Osteoblasts are bone-forming cells,
osteocytes are mature bone cells and osteoclasts break down and reabsorb bone.

There are two types of ossification: intramembranous and endochondral.

Intramembranous

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Intramembranous ossification involves the replacement of sheet-like connective tissue
membranes with bony tissue. Bones formed in this manner are called intramembranous
bones. They include certain flat bones of the skull and some of the irregular bones. The
future bones are first formed as connective tissue membranes. Osteoblasts migrate to the
membranes and deposit bony matrix around themselves. When the osteoblasts are
surrounded by matrix they are called osteocytes.

Endochondral Ossification
Endochondral ossification involves the replacement of hyaline cartilage with bony tissue.
Most of the bones of the skeleton are formed in this manner. These bones are called
endochondral bones. In this process, the future bones are first formed as hyaline cartilage
models. During the third month after conception, the perichondrium that surrounds the
hyaline cartilage "models" becomes infiltrated with blood vessels and osteoblasts and
changes into a periosteum. The osteoblasts form a collar of compact bone around the
diaphysis. At the same time, the cartilage in the center of the diaphysis begins to
disintegrate. Osteoblasts penetrate the disintegrating cartilage and replace it with spongy
bone. This forms a primary ossification center. Ossification continues from this center
toward the ends of the bones. After spongy bone is formed in the diaphysis, osteoclasts
break down the newly formed bone to open up the medullary cavity.

The cartilage in the epiphyses continues to grow so the developing bone increases in
length. Later, usually after birth, secondary ossification centers form in the epiphyses.
Ossification in the epiphyses is similar to that in the diaphysis except that the spongy bone
is retained instead of being broken down to form a medullary cavity. When secondary
ossification is complete, the hyaline cartilage is totally replaced by bone except in two
areas. A region of hyaline cartilage remains over the surface of the epiphysis as
the articular cartilage and another area of cartilage remains between the epiphysis and
diaphysis. This is the epiphyseal plate or growth region.

Bone Growth
Bones grow in length at the
epiphyseal plate by a process that
is similar to endochondral
ossification. The cartilage in the
region of the epiphyseal plate next
to the epiphysis continues to grow
by mitosis. The chondrocytes, in
the region next to the diaphysis,
age and degenerate. Osteoblasts
move in and ossify the matrix to
form bone. This process continues
throughout childhood and the adolescent years until the cartilage growth slows and finally
stops. When cartilage growth ceases, usually in the early twenties, the epiphyseal plate
completely ossifies so that only a thin epiphyseal line remains and the bones can no longer
grow in length. Bone growth is under the influence of growth hormone from

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Even though bones stop growing in length in early adulthood, they can continue to increase
in thickness or diameter throughout life in response to stress from increased muscle activity
or to weight. The increase in diameter is called appositional growth. Osteoblasts in the
periosteum form compact bone around the external bone surface. At the same time,
osteoclasts in the endosteum break down bone on the internal bone surface, around the
medullary cavity. These two processes together increase the diameter of the bone and, at
the same time, keep the bone from becoming excessively heavy and bulky.

Classification of Bones

Long Bones

The bones of the body come in a variety of sizes and

shapes. The four principal types of bones are long, short,
flat and irregular. Bones that are longer than they are wide
are called long bones. They consist of a long shaft with two
bulky ends or extremities. They are primarily compact
bone but may have a large amount of spongy bone at the
ends or extremities. Long bones include bones of the thigh,
leg, arm, and forearm.

Short Bones
Short bones are roughly cube shaped with vertical and horizontal dimensions
approximately equal. They consist primarily of spongy bone, which is covered by a thin
layer of compact bone. Short bones include the bones of the wrist and ankle.

Flat Bones
Flat bones are thin, flattened, and usually curved. Most of the bones of the cranium are flat
bones.

Irregular Bones
Bones that are not in any of the above three categories are classified as irregular bones.
They are primarily spongy bone that is covered with a thin layer of compact bone. The
vertebrae and some of the bones in the skull are irregular bones.

All bones have surface markings and characteristics that make a specific bone unique.
There are holes, depressions, smooth facets, lines, projections and other markings. These
usually represent passageways for vessels and nerves, points of articulation with other
bones or points of attachment for tendons and ligaments.

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Divisions of the Skeleton

The adult human skeleton usually consists of 206 named bones. These bones can be
grouped in two divisions: axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton. The 80 bones of the
axial skeleton form the vertical axis of the body. They include the bones of
the head, vertebral column, ribs and breastbone or sternum. The appendicular skeleton
consists of 126 bones and includes the free appendages and their attachments to the axial
skeleton. The free appendages are the upper and lower extremities, or limbs, and their
attachments which are called girdles. The named bones of the body are listed below by
category.

Axial Skeleton (80 bones)

Skull (28)

Cranial Bones

 Parietal (2)
 Temporal (2)
 Frontal (1)
 Occipital (1)
 Ethmoid (1)
 Sphenoid (1)

Facial Bones

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 Maxilla (2)
 Zygomatic (2)
 Mandible (1)
 Nasal (2)
 Platine (2)
 Inferior nasal concha (2)
 Lacrimal (2)
 Vomer (1)

Auditory Ossicles

 Malleus (2)
 Incus (2)
 Stapes (2)

Hyoid (1)

Vertebral Column

 Cervical vertebrae (7)

 Thoracic vertebrae (12)
 Lumbar vertebrae (5)
 Sacrum (1)
 Coccyx (1)

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Thoracic Cage

 Sternum (1)
 Ribs (24)

Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones)

Pectoral girdles

 Clavicle (2)
 Scapula (2)

Upper Extremity

 Humerus (2)
 Radius (2)
 Ulna (2)
 Carpals (16)
 Metacarpals (10)
 Phalanges (28)

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Pelvic Girdle

 Coxal, innominate, or hip bones (2)

Lower Extremity

 Femur (2)
 Tibia (2)
 Fibula (2)
 Patella (2)
 Tarsals (14)
 Metatarsals (10)
 Phalanges (28)

Articulations

An articulation, or joint, is where two bones come together. In terms of the amount of
movement they allow, there are three types of joints: immovable, slightly movable and
freely movable.

Synarthroses
Synarthroses are immovable joints. The singular
form is synarthrosis. In these joints, the bones
come in very close contact and are separated only
by a thin layer of fibrous connective tissue. The
sutures in the skull are examples of immovable
joints.

Amphiarthroses
Slightly movable joints are called amphiarthroses.
The singular form is amphiarthrosis. In this type
of joint, the bones are connected by hyaline
cartilage or fibrocartilage. The ribs connected to
the sternum by costal cartilages are slightly
movable joints connected by hyaline cartilage.
The symphysis pubis is a slightly movable joint in

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which there is a fibrocartilage pad between the two bones. The joints between the vertebrae
and the intervertebral disks are also of this type.

Diarthroses
Most joints in the adult body are diarthroses, or freely movable joints. The singular form is
diarthrosis. In this type of joint, the ends of the opposing bones are covered with hyaline
cartilage, the articular cartilage, and they are separated by a space called the joint cavity.
The components of the joints are enclosed in a dense fibrous joint capsule. The outer layer
of the capsule consists of the ligaments that hold the bones together. The inner layer is
the synovial membrane that secretes synovial fluid into the joint cavity for lubrication.
Because all of these joints have a synovial membrane, they are sometimes called synovial
joints.

5.3 Nervous System

Introduction to the Nervous System

The nervous system is the major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the
body. It is the center of all mental activity including thought, learning, and memory.
Together with the endocrine system, the nervous system is responsible for regulating and
maintaining homeostasis. Through its receptors, the nervous system keeps us in touch with
our environment, both external and internal.

Like other systems in the body, the nervous system is composed of organs, principally
the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and ganglia. These, in turn, consist of various tissues,
including nerve, blood, and connective tissue. Together these carry out the complex
activities of the nervous system.

The various activities of the nervous system can be grouped together as three general,
overlapping functions:

 Sensory
 Integrative
 Motor
Millions of sensory receptors detect changes, called stimuli, which occur inside and outside
the body. They monitor such things as temperature, light, and sound from the external
environment. Inside the body, the internal environment, receptors detect variations in
pressure, pH, carbon dioxide concentration, and the levels of various electrolytes. All of
this gathered information is called sensory input.

Sensory input is converted into electrical signals called nerve impulses that are transmitted
to the brain. There the signals are brought together to create sensations, to produce
thoughts, or to add to memory; Decisions are made each moment based on the sensory
input. This is integration.

Based on the sensory input and integration, the nervous system responds by sending signals

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to muscles, causing them to contract, or to glands, causing them to produce secretions.
Muscles and glands are called effectors because they cause an effect in response to
directions from the nervous system. This is the motor output or motor function.

Nerve Tissue

Although the nervous system is very complex, there are only two main types of cells
in nerve tissue. The actual nerve cell is the neuron. It is the "conducting" cell that transmits
impulses and the structural unit of
the nervous system. The other type
of cell is neuroglia, or glial, cell.
The word "neuroglia" means "nerve
glue." These cells are
nonconductive and provide a
support system for the neurons.
They are a special type of
"connective tissue" for the nervous
system.

Neurons
Neurons, or nerve cells, carry out
the functions of the nervous system by conducting nerve impulses. They are highly
specialized and amitotic. This means that if a neuron is destroyed, it cannot be replaced
because neurons do not go through mitosis. The image below illustrates the structure of a
typical neuron.

Each neuron has three basic parts: cell body (soma), one or more dendrites, and a
single axon.

Cell Body

In many ways, the cell body is similar to other types of cells. It has a nucleus with at least
one nucleolus and contains many of the typical cytoplasmic organelles. It lacks centrioles,
however. Because centrioles function in cell division, the fact that neurons lack these
organelles is consistent with the amitotic nature of the cell.

Dendrites

Dendrites and axons are cytoplasmic extensions, or processes, that project from the cell
body. They are sometimes referred to as fibers. Dendrites are usually, but not always, short
and branching, which increases their surface area to receive signals from other neurons.
The number of dendrites on a neuron varies. They are called afferent processes because
they transmit impulses to the neuron cell body. There is only one axon that projects from
each cell body. It is usually elongated and because it carries impulses away from the cell
body, it is called an efferent process.

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Axon

An axon may have infrequent branches called axon collaterals. Axons and axon collaterals
terminate in many short branches or telodendria. The distal ends of the telodendria are
slightly enlarged to form synaptic bulbs. Many axons are surrounded by a segmented,
white, fatty substance called myelin or the myelin sheath. Myelinated fibers make up
the white matter in the CNS, while cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers make
the gray matter. The unmyelinated regions between the myelin segments are called
the nodes of Ranvier.

In the peripheral nervous system, the myelin is produced by Schwann cells. The cytoplasm,
nucleus, and outer cell membrane of the Schwann cell form a tight covering around the
myelin and around the axon itself at the nodes of Ranvier. This covering is the neurilemma,
which plays an important role in the regeneration of nerve fibers. In the CNS,
oligodendrocytes produce myelin, but there is no neurilemma, which is why fibers within
the CNS do not regenerate.

Functionally, neurons are classified as afferent, efferent, or interneurons

(association neurons) according to the direction in which they transmit impulses relative to
the central nervous system. Afferent, or sensory, neurons carry impulses
from peripheral sense receptors to the CNS. They usually have long dendrites and
relatively short axons. Efferent, or motor, neurons transmit impulses from the CNS to
effector organs such as muscles and glands. Efferent neurons usually have short dendrites
and long axons. Interneurons, or association neurons, are located entirely within the CNS
in which they form the connecting link between the afferent and efferent neurons. They
have short dendrites and may have either a short or long axon.

Neuroglia
Neuroglia cells do not conduct nerve impulses, but instead, they support, nourish, and
protect the neurons. They are far more numerous than neurons and, unlike neurons, are
capable of mitosis.

Tumors
Schwannomas are benign tumors of the
peripheral nervous system which
commonly occur in their sporadic, solitary
form in otherwise normal individuals.
Rarely, individuals develop multiple
schwannomas arising from one or many
elements of the peripheral nervous system.

Commonly called a Morton's Neuroma, this

problem is a fairly common benign nerve growth and begins when the outer coating of a
nerve in your foot thickens. This thickening is caused by irritation of branches of

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the medial and lateral plantar nerves that results when two bones repeatedly rub together.

Organization of the Nervous System

Although terminology seems to indicate otherwise, there is really only one nervous
system in the body. Although each subdivision of the system is also called a "nervous
system," all of these smaller systems belong to the single, highly integrated nervous
system. Each subdivision has structural and functional characteristics that distinguish it
from the others. The nervous system as a whole is divided into two subdivisions:
the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

The Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord are the organs of the central nervous system. Because they are so
vitally important, the brain and spinal cord, located in the dorsal body cavity, are encased
in bone for protection. The brain is in the cranial vault, and the spinal cord is in the
vertebral canal of the vertebral column. Although considered to be two separate organs, the
brain and spinal cord are continuous at the foramen magnum.

The Peripheral Nervous System

The organs of the peripheral nervous system are the nerves and ganglia. Nerves are bundles
of nerve fibers, much like muscles are bundles of muscle fibers. Cranial nerves and spinal
nerves extend from the CNS to peripheral organs such as muscles and glands. Ganglia are
collections, or small knots, of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS.

The peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into an afferent (sensory) division and
an efferent (motor) division. The afferent or sensory division transmits impulses from
peripheral organs to the CNS. The efferent or motor division transmits impulses from the
CNS out to the peripheral organs to cause an effect or action.

Finally, the efferent or motor division is again subdivided into the somatic nervous
system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system, also called the
somatomotor or somatic efferent nervous system, supplies motor impulses to the skeletal
muscles. Because these nerves permit conscious control of the skeletal muscles, it is
sometimes called the voluntary nervous system. The autonomic nervous system, also called
the visceral efferent nervous system, supplies motor impulses to cardiac muscle, to smooth
muscle, and to glandular epithelium. It is further subdivided into sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions. Because the autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary or
automatic functions, it is called the involuntary nervous system.

The Central Nervous System

The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, which are located in the dorsal body cavity.
The brain is surrounded by the cranium, and the spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae.
The brain is continuous with the spinal cord at the foramen magnum. In addition to bone,
the CNS is surrounded by connective tissue membranes, called meninges, and

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Meninges
There are three layers of meninges around
the brain and spinal cord. The outer layer,
the dura mater, is tough
white fibrous connective tissue. The middle
layer of meninges is arachnoid, which
resembles a cobweb in appearance, is a thin
layer with numerous threadlike strands that
attach it to the innermost layer. The space
under the arachnoid, the subarachnoid
space, is filled with cerebrospinal fluid and
contains blood vessels. The pia mater is the
innermost layer of meninges. This thin, delicate membrane is tightly bound to the surface
of the brain and spinal cord and cannot be dissected away without damaging the surface.

Meningiomas are tumors of the nerve tissue covering the brain and spinal cord. Although
meningiomas are usually not likely to spread, physicians often treat them as though they
were malignant to treat symptoms that may develop when a tumor applies pressure to the
brain.

Brain
The brain is divided into the cerebrum, diencephalons, brain stem, and cerebellum.

Cerebrum

The largest and most obvious portion of the brain is the cerebrum, which is divided by
a deep longitudinal fissure into two cerebral hemispheres. The two hemispheres are two
separate entities but are connected by an arching band of white fibers, called the corpus
callosum that provides a communication pathway between the two halves.

Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into five lobes, four of which have the same name as
the bone over them: the fontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the temporal
lobe. A fifth lobe, the insula or Island of Reil, lies deep within the lateral sulcus.

Diencephalon

The diencephalons is centrally located and is nearly surrounded by the cerebral

hemispheres. It includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus. The thalamus,
about 80 percent of the diencephalons, consists of two oval masses of gray matter that
serve as relay stations for sensory impulses, except for the sense of smell, going to the
cerebral cortex. The hypothalamus is a small region below the thalamus, which plays a key
role in maintaining homeostasis because it regulates many visceral activities. The
epithalamus is the most dorsal portion of the diencephalons. This

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small gland is involved with the onset of puberty and rhythmic cycles in the body. It is like
a biological clock.

Brain Stem

The brain stem is the region between the diencephalons and the spinal cord. It consists of
three parts: midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The midbrain is the
most superior portion of the brain stem. The pons is the bulging middle portion of the brain
stem. This region primarily consists of nerve fibers that form conduction tracts between the
higher brain centers and spinal cord. The medulla oblongata, or simply medulla, extends
inferiorly from the pons. It is continuous with the spinal cord at the foramen magnum. All
the ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) nerve fibers connecting the brain and
spinal cord pass through the medulla.

Cerebellum

The cerebellum, the second largest portion of the brain, is located below the occipital lobes
of the cerebrum. Three paired bundles of myelinated nerve fibers, called cerebellar
peduncles, form communication pathways between the cerebellum and other parts of
the central nervous system.

Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

A series of interconnected, fluid-filled cavities are found within the brain. These cavities
are the ventricles of the brain, and the fluid is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Spinal Cord
The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum at the base of the skull to the level of
the first lumbar vertebra. The cord is continuous with the medulla oblongata at the foramen
magnum. Like the brain, the spinal cord is surrounded by bone, meninges, and
cerebrospinal fluid.

The spinal cord is divided into 31 segments with each segment giving rise to a pair
of spinal nerves. At the distal end of the cord, many spinal nerves extend beyond the conus
medullaris to form a collection that resembles a horse's tail. This is the cauda equina. In
cross section, the spinal cord appears oval in shape.

The spinal cord has two main functions:

 Serving as a conduction pathway for impulses going to and from the brain. Sensory
impulses travel to the brain on ascending tracts in the cord. Motor impulses travel
on descending tracts.
 Serving as a reflex center. The reflex arc is the functional unit of the nervous
system. Reflexes are responses to stimuli that do not require conscious thought and
consequently, they occur more quickly than reactions that require thought
processes. For example, with the withdrawal reflex, the reflex action withdraws the
affected part before you are aware of the pain. Many reflexes are mediated in the

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Brain Tumor
Glioma refers to tumors that arise from the support cells of the brain. These cells are
called glial cells. These tumors include the astrocytomas, ependymomas and
oligodendrogliomas. These tumors are the most common primary brain tumors.

The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves that branch out from
the brain and spinal cord. These nerves form the communication network between
the CNS and the body parts. The peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into
the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous
system consists of nerves that go to the skin and muscles and is involved in conscious
activities. The autonomic nervous system consists of nerves that connect the CNS to
the visceral organs such as the heart, stomach, and intestines. It mediates unconscious
activities.

Structure of a Nerve
A nerve contains bundles of nerve fibers, either axons or dendrites, surrounded
by connective tissue. Sensory nerves contain only afferent fibers, long dendrites of sensory
neurons. Motor nerves have only efferent fibers, long axons of motor neurons. Mixed
nerves contain both types of fibers.
A connective tissue sheath called the epineurium surrounds each nerve. Each bundle of
nerve fibers is called a fasciculus and is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called
the perineurium. Within the fasciculus, each individual nerve fiber, with its myelin and
neurilemma, is surrounded by connective tissue called the endoneurium. A nerve may also
have blood vessels enclosed in its connective tissue wrappings.

Cranial Nerves
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves emerge from the inferior surface of the brain. All of these
nerves, except the vagus nerve, pass through foramina of the skull to innervate structures in
the head, neck, and facial region.

The cranial nerves are designated both by name and by Roman numerals, according to the
order in which they appear on the inferior surface of the brain. Most of the nerves have
both sensory and motor components. Three of the nerves are associated with the special
senses of smell, vision, hearing, and equilibrium and have only sensory fibers. Five other
nerves are primarily motor in function but do have some sensory fibers for proprioception.
The remaining four nerves consist of significant amounts of both sensory and motor fibers.

Acoustic neuromas are benign fibrous growths that arise from the balance nerve, also
called the eighth cranial nerve or vestibulocochlear nerve. These tumors are non-malignant,
meaning that they do not spread or metastasize to other parts of the body. The location of
these tumors is deep inside the skull, adjacent to vital brain centers in the brain stem. As

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the tumors enlarge, they involve surrounding structures which have to do with vital
functions. In the majority of cases, these tumors grow slowly over a period of years. In
other cases, the growth rate is more rapid and patients develop symptoms at a faster pace.
Usually, the symptoms are mild and many patients are not diagnosed until some time after
their tumor has developed. Many patients also exhibit no tumor growth over a number of
years when followed by yearly MRI scans.

Spinal Nerves
Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves emerge laterally from the spinal cord. Each pair of nerves
corresponds to a segment of the cord and they are named accordingly. This means there are
8 cervical nerves, 12 thoracic nerves, 5 lumbar nerves, 5 sacral nerves, and 1 coccygeal
nerve.

Each spinal nerve is connected to the spinal cord by a dorsal root and a ventral root.
The cell bodies of the sensory neurons are in the dorsal root ganglion, but the motor
neuron cell bodies are in the gray matter. The two roots join to form the spinal nerve just
before the nerve leaves the vertebral column. Because all spinal nerves have both sensory
and motor components, they are all mixed nerves.

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system is a visceral efferent system, which means it sends motor
impulses to the visceral organs. It functions automatically and continuously, without
conscious effort, to innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands. It is concerned
with heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, body temperature, and other visceral
activities that work together to maintain homeostasis.

The autonomic nervous system has two parts, the sympathetic division and
the parasympathetic division. Many visceral organs are supplied with fibers from both
divisions. In this case, one stimulates and the other inhibits. This antagonistic functional
relationship serves as a balance to help maintain homeostasis.

5.3 Endocrine System

 The endocrine system includes glands that produce hormones, which regulate
various body functions, including metabolism, growth, and mood. It plays a critical
role in maintaining homeostasis.

Introduction to the Endocrine System

The endocrine system, along with the nervous system, functions in the regulation of body
activities. The nervous system acts through electrical impulses and neurotransmitters to
cause muscle contraction and glandular secretion. The effect is of short duration, measured
in seconds, and localized. The endocrine system acts through chemical messengers called
hormones that influence growth, development, and metabolic activities. The action of the
endocrine system is measured in minutes, hours, or weeks and is more generalized than the

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There are two major categories of glands in the body - exocrine and endocrine.

Exocrine Glands
Exocrine glands have ducts that carry their secretory product to a surface. These glands
include the sweat, sebaceous, and mammary glands and, the glands that secrete digestive
enzymes.

Endocrine Glands
The endocrine glands do not have ducts to carry their product to a surface. They are called
ductless glands. The word endocrine is derived from the Greek terms "endo," meaning
within, and "krine," meaning to separate or secrete. The secretory products of endocrine
glands are called hormones and are secreted directly into the blood and then carried
throughout the body where they influence only those cells that have receptor sites for
that hormone.

Characteristics of Hormones

Chemical Nature of Hormones

Chemically, hormones may be classified as either proteins or steroids. All of the hormones
in the human body, except the sex hormones and those from the adrenal cortex, are
proteins or protein derivatives.

Mechanism of Hormone
Action Hormones are carried by the blood throughout the entire body, yet they affect only
certain cells. The specific cells that respond to a given hormone have receptor sites for that
hormone. This is sort of a lock-and-key mechanism. If the key fits the lock, then the door
will open. If a hormone fits the receptor site, then there will be an effect. If a hormone and
a receptor site do not match, then there is no reaction. All the cells that have receptor sites
for a given hormone make up the target tissue for that hormone. In some cases, the target
tissue is localized in a single gland or organ. In other cases, the target tissue is diffuse and
scattered throughout the body so that many areas are affected. Hormones bring about their
characteristic effects on target cells by modifying cellular activity.
Protein hormones react with receptors on the surface of the cell, and the sequence of events
that results in hormone action is relatively rapid. Steroid hormones typically react with
receptor sites inside a cell. Because this method of action actually involves synthesis of
proteins, it is relatively slow.

Control of Hormone Action

Hormones are very potent substances, which means that very small amounts of a hormone
may have profound effects on metabolic processes. Because of their potency, hormone
secretion must be regulated within very narrow limits in order to maintain homeostasis in

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Many hormones are controlled by some form of a negative feedback mechanism. In this
type of system, a gland is sensitive to the concentration of a substance that it regulates. A
negative feedback system causes a reversal of increases and decreases in body conditions
in order to maintain a state of stability or homeostasis. Some endocrine glands secrete
hormones in response to other hormones. The hormones that cause secretion of other
hormones are called tropic hormones. A hormone from gland A causes gland B to secrete
its hormone. A third method of regulating hormone secretion is by direct nervous
stimulation. A nerve stimulus causes gland A to secrete its hormone.

Endocrine Glands & Their Hormones

The endocrine system is made up of

the endocrine glands that secrete hormones. Although
there are eight major endocrine glands scattered
throughout the body, they are still considered to be
one system because they have similar functions, similar
mechanisms of influence, and many important
interrelationships.

Some glands also have non-endocrine regions that have

functions other than hormone secretion. For example,
the pancreas has a major exocrine portion that secretes
digestive enzymes and an endocrine portion that
secretes hormones. The ovaries and testes secrete
hormones and also produce the ova and sperm. Some
organs, such as the stomach, intestines, and heart, produce hormones, but their primary
function is not hormone secretion.

Pituitary & Pineal Glands

Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland or hypophysis is a
small gland about 1 centimeter in diameter or
the size of a pea. It is nearly surrounded
by bone as it rests in the sella turcica,
a depression in the sphenoid bone. The gland is
connected to the hypothalamus of the brain by
a slender stalk called the infundibulum.

There are two distinct regions in the gland: the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and
the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis). The activity of the adenohypophysis is controlled
by releasing hormones from the hypothalamus. The neurohypophysis is controlled
by nerve stimulation.

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Growth hormone is a protein that stimulates the growth of bones, muscles, and other
organs by promoting protein synthesis. This hormone drastically affects the appearance of
an individual because it influences height. If there is too little growth hormone in a child,
that person may become a pituitary dwarf of normal proportions but small stature. An
excess of the hormone in a child results in an exaggerated bone growth, and the individual
becomes exceptionally tall or a giant.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone, or thyrotropin, causes the glandular cells of the thyroid to

secrete thyroid hormone. When there is a hypersecretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone,
the thyroid gland enlarges and secretes too much thyroid hormone.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone reacts with receptor sites in the cortex of the adrenal gland to
stimulate the secretion of cortical hormones, particularly cortisol.

Gonadotropic hormones react with receptor sites in the gonads, or ovaries and testes, to
regulate the development, growth, and function of these organs.

Prolactin hormone promotes the development of glandular tissue in the

female breast during pregnancy and stimulates milk production after the birth of the infant.

Hormones of the Posterior Lobe (Neurohypophysis)

Antidiuretic hormone promotes the reabsorption of water by the kidney tubules, with the
result that less water is lost as urine. This mechanism conserves water for the body.
Insufficient amounts of antidiuretic hormone cause excessive water loss in the urine.

Oxytocin causes contraction of the smooth muscle in the wall of the uterus. It also
stimulates the ejection of milk from the lactating breast.

Pineal Gland
The pineal gland, also called pineal body or epiphysis cerebri, is a small cone-shaped
structure that extends posteriorly from the third ventricle of the brain. The pineal gland
consists of portions of neurons, neuroglial cells, and specialized secretory cells called
pinealocytes. The pinealocytes synthesize the hormone melatonin and secrete it directly
into the cerebrospinal fluid, which takes it into the blood. Melatonin affects reproductive
development and daily physiologic cycles.

Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands

Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is a very vascular organ that is located in
the neck. It consists of two lobes, one on each side of
the trachea, just below the larynx or voice box. The two
lobes are connected by a narrow band of tissue called

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the isthmus. Internally, the gland consists of follicles, which
produce thyroxine and triiodothyronine hormones. These hormones contain iodine.

About 95 percent of the active thyroid hormone is thyroxine, and most of the remaining 5
percent is triiodothyronine. Both of these require iodine for their synthesis. Thyroid
hormone secretion is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism that involves the amount
of circulating hormone, hypothalamus, and adenohypophysis.

If there is an iodine deficiency, the thyroid cannot make sufficient hormone. This
stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone, which causes the
thyroid gland to increase in size in a vain attempt to produce more hormones. But it cannot
produce more hormones because it does not have the necessary raw material, iodine. This
type of thyroid enlargement is called simple goiter or iodine deficiency goiter.

Calcitonin is secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland. This hormone
opposes the action of the parathyroid glands by reducing the calcium level in the blood. If
blood calcium becomes too high, calcitonin is secreted until calcium ion levels decrease to
normal.

Parathyroid Gland
Four small masses of epithelial tissue are embedded in the connective tissue capsule on
the posterior surface of the thyroid glands. These are parathyroid glands, and they
secrete parathyroid hormone or parathormone. Parathyroid hormone is the most important
regulator of blood calcium levels. The hormone is secreted in response to low blood
calcium levels, and its effect is to increase those levels.

Hypoparathyroidism, or insufficient secretion of parathyroid hormone, leads to

increased nerve excitability. The low blood calcium levels trigger spontaneous and
continuous nerve impulses, which then stimulate muscle contraction

Adrenal Gland

The adrenal, or suprarenal, gland is paired with one gland

located near the upper portion of each kidney. Each gland
is divided into an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The
cortex and medulla of the adrenal gland, like
the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary, develop
from different embryonic tissues and secrete different
hormones. The adrenal cortex is essential to life, but the
medulla may be removed with no life-threatening effects.

The hypothalamus of the brain influences both portions of

the adrenal gland but by different mechanisms. The
adrenal cortex is regulated by negative feedback
involving the hypothalamus and
adrenocorticotropic hormone; the medulla is regulated by nerve impulses from the

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Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

The adrenal cortex consists of three different regions, with each region producing a
different group or type of hormones. Chemically, all the cortical hormones are steroid.

Mineralocorticoids are secreted by the outermost region of the adrenal cortex. The
principal mineralocorticoid is aldosterone, which acts to conserve sodium ions and water in
the body. Glucocorticoids are secreted by the middle region of the adrenal cortex. The
principal glucocorticoid is cortisol, which increases blood glucose levels.

The third group of steroids secreted by the adrenal cortex is the gonadocorticoids, or sex
hormones. These are secreted by the innermost region. Male hormones, androgens, and
female hormones, estrogens, are secreted in minimal amounts in both sexes by the adrenal
cortex, but their effect is usually masked by the hormones from the testes and ovaries. In
females, the masculinization effect of androgen secretion may become evident
after menopause, when estrogen levels from the ovaries decrease.

Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla

The adrenal medulla develops from neural tissue and secretes two
hormones, epinephrine and norepinephrine. These two hormones are secreted
in response to stimulation by sympathetic nerve, particularly during stressful situations. A
lack of hormones from the adrenal medulla produces no significant effects. Hypersecretion,
usually from a tumor, causes prolonged or continual sympathetic responses.

Pancreas—Islets of Langerhans

The pancreas is a long, soft organ that lies

transversely along the posterior abdominal wall,
posterior to the stomach, and extends from the region
of the duodenum to the spleen. This gland has an
exocrine portion that secretes digestive enzymes that
are carried through a duct to the duodenum.
The endocrine portion consists of the pancreatic islets,
which secrete glucagons and insulin.

Alpha cells in the pancreatic islets secrete

the hormone glucagons in response to a low
concentration of glucose in the blood. Beta cells in the
pancreatic islets secrete the hormone insulin in response to a high concentration of glucose
in the blood.

Gonads

The gonads, the primary reproductive organs, are the testes in the male and the ovaries in

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the female. These organs are responsible for producing the sperm and ova, but they also
secrete hormones and are considered to be endocrine glands.

Testes
Male sex hormones, as a group, are called
androgens. The principal androgen is testosterone,
which is secreted by the testes. A small amount is
also produced by the adrenal cortex. Production of
testosterone begins during fetal development,
continues for a short time after birth, nearly ceases
during childhood, and then resumes at puberty.
This steroid hormone is responsible for:

 The growth and development of the male reproductive structures

 Increased skeletal and muscular growth
 Enlargement of the larynx accompanied by voice changes
 Growth and distribution of body hair
 Increased male sexual drive
Testosterone secretion is regulated by a negative feedback system that involves releasing
hormones from the hypothalamus and gonadotropins from the anterior pituitary.

Ovaries
Two groups of female sex hormones are produced in
the ovaries, the estrogens and progesterone. These
steroid hormones contribute to the development and
function of the female reproductive organs and sex
characteristics. At the onset of puberty, estrogens
promotes:

 The development of the breasts

 Distribution of fat evidenced in the hips, legs, and breast
 Maturation of reproductive organs such as the uterus and vagina
Progesterone causes the uterine lining to thicken in preparation for pregnancy. Together,
progesterone and estrogens are responsible for the changes that occur in the uterus during
the female menstrual cycle.

Other Endocrine Glands

In addition to the major endocrine glands, other organs have some hormonal activity as
part of their function. These include the thymus, stomach, small intestines, heart,
and placenta.

Thymosin, produced by the thymus gland, plays an important role in the development of

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The lining of the stomach, the gastric mucosa, produces a hormone, called gastrin,
in response to the presence of food in the stomach. This hormone stimulates the production
of hydrochloric acid and the enzyme pepsin, which are used in the digestion of food.

The mucosa of the small intestine secretes the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin.
Secreting stimulates the pancreas to produce a bicarbonate-rich fluid that neutralizes the
stomach acid. Cholecystokinin stimulates contraction of the gallbladder, which
releases bile. It also stimulates the pancreas to secrete digestive enzyme.

The heart also acts as an endocrine organ in addition to its major role of pumping blood.
Special cells in the wall of the upper chambers of the
heart, called atria, produce a hormone called atrial
natriiuretic hormone, or atriopeptin.

The placenta develops in the pregnant female as a

source of nourishment and gas exchange for the
developing fetus. It also serves as a
temporary endocrine gland. One of the hormones it
secretes is human chorionic gonadotropin, which
signals the mother's ovaries to secrete hormones to
maintain the uterine lining so that it does not
degenerate and slough off in menstruation.

5.4 Cardiovascular System

 The cardiovascular system comprises the heart,

blood vessels, and blood. It is responsible for circulating blood throughout the
body, delivering oxygen and nutrients to cells, and removing waste products.

Introduction to the Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system is sometimes called the blood-vascular, or simply the

circulatory, system. It consists of the heart, which is a muscular pumping device, and a
closed system of vessels called arteries, veins, and capillaries. As the name implies, blood
contained in the circulatory system is pumped by the heart around a closed circle or circuit
of vessels as it passes again and again through the various "circulations" of the body.

As in the adult, survival of the developing embryo depends on the circulation of blood to
maintain homeostasis and a favorable cellular environment. In response to this need, the
cardiovascular system makes its appearance early in development and reaches a functional
state long before any other major organ system. Incredible as it seems, the primitive heart
begins to beat regularly early in the fourth week following fertilization.

The vital role of the cardiovascular system in maintaining homeostasis depends on the
continuous and controlled movement of blood through the thousands of miles of capillaries

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that permeate every tissue and reach every cell in the body. It is in
the microscopic capillaries that blood performs its ultimate transport function. Nutrients
and other essential materials pass from capillary blood into fluids surrounding the cells as
waste products are removed.

Numerous control mechanisms help to regulate and integrate the diverse functions and
component parts of the cardiovascular system in order to supply blood to specific body
areas according to need. These mechanisms ensure a constant internal environment
surrounding each body cell regardless of differing demands for nutrients or production of
waste products.

Heart

The heart is a muscular pump that provides the force necessary to circulate the blood to all
the tissues in the body. Its function is vital because, to survive, the tissues need a
continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients, and metabolic waste products have to be
removed. Deprived of these necessities, cells soon undergo irreversible changes that lead to
death. While blood is the transport medium, the heart is the organ that keeps the blood
moving through the vessels. The normal adult heart pumps about 5 liters of blood every
minute throughout life. If it loses its pumping effectiveness for even a few minutes, the
individual's life is jeopardized.

Structure of the Heart

The human heart is a four-chambered

muscular organ, shaped and sized roughly like a
man's closed fist with two-thirds of the mass to
the left of midline.

The heart is enclosed in a pericardial sac that is

lined with the parietal layers of a serous
membrane. The visceral layer of the serous
membrane forms the epicardium.

Layers of the Heart Wall

Three layers of tissue form the heart wall. The
outer layer of the heart wall is the epicardium,
the middle layer is the myocardium, and the inner layer is the endocardium.

Chambers of the Heart

The internal cavity of the heart is divided into four chambers:

 Right atrium
 Right ventricle
 Left atrium

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 Left ventricle
The two atria are thin-walled chambers that receive blood from the veins. The two
ventricles are thick-walled chambers that forcefully pump blood out of the heart.
Differences in thickness of the heart chamber walls are due to variations in the amount of
myocardium present, which reflects the amount of force each chamber is required to
generate.

The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from systemic veins; the left atrium receives
oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins.

Valves of the Heart

Pumps need a set of valves to keep the fluid
flowing in one direction and the heart is no
exception. The heart has two types of
valves that keep the blood flowing in the
correct direction. The valves between the
atria and ventricles are called
atrioventricular valves (also called cuspid
valves), while those at the bases of the large
vessels leaving the ventricles are
called semilunar valves.

The right atrioventricular valve is the tricuspid valve. The left atrioventricular valve is the
bicuspid, or mitral, valve. The valve between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk is the
pulmonary semilunar valve. The valve between the left ventricle and the aorta is the aortic
semilunar valve.

When the ventricles contract, atrioventricular valves close to prevent blood from flowing
back into the atria. When the ventricles relax, semilunar valves close to prevent blood from
flowing back into the ventricles.

Pathway of Blood through the Heart

While it is convenient to describe the flow of blood through the right side of the heart and
then through the left side, it is important to realize that both atria and ventricles contract at
the same time. The heart works as two pumps, one on the right and one on the left,
working simultaneously. Blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle, and then
is pumped to the lungs to receive oxygen. From the lungs, the blood flows to the left
atrium, then to the left ventricle. From there it is pumped to the systemic circulation.

Blood Supply to the Myocardium

The myocardium of the heart wall is a working muscle that needs a continuous supply of
oxygen and nutrients to function efficiently. For this reason, cardiac muscle has an
extensive network of blood vessels to bring oxygen to the contracting cells and to remove
waste products.

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The right and left coronary arteries, branches of the ascending aorta, supply blood to the
walls of the myocardium. After blood passes through the capillaries in the myocardium, it
enters a system of cardiac (coronary) veins. Most of the cardiac veins drain into
the coronary sinus, which opens into the right atrium.

Physiology of the Heart

The conduction system includes several components. The first part of the conduction
system is the sinoatrial node . Without any neural stimulation, the sinoatrial node
rhythmically initiates impulses 70 to 80 times per minute. Because it establishes the basic
rhythm of the heartbeat, it is called the pacemaker of the heart. Other parts of the
conduction system include the atrioventricular node, atrioventricular bundle, bundle
branches, and conduction myofibers. All of these components coordinate
the contraction and relaxation of the heart chambers.

Cardiac Cycle- The cardiac cycle refers to the alternating contraction and relaxation of
the myocardium in the walls of the heart chambers, coordinated by the conduction system,
during one heartbeat. Systole is the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle, and diastole is
the relaxation phase. At a normal heart rate, one cardiac cycle lasts for 0.8 second.

Heart Sounds- The sounds associated with the heartbeat are due to vibrations in the tissues
and blood caused by closure of the valves. Abnormal heart sounds are called murmurs.

Heart Rate- The sinoatrial node, acting alone, produces a constant rhythmic heart rate.
Regulating factors are reliant on the atrioventricular node to increase or decrease the heart
rate to adjust cardiac output to meet the changing needs of the body. Most changes in the
heart rate are mediated through the cardiac center in the medulla oblongata of the brain.
The center has both sympathetic and parasympathetic components that adjust the heart rate
to meet the changing needs of the body.
Peripheral factors such as emotions, ion concentrations, and body temperature may affect
heart rate. These are usually mediated through the cardiac center.

Blood

Blood is the fluid of life, transporting oxygen from the lungs to body tissue and carbon
dioxide from body tissue to the lungs. Blood is the fluid of growth, transporting
nourishment from digestion and hormones from glands throughout the body. Blood is the
fluid of health, transporting disease-fighting substances to the tissue and waste to the
kidneys. Because it contains living cells, blood is alive. Red blood cells and white blood
cells are responsible for nourishing and cleansing the body.

Without blood, the human body would stop working.

Classification & Structure of Blood Vessels

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Blood vessels are the channels or conduits through which blood is distributed to body
tissues. The vessels make up two closed systems of tubes that begin and end at the heart.
One system, the pulmonary vessels, transports blood from the right ventricle to the lungs
and back to the left atrium. The other system, the systemic vessels, carries blood from the
left ventricle to the tissues in all parts of the body and then returns the blood to the right
atrium. Based on their structure and function, blood vessels are classified as
either arteries, capillaries, or veins.

Arteries
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. Pulmonary
arteries transport blood that has a
low oxygen content from the right ventricle to the
lungs. Systemic arteries transport oxygenated blood
from the left ventricle to the body tissues. Blood is
pumped from the ventricles into large elastic arteries
that branch repeatedly into smaller and smaller
arteries until the branching results
in microscopic arteries called arterioles. The
arterioles play a key role in regulating blood flow
into the tissue capillaries. About 10 percent of the total blood volume is in the systemic
arterial system at any given time.

The wall of an artery consists of three layers. The innermost layer, the tunica intima (also
called tunica internal), is simple squamous epithelium surrounded by a connective
tissue basement membrane with elastic fibers. The middle layer, the tunica media, is
primarily smooth muscle and is usually the thickest layer. It not only provides support for
the vessel but also changes vessel diameter to regulate blood flow and blood pressure. The
outermost layer, which attaches the vessel to the surrounding tissue, is the tunica externa
or tunica adventitia. This layer is connective tissue with varying amounts of elastic and
collagenous fibers. The connective tissue in this layer is quite dense where it is adjacent to
the tunic media, but it changes to loose connective tissue near the periphery of the vessel.

Capillaries
Capillaries, the smallest and most numerous
of the blood vessels, form the connection
between the vessels that carry blood away
from the heart (arteries) and the vessels that
return blood to the heart (veins). The
primary function of capillaries is the
exchange of materials between the blood and
tissue cells.

Capillary distribution varies with the metabolic activity of body tissues. Tissues such
as skeletal muscle, liver, and kidney have extensive capillary networks because they are
metabolically active and require an abundant supply of oxygen and nutrients. Other tissues,
such as connective tissue, have a less abundant supply of capillaries. The epidermis of the

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skin and the lens and cornea of the eye completely lack a capillary network. About 5
percent of the total blood volume is in the systemic capillaries at any given time. Another
10 percent is in the lungs.

Smooth muscle cells in the arterioles where they branch to form capillaries regulate blood
flow from the arterioles into the capillaries.

Veins
Veins carry blood toward the heart. After
blood passes through the capillaries, it
enters the smallest veins, called venules.
From the venules, it flows into
progressively larger and larger veins until it
reaches the heart. In the pulmonary circuit, the pulmonary veins transport blood from the
lungs to the left atrium of the heart. This blood has a high oxygen content because it has
just been oxygenated in the lungs. Systemic veins transport blood from the body tissue to
the right atrium of the heart. This blood has a reduced oxygen content because the oxygen
has been used for metabolic activities in the tissue cells.

The walls of veins have the same three layers as the arteries. Although all the layers are
present, there is less smooth muscle and connective tissue. This makes the walls of veins
thinner than those of arteries, which is related to the fact that blood in the veins has less
pressure than in the arteries. Because the walls of the veins are thinner and less rigid than
arteries, veins can hold more blood. Almost 70 percent of the total blood volume is in the
veins at any given time. Medium and large veins have venous valves, similar to
the semilunar valves associated with the heart, that help keep the blood flowing toward the
heart. Venous valves are especially important in the arms and legs, where they prevent the
backflow of blood in response to the pull of gravity.

Physiology of Circulation

Roles of Capillaries
In addition to forming the connection
between
the arteries and veins, capillaries have a
vital role in the exchange of gases,
nutrients, and metabolic waste products
between the blood and the tissue cells.
Substances pass through the capillary wall
by diffusion, filtration,
and osmosis. Oxygen and carbon
dioxide move across the capillary wall by
diffusion. Fluid movement across a
capillary wall is determined by a
combination of hydrostatic
and osmotic pressure. The net result of the capillary microcirculation created by

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hydrostatic and osmotic pressure is that substances leave the blood at one end of the
capillary and return at the other end.

Blood Flow
Blood flow refers to the movement of blood through the vessels from arteries to the
capillaries and then into the veins. Pressure is a measure of the force that the blood exerts
against the vessel walls as it moves the blood through the vessels. Like all fluids, blood
flows from a high pressure area to a region with lower pressure. Blood flows in the same
direction as the decreasing pressure gradient: arteries to capillaries to veins.

The rate, or velocity, of blood flow varies inversely with the total cross-sectional area of
the blood vessels. As the total cross-sectional area of the vessels increases, the velocity of
flow decreases. Blood flow is slowest in the capillaries, which allows time for exchange of
gases and nutrients.

Resistance is a force that opposes the flow of a fluid. In blood vessels, most of the
resistance is due to vessel diameter. As vessel diameter decreases, the resistance increases
and blood flow decreases.

Very little pressure remains by the time blood leaves the capillaries and enters the venules.
Blood flow through the veins is not the direct result of ventricular contraction.
Instead, venous return depends on skeletal muscle action, respiratory movements, and
constriction of smooth muscle in venous walls.

Pulse and Blood Pressure

Pulse refers to the rhythmic expansion of an artery that is caused by ejection of blood from
the ventricle. It can be felt where an artery is close to the surface and rests on something
firm.

In common usage, the term blood pressure refers to arterial blood pressure, the pressure in
the aorta and its branches. Systolic pressure is due to ventricular contraction. Diastolic
pressure occurs during cardiac relaxation. Pulse pressure is the difference between systolic
pressure and diastolic pressure. Blood pressure is measured with a sphygmomanometer and
is recorded as the systolic pressure over the diastolic pressure. Four major factors interact
to affect blood pressure: cardiac output, blood volume, peripheral resistance, and viscosity.
When these factors increase, blood pressure also increases.

Arterial blood pressure is maintained within normal ranges by changes in cardiac output
and peripheral resistance. Pressure receptors (barareceptors), located in the walls of the
large arteries in the thorax and neck, are important for short-term blood pressure
regulation.

Circulatory Pathways

The blood vessels of the body are functionally divided into two distinctive
circuits: pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit. The pump for the pulmonary circuit, which

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circulates blood through the lungs, is the right ventricle. The left ventricle is the pump for
the systemic circuit, which provides the blood supply for the tissue cells of the body.

Pulmonary Circuit
Pulmonary
circulation transports oxygen-
poor blood from the right
ventricle to the lungs, where
blood picks up a new blood
supply. Then it returns the
oxygen-rich blood to the
left atrium.

Systemic Circuit

The systemic circulation provides the functional blood

supply to all body tissue. It carries oxygen and nutrients to
the cells and picks up carbon dioxide and waste products.
Systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood from the
left ventricle, through the arteries, to the capillaries in the
tissues of the body. From the tissue capillaries, the
deoxygenated blood returns through a system of veins to
the right atrium of the heart.

The coronary arteries are the only vessels that branch from
the ascending aorta. The brachiocephalic, left common
carotid, and left subclavian arteries branch from the aortic
arch. Blood supply for the brain is provided by
the internal carotid and vertebral arteries. The subclavian
arteries provide the blood supply for the upper extremity.
The celiac, superior mesenteric, suprarenal, renal,
gonadal, and inferior mesenteric arteries branch from
the abdominal aorta to supply the abdominal viscera. Lumbar arteries provide blood for the
muscles and spinal cord. Branches of the external iliac artery provide the blood supply for
the lower extremity. The internal iliac artery supplies the pelvic viscera.

Major Systemic Arteries

All systemic arteries are branches, either directly or indirectly, from the aorta. The aorta
ascends from the left ventricle, curves posteriorly and to the left, then descends through the
thorax and abdomen. This geography divides the aorta into three portions: ascending aorta,
arotic arch, and descending aorta. The descending aorta is further subdivided into the
thoracic arota and abdominal aorta.

Major Systemic Veins

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After blood delivers oxygen to the tissues and picks up carbon dioxide, it returns to the
heart through a system of veins. The capillaries, where the gaseous exchange occurs, merge
into venules and these converge to form larger and larger veins until the blood reaches
either the superior vena cava or inferior vena cava, which drain into the right atrium.

Fetal Circulation
Most circulatory pathways in a fetus are like those in the adult but there are some notable
differences because the lungs, the gastrointestinal tract, and the kidneys are not functioning
before birth. The fetus obtains its oxygen and
nutrients from the mother and also depends on
maternal circulation to carry away the carbon
dioxide and waste products.

The umbilical cord contains two umbilical

arteries to carry fetal blood to the placenta and
one umbilical vein to carry oxygen-and-nutrient-
rich blood from the placenta to the fetus. The
ductus venosus allows blood to bypass the
immature liver in fetal circulation. The foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus are
modifications that permit blood to bypass the lungs in fetal circulation.

5.5 Lymphatic System

 The lymphatic system helps maintain fluid balance, absorbs fats from the digestive
tract, and plays a key role in the immune system by defending the body against
infections.

Introduction to the Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system has three primary functions. First of all, it returns excess interstitial
fluid to the blood. Of the fluid that leaves the capillary, about 90 percent is returned. The
10 percent that does not return becomes part of the interstitial fluid that surrounds
the tissue cells. Small protein molecules may "leak" through the capillary wall and increase
the osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid. This further inhibits the return of fluid into
the capillaries, and fluid tends to accumulate in the tissue spaces. If this continues, blood
volume and blood pressure decrease
significantly and the volume of tissue
fluid increases, which results
in edema (swelling). Lymph capillaries pick
up the excess interstitial fluid and proteins and
return them to the venous blood. After the
fluid enters the lymph capillaries, it is called
lymph.

The second function of the lymphatic system

is the absorption of fats and fat-

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soluble vitamins from the digestive system and the subsequent transport of these
substances to the venous circulation. The mucosa that lines the small intestine is covered
with fingerlike projections called villi. There are blood capillaries and special lymph
capillaries, called lacteals, in the center of each villus. The blood capillaries absorb most
nutrients, but the fats and fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed by the lacteals. The lymph in
the lacteals has a milky appearance due to its high fat content and is called chyle.

The third and probably most well known function of the lymphatic system is defense
against invading microorganisms and disease. Lymph nodes and other lymphatic organs
filter the lymph to remove microorganisms and other foreign particles. Lymphatic organs
contain lymphocytes that destroy invading organisms.

Components of the Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system consists of a fluid (lymph), vessels that transport the lymph, and
organs that contain lymphoid tissue.

Lymph- Lymph is a fluid similar in composition to blood plasma. It is derived from blood
plasma as fluids pass through capillary walls at the arterial end. As the interstitial
fluid begins to accumulate, it is picked up and removed by tiny lymphatic vessels and
returned to the blood. As soon as the interstitial fluid enters the lymph capillaries, it is
called lymph. Returning the fluid to the blood prevents edema and helps to maintain
normal blood volume and pressure.

Lymphatic Vessels- Lymphatic vessels, unlike blood vessels, only carry fluid away from
the tissues. The smallest lymphatic vessels are the lymph capillaries, which begin in
the tissue spaces as blind-ended sacs. Lymph capillaries are found in all regions of the
body except the bone marrow, central nervous system, and tissues, such as the epidermis,
that lack blood vessels. The wall of the lymph capillary is composed of endothelium in
which the simple squamous cells overlap to form a simple one-way valve. This
arrangement permits fluid to enter the capillary but prevents lymph from leaving the vessel.

The microscopic lymph capillaries

merge to form lymphatic vessels.
Small lymphatic vessels join to form
larger tributaries, called lymphatic
trunks, which drain large regions.
Lymphatic trunks merge until the
lymph enters the two lymphatic
ducts. The right lymphatic duct drains
lymph from the upper
right quadrant of the body.
The thoracic duct drains all the rest.

Like veins, the lymphatic tributaries have thin walls and have valves to prevent backflow
of blood. There is no pump in the lymphatic system like the heart in the cardiovascular

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system. The pressure gradients to move lymph through the vessels come from the skeletal
muscle action, respiratory movement, and contraction of smooth muscle in vessel walls.

Lymphatic Organs
Lymphatic organs are characterized by clusters of lymphocytes and other cells, such as
macrophages, enmeshed in a framework of short, branching connective tissue fibers. The
lymphocytes originate in the red bone marrow with other types of blood cells and are
carried in the blood from the bone marrow to the lymphatic organs. When the body is
exposed to microorganisms and other foreign substances, the lymphocytes proliferate
within the lymphatic organs and are sent in the blood to the site of the invasion. This is part
of the immune response that attempts to destroy the invading agent.

The lymphatic organs include:

 Lymph Nodes
 Tonsils
 Spleen
 Thymus

Lymph Nodes

Lymph nodes are small bean-shaped

structures that are usually less than 2.5
cm in length. They are widely distributed
throughout the body along the lymphatic
pathways where they filter the lymph
before it is returned to the blood. Lymph
nodes are not present in the central
nervous system. There are
three superficial regions on each side of
the body where lymph nodes tend to
cluster. These areas are the inguinal nodes in the groin, the axillary nodes in the armpit,
and the cervical nodes in the neck.

The typical lymph node is surrounded by a connective tissue capsule and divided into
compartments called lymph nodules. The lymph
nodules are dense masses of lymphocytes and
macrophages and are separated by spaces called
lymph sinuses. The afferent lymphatics enter the
node at different parts of its periphery, which carry
lymph into the node; entering the node on
the convex side. The lymph moves through the
lymph sinuses and enters an efferent lymphatic
vessel, which, located at an indented region called

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Tonsils

Tonsils are clusters of lymphatic tissue just under

the mucous membranes that line the nose, mouth,
and throat (pharynx). There are three groups of
tonsils. The pharyngeal tonsils are located near the
opening of the nasal cavity into the pharynx. When
these tonsils become enlarged they may interfere
with breathing and are called adenoids. The
palatine tonsils are the ones that are located near
the opening of the oral cavity into the
pharynx. Lingual tonsils are located on
the posterior surface of the tongue, which also places them near the opening of the oral
cavity into the pharynx. Lymphocytes and macrophages in the tonsils provide protection
against harmful substances and pathogens that may enter the body through the nose or
mouth.

Spleen

The spleen is located in the upper left abdominal cavity, just

beneath the diaphragm, and posterior to the stomach. It is
similar to a lymph node in shape and structure but it is much
larger. The spleen is the largest lymphatic organ in the body.
Surrounded by a connective tissue capsule, which extends
inward to divide the organ into lobules, the spleen consists
of two types of tissue called white pulp and red pulp. The
white pulp is lymphatic tissue consisting mainly of
lymphocytes around arteries. The red pulp consists
of venous sinuses filled with blood and cords of lymphatic
cells, such as lymphocytes and macrophages. Blood enters
the spleen through the splenic artery, moves through the
sinuses where it is filtered, then leaves through the splenic vein.

The spleen filters blood in much the way that

the lymph nodes filter lymph. Lymphocytes in the spleen
react to pathogens in the blood and attempt to destroy
them. Macrophages then engulf the resulting debris, the
damaged cells, and the other large particles. The spleen,
along with the liver, removes old and
damaged erythrocytes from the circulating blood. Like
other lymphatic tissue, it produces lymphocytes, especially
in response to invading pathogens. The sinuses in the
spleen are a reservoir for blood. In emergencies such
as hemorrhage, smooth muscle in the vessel walls and in

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the capsule of the spleen contracts. This squeezes the blood out of the spleen into the
general circulation.

Thymus

The thymus is a soft organ with two lobes that is

located anterior to the ascending aorta and posterior to
the sternum. It is relatively large in infants and children
but after puberty it begins to decrease in size so that in
older adults it is quite small.

The primary function of the thymus is the processing and

maturation of special lymphocytes called T-lymphocytes
or T-cells. While in the thymus, the lymphocytes do not
respond to pathogens and foreign agents. After the
lymphocytes have matured, they enter the blood and go to
other lymphatic organs where they help provide defense
against disease. The thymus also produces
a hormone, thymosin, which stimulates the maturation of lymphocytes in other lymphatic
organs.

5.6 Respiratory System

 The respiratory system includes the lungs and airways. It is responsible for gas
exchange, allowing oxygen to enter the blood and carbon dioxide to be expelled.

Introduction to the Respiratory System

When the respiratory system is mentioned, people generally think of breathing, but
breathing is only one of the activities of the respiratory system. The body cells need a
continuous supply of oxygen for the metabolic processes that are necessary to maintain
life. The respiratory system works with the circulatory system to provide this oxygen and
to remove the waste products of metabolism. It also helps to regulate pH of the blood.

Respiration is the sequence of events that results in the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the atmosphere and the body cells. Every 3 to 5 seconds, nerve impulses
stimulate the breathing process, or ventilation, which moves air through a series of
passages into and out of the lungs. After this, there is an exchange of gases between the
lungs and the blood. This is called external respiration. The blood transports the gases to
and from the tissue cells. The exchange of gases between the blood and tissue cells
is internal respiration. Finally, the cells utilize the oxygen for their specific activities: this is
called cellular metabolism, or cellular respiration. Together, these activities constitute
respiration.

Mechanics of Ventilation

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Ventilation, or breathing, is the movement of air through the conducting passages between
the atmosphere and the lungs. The air moves through the passages because of pressure
gradients that are produced by contraction of the diaphragm and thoracic muscles.

Pulmonary ventilation
Pulmonary ventilation is commonly referred to as breathing. It is the process of air flowing
into the lungs during inspiration (inhalation) and out of the lungs
during expiration (exhalation). Air flows because of pressure differences between the
atmosphere and the gases inside the lungs.

Air, like other gases, flows from a region

with higher pressure to a region with lower
pressure. Muscular breathing movements
and recoil of elastic tissues create the
changes in pressure that result in ventilation.
Pulmonary ventilation involves three
different pressures:

 Atmospheric pressure
 Intraalveolar (intrapulmonary)
pressure
 Intrapleural pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the air outside the body. Intraalveolar pressure is
the pressure inside the alveoli of the lungs. Intrapleural pressure is the pressure within the
pleural cavity. These three pressures are responsible for pulmonary ventilation.

Inspiration- Inspiration (inhalation) is the process of taking air into the lungs. It is the
active phase of ventilation because it is the result of muscle contraction. During inspiration,
the diaphragm contracts and the thoracic cavity increases in volume. This decreases the
intraalveolar pressure so that air flows into the lungs. Inspiration draws air into the lungs.

Expiration- Expiration (exhalation) is the process of letting air out of the lungs during the
breathing cycle. During expiration, the relaxation of the diaphragm and elastic recoil
of tissue decreases the thoracic volume and increases the intraalveolar pressure. Expiration
pushes air out of the lungs.

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

Under normal conditions, the average adult takes 12 to 15 breaths a minute. A breath is one
complete respiratory cycle that consists of one inspiration and one expiration.

An instrument called a spirometer is used to measure the volume of air that moves into and
out of the lungs, and the process of taking the measurements is called spirometry.
Respiratory (pulmonary) volumes are an important aspect of pulmonary function testing

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Respiratory capacity (pulmonary capacity) is the sum of two or more volumes.

Factors such as age, sex, body build, and physical conditioning have an influence
on lung volumes and capacities. Lungs usually reach their maximumin capacity in early
adulthood and decline with age after that.

Conducting Passages

The respiratory conducting passages are divided into

the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory
tract. The upper respiratory tract includes
the nose, pharynx, and larynx. The lower respiratory
tract consists of the trachea, bronchial tree, and lungs.
These tracts open to the outside and are lined with
mucous membranes. In some regions,
the membrane has hairs that help filter the air. Other
regions may have cilia to propel mucus.

Click a menu item listed below to learn more about a

component(s) of the conducting passages.

 Nose & Nasal Cavities

 Pharynx
 Larynx & Trachea
 Bronchi, Bronchial Tree, & Lungs

Nose, Nasal Cavities, & Paranasal Sinuses

Nose & Nasal Cavities

The framework of the nose consists
of bone and cartilage. Two
small nasal bones and extensions of
the maxillae form the bridge of the nose,
which is the bony portion. The
remainder of the framework is cartilage
and is the flexible portion. Connective
tissue and skin cover the framework.-

Air enters the nasal cavity from the

outside through two openings: the nostrils or external nares. The openings from the nasal
cavity into the pharynx are the internal nares. Nose hairs at the entrance to the nose trap
large inhaled particles.

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Paranasal Sinuses
Paranasal sinuses are air-filled cavities in the frontal, maxilae, ethmoid, and sphenoid
bones. These sinuses, which have the same names as the bones in which they are located,
surround the nasal cavity and open into it. They function to reduce the weight of the skull,
to produce mucus, and to influence voice quality by acting as resonating chambers.

Pharynx

The pharynx, commonly called the throat, is a

passageway that extends from the base of the skull to
the level of the sixth cervical vertebra. It serves both
the respiratory and digestive systems by receiving air
from the nasal cavity and air, food, and water from
the oral cavity. Inferiorly, it opens into
the larynx and esophagus. The pharynx is divided
into three regions according to location:
the nasopharynx, the oropharynx, and
the laryngopharynx (hypopharynx).

The nasopharynx is the portion of the pharynx that is posterior to the nasal cavity and
extends inferiorly to the uvula. The oropharynx is the portion of the pharynx that is
posterior to the oral cavity. The most inferior portion of the pharynx is the laryngopharynx
that extends from the hyoid bone down to the lower margin of the larynx.

The upper part of the pharynx (throat) lets only air pass through. Lower parts permit air,
foods, and fluids to pass.

The pharyngeal, palatine, and lingual tonsils are located in the pharynx. They are also
called Waldereyer's Ring.

The retromolar trigone is the small area behind the wisdom teeth.

Larynx & Trachea

Larynx
The larynx, commonly called the voice
box or glottis, is the passageway for air
between the pharynx above and
the trachea below. It extends from the fourth
to the sixth vertebral levels. The larynx is
often divided into three sections: sublarynx,
larynx, and supralarynx. It is formed by nine
cartilages that are connected to each other
by muscles and ligaments.

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The larynx plays an essential role in human speech. During sound production, the vocal
cords close together and vibrate as air expelled from the lungs passes between them.
The false vocal cords have no role in sound production, but help close off the larynx when
food is swallowed.

The thyroid cartilage is the Adam's apple. The epiglottis acts like a trap door to keep food
and other particles from entering the larynx.

Trachea
The trachea, commonly called the windpipe, is the main airway to the lungs. It divides into
the right and left bronchi at the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra, channeling air to the
right or left lung.

The hyaline cartilage in the tracheal wall provides support and keeps the trachea from
collapsing. The posterior soft tissue allows for expansion of the esophagus, which is
immediately posterior to the trachea.

The mucous membrane that lines the trachea is ciliated pseudostratified

columnar epithelium similar to that in the nasal cavity and nasopharynx. Goblet
cells produce mucus that traps airborne particles and microorganisms, and the cilia propel
the mucus upward, where it is either swallowed or expelled.

Bronchi, Bronchial Tree, & Lungs

Bronchi and Bronchial Tree

In the mediastinum, at the level of the fifth
thoracic vertebra, the trachea divides into
the right and left primary bronchi. The
bronchi branch into smaller and smaller
passageways until they terminate in tiny air
sacs called alveoli.

The cartilage and mucous membrane of the

primary bronchi are similar to that in the
trachea. As the branching continues
through the bronchial tree, the amount
of hyaline cartilage in the walls decreases until it is absent in the smallest bronchioles. As
the cartilage decreases, the amount of smooth muscle increases. The mucous membrane
also undergoes a transition from ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium to simple
cuboidal epithelium to simple squamous epithelium.

The alveolar ducts and alveoli consist primarily of simple squamous epithelium, which
permits rapid diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Exchange of gases between the air
in the lungs and the blood in the capillaries occurs across the walls of the alveolar ducts
and alveoli.

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Lungs
The two lungs, which contain all the components of the bronchial tree beyond the primary
bronchi, occupy most of the space in the thoracic cavity. The lungs are soft and spongy
because they are mostly air spaces surrounded by the alveolar cells and elastic connective
tissue. They are separated from each other by the mediastinum, which contains the heart.
The only point of attachment for each lung is at the hilum, or root, on the medial side. This
is where the bronchi, blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves enter the lungs.

The right lung is shorter, broader, and has a greater volume than the left lung. It is divided
into three lobes and each lobe is supplied by one of the secondary bronchi. The left lung is
longer and narrower than the right lung. It has an indentation, called the cardiac notch, on
its medial surface for the apex of the heart. The left lung has two lobes.

Each lung is enclosed by a double-layered serous membrane, called the pleura.

The visceral pleura is firmly attached to the surface of the lung. At the hilum, the visceral
pleura is continuous with the parietal pleura that lines the wall of the thorax. The small
space between the visceral and parietal pleurae is the pleural cavity. It contains a thin film
of serous fluid that is produced by the pleura. The fluid acts as a lubricant to reduce friction
as the two layers slide against each other, and it helps to hold the two layers together as the
lungs inflate and deflate.

5.7 Digestive System

 The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients that can be absorbed into the
bloodstream and used by the body. It includes the stomach, intestines, liver, and
pancreas.

Introduction to the Digestive System

The digestive system includes the digestive tract and its accessory organs,
which process food into molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the cells of the
body. Food is broken down, bit by bit, until the molecules are small enough to be absorbed
and the waste products are eliminated. The digestive tract, also called the alimentary
canal or gastrointestinal (GI) tract, consists of a long continuous tube that extends from
the mouth to the anus. It includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
and large intestine. The tongue and teeth are accessory structures located in the mouth. The
salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are major accessory organs that have a role
in digestion. These organs secrete fluids into the digestive tract.

Food undergoes three types of processes in the body:

 Digestion
 Absorption
 Elimination

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Digestion and absorption occur in the digestive tract. After the nutrients are absorbed, they
are available to all cells in the body and are utilized by the body cells in metabolism.

The digestive system prepares nutrients for utilization by body cells through six activities,
or functions.

Ingestion
The first activity of the digestive system is to take in food through the mouth. This process,
called ingestion, has to take place before anything else can happen.

Mechanical Digestion
The large pieces of food that are ingested have to be broken into smaller particles that can
be acted upon by various enzymes. This is mechanical digestion, which begins in the
mouth with chewing or mastication and continues with churning and mixing actions in the
stomach.

Chemical Digestion
The complex molecules of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are transformed by chemical
digestion into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the cells. Chemical
digestion, through a process called hydrolysis, uses water and digestive enzymes to break
down the complex molecules. Digestive enzymes speed up the hydrolysis process, which is
otherwise very slow.

Movements
After ingestion and mastication, the food particles move from the mouth into the pharynx,
then into the esophagus. This movement is deglutition, or swallowing. Mixing movements
occur in the stomach as a result of smooth muscle contraction. These repetitive
contractions usually occur in small segments of the digestive tract and mix the food
particles with enzymes and other fluids. The movements that propel the food particles
through the digestive tract are called peristalsis. These are rhythmic waves of contractions
that move the food particles through the various regions in which mechanical and chemical
digestion takes place.

Absorption
The simple molecules that result from chemical digestion pass through cell membranes of
the lining in the small intestine into the blood or lymph capillaries. This process is called
absorption.

Elimination
The food molecules that cannot be digested or absorbed need to be eliminated from the
body. The removal of indigestible wastes through the anus, in the form of feces,
is defecation or elimination.

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General Structure of the Digestive System

The long continuous tube that is the digestive tract is about 9 meters in length. It opens to
the outside at both ends, through the mouth at one end and through the anus at the other.
Although there are variations in each region, the basic structure of the wall is the same
throughout the entire length of the tube.

The wall of the digestive tract has four layers or tunics:

 Mucosa
 Submucosa
 Muscular layer
 Serous layer or serosa
The mucosa, or mucous membrane layer, is the innermost tunic of the wall. It lines
the lumen of the digestive tract. The mucosa consists of epithelium, an underlying
loose connective tissue layer called lamina propria, and a thin layer of smooth
muscle called the muscularis mucosa. In certain regions, the mucosa develops folds that
increase the surface area. Certain cells in the mucosa secrete mucus, digestive enzymes,
and hormones. Ducts from other glands pass through the mucosa to the lumen. In the
mouth and anus, where thickness for protection against abrasion is needed, the epithelium
is stratified squamous tissue. The stomach and intestines have a thin simple
columnar epithelial layer for secretion and absorption.

The submucosa is a thick layer of loose connective tissue that surrounds the mucosa. This
layer also contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves. Glands may be embedded
in this layer.

The smooth muscle responsible for movements of the digestive tract is arranged in two
layers, an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer. The myenteric plexus is
between the two muscle layers.

Above the diaphragm, the outermost layer of the

digestive tract is a connective tissue called adventitia.
Below the diaphragm, it is called serosa.

Regions of the Digestive System

At its simplest, the digestive system is a tube running

from mouth to anus. Its chief goal is to break down
huge macromolecules (proteins, fats and starch),
which cannot be absorbed intact, into smaller
molecules (amino acids, fatty acids and glucose) that
can be absorbed across the wall of the tube, and into
the circulatory system for dissemination throughout

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Regions of the digestive system can be divided into two main parts: the
alimentary tract and accessory organs. The alimentary tract of the digestive system is
composed of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large
intestines, rectum and anus. Associated with the alimentary tract are the following
accessory organs: salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

To learn more about the regions of the digestive system, use the hyperlinks listed below to
branch into a specific topic.

1. Alimentary Tract of the Digestive System

o Mouth
o Pharynx & Esophagus
o Stomach
o Small and Large Intestine
2. Accessory Organs of the Digestive System
o Salivary Glands
o Liver
o Gallbladder
o Pancreas

Mouth

The mouth, or oral cavity, is the first part of

the digestive tract. It is adapted to receive food
by ingestion, break it into small particles
by mastication, and mix it with saliva. The lips,
cheeks, and palate form the boundaries. The oral
cavity contains the teeth and tongue and receives
the secretions from the salivary glands.

Lips and Cheeks

The lips and cheeks help hold food in the mouth and keep it in place for chewing. They are
also used in the formation of words for speech. The lips contain numerous sensory
receptors that are useful for judging the temperature and texture of foods.

Palate
The palate is the roof of the oral cavity. It separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity.
The anterior portion, the hard palate, is supported by bone. The posterior portion, the soft
palate, is skeletal muscle and connective tissue. Posteriorly, the soft palate ends in a
projection called the uvula. During swallowing, the soft palate and uvula move upward to

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Tongue
The tongue manipulates food in the mouth and is used in speech. The surface is covered
with papillae that provide friction and contain the taste buds.

Teeth
A complete set of deciduous (primary) teeth contains 20 teeth. There are 32 teeth in a
complete permanent (secondary) set. The shape of each tooth type corresponds to the way
it handles food.

Pharynx & Esophagus

Pharynx
Food is forced into the pharynx by the tongue. When food reaches the opening, sensory
receptors around the fauces respond and initiate an involuntary swallowing reflex. This
reflex action has several parts. The uvula is elevated to prevent food from entering
the nasopharynx. The epiglottis drops downward to prevent food from entering
the larynx and trachea in order to direct the food into the esophagus. Peristaltic movements
propel the food from the pharynx into the esophagus.

Esophagus
The esophagus is a collapsible muscular tube that serves as a passageway between the
pharynx and stomach. As it descends, it is posterior to the trachea and anterior to
the vertebral column. It passes through an opening in the diaphragm, called the esophageal
hiatus, and then empties into the stomach. The mucosa has glands that secrete mucus to
keep the lining moist and well lubricated to ease the passage of food. Upper and lower
esophageal sphincters control the movement of food into and out of the esophagus.
The lower esophageal sphincter is sometimes called the cardiac sphincter and resides at
the esophagogastric junction.

Stomach

The stomach, which receives food from

the esophagus, is located in the upper
left quadrant of the abdomen. The stomach
is divided into the fundic, cardiac, body,
and pyloric regions. The lesser and greater
curvatures are on the right and left sides,
respectively, of the stomach.

Gastric Secretions
The mucosal lining of the stomach is simple columnar epithelium with numerous tubular

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gastric glands. The gastric glands open to the surface of the mucosa through tiny holes
called gastric pits. Four different types of cells make up the gastric glands:

 Mucous cells
 Parietal cells
 Chief cells
 Endocrine cells
The secretions of the exocrine gastric glands - composed of the mucous, parietal, and chief
cells - make up the gastric juice. The products of the endocrine cells are secreted directly
into the bloodstream and are not a part of the gastric juice. The endocrine cells secrete
the hormone gastrin, which functions in the regulation of gastric activity.

Regulation of Gastric Secretions

The regulation of gastric secretion is accomplished through neural and hormonal
mechanisms. Gastric juice is produced all the time but the amount varies subject to the
regulatory factors. Regulation of gastric secretions may be divided into cephalic, gastric,
and intestinal phases. Thoughts and smells of food start the cephalic phase of gastric
secretion; the presence of food in the stomach initiates the gastric phase; and the presence
of acid chyme in the small intestine begins the intestinal phase.

Stomach Emptying
Relaxation of the pyloric sphincter allows chyme to pass from the stomach into the small
intestine. The rate of which this occurs depends on the nature of the chyme and the
receptivity of the small intestine.

Small & Large Intestine

Small Intestine
The small intestine extends from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve, where it
empties into the large intestine. The small intestine finishes the process of digestion,
absorbs the nutrients, and passes the residue on to the large intestine. The liver, gallbladder,
and pancreas are accessory organs of the digestive system that are closely associated with
the small intestine.

The small intestine is divided into the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The small intestine
follows the general structure of the digestive tract in that the wall has a mucosa with simple
columnar epithelium, submucosa, smooth muscle with inner circular and outer longitudinal
layers, and serosa. The absorptive surface area of the small intestine is increased by plicae
circulares, villi, and microvilli.

Exocrine cells in the mucosa of the small intestine secrete mucus, peptidase, sucrase,
maltase, lactase, lipase, and enterokinase. Endocrine cells
secrete cholecystokinin and secretin.

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The most important factor for regulating secretions in the small intestine is the presence
of chyme. This is largely a local reflex action in response to chemical and mechanical
irritation from the chyme and in response to distention of the intestinal wall. This is a direct
reflex action, thus the greater the amount of chyme, the greater the secretion.

Large Intestine
The large intestine is larger in diameter than the small intestine. It begins at the ileocecal
junction, where the ileum enters the large intestine, and ends at the anus. The large
intestine consists of the colon, rectum, and anal canal.

The wall of the large intestine has the same types of tissue that are found in other parts of
the digestive tract but there are some distinguishing characteristics. The mucosa has a large
number of goblet cells but does not have any villi. The longitudinal muscle layer, although
present, is incomplete. The longitudinal muscle is limited to three distinct bands, called
teniae coli, that run the entire length of the colon. Contraction of the teniae coli exerts
pressure on the wall and creates a series of pouches, called haustra, along the colon.
Epiploic appendages, pieces of fat-filled connective tissue, are attached to the outer surface
of the colon.

Unlike the small intestine, the large intestine produces no digestive enzymes. Chemical
digestion is completed in the small intestine before the chyme reaches the large intestine.
Functions of the large intestine include the absorption of water and electrolytes and the
elimination of feces.

Rectum and Anus

The rectum continues from the sigmoid colon to the anal canal and has a thick muscular
layer. It follows the curvature of the sacrum and is firmly attached to it by connective
tissue. The rectum ends about 5 cm below the tip of the coccyx, at the beginning of the anal
canal.

The last 2 to 3 cm of the digestive tract is the anal canal, which continues from the rectum
and opens to the outside at the anus. The mucosa of the rectum is folded to form
longitudinal anal columns. The smooth muscle layer is thick and forms

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the internal anal sphincter at the superior end of the anal canal. This sphincter is under
involuntary control. There is an external anal sphincter at the inferior end of the anal canal.
This sphincter is composed of skeletal muscle and is under voluntary control.

Accessory Organs

The salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are not part of the digestive tract, but
they have a role in digestive activities and are considered accessory organs.

Salivary Glands
Three pairs of major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands) and
numerous smaller ones secrete saliva into the oral cavity, where it is mixed with food
during mastication. Saliva contains water, mucus, and enzyme amylase. Functions of saliva
include the following:

 It has a cleansing action on the teeth.

 It moistens and lubricates food during mastication and swallowing.
 It dissolves certain molecules so that food can be tasted.
 It begins the chemical digestion of starches through the action of amylase, which
breaks down polysaccharides into disaccharides.

Liver
The liver is located primarily in the right hypochondriac and epigastric regions of
the abdomen, just beneath the diaphragm. It is the largest gland in the body. On the surface,
the liver is divided into two major lobes and two smaller lobes. The functional units of the
liver are lobules with sinusoids that carry blood from the periphery to the central vein of
the lobule.

The liver receives blood from two sources. Freshly oxygenated blood is brought to the liver
by the common hepatic artery, a branch of the celiac trunk from the abdominal aorta.
Blood that is rich in nutrients from the digestive tract is carried to the liver by the hepatic
portal vein.

The liver has a wide variety of functions and many of these are vital to life. Hepatocytes
perform most of the functions attributed to the liver, but the phagocytic Kupffer cells
that line the sinusoids are responsible for cleansing the blood.

Liver functions include the following:

 secretion
 synthesis of bile salts
 synthesis of plasma protein
 storage
 detoxification

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Gallbladder
The gallbladder is a pear-shaped sac that is attached to the visceral surface of the liver by
the cystic duct. The principal function of the gallbladder is to serve as a storage reservoir
for bile. Bile is a yellowish-green fluid produced by liver cells. The main components of
bile are water, bile salts, bile pigments, and cholesterol.

Bile salts act as emulsifying agents in the digestion and absorption of fats. Cholesterol and
bile pigments from the breakdown of hemoglobin are excreted from the body in the bile.

Pancreas
The pancreas has both endocrine and exocrine functions. The endocrine portion consists of
the scattered islets of Langerhans, which secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon into
the blood. The exocrine portion is the major part of the gland. It consists of pancreatic
acinar cells that secrete digestive enzymes into tiny ducts interwoven between the cells.
Pancreatic enzymes include anylase, trypsin, peptidase, and lipase. Pancreatic secretions
are controlled by the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin.

5.8 Urinary System

 The urinary system removes waste products from the blood and regulates water and
electrolyte balance. It includes the kidneys, bladder, and urethra.

The lungs in the respiratory system excrete some waste products, such as carbon
dioxide and water. The skin is another excretory organ that rids the body of wastes through
the sweat glands. The liver and intestines excrete bile pigments that result from the
destruction of hemoglobin. The major task of excretion still belongs to the urinary system.
If it fails the other organs cannot take over and compensate adequately.

The urinary system maintains an appropriate fluid volume by regulating the amount of
water that is excreted in the urine. Other aspects of its function include regulating the
concentrations of various electrolytes in the body fluids and maintaining normal pH of
the blood.

In addition to maintaining fluid homeostasis in the body, the urinary system controls red
blood cell production by secreting the hormone erythropoietin. The urinary system also
plays a role in maintaining normal blood pressure by secreting the enzyme renin.

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Components of the Urinary System

The urinary system consists of the kidneys,

ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The
kidneys form the urine and account for the
other functions attributed to the urinary
system. The ureters carry the urine away
from kidneys to the urinary bladder, which
is a temporary reservoir for the urine. The
urethra is a tubular structure that carries the
urine from the urinary bladder to the
outside.

 Kidneys
 Ureters
 Urinary Bladder
 Urethra

Kidneys

The kidneys are the primary organs of

the urinary system. The kidneys are the organs
that filter the blood, remove the wastes,
and excrete the wastes in the urine. They are the
organs that perform the functions of the urinary
system. The other components
are accessory structures to eliminate the urine
from the body.

The paired kidneys are located between the twelfth thoracic and third lumbar vertebrae,
one on each side of the vertebral column. The right kidney usually is slightly lower than
the left because the liver displaces it downward. The kidneys, protected by the lower ribs,
lie in shallow depressions against the posterior abdominal wall and behind the parietal
peritoneum. This means they are retroperitoneal. Each kidney is held in place
by connective tissue, called renal fascia, and is surrounded by a thick layer
of adipose tissue, called perirenal fat, which helps to protect it. A tough, fibrous,
connective tissue renal capsule closely envelopes each kidney and provides support for
the soft tissue that is inside.

In the adult, each kidney is approximately 3 cm thick, 6 cm wide, and 12 cm long. It is

roughly bean-shaped with an indentation, called the hilum, on the medial side. The hilum
leads to a large cavity, called the renal sinus, within the kidney. The ureter and renal vein
leave the kidney, and the renal artery enters the kidney at the hilum.

The outer, reddish region, next to the capsule, is the renal cortex. This surrounds a darker

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reddish-brown region called the renal medulla. The renal medulla consists of a series
of renal pyramids, which appear striated because they contain straight tubular structures
and blood vessels. The wide bases of the pyramids are adjacent to the cortex and the
pointed ends, called renal papillae, are directed toward the center of the kidney. Portions of
the renal cortex extend into the spaces between adjacent pyramids to form renal columns.
The cortex and medulla make up the parenchyma, or functional tissue, of the kidney.

The central region of the kidney contains the renal pelvis, which is located in the renal
sinus, and is continuous with the ureter. The renal pelvis is a large cavity that collects the
urine as it is produced. The periphery of the renal pelvis is interrupted by cuplike
projections called calyces. A minor calyx surrounds the renal papillae of each pyramid and
collects urine from that pyramid. Several minor calyces converge to form a major calyx.
From the major calyces, the urine flows into the renal pelvis; and from there, it flows into
the ureter.

Each kidney contains over a million functional units, called nephrons, in the parenchyma
(cortex and medulla). A nephron has two parts: a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule.The
renal corpuscle consists of a cluster of capillaries, called the glomerulus, surrounded by a
double-layered epithelial cup, called the glomerular capsule. An afferent arteriole leads
into the renal corpuscle and an efferent arteriole leaves the renal corpuscle. Urine passes
from the nephrons into collecting ducts then into the minor calyces.

The juxtaglomerular apparatus, which monitors blood pressure and secretes renin, is
formed from modified cells in the afferent arteriole and the ascending limb of the nephron
loop.

Ureters

Each ureter is a small tube, about 25 cm long, that

carries urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary
bladder. It descends from the renal pelvis, along
the posterior abdominal wall, which is behind
the parietal peritoneum, and enters the urinary
bladder on the posterior inferior surface.

The wall of the ureter consists of three layers. The

outer layer, the fibrous coat, is a supporting layer of
fibrous connective tissue. The middle layer, the
muscular coat, consists of the inner circular and
outer longitudinal smooth muscle. The main function of this layer is peristalsis: to propel
the urine. The inner layer, the mucosa, is transitional epithelium that is continuous with the
lining of the renal pelvis and the urinary bladder. This layer secretes mucus, which coats
and protects the surface of the cells.

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Urinary Bladder

The urinary bladder is a temporary

storage reservoir for urine. It is
located in the
pelvic cavity, posterior to
the symphysis pubis, and below
the parietal peritoneum. The size
and shape of the urinary bladder
varies with the amount of urine it
contains and with the pressure it
receives from surrounding organs.

The inner lining of the urinary bladder is a mucous membrane of transitional

epithelium that is continuous with that in the ureters. When the bladder is empty,
the mucosa has numerous folds called rugae. The rugae and transitional epithelium allow
the bladder to expand as it fills.

The second layer in the walls is the submucosa, which supports the mucous membrane. It
is composed of connective tissue with elastic fibers.

The next layer is the muscularis, which is composed of smooth muscle. The smooth muscle
fibers are interwoven in all directions and, collectively, these are called the detrusor
muscle. Contraction of this muscle expels urine from the bladder. On the superior surface,
the outer layer of the bladder wall is parietal peritoneum. In all other regions, the outer
layer is fibrous connective tissue.

There is a triangular area, called the trigone, formed by three openings in the floor of the
urinary bladder. Two of the openings are from the ureters and form the base of the trigone.
Small flaps of mucosa cover these openings and act as valves that allow urine to enter the
bladder but prevent it from backing up from the bladder into the ureters. The third opening,
at the apex of the trigone, is the opening into the urethra. A band of the detrusor muscle
encircles this opening to form the internal urethral sphincter.

Urethra

The final passageway for the flow of urine is the urethra, a thin-walled tube that conveys
urine from the floor of the urinary bladder to the outside. The opening to the outside is
the external urethral orifice. The mucosal lining of the urethra is transitional epithelium.
The wall also contains smooth muscle fibers and is supported by connective tissue.

The internal urethral sphincter surrounds the beginning of the urethra, where it leaves the
urinary bladder. This sphincter is smooth (involuntary) muscle. Another sphincter, the
external urethral sphincter, is skeletal (voluntary) muscle and encircles the urethra where it
goes through the pelvic floor. These two sphincters control the flow of urine through the

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In females, the urethra is short, only 3 to 4 cm (about 1.5 inches) long. The external
urethral orifice opens to the outside just anterior to the opening for the vagina.

In males, the urethra is much longer, about 20 cm (7 to 8 inches) in length, and transports
both urine and semen. The first part, next to the urinary bladder, passes through
the prostate gland and is called the prostatic urethra. The second part, a short region that
penetrates the pelvic floor and enters the penis, is called the membranous urethra. The third
part, the spongy urethra, is the longest region. This portion of the urethra extends the entire
length of the penis, and the external urethral orifice opens to the outside at the tip of the
penis.

5.9 Reproductive System

 The reproductive system is responsible for producing offspring. It includes organs

like the ovaries, testes, and uterus, and is also involved in producing sex hormones.

Introduction to the Reproductive System

The major function of the reproductive system is to ensure survival of the species. Other
systems in the body, such as the endocrine and urinary systems, work continuously to
maintain homeostasis for survival of the individual. An individual may live a long, healthy,
and happy life without producing offspring, but if the species is to continue, at least some
individuals must produce offspring.

Within the context of producing offspring, the reproductive system has four functions:

 To produce egg and sperm cells

 To transport and sustain these cells
 To nurture the developing offspring
 To produce hormones
These functions are divided between the primary and secondary, or accessory, reproductive
organs. The primary reproductive organs, or gonads, consist of the ovaries and testes.
These organs are responsible for producing the egg and sperm cells gametes), and
hormones. These hormones function in the maturation of the reproductive system, the
development of sexual characteristics, and regulation of the normal physiology of the
reproductive system. All other organs, ducts, and
glands in the reproductive system are considered
secondary, or accessory, reproductive organs.
These structures transport and sustain the gametes
and nurture the developing offspring.

Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system, like that of the

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female, consists of those organs whose function is to produce a new individual, i.e., to
accomplish reproduction. This system consists of a pair of testes and a network of
excretory ducts (epididymis, ductus deferens (vas deferens), and ejaculatory
ducts), seminal vesicles, the prostate, the bulbourethral glands, and the penis.

Testes

The male gonads, testes or testicles, begin their development high in the abdominal cavity,
near the kidneys. During the last two months before birth, or shortly after birth, they
descend through the inguinal canal into the scrotum, a pouch that extends below
the abdomen, posterior to the penis. Although this location of the testes, outside the
abdominal cavity, may seem to make them vulnerable to injury, it provides a temperature
about 3° C below normal body temperature. This lower temperature is necessary for the
production of viable sperm.

The scrotum consists of skin and subcutaneous tissue. A vertical septum, or partition, of
subcutaneous tissue in the center divides it into two parts, each containing
one testis. Smooth muscle fibers, called the dartos muscle, in the subcutaneous tissue
contract to give the scrotum its wrinkled appearance. When these fibers are relaxed, the
scrotum is smooth. Another muscle, the cremaster muscle, consists of skeletal
muscle fibers and controls the position of the scrotum and testes. When it is cold or a man
is sexually aroused, this muscle contracts to pull the testes closer to the body for warmth.

Structure
Each testis is an oval structure about 5 cm
long and 3 cm in diameter. A tough,
white fibrous connective tissue capsule,
the tunica albuginea, surrounds each testis and
extends inward to form septa that partition
the organ into lobules. There are about 250
lobules in each testis. Each lobule contains 1
to 4 highly coiled seminiferous tubules that
converge to form a single straight tubule,
which leads into the rete testis. Short efferent
ducts exit the testes. Interstitial cells (cells of
Leydig), which produce male sex hormones, are located between the seminiferous tubules
within a lobule.

Spermatogenesis
Sperm are produced by spermatogenesis within the seminiferous tubules.
A transverse section of a seminiferous tubule shows that it is packed with cells in various
stages of development. Interspersed with these cells, there are large cells that extend from
the periphery of the tubule to the lumen. These large cells are the supporting, or

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Early in embryonic development, primordial germ cells enter the testes and differentiate
into spermatogonia, immature cells that remain dormant until puberty. Spermatogonia
are diploid cells, each with 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) located around the periphery of the
seminiferous tubules. At puberty, hormones stimulate these cells to begin dividing
by mitosis. Some of the daughter cells produced by mitosis remain at the periphery as
spermatogonia. Others are pushed toward the lumen, undergo some changes, and
become primary spermatocytes. Because they are produced by mitosis, primary
spermatocytes, like spermatogonia, are diploid and have 46 chromosomes.

Each primary spermatocytes goes through the first meiotic division, meiosis I, to produce
two secondary spermatocytes, each with 23 chromosomes (haploid). Just prior to this
division, the genetic material is replicated so that each chromosome consists of two
strands, called chromatids, that are joined by a centromere. During meiosis I, one
chromosome, consisting of two chromatids, goes to each secondary spermatocyte. In the
second meiotic division, meiosis II, each secondary spermatocyte divides to produce
two spermatids. There is no replication of genetic material in this division, but the
centromere divides so that a single-stranded chromatid goes to each cell. As a result of the
two meiotic divisions, each primary spermatocyte produces four spermatids. During
spermatogenesis there are two cellular divisions, but only one replication of DNA so that
each spermatid has 23 chromosomes (haploid), one from each pair in the original primary
spermatocyte. Each successive stage in spermatogenesis is pushed toward the center of the
tubule so that the more immature cells are at the periphery and the more differentiated cells
are nearer the center.

Spermatogenesis (and oogenesis in the female) differs from mitosis because the resulting
cells have only half the number of chromosomes as the original cell. When the sperm
cell nucleus unites with an egg cell nucleus, the full number of chromosomes is restored. If
sperm and egg cells were produced by mitosis, then each successive generation would have
twice the number of chromosomes as the preceding one.

The final step in the development of sperm is called spermiogenesis. In this process, the
spermatids formed from spermatogenesis become mature spermatozoa, or sperm. The
mature sperm cell has a head, midpiece, and tail. The head, also called the nuclear region,
contains the 23 chromosomes surrounded by a nuclear membrane. The tip of the head is
covered by an acrosome, which contains enzymes that help the sperm penetrate the female
gamete. The midpiece, metabolic region, contains mitochondria that provide adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). The tail or locomotor region, uses a typical flagellum for locomotion.
The sperm are released into the lumen of the seminiferous tubule and leave the testes. They
then enter the epididymis where they undergo their final maturation and become capable of
fertilizing a female gamete.

Sperm production begins at puberty and continues throughout the life of a male. The entire
process, beginning with a primary spermatocyte, takes about 74 days. After ejaculation, the
sperm can live for about 48 hours in the female reproductive tract.

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Duct System

Sperm cells pass through a series of ducts to reach the outside of the body. After they leave
the testes, the sperm passes through the epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct,
and urethra.

Epididymis
Sperm leave the testes through a series of efferent ducts that enter the epididymis. Each
epididymis is a long (about 6 meters) tube that is tightly coiled to form a comma-
shaped organ located along the superior and posterior margins of the testes. When the
sperm leave the testes, they are immature and incapable of fertilizing ova. They complete
their maturation process and become fertile as they move through the epididymis. Mature
sperm are stored in the lower portion, or tail, of the epididymis.

Ductus Deferens
The ductus deferens, also called vas deferens, is a fibromuscular tube that is continuous
( or contiguous) with the epididymis. It begins at the bottom (tail) of the epididymis then
turns sharply upward along the posterior margin of the testes. The ductus deferens enters
the abdominopelvic cavity through the inguinal canal and passes along the lateral pelvic
wall. It crosses over the ureter and posterior portion of the urinary bladder, and then
descends along the posterior wall of the bladder toward the prostate gland. Just before it
reaches the prostate gland, each ductus deferens enlarges to form an ampulla. Sperm are
stored in the proximal portion of the ductus deferens, near the epididymis, and peristaltic
movements propel the sperm through the tube.

The proximal portion of the ductus deferens is a component of the spermatic cord, which
contains vascular and neural structures that supply the testes. The spermatic cord contains
the ductus deferens, testicular artery and veins, lymph vessels, testicular nerve, cremaster
muscle that elevates the testes for warmth and at times of sexual stimulation, and
a connective tissue covering.

Ejaculatory Duct
Each ductus deferens, at the ampulla, joins the duct from the adjacent seminal vesicle (one
of the accessory glands) to form a short ejaculatory duct. Each ejaculatory duct passes
through the prostate gland and empties into the urethra.

Urethra
The urethra extends from the urinary bladder to the external urethral orifice at the tip of
the penis. It is a passageway for sperm and fluids from the
reproductive system and urine from the urinary system. While reproductive fluids are
passing through the urethra, sphincters contract tightly to keep urine from entering the
urethra.

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The male urethra is divided into three regions. The prostatic urethra is the proximal portion
that passes through the prostate gland. It receives the ejaculatory duct, which contains
sperm and secretions from the seminal vesicles, and numerous ducts from
the prostate glands. The next portion, the membranous urethra, is a short region that passes
through the pelvic floor. The longest portion is the penile urethra (also called spongy
urethra or cavernous urethra), which extends the length of the penis and opens to the
outside at the external urethral orifice. The ducts from the bulbourethral glands open into
the penile urethra.

Accessory Glands

The accessory glands of the male reproductive system are the seminal vesicles, prostate
gland, and the bulbourethral glands. These glands secrete fluids that enter the urethra.

Seminal Vesicles
The paired seminal vesicles are saccular glands posterior to the urinary bladder.
Each gland has a short duct that joins with the ductus deferens at the ampulla to form
an ejaculatory duct, which then empties into the urethra. The fluid from the seminal
vesicles is viscous and contains fructose, which provides an energy source for the sperm;
prostaglandins, which contribute to the mobility and viability of the sperm; and proteins
that cause slight coagulation reactions in the semen after ejaculation.

Prostate
The prostate gland is a firm, dense structure that is located just inferior to the urinary
bladder. It is about the size of a walnut and encircles the urethra as it leaves the urinary
bladder. Numerous short ducts from the substance of the prostate gland empty into
the prostatic urethra. The secretions of the prostate are thin, milky colored, and alkaline.
They function to enhance the motility of the sperm.

Bulbourethral Glands
The paired bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands are small, about the size of a pea, and located
near the base of the penis. A short duct from each gland enters the proximal end of the
penile urethra. In response to sexual stimulation, the bulbourethral glands secrete an
alkaline mucus-like fluid. This fluid neutralizes the acidity of the urine residue in the
urethra, helps to neutralize the acidity of the vagina, and provides some lubrication for the
tip of the penis during intercourse.

Seminal Fluid
Seminal fluid, or semen, is a slightly alkaline mixture of sperm cells and secretions from
the accessory glands. Secretions from the seminal vesicles make up about 60 percent of the
volume of the semen, with most of the remainder coming from the prostate gland. The
sperm and secretions from the bulbourethral gland contribute only a small volume.

The volume of semen in a single ejaculation may vary from 1.5 to 6.0 ml. There are usually

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between 50 to 150 million sperm per milliliter of semen. Sperm counts below 10 to 20
million per milliliter usually present fertility problems. Although only one sperm actually
penetrates and fertilizes the ovum, it takes several million sperm in an ejaculation to ensure
that fertilization will take place.

Penis

The penis, the male copulatory organ,

is a cylindrical pendant organ
located anterior to the scrotum and
functions to transfer sperm to
the vagina. The penis consists of three
columns of erectile tissue that are
wrapped in connective tissue and
covered with skin. The
two dorsal columns are the corpora
cavernosa. The single,
midline ventral column surrounds
the urethra and is called the corpus spongiosum.

The penis has a root, body (shaft), and glans penis. The root of the penis attaches it to the
pubic arch, and the body is the visible, pendant portion. The corpus spongiosum expands at
the distal end to form the glans penis. The urethra, which extends throughout the length of
the corpus spongiosum, opens through the external urethral orifice at the tip of the glans
penis. A loose fold of skin, called the prepuce, or foreskin, covers the glans penis.

Male Sexual Response and Hormonal Control

The male sexual response includes erection and orgasm accompanied by ejaculation
of semen. Orgasm is followed by a variable time period during which it is not possible to
achieve another erection.

Three hormones are the principle regulators of the male reproductive system: follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates spermatogenesis; luteinizing hormone (LH)
stimulates the production of testosterone; and testosterone stimulates the development of
male secondary sex characteristics and spermatogenesis.

Female Reproductive System

The organs of the female reproductive

system produce and sustain the female sex cells
(egg cells or ova), transport these cells to
a site where they may be fertilized by sperm,
provide a favorable environment for the
developing fetus, move the fetus to the outside
at the end of the development period, and

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produce the female sex hormones. The female reproductive system includes the ovaries,
Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, accessory glands, and external genital organs.

 Ovaries
 Genital Tract
 External Genitalia
 Female Sexual Response and Hormonal Control
 Mammary Glands

Ovaries

The primary female reproductive organs, or gonads, are the two ovaries. Each ovary is a
solid, ovoid structure about the size and shape of an almond, about 3.5 cm in length, 2 cm
wide, and 1 cm thick. The ovaries are located in shallow depressions, called ovarian fossae,
one on each side of the uterus, in the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity. They are held
loosely in place by peritoneal ligaments.

Structure
The ovaries are covered on the outside by a layer of simple cuboidal epithelium called
germinal (ovarian) epithelium. This is actually the visceral peritoneum that envelops the
ovaries. Underneath this layer is a dense connective tissue capsule, the tunica albuginea.
The substance of the ovaries is distinctly divided into an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
The cortex appears more dense and granular due to the presence of numerous ovarian
follicles in various stages of development. Each of the follicles contains an oocyte, a
female germ cell. The medulla is a loose connective tissue with abundant blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers.

Oogenesis
Female sex cells, or gametes, develop in the ovaries by a form of meiosis called oogenesis.
The sequence of events in oogenesis is similar to the sequence in spermatogenesis, but
the timing and final result are different. Early in fetal development, primitive germ cells in
the ovaries differentiate into oogonia. These divide rapidly to form thousands of cells, still
called oogonia, which have a full complement of 46 (23 pairs) chromosomes. Oogonia then
enter a growth phase, enlarge, and become primary oocytes. The diploid (46 chromosomes)
primary oocytes replicate their DNA and begin the first meiotic division, but
the process stops in prophase and the cells remain in this suspended state until puberty.
Many of the primary oocytes degenerate before birth, but even with this decline, the two
ovaries together contain approximately 700,000 oocytes at birth. This is the lifetime
supply, and no more will develop. This is quite different than the male in which
spermatogonia and primary spermatocytes continue to be produced throughout the
reproductive lifetime. By puberty the number of primary oocytes has further declined to
about 400,000.

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Beginning at puberty, under the influence
of follicle-stimulating hormone, several
primary oocytes start to grow again each
month. One of the primary oocytes seems to
outgrow the others and it resumes meiosis I.
The other cells degenerate. The
large cell undergoes an unequal division so
that nearly all the cytoplasm, organelles, and
half the chromosomes go to one cell, which
becomes a secondary oocyte. The remaining
half of the chromosomes go to a smaller cell
called the first polar body. The secondary
oocyte begins the second meiotic division,
but the process stops in metaphase. At this point ovulation occurs. If fertilization occurs,
meiosis II continues. Again this is an unequal division with all of the cytoplasm going to
the ovum, which has 23 single-stranded chromosome. The smaller cell from this division is
a second polar body. The first polar body also usually divides in meiosis I to produce two
even smaller polar bodies. If fertilization does not occur, the second meiotic division is
never completed and the secondary oocyte degenerates. Here again there are obvious
differences between the male and female. In spermatogenesis, four functional sperm
develop from each primary spermatocyte. In oogenesis, only one functional fertilizable cell
develops from a primary oocyte. The other three cells are polar bodies and they degenerate.

Ovarian Follicle Development

An ovarian follicle consists of a developing oocyte surrounded by one or more layers of
cells called follicular cells. At the same time that the oocyte is progressing through meiosis,
corresponding changes are taking place in the follicular cells. Primordial follicles, which
consist of a primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of flattened cells, develop in
the fetus and are the stage that is present in the ovaries at birth and throughout childhood.

Beginning at puberty, follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates changes in the primordial

follicles. The follicular cells become cuboidal, the primary oocyte enlarges, and it is now a
primary follicle. The follicles continue to grow under the influence of follicle-stimulating
hormone, and the follicular cells proliferate to form several layers of granulose cells around
the primary oocyte. Most of these primary follicles degenerate along with the primary
oocytes within them, but usually one continues to develop each month. The granulosa cells
start secreting estrogen and a cavity, or antrum, forms within the follicle. When the antrum
starts to develop, the follicle becomes a secondary follicle. The granulose cells also secrete
a glycoprotein substance that forms a clear membrane, the zona pellucida, around the
oocyte. After about 10 days of growth the follicle is a mature vesicular (graafian) follicle,
which forms a "blister" on the surface of the ovary and contains a secondary oocyte ready
for ovulation.

Ovulation
Ovulation, prompted by luteinizing hormone from the anterior pituitary, occurs when the

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mature follicle at the surface of the ovary ruptures and releases the secondary oocyte into
the peritoneal cavity. The ovulated secondary oocyte, ready for fertilization is still
surrounded by the zona pellucida and a few layers of cells called the corona radiata. If it is
not fertilized, the secondary oocyte degenerates in a couple of days. If a sperm passes
through the corona radiata and zona pellucida and enters the cytoplasm of the secondary
oocyte, the second meiotic division resumes to form a polar body and a mature ovum

After ovulation and in response to luteinizing hormone, the portion of the follicle that
remains in the ovary enlarges and is transformed into a corpus luteum. The corpus luteum
is a glandular structure that secretes progesterone and some estrogen. Its fate depends on
whether fertilization occurs. If fertilization does not take place, the corpus luteum remains
functional for about 10 days; then it begins to degenerate into a corpus albicans, which is
primarily scar tissue, and its hormone output ceases. If fertilization occurs, the corpus
luteum persists and continues its hormone functions until the placenta develops sufficiently
to secrete the necessary hormones. Again, the corpus luteum ultimately degenerates into
corpus albicans, but it remains functional for a longer period of time.

Genital Tract

Fallopian Tubes
There are two uterine tubes, also called Fallopian tubes or oviducts. There is one tube
associated with each ovary. The end of the tube near the ovary expands to form a funnel-
shaped infundibulum, which is surrounded by fingerlike extensions called fimbriae.
Because there is no direct connection between the infundibulum and the ovary,
the oocyte enters the peritoneal cavity before it enters the Fallopian tube. At the time
of ovulation, the fimbriae increase their activity and create currents in the peritoneal
fluid that help propel the oocyte into the Fallopian tube. Once inside the Fallopian tube, the
oocyte is moved along by the rhythmic beating of cilia on the epithelial lining and by
peristaltic action of the smooth muscle in the wall of the tube. The journey through the
Fallopian tube takes about 7 days. Because the oocyte is fertile for only 24 to 48
hours, fertilization usually occurs in the Fallopian tube.

Uterus
The uterus is a muscular organ that receives
the fertilized oocyte and provides an
appropriate environment for the
developing fetus. Before the first pregnancy,
the uterus is about the size and shape of a pear,
with the narrow portion directed inferiorly.
After childbirth, the uterus is usually larger,
then regresses after menopause.

The uterus is lined with the endometrium. The stratum functionale of the endometrium
sloughs off during menstruation. The deeper stratum basale provides the foundation for
rebuilding the stratum functionale.

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Vagina
The vagina is a fibromuscular tube, about 10 cm long, that extends from the cervix of the
uterus to the outside. It is located between the rectum and the urinary bladder. Because the
vagina is tilted posteriorly as it ascends and the cervix is tilted anteriorly, the cervix
projects into the vagina at nearly a right angle. The vagina serves as a passageway for
menstrual flow, receives the erect penis during intercourse, and is the birth canal during
childbirth.

External Genitalia

The external genitalia are

the accessory structures of the female
reproductive system that are external to
the vagina. They are also referred to as
the vulva or pudendum. The external
genitalia include the labia majora, mons
pubis, labia minora, clitoris, and glands
within the vestibule.

The clitoris is an erectile organ, similar to the male penis, that responds to sexual
stimulation. Posterior to the clitoris, the urethra, vagina, paraurethral glands and greater
vestibular glands open into the vestibule.

Female Sexual Response & Hormone Control

The female sexual response includes arousal and orgasm, but there is no ejaculation. A
woman may become pregnant without having an orgasm.

Follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, estrogen, and progesterone have major

roles in regulating the functions of the female reproductive system.

At puberty, when the ovaries and uterus are mature enough to respond to hormonal
stimulation, certain stimuli cause the hypothalamus to start secreting gonadotropin-
releasing hormone. This hormone enters the blood and goes to the anterior pituitary
gland where it stimulates the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing
hormone. These hormones, in turn, affect the ovaries and uterus and the monthly cycles
begin. A woman's reproductive cycles last from menarche to menopause.

The monthly ovarian cycle begins with the follicle development during the follicular phase,
continues with ovulation during the ovulatory phase, and concludes with the development
and regression of the corpus luteum during the luteal phase.

The uterine cycle takes place simultaneously with the ovarian cycle. The uterine cycle
begins with menstruation during the menstrual phase, continues with repair of
the endometrium during the proliferative phase, and ends with the growth of glands and

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Menopause occurs when a woman's reproductive cycles stop. This period is marked by
decreased levels of ovarian hormones and increased levels of pituitary follicle-stimulating
hormone and luteinizing hormone. The changing hormone levels are responsible for the
symptoms associated with menopause.

Mammary Glands

Functionally, the mammary glands produce milk; structurally, they are modified sweat
glands. Mammary glands, which are located in the breast overlying the pectoralis
major muscles, are present in both sexes, but usually are functional only in the female.

Externally, each breast has a raised nipple, which is surrounded by a circular pigmented
area called the areola. The nipples are sensitive to touch, due to the fact that they
contain smooth muscle that contracts and causes them to become erect in response to
stimulation.

Internally, the adult female breast contains 15 to 20 lobes of glandular tissue that radiate
around the nipple. The lobes are separated by connective tissue and adipose. The
connective tissue helps support the breast. Some bands of connective tissue, called
suspensory (Cooper's) ligaments, extend through the breast from the skin to the underlying
muscles. The amount and distribution of the adipose tissue determines the size and shape
of the breast. Each lobe consists of lobules that contain the glandular units. A
lactiferous duct collects the milk from the lobules within each lobe and carries it to the
nipple. Just before the nipple, the lactiferous duct enlarges to form a
lactiferous sinus (ampulla), which serves as a reservoir for milk. After the sinus, the duct
again narrows and each duct opens independently on the surface of the nipple.

Mammary gland function is regulated by hormones. At puberty, increasing levels

of estrogen stimulate the development of glandular tissue in the female breast. Estrogen
also causes the breast to increase in size through the accumulation of adipose
tissue. Progesterone stimulates the development of the duct system. During pregnancy,
these hormones enhance further development of the mammary glands. Prolactin from
the anterior pituitary stimulates the production of milk within the glandular tissue,
and oxytocin causes the ejection of milk from the glands.

VI. Lifespan Development

6.1 Different Stages of Lifespan Development

 Infancy (0-2 years): Rapid physical growth, development of motor skills, and early
cognitive and emotional development.
 Childhood (3-12 years): Continued physical growth, development of more
complex motor skills, socialization, and cognitive development.

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 Adolescence (13-18 years): Puberty, rapid physical changes, development of
identity, and more complex thinking abilities.
 Adulthood (19-65 years): Physical peak, focus on career and family, gradual
physical decline, and emotional maturity.
 Old Age (65+ years): Further physical decline, potential cognitive changes,
reflection on life, and preparation for end-of-life.

6.2 Characteristics of Each Stage

 Each stage of life is characterized by specific physical, cognitive, and emotional

changes. Understanding these stages helps in addressing the needs and challenges
associated with each stage, such as the importance of physical activity in childhood
for healthy development or the focus on maintaining mobility and cognitive
function in older adults.

VII. Body Postures

7.1 Types of Body Posture

 Static Posture: How you hold yourself when not moving (e.g., sitting, standing).
 Dynamic Posture: How you hold yourself when moving (e.g., walking, running).

7.2 Significance of Good Posture

 Good posture is important for preventing musculoskeletal disorders, reducing strain

on muscles and joints, and promoting efficient movement. It also contributes to
better breathing, circulation, and overall health.

7.3 Different Activities of Bad and Good Body Postures

 Bad Posture: Slouching while sitting, forward head posture, rounded shoulders.
 Good Posture: Sitting with a straight back, shoulders back, head aligned with the
spine. Activities that promote good posture include yoga, pilates, and strength
training focused on the core and back muscles.

VIII. Locomotor and Non-Locomotor Movements

8.1 Locomotor Movements

 These are movements that involve moving the body from one place to another.
Examples include:
o Walking: Basic movement involving shifting weight from one foot to the
other.
o Running: Faster version of walking with a moment when both feet are off

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the ground.
o Jumping: Propelling the body into the air using both feet.
o Hopping: Jumping on one foot.
o Skipping: Alternating steps and hops in a rhythmic pattern.

8.2 Non-Locomotor Movements

 These are movements that do not involve moving the body from one place to
another but instead involve movement around the body’s axis. Examples include:
o Bending: Moving a joint to bring two parts of the body closer together.
o Twisting: Rotating a part of the body around its axis.
o Stretching: Extending a part of the body away from its axis.
o Swinging: Moving a part of the body in a circular motion.
o Balancing: Maintaining equilibrium while stationary.

IX. Introduction to Nutrition and Wellness

9.1 Definition of Nutrition, Calories, Nutrients

 Nutrition: The process by which the body takes in and uses food for growth,
metabolism, and repair.
 Calories: A unit of energy provided by food. The body needs calories to perform
basic functions and physical activities.
 Nutrients: Substances in food that the body needs to function properly. They
include carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water.

9.2 Importance of Nutrition and Calories in Daily Life

 Proper nutrition is essential for maintaining health, supporting growth, providing

energy, and preventing diseases. Caloric intake should be balanced with physical
activity to maintain a healthy weight.

9.3 Six Categories of Nutrients and Their Role in the Body

 Carbohydrates: The body’s main source of energy.

 Proteins: Essential for building and repairing tissues.
 Fats: Important for energy storage, protecting organs, and aiding in the absorption
of fat-soluble vitamins.
 Vitamins: Organic compounds that support various biochemical processes in the
body.
 Minerals: Inorganic elements that are crucial for the structure of bones, teeth, and
are involved in metabolic processes.
 Water: Vital for all bodily functions, including digestion, absorption, circulation,
and temperature regulation.

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9.4 Five Reasons the Body Needs Energy

 Metabolism: All the chemical processes in the body require energy.

 Physical Activity: Muscles need energy to perform any activity.
 Growth: Energy is required for building tissues and organs.
 Repair: The body needs energy to repair cells and tissues.
 Immune Function: The immune system requires energy to fight infections and
maintain health.

9.5 How to Determine the Total Calories Needed per Day Using the Benedict Harris
Formula

 The Benedict Harris Formula calculates an individual’s Basal Metabolic Rate

(BMR), which is the number of calories required to keep the body functioning at
rest. The total calorie needs are then determined by multiplying the BMR by an
activity factor based on the individual’s level of physical activity.

X. Eating Disorders

10.1 Overview of Eating Disorders

 Anorexia Nervosa: Characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight, leading to

extreme restriction of food intake.
 Bulimia Nervosa: Involves cycles of binge eating followed by purging (e.g.,
vomiting, excessive exercise) to prevent weight gain.
 Binge Eating Disorder: Involves eating large quantities of food in a short period of
time, often accompanied by feelings of loss of control.
 Causes and Symptoms: Eating disorders are complex conditions that can be
caused by genetic, psychological, environmental, and social factors. Symptoms
may include extreme weight loss, preoccupation with food, and body image issues.
 Health Consequences: Eating disorders can lead to severe physical and mental
health problems, including malnutrition, heart issues, and emotional distress.
 Importance of Seeking Help: Early intervention is crucial for recovery.
Professional help, including therapy and medical support, is essential for those
suffering from eating disorders.

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Review: Introduction to the Human Body

Here is what we have learned from Introduction to the Human Body:

 The human body is a single structure but it is made up of billions of smaller structures of four
major kinds: cells, tissues, organs, and systems.
 An organ is an organization of several different kinds of tissues so arranged that together they
can perform a special function.
 A system is an organization of varying numbers and kinds of organs so arranged that together
they can perform complex functions for the body.
 Ten major systems include the skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular,
lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and the reproductive system.
 Body functions are the physiological or psychological functions of body systems. Survival of
the body depends on the body's maintaining or restoring homeostasis, a state of relative
constancy, of its internal environment.
 Human life process includes organization, metabolism, responsiveness, movements,
reproduction, growth, differentiation, respiration, digestion, and excretion. All these processes
work together, in fine-tuned balance, for the well-being of the individual and to maintain life.

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 Life depends on certain physical factors from the environment, which include water, oxygen,
nutrients, heat, and pressure.
 Useful terms for describing body parts and activities include:
o Directional terms
o Terms describing planes of the body
o Terms describing body cavities

Review: Introduction to the Muscular System

Here is what we have learned from Introduction to the Muscular System:

 One of the most predominant characteristics of skeletal muscle tissue is its contractility and
nearly all movement in the body is the result of muscle contraction.
 Four functions of muscle contraction are movement, posture, joint stability, and heat
production.
 Three types of muscle are skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
 Each muscle fiber is surrounded by endomysium. The fibers are collected into bundles
covered by perimysium. Many bundles, or fasciculi, are wrapped together by the epimysium
to form a whole muscle.
 Muscles are attached to bones by tendons.
 Muscle features such as size, shape, direction of fibers, location, number of origin, origin and
insertion, and action are often used in naming muscles.
 Four major muscle groups of the body include:
o Muscles of the head and neck;
o Muscles of the trunk;
o Muscles of the upper extremity; and
o Muscles of the lower extremity.

Review: Introduction to the Skeletal System

Here is what we have learned from Introduction to the Skeletal System:

 The human skeleton is well-adapted for the functions it must perform. Functions of bones
include support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and formation of blood cells.
 There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. Compact bone consists of closely
packed osteons, or haversian system. Spongy bone consists of plates of bone, called
trabeculae, around irregular spaces that contain red bone marrow.
 Osteogenesis is the process of bone formation. Three types of cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes,
and osteoclasts, are involved in bone formation and remodeling.
 In intramembranous ossification, connective tissue membranes are replaced by bone. This
process occurs in the flat bones of the skull. In endochondral ossification, bone tissue replaces
hyaline cartilage models. Most bones are formed in this manner.

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 Bones grow in length at the epiphyseal plate between the diaphysis and the epiphysis. When
the epiphyseal plate completely ossifies, bones no longer increase in length.
 Bones may be classified as long, short, flat, or irregular. The diaphysis of a long bone is the
central shaft. There is an epiphysis at each end of the diaphysis.
 The adult human skeleton usually consists of 206 named bones and these bones can be
grouped in two divisions: axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
 The bones of the skeleton are grouped in two divisions: axial skeleton and appendicular
skeleton.
 There are three types of joints in terms of the amount of movement they allow: synarthroses
(immovable), amphiarthroses (slightly movable), and diarthroses (freely movable).

Review: Introduction to the Nervous System

Here is what we have learned from this Introduction to the Nervous System:

 The nervous system is the major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the
body. It is the center of all mental activity including thought, learning, and memory.
 The various activities of the nervous system can be grouped together as three general,
overlapping functions: sensory, integrative, and motor.
 Neurons are the nerve cells that transmit impulses. Supporting cells are neuroglia.
 The three components of a neuron are a cell body or soma, one or more afferent processes
called dendrites, and a single efferent process called an axon.
 The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. Cranial nerves, spinal
nerves, and ganglia make up the peripheral nervous system.
 The afferent division of the peripheral nervous system carries impulses to the CNS; the
efferent division carries impulses away from the CNS.
 There are three layers of meninges around the brain and spinal cord. The outer layer is dura
mater, the middle layer is arachnoid, and the innermost layer is pia mater.
 The spinal cord functions as a conduction pathway and as a reflex center. Sensory impulses
travel to the brain on ascending tracts in the cord. Motor impulses travel on descending tracts.

Review: Introduction to the Endocrine System

Here is what we have learned from Introduction to the Endocrine System:

 Chemical messengers from the endocrine system help regulate body activities. Their effect is
of longer duration and is more generalized than that of the nervous system.
 Neurons are the nerve cells that transmit impulses. Supporting cells are neuroglia.
 Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the blood, which transports the hormones
through the body.
 Cells in a target tissue have receptor sites for specific hormones.
 Many hormones are regulated by a negative feedback mechanism; some are controlled by
other hormones; and others are affected by direct nerve stimulation.

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 Even though the endocrine glands are scattered throughout the body, they are still considered
to be one system because they have similar functions, similar mechanisms of influence, and
many important interrelationships.
 Major glands include: pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal (suprarenal)
gland, pancreas, gonads (testes and ovaries), pineal gland, and other endocrine glands.

Review: Introduction to the Cardiovascular System

Here is what we have learned from Introduction to the Cardiovascular System:

 The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, which is a muscular pumping device, and a
closed system of vessels called arteries, veins, and capillaries.
 The vital role of the cardiovascular system in maintaining homeostasis depends on the
continuous and controlled movement of blood through the thousands of miles of capillaries
that permeate every tissue and reach every cell in the body.
 The heart is a muscular pump that provides the force necessary to circulate the blood to all the
tissues in the body.
 Three layers of the heart are: the epicardium, the myocardium, and the endocardium.
 The four chambers of the heart are: the right atrium, the right ventricle, the left atrium, and
the left ventricle.
 Two types of valves of the heart are the atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves.
 Blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle and then is pumped to the lungs to
receive oxygen. From the lungs, the blood flows to the left atrium, then to the left ventricle.
From there it is pumped to the systemic circulation.
 Specialized cardiac muscle cells that make up the conduction system of the heart coordinate
contraction of the chambers.
 The pulmonary vessels transport blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and back to the
left atrium.
 The systemic vessels carry blood from the left ventricle to the tissues in all parts of the body
and then returns the blood to the right atrium.
 Substances pass through the capillary wall by diffusion, filtration, and osmosis.

Review: Introduction to the Lymphatic System

Here is what we have learned from Introduction to the Lymphatic System:

 The lymphatic system returns excess interstitial fluid to the blood, absorbs fats and fat-soluble
vitamins, and provides defense against disease.
 Lymph is the fluid in the lymphatic vessels. It is picked up from the interstitial fluid and
returned to the blood plasma.
 Lymphatic vessels carry fluid away from the tissues.
 The right lymphatic duct drains lymph from the upper right quadrant of the body and the
thoracic duct drains all the rest.

Cooperative Management Department Contact No: 09171927422

e-mail:[email protected]
ILOCOS SUR COMMUNITY COLLEGE
Quirino Stadium, Zone V, Bantay, ISCC Barangay Demo
Ilocos Sur, Philippines 2727 Farm Campus
Tel. No. (077) 604-0285 Barangay Labnig, San
e-mail address: Juan, Ilocos Sur
 Pressure gradients that move fluid through the lymphatic vessels come from the skeletal
muscle action, respiratory movements, and contraction of smooth muscle in vessel walls.
 Lymph enters a lymph node through afferent vessels, filters through the sinuses, and leaves
through efferent vessels.
 Tonsils are clusters of lymphatic tissue associated with openings into the pharynx and provide
protection against pathogens that may enter through the nose and mouth.
 The spleen is a lymph organ that filters blood and also acts as a reservoir for blood.
 The thymus is large in the infant and atrophies after puberty.

Review: Introduction to the Respiratory System

Here is what we have learned from Introduction to the Respiratory System:

 The entire process of respiration includes ventilation, external respiration, transport of gases,
internal respiration, and cellular respiration.
 The three pressures responsible for pulmonary ventilation are atmospheric pressure,
intraalveolar pressure, and intrapleural pressure.
 A spirometer is used to measure respiratory volumes and capacities. These measurements
provide useful information about the condition of the lungs.
 The frontal, maxillary, ethmoidal, and sphenoidal sinuses are air-filled cavities that open into
the nasal cavity.
 The pharynx, commonly called the throat, is a passageway that extends from the base of the
skull to the level of the sixth cervical vertebra.
 The larynx, commonly called the voice box, is the passageway for air between the pharynx
above and the trachea below.
 The trachea, commonly called the windpipe, is the main airway to the lungs.
 The trachea divides into the right and left primary bronchi, which branch into smaller and
smaller passageways until they terminate in tiny air sacs called alveoli.
 The two lungs contain all the components of the bronchial tree beyond the primary bronchi.
 The right lung is shorter, broader, and is divided into three lobes.
 The left lung is longer, narrower, and is divided into two lobes.

Review: Introduction to the Digestive System

Here is what we have learned from Introduction to the Digestive System:

 The digestive tract includes the digestive tract and its accessory organs, which process food
into molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the cells of the body.
 Food undergoes three types of processes in the body: digestion, absorption, and elimination.
 The digestive system prepares nutrients for utilization by body cells through six activities, or
functions: ingestion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, movements, absorption, and
elimination.

Cooperative Management Department Contact No: 09171927422

e-mail:[email protected]
ILOCOS SUR COMMUNITY COLLEGE
Quirino Stadium, Zone V, Bantay, ISCC Barangay Demo
Ilocos Sur, Philippines 2727 Farm Campus
Tel. No. (077) 604-0285 Barangay Labnig, San
e-mail address: Juan, Ilocos Sur
 The wall of the digestive tract has four layers or tunics: mucosa, submucosa, muscular layer,
and serous layer or serosa.
 Regions of the digestive system can be divided into two main parts: alimentary tract and
accessory organs.
 The alimentary tract of the digestive system is composed of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and anus.
 Associated with the alimentary tract are the following accessory organs: salivary glands, liver,
gallbladder, and pancreas.

Review: Introduction to the Urinary System

Here is what we have learned from Introduction to the Urinary System:

 The urinary system rids the body of waste materials, regulates fluid volume, maintains
electrolyte concentrations in body fluids, controls blood pH, secretes erythropoietin, and
renin.
 The components of the urinary system are the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
 The primary organs of the urinary system are the kidneys, which are located retroperitoneally
between the levels of the twelfth thoracic and third lumbar vertebrae.
 The cortex and medulla make up the parenchyma of the kidney.
 The central region of the kidney is the renal pelvis, which collects the urine as it is produced.
 The functional unit of the kidney is a nephron, which consists of a renal corpuscle and a renal
tubule.
 The ureters transport urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder.
 The urinary bladder is a temporary storage reservoir for urine.
 The urethra is the final passageway for the flow of urine.
 The flow of urine through the urethra is controlled by an involuntary internal urethral
sphincter and voluntary external urethral sphincter.

Review: Introduction to the Reproductive System

Here is what we have learned from Introduction to the Reproductive System:

 The four functions of the reproductive system are:

o To produce egg and sperm cells
o To transport and sustain these cells
o To nurture the developing fetus
o To produce hormones
 The primary reproductive organs are the gonads, which produce the gametes and hormones.
The secondary, or accessory, structures transport and sustain the gametes and nurture the
developing offspring.
 The male reproductive system consists of the testes, duct system, accessory glands, and penis.

Cooperative Management Department Contact No: 09171927422

e-mail:[email protected]

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