LECTURE NOTES

RENEWABLE AND DISTRIBUTED ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES (R&DET)

(PROFESSIONAL ELECTIVE – III)

UNIT – IV: Hydel Power: Water power estimates - use of hydrographs - hydraulic turbine -
characteristics and part load performance - design of wheels - draft tubes and penstocks -
plant layouts; Brief idea of other sources viz. - tidal - geothermal - gas-based - etc.
HYDEL POWER

Hydroelectricity is produced by utilising the gravitational force of falling water. To this end,
the hydropower plant requires a dam. This dam is placed on a source of water, preferably a
river. The dam is a massive wall that blocks the flow of the river, therefore, a lot of water
collects behind the dam. Near the bottom of the dam, there is an intake from which the water
is let into the dam. This intake leads to a drop through the penstock inside the dam. The
device used to obtain energy from the falling water here is a turbine. Thermal power plants
also use turbines but there are some major differences between the steam turbines and hydro
turbines. The turbine is connected by a shaft to the generator. When the water rotates the
turbine, electrical energy is generated.

Hydropower plants also have a facility of pumped storage wherein water is kept as a reserve
for periods of peak power demand. This is the hydroelectric equivalent of recharging your
battery. When the power demand is low, say in the middle of the night, the dam uses a pump
to pump the water back up to the reservoir behind it. This water is then used during times of
peak power demands.

The dam creates a a head or height from which water flows. A pipe (penstock) carries the
water from the reservoir to the turbine. The fast-moving water pushes the turbine blades,
something like a pinwheel in the wind. The waters force on the turbine blades turns the rotor,
the moving part of the electric generator. When coils of wire on the rotor sweep past the
generators stationary coil (stator), electricity is produced.

To generate electricity, water must be in motion. This is kinetic (moving) energy. When
flowing water turns blades in a turbine, the form is changed to mechanical (machine) energy.
The turbine turns the generator rotor which then converts this mechanical energy into another
energy form -- electricity. Since water is the initial source of energy, we call this
hydroelectric power or hydropower for short.

At facilities called hydroelectric powerplants, hydropower is generated. Some powerplants

are located on rivers, streams, and canals, but for a reliable water supply, dams are needed.
Dams store water for later release for such purposes as irrigation, domestic and industrial use,
and power generation. The reservoir acts much like a battery, storing water to be released as
needed to generate power.

WATER POWER ESTIMATES

Some fundamental definitions

• The gross head,𝐻𝑜, at a hydroelectric plant is the difference in water level between the
reservoir behind the dam and the water level in the tail race.

• The effective or net head, 𝐻, is the head available for energy production after the deduction
of losses in the conveying system of the plant

• The water falling from a high-level source drives turbines, which in turn drive generators
that produce the electricity.
Estimation of Water Power Potential

• It is essential to assess the inherent power available from the discharge of a river and
the head available at the site before any power plant is contemplated.
• The gross head of any proposed scheme can be assessed by simple surveying
techniques or digital elevation model where as hydrological data on rainfall and
runoff are essential in order to assess the available water quantities.
Necessary hydrological data:

• The daily, weakly or monthly flow over a period of several years, to determine the
plant capacity & estimated output.
• Low flows, to asses the primary, firm, or dependable power.

In order to evaluate the hydropower potential of a site, the following criteria are considered:

• Minimum potential power is based on the smallest runoff available in the stream at all
times, days, months and years having duration of 100 percent (𝑄100)
• Small potential power is calculated from the 95 percent duration discharge (𝑄95)
• Medium or average potential power is gained from the 50 percent duration discharge
(𝑄50)
• Mean potential power results by evaluating the annual mean runoff

Flow duration studies

• A useful way of treating the time variability of water discharge data in hydropower
studies is by utilizing flow duration curves
• Flow duration curve of a stream for a given site can be obtained by plotting the
discharge against the percentage duration of the time for which it is available.
• Similarly, power duration curve can be plotted since power is directly proportional to
the discharge and available head.

USE OF HYDROGRAPHS

The hydrograph is a graph of flow rate versus time. It is also reference as a listing of flow rate
data versus time. It is one of the more useful concepts of hydrology is used frequently in
stormwater management.
A hydrograph is a graph showing the rate of flow (discharge) versus time past a specific point
in a river, channel, or conduit carrying flow. The rate of flow is typically expressed in cubic
meters or cubic feet per second (cms or cfs). It can also refer to a graph showing the volume
of water reaching a particular outfall, or location in a sewerage network.

Its Components

ge: the rate of flow (volume per unit time) passing a specific location in a river, or
other channel. The discharge is measured at a specific point in a river and is typically time
variant.

ncentration curve, reflects

a prolonged increase in discharge from a catchment area, typically in response to a rainfall
event.

recession limb extends from the peak flow rate onward.

The end of stormflow (a.k.a. quickflow or direct runoff) and the return to groundwaterderived
flow (base flow) is often taken as the point of inflection of the recession limb. The recession
limb represents the withdrawal of water from the storage built up in the basin during the
earlier phases of the hydrograph.

resulting hydrograph.

l from the start of the resulting hydrograph.

HYDRAULIC TURBINE
Hydraulic turbines are remarkable machines that harness the power of moving water to
generate electricity or perform mechanical work. These devices are specifically designed to
convert the kinetic energy of flowing or falling water into rotational mechanical energy,
which can be further utilised to drive generators or other equipment. Hydraulic turbines play
a significant role in developing hydroelectric power generation, providing a sustainable and
renewable energy source for countless communities worldwide. With their ability to
efficiently convert water's potential energy into useful work, hydraulic turbines have become
essential components in modern hydropower plants, ensuring a reliable and environmentally
friendly power supply.

Working of Hydraulic Turbine

According to Newton's law, a force is directly proportional to the change in momentum. In

the case of hydraulic turbines, blades or buckets (such as in the Pelton wheel) are strategically
placed to counteract the flow of water, thereby altering its momentum. As the momentum of
the water changes, a resulting pressure force is generated, causing the rotor or turbine to
rotate. The crucial factor in this process is the magnitude of the change in water momentum,
as it directly influences the force exerted. A higher change in momentum leads to a stronger
force, resulting in increased energy conversion. Consequently, the design of turbine blades or
buckets is optimised to facilitate the maximum alteration of water momentum. This
fundamental principle underlies the functioning of turbines, which find extensive application
in hydroelectric power plants.

Classification of Hydraulic Turbines

Hydraulic turbines are classified based on several criteria, including:

 Direction of flow of water: This classification considers whether the water flows
radially inward or outward in relation to the turbine.
 Available head: The available head refers to the potential energy of the water, which
is determined by the height difference between the water source and the turbine.
Turbines can be classified based on low-head, medium-head, or high-head conditions.
 Specific speed: Specific speed is a parameter that relates the rotational speed of the
turbine to its geometric characteristics. It helps determine the design and performance
characteristics of the turbine.
 Action of water: Turbines can be categorised as either impulse turbines or reaction
turbines based on how water interacts with the turbine blades. In impulse turbines, the
water jet impacts the blades and then discharges, while in reaction turbines, the water
pressure decreases as it passes through the blades.

Classification of Turbine based on the direction of flow of water

Tangential Flow: Turbines that experience water striking the blades tangentially to their path
of rotation are referred to as tangential flow turbines. One prominent example of such a
turbine is the Pelton wheel. In a tangential flow configuration, the water jet is carefully
directed to maximise its tangential velocity component, allowing for efficient energy
conversion as the turbine blades rotate.
Radial Flow: Turbines characterised by water striking the blades radially and exiting in an
axial direction are known as radial flow turbines. A notable example of a radial flow turbine
is the Francis turbine. In a radial flow configuration, the water enters the turbine in a radial
direction, meaning perpendicular to the axis of rotation, and leaves the turbine in an axial
direction parallel to the axis. This design allows for effective energy conversion as the turbine
efficiently harnesses the kinetic energy of the water flow.

Axial Flow: In the axial flow configuration, the water flows parallel to the axis of the turbine.
An excellent example of an axial flow turbine is the Kaplan turbine. In this design, the water
enters the turbine in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation and flows through the turbine
blades in the same axial direction. This arrangement enables efficient energy conversion as
the turbine effectively captures the kinetic energy of the water flow. The axial flow turbines,
like the Kaplan turbine, are particularly well-suited for sites with low head and high flow rate
conditions.
Classification of Turbine based on Available head

High head: These turbines are specifically designed to operate efficiently under high
potential head conditions, typically above 300 meters. These turbines are well-suited for
harnessing the immense energy available in such high-head water sources. The Pelton wheel
turbine, for instance, excels in these scenarios, utilising carefully positioned buckets or vanes
to extract the maximum energy from the high-speed water jets produced by the high head.
With their robust construction and ability to handle significant water pressure, Pelton wheel
turbines are a prime choice for generating electricity in hydropower plants situated in areas
with a substantial vertical drop and high potential head.

Medium head: Turbines designed for operation within a medium range of potential head
typically range from 60 meters to 300 meters. These turbines are optimised to harness the
available energy within this specific head range efficiently. With their versatile design, they
can effectively convert the potential energy of the water into useful mechanical energy or
electricity. Turbines such as the Francis turbine and certain types of Kaplan turbines are
commonly employed in this medium head range, demonstrating their ability to handle the
varying hydraulic conditions and provide reliable power generation in hydroelectric plants
operating in these environments.

Low head: Turbines specifically engineered to operate under a low range of potential head,
typically less than 60 meters, are highly efficient in harnessing energy from such conditions.
These turbines are designed to maximise power generation in environments with relatively
small vertical drops. By effectively utilising the available water pressure and flow, they
convert the potential energy of the water into mechanical energy or electricity. Turbines like
the Kaplan turbine, propeller turbine, or cross-flow turbine are commonly employed in this
low-head range, ensuring optimal performance and sustainable power generation in
hydroelectric plants situated in these low-head water sources.

CHARACTERISTICS AND PART LOAD PERFORMANCE

DESIGN OF WHEELS

Pelton turbine or Pelton wheel turbine is basically an impulse turbine. This turbine is suitable
for high head and low flow plants. Pelton wheel turbine is used when water head is more than
200 meters.According to the turbines get,generally, two types of Pelton turbine are used in
hydroelectric power plant.When a single jet is used horizontal shaft type Pelton turbine is
used and vertical shaft type Pelton turbine is suitable for 2 or 4 jets.Most of the Pelton
turbines are horizontal shaft type.Horizontal shaft type water turbine have two nozzles but
more than two nozzles,vertical shaft type water turbine is used.The diagram of Pelton wheel
is shown below

In Pelton turbine, the potential energy of water in the penstock is converted into kinetic
energy into water and it passes from a nozzle. In the turbine,inside pressure of water is same
as the atmospheric pressure. It consists of the rotor which is placed in between an elliptical
shaped buckets along with the periphery of the turbine. The rotor of the runner is made of
cast steel, bronze or stainless steel. The buckets are bolted on to the runner and integral
casting of buckets with the runner is also possible. High-pressure water coming from the
penstock fall into the buckets and it causes the rotor starts to rotate. After doing useful work,
water is discharged into the tail race. But how much quantity of water is discharged by tail
race,is completely controlled by the nozzle and a needle tip is placed in the nozzle.This
needle tip is controlled by the governor. When load the decreases on the turbine, the governor
pushes the needle tip into the nozzle and as a result quantity of water striking reduces the
buckets,thereby a small amount of water strike into the turbine.Again load increases on the
turbine,needle tip is away from the nozzle and consequently more waterfall into the turbine.A
Needle is also controlled by a speed deflector.The buckets are fixed with runner and it is
placed nearer to the tail race.Since this turbine is suitable for high head,so long penstock is
used.

In Figure 1 the penstock pipe delivers the water on the left-hand side. Before it enters the
turbine it passes through the nozzle or spear-jet (a spear-jet being an adjustable nozzle). The
spear-jet adjusts the flow rate through the turbine by moving back and forth which moves the
head of the spear into and away from the nozzle, varying the flow area and therefore the flow
rate. The position of the spear-jet is normally controlled by the system controller in response
to changes in water level (hence flow rate in the river) at the intake.

The nozzle in a spear-jet is subjected to a constant high-pressure water flow and can erode
over time, especially if there is a higher than normal concentration of abrasive sands in the
water. For this reason it is normally made from tungsten carbide which is incredibly hard and
able to resist erosion, and even then is designed to be easily replaceable during servicing.

Once through the spear-jet the water impinges on the rotor and transfers around 97% of its
kinetic energy into the rotational energy of the rotor. To achieve this transfer of energy the
buckets are precisely designed to minimise all losses. Firstly the ‘splitter’ splits the jet of
water into two equal halves for each side of the bucket, then the shape of the bucket is
carefully designed to turn the jet of water almost 180 degrees to transfer the kinetic energy
with the minimal amount of splashing and leave just enough energy for the water jet to fully
exit the rotor so that hardly any water hits the next bucket, causing drag. The surface of the
buckets is normally highly polished to minimise drag and the rotor itself is finely balanced.
The small ‘cut-out’ in the tip of the bucket is to ensure that the next bucket doesn’t cut
through the jet of water on the previous bucket prematurely as the rotor rotates.

Once the water jet leaves the rotor it falls to bottom of the turbine casing and returns to the
river through a discharge pipe.

Design: The Pelton turbine has a fairly simplistic design. A large circular disk is mounted on
some sort of rotating shaft known as a rotor. Mounted on this circular disk are cup shaped
blades known as buckets evenly spaced around the entire wheel. Generally, the buckets are
arranged in pairs around the rim. Then nozzles are arranged the wheel and serve the purpose
of introducing water to the turbine. Jets of water emerge from these nozzles, tangential to the
wheel of the turbine. This causes the turbine to spin as a result of the impact of the water jets
on the buckets.

DRAFT TUBES AND PENSTOCKS

Draft Tube: The draft tube is a crucial component situated at the exit of the runner in a
reaction turbine. Its primary purpose is to convert the kinetic energy of the fluid leaving the
runner into pressure energy. The draft tube gradually expands in diameter from the runner
outlet to the discharge point, creating a cone-shaped structure. This expansion allows the
fluid to decelerate while increasing its pressure, thereby preventing the formation of
undesired pressure differences and minimizing energy losses. By efficiently converting
kinetic energy to pressure energy, the draft tube helps to improve the overall efficiency and
performance of the turbine.

Draft tube is an important part of reaction turbine which is used to convert kinetic head
available at exit of runner into pressure head, thereby, increasing the overall output. Turbines
need to have a minimum amount of water to propel them in order to produce enough energy.
Without these tubes, the pressure could drop because of lack of water, and in turn, the entire
turbine could fail to work and power could be lost. In this study, we have discussed different
types of draft tubes with detailed study of the problems which are encountered in the reaction
turbines. Few researches that were carried out earlier have been discussed. The basic design
parameters which govern the working of draft tube have been discussed along with the effects
of cavitation.

Penstocks are pipes or long channels that carry water down from the hydroelectric reservoir
to the turbines inside the actual power station.[2] Generally, they are made of steel and water
under high pressure flows through the penstock. They are a vital component of a
hydroelectric facility that allows water to move to the turbine.[3] Grates or filters can be
attached to the ends of penstocks to trap large debris such as branches. This ensures that
debris cannot enter the channel and block it.

Most penstocks are constructed from steel and may be buried underground, situated above
ground with steel or concrete saddle supports along the length of piping, or encapsulated
inside concrete towers or tunnels (shown above). The metal vessels carry water, making them
prone to corrosion mechanisms, including uniform corrosion, crevice corrosion, pitting, and
erosion corrosion.

• Uniform corrosion: the most common form of corrosion, it is the attack of a corrosive
environment on the metal surface at a uniform rate
• Crevice corrosion: the attack of the metal surface by stagnant water in crevices and
under coatings; for example, at expansion joint and pipe supports
• Pitting: localized corrosion that produced holes or cavities in an otherwise resistant
surface
• Erosion corrosion: the combined effect of erosion and corrosion caused by the flow of
turbulent water on the metal surface

PLANT LAYOUTS

Working principle: Hydroelectric power plant (Hydel plant) utilizes the potential energy of
water stored in a dam built across the river. The potential energy of the stored water is
converted into kinetic energy by first passing it through the penstock pipe. The kinetic energy
of the water is then converted into mechanical energy in a water turbine. The turbine is
coupled to the electric generator. The mechanical energy available at the shaft of the turbine
is converted into electrical energy by means of the generator.

Because gravity provides the force which makes the waterfall, the energy stored in the water
is called gravitational potential energy.

The main components are

• Water reservoir
• Dam
• Spillway
• Gate
• Pressure tunnel
• Surge tank
• Penstock
• Water turbine
 • Draft tube
• Tail race level
• Powerhouse

Water reservoir: In a reservoir the water collected from the catchment area during the rainy
season is stored behind a dam. Catchment area gets its water from rains and streams.
Continuous availability of water is a basic necessity for a hydroelectric power plant. The
level of the water surface in the reservoir is called the Headwater level. The water head
available for power generation depends on the reservoir height.

Dam: the purpose of the dam is to store the water and to regulate the out going flow of water.
The dam helps to store all the incoming water. It also helps to increase the head of the water.
In order to generate a required quantity of power, it is necessary that a sufficient head is
available.

Spillway: Excess accumulation of water endangers the stability of dam construction. Also in
order to avoid the overflow of water out of the dam especially during rainy seasons spillways
are provided. This prevents the rise of the water level in the dam. Spillways are passages that
allow the excess water to flow to a different storage area away from the dam.

Gate: A gate is used to regulate or control the flow of water from the dam.

Pressure tunnel: It is a passage that carries water from the reservoir to the surge tank.

Surge tank: A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank in which the water level rises or falls due
to sudden changes in pressure. There may a sudden increase of pressure in the penstock pipe
due to sudden backflow of water, as the load on the turbine is reduced. This sudden rise of
pressure in the penstock pipe is known as water hammer.

Penstock: Penstock pipe is used to bring water from the dam to the hydraulic turbine.
Penstock pipes are made up of steel or reinforced concrete. The turbine is installed at a lower
level from the dam. Penstock is provided with a gate valve at the inlet to completely close the
water supply.

It has a control valve to control the water flow rate into the turbine. Water turbine or
hydraulic turbine (Prime mover): The hydraulic turbine converts the energy of water into
mechanical energy. The mechanical energy (rotation) available on the turbine shaft is coupled
to the shaft of an electric generator and electricity is produced. The water after performing the
work on the turbine blade is discharged through the draft tube.

The prime movers which are in common use are Pelton wheel, Kaplan turbine, Francis
turbine.

Draft tube: Draft tube is connected to the outlet of the turbine. It converts the kinetic energy
available in the water into pressure energy in the diverging portion. Thus, it maintains a
pressure of just above the atmospheric at the end of the draft tube to move the water into a
tailrace. Water from the tailrace is released for irrigation purposes.

Tailrace level: Tailrace is a water path to lead the water discharged from the turbine to the
river or canal. The water held in the tailrace is called the Tailrace water level.
Power House: The powerhouse accommodates the water turbine, generator, transformer, and
control room. As the water rushes through the turbine, it spins the turbine shaft, which is
coupled to the electric generator. The generator has a rotating electromagnet called a rotor
and a stationary part called a stator. The rotor creates a magnetic field that produces an
electric charge in the stator. The charge is transmitted as electricity. The step-up transformer
increases the voltage of the current coming from the stator. The electricity is distributed
through power lines.

BRIEF IDEA OF OTHER SOURCES VIZ. - TIDAL - GEOTHERMAL - GAS-BASED

1) TIDAL POWER PLANT

Tidal energy is a form of hydropower that works by harnessing the kinetic energy created
from the rise and fall of ocean tides and currents, also called tidal flows, and turns it into
usable electricity. The larger the tidal range, or the height difference between sea level at high
and low tide, the more power can be produced.

Tides fluctuate thanks to the gravitational pull of the sun and moon. Tidal power is a clean
and renewable energy source - it emits no greenhouse gases as it produces electricity. Tidal
power is only practical for large, commercial-scale projects.

Tide or wave is periodic rise and fall of water level of the sea. Tides occur due to the
attraction of sea water by the moon. Tides contain large amount of potential energy which is
used for power generation. When the water is above the mean sea level, it is called flood tide.
When the water level is below the mean level it is called ebb tide.

Tidal turbines are very similar to wind turbines, except they are below the water’s surface
instead of above or on land. The water’s current pushes the blades of the turbine, which is
connected to a generator that creates electricity. Tidal turbines are able to produce much more
electricity than wind power plants, mainly because water is much denser than air. However,
water’s high density also means that tidal turbines need to be much stronger than wind
turbines, making them more expensive to manufacture.

Working

The arrangement of this system is shown in figure. The ocean tides rise and fall and water can
be stored during the rise period and it can be discharged during fall. A dam is constructed
separating the tidal basin from the sea and a difference in water level is obtained between the
basin and sea.
During high tide period, water flows from the sea into the tidal basin through the water
turbine. The height of tide is above that of tidal basin. Hence the turbine unit operates and
generates power, as it is directly coupled to a generator.

During low tide period, water flows from tidal basin to sea, as the water level in the basin is
more than that of the tide in the sea. During this period also, the flowing water rotates the
turbine and generator power.

The generation of power stops only when the sea level and the tidal basin level are equal. For
the generation of power economically using this source of energy requires some minimum
tide height and suitable site. Kislaya power plant of 250 MW capacity in Russia and Rance
power plant in France are the only examples of this type of power plant.

2) GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT

If you were to dig a big hole straight down into the Earth, you would notice the temperature
getting warmer the deeper you go. That's because the inside of the Earth is full of heat. This
heat is called geothermal energy.

People can capture geothermal energy through:

• Geothermal power plants, which use heat from deep inside the Earth to generate
steam to make electricity.
• Geothermal heat pumps, which tap into heat close to the Earth's surface to heat water
or provide heat for buildings.

Geothermal Power Plants: At a geothermal power plant, wells are drilled 1 or 2 miles deep
into the Earth to pump steam or hot water to the surface. You're most likely to find one of
these power plants in an area that has a lot of hot springs, geysers, or volcanic activity,
because these are places where the Earth is particularly hot just below the surface.

Steps involved,

• Hot water is pumped from deep underground through a well under high pressure.
• When the water reaches the surface, the pressure is dropped, which causes the water
to turn into steam.
• The steam spins a turbine, which is connected to a generator that produces electricity.
• The steam cools off in a cooling tower and condenses back to water.
• The cooled water is pumped back into the Earth to begin the process again.
 * https://www.electricaleasy.com/2015/12/geothermal-energy-and-geothermal-power-
plant.html

3) GAS-BASED POWER PLANT

The burning of fuels such as oil, coal and LNG (liquefied natural gas) fires a boiler to
generate high-temperature, high-pressure steam. This steam is used to drive a steam turbine.
A generator attached to the steam turbine generates electricity.

Natural gas turbines are theoretically simple and have three main parts as seen in Figure 2:[7]
 • Compressor: Takes in air from outside of the turbine and increases its pressure.
• Combustor: Burns the fuel and produces high pressure and high velocity gas.
• Turbine: Extracts the energy from the gas coming from the combustor.

Figure 2. A diagram of a gas turbine engine

There are two types of natural gas power plants: Simple cycle gas plants and combined cycle
gas plants. The former consists of a gas turbine connected to a generator and the latter
consists of a simple cycle plant, combined with another external combustion engine,
operating on the Rankine cycle—hence its name "combined cycle".

The simple cycle is simpler but less efficient than the combined cycle. However, simple cycle
plants are able to dispatch faster than coal-fired power plants or nuclear plants. This means
they can be turned on or off faster in order to meet societies electricity needs.[4] Often
needed on the grid with wind power and solar power, its purpose is to meet the fluctuating
electricity needs of society, known as peaking power. Combined cycle plants are more
efficient because it makes use of the hot exhaust gases that would otherwise be dispelled
from the system. These exhaust gases are used to boil water into steam—which can then spin
another turbine and generate more electricity. The thermal efficiency of the combined cycle
can get up to 60%.[5] Moreover, these plants produce one third of the waste heat of a plant
with a 33% efficiency (like a typical nuclear power plant or an older coal power plant). See
the thermal efficiency page for more information on this.