Unit-I: Introduction to Computer Organization

• Fundamentals of computer
• Basic measures of computer performance
• Clock speed
• CPI
• MIPs
• Mflops
• Number representation methods
• integer
• floating-point
Fundamental Units of Computer
• Computer
• A programmable electronic device
• Stores, receives and processes data
• Accepts digitized input
• Process as per internal instructions
• Results processed information
• Computer types
• Personal/Desktop
• Laptop
• Notebook
• Servers
• Workstations
• Supercomputers etc.
Functional Units of computer
Five functional Units.ndependent units.

INPUT
ALU

MEMORY

OUTPUT CONTROL

I/O PROCESSOR
 INPUT UNIT
• Accepts coded information from electromagnetic devices
• Reads the data
• e.g. keyboard
MEMORY

1001110001

PROCESSOR

• Other input devices: Joysticks, trackballs, mouses, graphic units,

microphones
Some Insights
• Computer handles 2 sets of information-
• Instructions/machine instructions
• Data

• M/C Instructions:
• Explicit commands that govern transfer of information
• Within computer
• Between the computer
• Its I/O devices
• Specify arithmetic and logical operations to be performed

• Program:
• List of instructions that perform a task
• Stored in memory
• Computer is completely controlled by the stored program

• Data:
• Numbers and encoded characters used as operands by the instructions
• Any digital information
• An entire program can be considered as data if it is to be processed by another program
Memory Unit
• Used to store Program and Data
• Memory contains-
• Large number of semiconductor storage cells
• Each cell capable of storing one bit information
• Cells are processed in groups
• Fixed size cells-words (16 bit, 64bit)
• Accessing word from a memory:
• A distinct address is associated with each word location
• Address identifies the location in memory map

• 2 Memory classes:
• Primary:
• RAM: Quick access memory,
• Hierarchy of 3 to 4 levels of RAM
• Cache: Small, fast RAM units.
• ROM: largest, slowest unit

• Secondary:
• To store large amount of data and programs that are infrequently used
• Optical disks, magnetic tapes,hard disks etc.
ALU: Arithmetic and Logic Unit
• Inherent part of the processor
• Arithmetic and logical
operations
• Addition, multiplication, division,
comparison
• Operands from memory brought
to processor and operation is
performed by ALU
• Operands in processor are
stored in high-speed storage
elements i.e. registers
OUTPUT UNIT
Control Unit
• Directs the operations of the processor
• Manages and co-ordinates all the activities in CPU
• Functions of control unit:
• Instruction Fetching
• Instruction Decoding
• Instruction Execution
• Control Signals
• Program counter management
• Components of the Control Unit
• Control Memory: Stores microinstructions that define the operation of the control
unit.
• Control Logic Circuits: Generate control signals based on the microinstructions.
• Sequencing Logic: Determines the order in which operations are performed.
• Registers: Hold temporary data and instructions that are being processed.
Bus structure
• Bus
• Network of electrical pathways that connects various hardware components
• Ensures seamless exchange of data, addresses and control signals

• Different bus structures

• Data Lines (Data Bus)
• coordinate the transfer of data
• width of the data bus is determined by the number of data lines
• Each data line can transfer only one bit at a time
• Data width affects system performance

• Address Lines (Address Bus )

• address lines specify the source or destination of data
• its width determines the memory capacity of the system.
• The address to read is placed on the address lines by the processor
Bus structure
• Control Lines:
• control lines manage access of
data and address bus

• Gives commands and timing

information

• Memory read
• Memory write
• I/O write
 Memory Data
Memory Address
Register
Register

Program
Counter

Instruction
Register
Operational details of the processor
• Instruction Register (IR):
• Holds the instruction currently being executed
• O/P of IR generate timing signals to control the processing elements
• Program Counter (PC) :
• Keeps track of instruction being executed
• Contains the memory address of the next instruction
• N-general purpose registers
• MAR and MDR facilitates the communication with the memory.
• MAR: Memory Address Register
• Holds the address of the location to be accessed
• MDR: Memory Data Register
• Contains the data to be written into or read out of the addressed location.
 Program

PC points to
first instruction
 Read control Signal

PC points to
first instruction
 Read control Signal

Word
to MDR

PC points to
first instruction
 Read control Signal

Word
to MDR

PC points to
first instruction
 Read control Signal

Word
to MDR

PC points to
first instruction
Interrupts
• I/O devices may intervene normal execution of programs by demanding
urgent service.

• Processor executes Interrupt Service routines(ISR)\

• Such diversions alter the internal states of processor

• Before execution of ISR,

• The state of processor must be saved
• the contents of the PC are moved to stack.
• Contents of general purpose registers are stored
• Some control information is also noted.
Basic measures of computer performance
• How quickly it can execute programs?
• Speed of execution affected by
• Design of the hardware
• Machine language instructions
• Compiler
• CPU clock:
• Processors controlled by timing signal i.e. clock
• Regular clock intervals i.e. clock cycles
• Processor does tasks in smaller steps
• One step executed in one CPU cycle

• Clock Speed:
• The frequency at which CPU executes the instructions
• Measured in GHz
• Higher clock speed, Faster Processing performance
• Clock Rate: Let P-Length of one clock cycle

• Then, clock rate R=1/P (cycles/second)

• Note: Clock speed and clock rate not same

• Clock speed: How many cycles/second CPU can execute

• Clock rate: Actual speed at which data is transmitted.

• Basic Performance Equation:

𝑁∗𝑆
𝑇=( )
𝑅
Where, T=processor time required to execute a high-level language program
N= Number of instructions executed
S= Average number of basic steps to execute one m/c instruction
CPI
• Cycles Per Instruction
• Measures the efficiency of computer systems execution

• Average clock cycles required to execute a single instruction

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝐶𝑃𝐼 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝐸𝑥𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑

Higher CPI → Less efficient CPU

Lower CPI → More Efficient/Fast

• MIPS : Millions of Instructions Per Second
• Measure of computer’s processor speed
• Indicates how many million instructions CPU can execute in one
second
• Used to compare the performance of different processors

• MFLOPS: Millions of Floating Point Operations Per Second

• Performance indicator
• tasks with large-number of floating –point calculations. Viz. scientific
calculations, simulations, graphic processing
• Higher MFLOPS indicates higher computational Power
 Number Representation methods- Integer and Floating-point
• The IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic (IEEE 754) is a
technical standard for floating-point computation
• for real numbers on computers, including Intel-based PC’s, Macs,
and most Unix platforms.
 BIASED NORMALISED
TYPES SIGN BIAS
EXPONENT MANTISA
Single
1(31st bit) 8(30-23) 23(22-0) 127
precision
Double
1(63rd bit) 11(62-52) 52(51-0) 1023
precision
• The Sign of Mantissa –
This is as simple as the name. 0 represents a positive number
while 1 represents a negative number.

• The Biased exponent –

The exponent field needs to represent both positive and
negative exponents. A bias is added to the actual exponent in
order to get the stored exponent.

• The Normalised Mantissa –

The mantissa is part of a number in scientific notation or a
floating-point number, consisting of its significant digits. Here
we have only 2 digits, i.e. O and 1. So a normalised mantissa is
one with only one 1 to the left of the decimal.