SOCIOLOGY – 1

UNIT-1
DEFINITION, SCOPE AND USES OF SOCIOLOGY
DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY
"Sociology" which had once been treated as social philosophy, or the
philosophy of history, emerged as an independent social science in the 19th
century. August Comte, a Frenchman, is traditionally considered to be the father
of sociology Comte is accredited with the coining of the term sociology (in
1839). "Sociology" is composed of two words socius, meaning companion or
associate; and "logos", meaning science or study. The etymological meaning of
"sociology" is thus the science of society. John Stuart Mill, another social thinker
and philosopher of the 19th century, proposed the word ethology for this new
science. Herbert Spencer developed his systematic study of society and adopted
the word "sociology" in his works. With the contributions of Spencer and others
it (sociology) became the permanent name of the new science.
The question 'what is sociology' is, indeed, a question pertaining to the
definition of sociology No student can rightfully be expected to enter on a field
of study which is totally undefined or unbounded. At the same time, it is not an
easy task to set some fixed limits to a field of study. It is true in the case of
sociology. Hence it is difficult to give a brief and a comprehensive definition of
sociology.
Sociology has been defined in a number of ways by different sociologists. No
single definition has yet been accepted as completely satisfactory in fact, there
are as many definitions of sociology there are sociologists. For our purpose of
study a few definitions may be cited here. 1. August Comte, the founding father
of sociology, defines sociology as the science of social phenomena "subject to
natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of
investigation"
1. Kingsley Davis says that "Sociology is a general science of society"
2. Harry M. Johnson opines that "sociology is the science that deals with social
groups"
3.Emile Durkheim defines sociology as the "science of social institutions"
4. Park regards sociology as "the science of collective behavior"
5. Small defines sociology as "the science of social relations"
6. Marshal Jones defines sociology as "the study of man-in-relationship-to-
men".
A careful examination of various definitions cited above, makes it evident that
sociologists differ in their opinion about the definition of sociology Their
divergent views about the definition of sociology only reveal their distinct
approaches to its study. However, the common idea underlying all the
definitions mentioned above is that sociology is concerned with man, his social
relations and his society.
NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY:
Sociology, as a branch of knowledge, has its own unique characteristics. It is
different from other sciences in certain respects. An analysis of its internal
logical characteristics helps one to understand what kind of science it is. The
following are the main characteristics of sociology as enlisted by Robert
Bierstadt in his book "The Social Order"
1. Sociology is an Independent Science
Sociology has now emerged into an independent science. It is not treated and
studied as a branch of any other science like philosophy or political philosophy
or history as an independent science it has its own field of study, boundary and
method.
2. Sociology is a Social Science and not a Physical Science
Sociology belongs to the family of social sciences and not to the family of
physical sciences. As a social science it concentrates its attention on man, his
social behaviour, social activities and social life. As a member of the family of
social sciences it is intimately related to other social sciences like history,
political science, economics, psychology, anthropology etc. The fact that
sociology deals with the Social universe distinguishes it from astronomy,
physics, chemistry, geology, mathematics and other physical sciences.
3.Sociology is a Categorical and not a Normative Discipline
Sociology "confines itself to statements about what is, not what should be or
ought to be". "As a science, sociology is necessarily silent about questions of
value. It does not make any kind of value-judgements. Its approach is neither
moral nor immoral but amoral. It is ethically neutral. It cannot decide the
directions in which sociology ought to go. It makes no recommendations on
matters of social policy or legislation or programme. But it does not mean that
sociological knowledge is useless and serves no purpose. It only means that
sociology as a discipline cannot deal with problems of good and evil, right and
wrong, and moral or immoral.
4. Sociology is a Pure Science and not an Applied Science
A distinction is often made between pure sciences and applied sciences. The
main aim of pure sciences is the acquisition of knowledge and it is not bothered
whether the acquired knowledge is useful or can be put to use. On the other
hand, the aim of applied science is to apply the acquired knowledge into life and
to put it to use. Each pure science may have its own applied field. For example,
physics is a pure science and engineering is its applied field. Similarly, the pure
sciences such as economics, political science, history, etc., have their applied
fields like business, politics, journalism respectively Sociology as a pure science
has its applied field such as administration, diplomacy, social work etc. Each
pure science may have more than one application.
Sociology is a pure science, because the immediate aim of
sociology is the acquisition of knowledge about human society, not the
utilization of that knowledge Sociologists never determine questions of public
policy and do not recommend legislators what laws should be passed or
repealed. But the knowledge acquired by a sociologist is of great help to the
administrator, the legislator, the diplomat, the teacher, the foreman, the
supervisor, the social worker and the citizen. But sociologists themselves do not
apply the knowledge to life and use, as a matter of their duty and profession.
5. Sociology is Relatively an Abstract Science and not a Concrete Science
This does not mean that sociology is an art and not a science. Nor does it mean,
it is unnecessarily complicated and unduly difficult. It only means that sociology
is not interested in concrete manifestations of human events. It is more
concerned with the form of human events and their patterns. For example,
sociology is not concerned with particular wars and revolutions but with war
and revolution in general, as social phenomena, as types of social conflict.
Similarly, sociology does not confine itself to the study of this society or that
particular society or social organization or marriage, or religion, or group and so
on. It is in this simple sense that sociology is an abstract not a concrete science.
6. Sociology is a Generalizing and not a Particularizing or Individualizing Science
Sociology tries to find out the general laws or principles about human
interaction and association. about the nature to find out ten and structure of
human groups and societies. It does not study each and every event that takes
place in society. It is not possible also. It tries to make generalizations on the
basis of the study on these selected events. For example, a sociologist makes
generalizations about the nature of secondary groups He may conclude that
secondary groups are comparatively bigger in size, less stable, not necessarily
spatially limited, more specialized, and so on. This, he does, not by examining all
the secondary groups but by observing and studying a few.
7. Sociology is a General Science and not a Special Social Science
The area of inquiry of sociology is general and not specialized. It is concerned
with human interaction and human life in general. Other social sciences like
political science, history, economics etc., also study man and human interaction,
but not all about human interaction. They concentrate their attention on certain
aspects of human interaction and activities and specialise themselves in those
fields. Accordingly, economics specialises itself in the study of economic
activities, political science concentrates on political activities and so on.
Sociology, of course, does not investigate economic, religious, political, legal,
moral or any other special kind of phenomena in relation to human life and
activities as such. It only studies human activities in a general way. This does
not, however, mean that sociology is the basic social science nor does it imply
sociology is the general social science. Anthropology and social psychology often
claim themselves to be general social sciences.
8. Finally, Sociology is Both a Rational and an Empirical Science.
There are two broad ways of approach to scientific knowledge. One, known as
empiricism, is the approach that emphasizes experience and the facts that result
from observation and experimentation. The other, known as rationalism,
stresses reason and the theories that result from logical inference.
The empiricist collects facts, the rationalist co-ordinates and arranges them.
Theories and facts
are required in the construction of knowledge. In sociological inquiry both are
significant. A theory unsubstantiated by hard, solid facts is nothing more than
an opinion. Facts, by themselves, in their isolated character, are meaningless
and useless. As Immanuel Kant said, "theories without facts are empty and facts
without theories are blind" All modern sciences, therefore, avail themselves of
both empirical and rational resources. Sociology is not an exception.
It is clear from the above that sociology is an independent, a social, a
categorical, a pure an abstract, a generalizing both a rational and an empirical
and a general social science
SUBJECT-MATTER AND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY
Major Concerns of Sociology (Subject-Matter of Sociology)
Ever since the beginning of sociology, sociologists have shown a great concern in
man and in the dynamics of society. The emphasis has been oscillating between
man and society "Sometimes the emphasis was on man in society, at other
times, it was on man in society. But at no stage of its development, man as an
individual was its focus of attention. On the contrary, sociology concentrated
heavily on society and its major units and their dynamics. It has been striving to
analyze the dynamics of society in terms of organized patterns of social
relations. It may be said that sociology seeks to find explanations for three basic
questions: How and why societies emerge? How and why societies persist? How
and why societies change?
An all-embracive and expanding science like sociology is growing at a fast rate
no doubt. It is quite natural that sociologists have developed different
approaches from time to time in their attempts to enrich its study Still it is
possible to identify some topics which constitute the subject- matter of
sociology on which there is little disagreement among the sociologists. Such
topics and areas broadly constitute the field of sociology. A general outline of
the fields of sociology on which there is considerable agreement among
sociologists could be given here.
Firstly, the major concern of sociology is sociological analysis. It means the
sociologist seeks to provide an analysis of human society and culture with a
sociological perspective. He evinces his interest in the evolution of society and
tries to reconstruct the major stages in the evolutionary process. An attempt is
also made "to analyze the factors and forces underlying historical
transformations of society" Due importance is given to the scientific method
that is adopted in the sociological analysis.
Secondly, sociology has given sufficient attention to the study of primary units
of social life. In this area, it is concerned with social acts and social relationships,
individual personality, groups of all varieties, communities (urban, rural and
tribal), associations, organizations and populations.
Thirdly, sociology has been concerned with the development, structure and
function of a wide variety of basic social institutions such as the family and
kinship, religion and property, economic, political, legal, educational and
scientific, recreational and welfare, aesthetic and expressive institutions
Fourthly, no sociologist can afford to ignore the fundamental social processes
that play a vital role. The social processes such as co-operation and competition,
accommodation and assimilation, social conflict including war and revolution,
communication including opinion formation, expression and change, social
differentiation and stratification, socialization and indoctrination, social control
and deviance including crime, suicide, social integration and social change
assume prominence in sociological studies.
Fifthly, sociology has placed high premium on the method of research also.
Contemporary sociology has tended to become more and more rational and
empirical rather than philosophical and idealistic. Sociologists have sought the
application of scientific method in social researches. Like a natural scientist, a
sociologist senses a problem for investigation. He then tries to formulate it into
a researchable proposition. After collecting the data, He tries to establish
connections between them. He finally arrives at meaningful concepts,
propositions and generalizations
. Sixthly, sociologists are concerned with the task of formulating concepts,
propositions and theories "Concepts are abstracted from concrete experience to
represent a class of phenomena" For example, terms such as social
stratification, differentiation, conformity, deviance etc., represent concepts. A
proposition "seeks to reflect a relationship between different categories of data
or concepts" For example "lower-class youths are more likely to commit crimes
than middle-class youths" This proposition is debatable. It may be proved to be
false. To take another example, it could be said that "taking advantage of
opportunities of higher education and occupational mobility leads to the
weakening of the ties of kinship and territorial loyalties" Though this
proposition sounds debatable, it has been established after careful
observations, inquiry and collection of relevant data. Theories go beyond
concepts and propositions. "Theories represent systematically related
proposıtions that explain social phenomena" Sociological theories are mostly
rooted in factual than philosophical. The sociological perspective becomes more
meaningful and fruitful when one tries to derive insight from concepts,
propositions and theories.
Finally, in the present era of explosion of knowledge sociologists have ventured
to make specializations also. Thus, today good number of specialized fields of
inquiry are emerging out. Sociology of knowledge, sociology of history,
sociology of literature, sociology of culture, sociology of religion, sociology of
family etc, represent such specialized fields., The field of socio logical inquiry is
so vast that any student of sociology equipped with genius and rich sociological
imagination can add new dimensions to the discipline of sociology as a whole.
SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY
Every science has its own areas of study or fields of inquiry It becomes difficult
for anyone to study a science systematically unless its boundaries are
demarcated and scope determined precisely Unfortunately, there is no
consensus on the part of sociologist with regard to the scope of sociology VF
Calberton comments. "since sociology is so elastic a science, it is difficult to
determine just where its boundaries begin and end, where sociology becomes
social psychology and where social psychology becomes sociology, or where
economic theory becomes sociological doctrine or bio- logical theory becomes
sociological theory something, which is impossible to decide"
However, there are two main schools of thought regarding the scope of
sociology: (1) The specialist or formalistic school and (2) the synthetic school.

[1) The Specialist or Formalistic School

This school of thought is led by the German sociologist George Simmel. The
other main advocate cates of this school are Vierkandt, Max Weber. Small, Von
Wiese and Tonnies Simmel and others are of the opinion that sociology is a pure
and an independent science. As a pure science it has a limited scope Sociology
should confine itself to the study of certain aspects of human relationship only
Further, it should study only the 'forms of social relationships but not their
contents. Social relationship such as competition, sub-ordination, division of
labor etc., are ex pressed in different fields of social life such as economic,
political, religious, moral, artistic etc. Sociology should disentangle the forms of
social relationships and study them in abstraction. Sociology as a specific social
science describes, classifies and analyses the forms of social relationships.
Vierkandt says that sociology concerns itself with the ultimate form of mental or
psychic relationship which links men to one another in society. He maintains
that in dealing with culture, sociology should not concern itself with the actual
contents of cultural evolution but it should confine itself to only the discovery of
the fundamental forces of change and persistence. It should refrain itself from
making a historical study of concrete societies.
Max Weber opines that the aim of sociology is to interpret or understand social
behaviour but social behaviour does not cover the whole field of human
relations. He further says that sociology should make an analysis and
classification of types of social relationships.
Small insisted that sociology has only a limited field. Von Wiese and Tonnies
expressed more over less the same opinion.

2. The Synthetic School

The synthetic school of thought conceives of sociology as a synthesis of the
social sciences. It wants to make sociology a general social science and not a
pure or special social science. In fact, this school has made sociology synoptic or
encyclopedic in character. Durkheim, Hob House Ginsberg and Sorokin have
been the chief exponents of this school.
The main argument of this school is that all parts of social life are intimately
inter-related Hence the study of one aspect is not sufficient to understand the
entire phenomenon. Hence sociology should study social life as a whole. This
opinion has contributed to the creation of a general and systematic sociology
The Views of Emile Durkheim
Durkheim, one of the stalwarts of the stalwarts of this school of thought, says
that sociology has three main divisions or fields of inquiry. They are as follows
Social Morphology Social Physiology and General Sociology. They are as follows
Social Morphology Social Physiology and General Sociology
(1) Social Morphology: Social morphology studies the territorial basis of the life
of people and also the problems of population such as volume and density, local
distribution etc.
(ii) Social Physiology: Social physiology has different branches such as sociology
of religion, of morals, of law, of economic life and of language etc.
(iii) General Sociology: General Sociology can be regarded as the philosophical
part of sociology It deals with the general character of the social facts. Its
function is the formulation of general social laws.

The Views of Morris Ginsberg

Ginsberg, another advocate of the synthetic school, says that the main task of
sociology can be categorized into four branches. Social Morphology, Social
Control Social Processes and Social Pathology

(1) Social Morphology: Social Morphology deals with the quantity and quality of
population. It studies the social structure, social groups and institutions. (ii)
Social Control Social Control' studies-formal as well as informal-means of social
control such as custom, tradition, morals, religion, convention, and also law,
court, legislation etc. It deals with the regulating agencies of society
(iii) Social Processes 'Social processes tries to make a study of different modes of
interaction such as cooperation, competition, conflict, accommodation,
assimilation, isolation, integration, differentiation, development, arrest and
decay.
(iv) Social Pathology, Social Pathology' studies social mal-adjustment and
disturbances. It also includes studies on various social problems like poverty,
beggary, unemployment, over-population, prostitution, crime etc.
USES OF SOCIOLOGY
Of the various social sciences, sociology seems to be the youngest. It is gradually
developing, still it has made remarkable progress. Its uses are recognised widely
today. In modern times, there is a growing realization of the importance of the
scientific study of social phenomena and the means of promoting what Prof.
Giddings calls human adequacy. The study of sociology has a great value
especially in modern complex society. Some of the uses of sociology are as
follows:
(1) Sociology studies society in a scientific way. Before the emergence of
sociology, there was no systematic and scientific attempt to study human
society with all its complexities. Sociology has made it possible to study society
in a scientific manner This scientific knowledge about human society is needed
in order to achieve progress in various fields.
(if) Sociology throws more light on the social nature of man Sociology delves
deep into the social nature of man. It tells us why man is a social animal, why he
lives in groups, communities and societies. It examines the relationship
between individual and society, the impact of society on man and other
matters.
(iii) Sociology improves our understanding of society and increases the power of
social action. The science of society assists an individual to understand himself,
his capacities, talents and limitations. It enables him to adjust himself to the
environment. Knowledge of society, social groups, social institutions,
associations, their functions etc., helps us to lead an effective social life
(iv) The study of sociology helps us to know not only our society and men but
also others, their motives, aspirations, status occupations, traditions customs,
institutions, culture etc. In a huge industrialized society our experience is
comparatively limited. We can hardly have a comprehensive knowledge of our
society and rarely have an idea regarding other societies. But we must have
some insight into an appreciation of the motives by which others live and the
conditions under which they exist. Such an insight we derive from the study of
sociology
(v) The contribution of sociology is not less significant in enriching culture
Sociology has given training to us to have rational approach to questions
concerning ourselves, our religion, customs, institutions, values, ideologies, etc.
It has made us to become more objective, rational, critical and dispassionate.
The study of societies has made people to become more broad minded. It has
impressed upon its students to overcome their prejudices, misconceptions,
egoistic ambitions, and class and religious hatreds. It has made our life richer,
fuller and meaningful.
(vi) Another aspect of the practical side of sociology is the study of great social
institutions and the relations of individuals of each one of them. The home and
family, the school and education, the state and government, industry and work,
religion and morality, marriage and family, law and legislations, property and
government, etc. are some of the main institutions, through which our society
functions. More than that, they condition our life in countless ways. Knowledge
of sociology may help to strengthen them to serve man better.
(vii) Sociology is useful as a teaching subject too. Sociology is a profession in
which technical competence brings its own rewards. Sociologists, especially
those trained in research procedures, are in increasing demand in business,
government, industry, city planning, race relations, social work, social welfare,
supervision, advertising, communications, administration, and many other areas
of community life. A few years ago, sociologists could only teach sociology in
schools and colleges but sociology has now become practical enough to be
practiced outside of academic halls.
Careers apart from teaching are now possible in sociology The various areas of
applied sociology are coming more and more into prominence in local, state,
national and international levels.
(viii) The need for the study of sociology is greater especially in underdeveloped
countries. Sociologists have now drawn the attention of economists regarding
the social factors that have contributed to the economic backwardness of a few
countries. Economists have now realized the importance of sociological
knowledge in analyzing the economic affairs of the country.
(ix) The study of society is of paramount importance in solving social problems.
The present world is beset with several social problems of great magnitude like
poverty, beggary, unemployment, prostitution, over-population, family
disorganization, community disorganization, racial problems, crime, juvenile
delinquency, gambling, alcoholism, youth unrest, untouchability etc. A careful
analysis of these problems is necessary in order to solve them. Sociology
provides such an analysis.
(x) Sociological knowledge is necessary for understanding and planning of
society. Social planning has been made easier by sociology. Sociology is often
considered a vehicle of social reform and social reorganization. It plays an
important role in the reconstruction of society.
(xi) The practical utility of sociological techniques: The techniques developed by
the sociologists and other social scientists are adopted by others. Let us think
the example of social survey. Developed and used mainly by sociologists and
statisticians, it has become an essential tool of market research and political
polling. In the same way, sociologists provide a great deal of information that is
helpful in making decisions on social policy
. (xii) Study of society has helped several governments to promote the welfare
of the tribal people. Not only the civilized societies, but even the tribal societies
are faced with several socio-economic problems.
(xiii) Sociology has drawn our attention to the intrinsic worth and dignity of
man. Sociology has been greatly responsible in changing our attitudes towards
fellow human beings. It has helped people to become catholic in outlook and
broadminded in spirit. It has made people to become tolerant and patient
towards others. It has minimized the mental distance and reduced the gap be-
tween different peoples and communities.
(xiv) Sociology is of great practical help in the sense, it keeps us up-to-date on
modern social situations and developments. Sociology makes us to become
more alert towards the changes and developments that take place around us.
As a result, we come to know about our changed roles and expectations and
responsibilities.
(xv) Finally, as Prof. Giddings has pointed out "Sociology tells us how to become
what we want to be". In conclusion, it can be said that the question of 'value of
sociology' is not a question whether or not we should study a subject. But it is a
simple question of how it is actually to be used. Sociology, in short, has both
individual and social advantages.

SOCIOLOGY AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES

1. SOCIOLOGY AND HISTORY
Sociology and History are very much interrelated. Like political science,
sociology is becoming one of the most genuine fruits of history to which it
is intimately connected. The two sciences are so close that some writers
like G. Von Bulow refused to accept sociology as a science different from
history.

History: History is the reconstruction of man's past. It is the story of the

experience of man- kind. It is a record of the human past. It is a
systematic record of man's life and achievements from the dim past to
the present. The historian studies the significant events of man in the
order of time. The historian is interested in what happened at a particular
time in the past.

Further, a historian is not satisfied, however, with mere description. He

seeks to learn the causes of these events to understand the past-not only
how it has been but also how it came to be. Nevertheless, he is, in a
sense, interested in events for their own sake. "He wants to know
everything there is to know about them and to describe them in all their
unique individuality". The historian concentrates only on the past. He is
not interested in the present and is unwilling to look to the future Still
history provides the connecting link for the present and the future. It is
said that history is the microscope of the past, the horoscope of the
present and the telescope of the future. Sociology: Sociology as a science
of society, on the other hand is interested in the present. It tries to
analyze human interactions and interrelations with all their complexity
and diversity. It also studies the historical development of societies. It
studies various stages of human life, modes of living, customs, manners
and their expression in the form of social institutions and associations.
Sociology has thus to depend upon history for its material. History with its
record of various social events of the past offers data and facts to
sociologists. History Supplies

Information to Sociology

History is a storehouse of records, a treasury of knowledge. It supplies

materials to various social sciences including sociology. History contains
records even with regard to social matters. It contains information about
the different stages of human life, modes of living, customs and manners
social institutions, etc. This information about the past is of great help to
a sociologist. A sociologist has to make use of the historical records. For
example, if he wants to study marriage and family as social institutions,
he must study their historical development also. Similarly, if he wants to
know the impact of Islamic culture on the Hindu culture, he has to refer to
the Muslim conquests of India, for which he has to depend on history. A
sociologist is, no doubt, concerned with the present-day society. But the
 present-day society can be better understood from the knowledge of its
past because what people are today is because of what they had been in
the past. Further, sociologists often make use of comparative method in
their studies for which they depend on history for data. Historical
sociology, one of the fields of sociological inquiry, depends very much on
historical data. It is true that the sociologist must sometimes be his own
historian, amassing information from all the available sources.
Sociology Helps History Too. Historian also uses sociology. Until recently it
was perhaps from philosophy that the historian took his clues to
important problems and historical concepts and ideas. But now these are
drawn increasingly from sociology. Indeed, we can see that modern
historiography and modern sociology have both been influenced in similar
ways by the philosophy of history.

SOCIOLOGY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE

Political Science and Sociology are very closely related. This intimate
relationship between the two social sciences may be examined here.
Political Science. Political Science deals with the political activities of man. It
studies social groups organized under the sovereignty of the state. It studies
man as a ruler and being ruled. Laski, Gettell and Gilchrist, the eminent political
scientists, are of the opinion that the scope of political science embraces the
study of both State and Government.
Political Science has its own topics such as the origin, evolution and functions of
state, the forms of government, types of constitution, administration, law,
legislation, international relations, methods of political representation,
elections, voting, political movements, political ideologies, etc. "Political science
is an historical investigation of what the state has been, an analytical study of
what the state is, and a politico-ethical discussion of what the state should be".

Sociology Has its Roots in Politics

Morris Ginsberg writes: "Historically, sociology has its main roots in politics and
philosophy of history". The main works on social subjects such as Plato's
Republic, the Politics of Aristotle, Arthashastra of Kautilya, The Laws and
Republic of Cicero and other classical works were treated to be complete works
on political science. Only recently distinction between the two has been clearly
made.

The Relationship Between the Two

Political Science and Sociology are so intimately connected as Garner said that
the "political is embedded in the social that if political science remains distinct
from sociology, it will be because of the breadth of the field calls for the
specialist, not because there are any well-defined boundaries marking it off
from sociology". Both the sciences are mutually helpful. In fact, political activity
is only a part of social activity. Thus political science appears to be a branch of
sociology. However, we cannot say that political science is just Political
sociology. Political activity influences and is influenced by the social life of man.
In fact, political activities will have no meaning outside the social context.
Politics is after all the reflection of society. This is made clear by the common
saying, that 'people have the government which they deserve'. Political science
gives sociology facts about the organization and functions of the state and
government. Political science derives from sociology a knowledge of the origin
of the political authority. Political science is concerned with the state. But
sociology also studies state as one of the human associations. The state, in its
early form, was more a social institution than a political one.
Moreover, a political scientist must also be a sociologist. The laws of the state
have a great influence upon society. These laws are largely based on customs,
traditions, conventions and us- ages. But these customs, traditions, etc., are the
concern of sociology. The institution of family, for example, is an element in
social life. It is the concern of sociology. But the laws of marriage, made to
regulate the family, fall within the field of political science. Common Foci of
Attention
There are some common topics of interest for both sociologists and political
scientists. Such topics as war, mass movements, revolutions, government
control, public opinion, propaganda, leadership, elections, voting, political
minorities, social legislations like civil code and the like may be cited here as
examples.
Further, many of the social problems are also deep political problems.
Communal riots, (clashes between Muslims and Christians, Hindus and Muslims,
Protestants and Christians etc.), racial tensions between Whites and Negroes,
Asians and Europeans, etc., border disputes between different states, caste
conflicts, etc., are problems that have political as well as social implications. It
has become quite common to use political instruments to solve such social
problems like beggary, un- employment, prostitution, poverty, crime, etc.
SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY
The relation between Sociology and Anthropology is widely recognised today. In
fact, anthropologist Kroeber pointed out that the two sciences are twin sisters.
Robert Redfield writes that "viewing the whole United States, one sees that the
relations between sociology and anthropology are closer than those between
Anthropology and Political Science, that is partly due to greater similarity in
ways of work".
Anthropology seems to be the broadest of all the social sciences. It studies man
both as a member of the animal kingdom and as a member of the human
society. It studies the biological as well as the cultural developments of man.
Anthropology has a wide field of study. Kroeber mentions two broad divisions
of anthropology: (1) Organic or Physical Anthropology and (ii) the Socio- cultural
Anthropology.
(1) Physical Anthropology: Physical Anthropology studies man as a biological
being, that is, as a member of the animal kingdom. Here, anthropology
accepts and uses the general principles of biology; the laws of heredity
and the doctrines of cell development and evolution. Also, it makes use of
all the findings of anatomy, physiology, zoology, paleontology and the
like. Its business has been to ascertain how far these principles apply to
man, what forms they take in his particular case.
Physical Anthropology is concerned with the evolution of man, his bodily
characteristics, racial features, and the influence of environment and
heredity on the physical characteristics of man. It has two main branches:
 (i) Human paleontology which concentrates on the study of fossils, and (ii)
Somatology which deals with the human body in particular.

(2) (ii) Sociocultural Anthropology: Sociocultural Anthropology, more often

referred to as 'Cultural Anthropology', studies man as a social animal. This
branch of anthropology which is concerned with the more-than-merely-
organic aspects of human behaviour seems to be more interested in
ancient and savage and exotic and extinct peoples. The main reason for
this is a desire to under- stand better all civilizations, irrespective of time
and place, in the abstract, or as generalized principles as possible. (Social
Anthropology and Cultural Anthropology are often treated as two
separate branches) Sociocultural Anthropology's main concern is, of
course, culture. It deals with the origin and development of man's culture.
It also studies various social institutions of primitive communities of the
past as well as that of the present. It has three sub-divisions:
1) Ethnology-the science of peoples and their cultures and life histories
as groups, irrespective of their degree of advancement.
2) Archaeology-the science of what is old in the career of humanity,
especially as revealed by the excavations of prehistorical importance,
and Linguistics-the study of language in its widest sense, in every
aspect and in all its varieties, but with its main accent on the
languages of the primitive people.

The Relationship Between the Two Sciences

According to Hoebel, "Sociology and Social Anthropology are, in their

broadest sense one and the same". Evans Pritchard considers social
anthropology a branch of sociology. Sociology is greatly benefited by
anthropological studies; Sociologists have to depend upon
anthropologists to understand the present-day social phenomena from
our knowledge of the past which is often pro- vided by anthropology. The
studies made by famous anthropologists like Radcliffe Brown, B.
Malinowski, Ralph Linton, Lowie, Raymond Firth, Margaret Mead, Evans
Pritchard and others, have been proved to be valuable in Sociological
topics such as the origin of family, the beginning of marriage, private
property.

SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Sociology and Psychology are contributory sciences. Psychology has been

defined as the study of human behaviour. In the words of Thouless,
"Psychology is the positive science of human experience and behaviour".
Social Psychology. Psychology, as the science of behaviour, occupies itself
principally and primarily with the individual. It is interested in his
intelligence and his learning, his hopes and his fears and the order and
the disorder of his mind. Social psychology serves as a bridge between
psychology and sociology. As Krech and Crutchfield define, "Social
psychology is the science of the behaviour of the individual in society".
Social psychology deals with the mental processes of man, considering
him as a social being. It attempts to determine the character of his social
behaviour. It involves various aspects of social behaviour: social
interaction, interaction between an individual and a group, and
interaction between one group of individuals and another group of
individuals. It studies the individual in his relation to his fellow-men. It
also studies how an individual's personality is a function both of his basic
physiological and temperamental equipment and of the social and
cultural influences to which he is exposed.

The relationship between social psychology and sociology is so close that

Karl Pearson asserts that the two are not separate sciences. McDougall
and Freud expressed the view that the whole of the social life could be
reduced finally to psychological forces. In that case, sociology would be
reduced to a mere branch of psychology. This view is not an acceptable
one. Social behaviour of man is affected by political, economic, biological
and geographic factors also. Social life of man should not be studied
exclusively with the methods of psychology. The mutual dependence of
social psychology and sociology should not be interpreted to mean that
one is either identical with or is the branch of the other. Interdependence
of the Two Sciences
Social psychology has to depend on sociology to understand properly
human nature and behaviour as it is sociology which provides the
necessary material regarding the structure, organization and culture of
societies to which individuals belong. Similarly, the sociologists have
taken the assistance from social psychology. They have recognised the
importance of psychological factors in understanding the changes in social
structure.

Common Topics of Interest for Both the Sciences

Sociologists and social psychologists may have to study together certain
common topics such as- individual disorganization, crime, juvenile
delinquency, social disorganization, public opinion, propaganda,
leadership, war conflicts, socialization, suggestion, imitation, fashion and
so on.
Social Psychology Helps to Face Social Problems

Social psychology helps us a great deal in facing several social problems.

Problems such as racial conflict, religious prejudices, communal tensions,
crimes, juvenile delinquency, prostitution, gambling and alcoholism are
not totally isolated cases in the society. As they are inseparable from
normal social processes and normal social behaviour, the knowledge of
social psychology should be brought to bear on the solution of these
problems. Deviant patterns such as stealing, suicide, divorce and
prostitution are also normal consequences of our social institutions. As
social behavior and misbehavior are very closely interrelated, applied
social psychologist must be an expert in the details of the practical
problems. Of course, the social psychologist must know his limitations in
curing these social evils. He cannot be 'master-fixer' of solutions to social
problems.

SOCIOLOGY AND ECONOMICS

Sociology and economics as social sciences have close relations.

Relationship between the two is so close that one is often treated as the
branch of the other. According to Thomas, "Economics is, in fact, but one
branch of the comprehensive science of sociology ....". In the words of
Silverman "It may be regarded for ordinary purposes, as an offshoot of
the parent science of sociology, which studies the general principles of all
social relations". But this does not mean that economics is abranch of
sociology. Economics: Economics deals with the economic activities of
man. Dr. Alfred Marshall defines economics as "On the one side the study
of wealth and on the other and more important side a part o the study of
man". Prof. Lionel Robbins defines economics as "the sciences of human
behavior i its relations with ends and scarce means which have
alternative uses". It can also be understood the science of wealth in its
three stages namely: production, distribution and consumption.

Economics studies man as a wealth-getter and a wealth disposer. Wealth

constitutes the central problem of economics. It studies the interrelations
of purely economic factors and forces: the relations of price and supply,
money flows, input-output ratios and the like. It studies the structure and
function of economic organizations like banks, factories, markets,
business firms, corporation transport, etc. Recently economists have
shown more interest in motivation behind man's economic action.
Sociology and Economics Are Mutually Helpful
Economics and sociology are helpful to each other. Economic
relationships bear a close relation to social activities. At the same time
social relationships are also affected by economic activities. Because of
this close relation Thomas regarded economics as the branch of
Sociology. But this is an extreme view. Economics, it may be specified
here, is an independent science.
Social Interpretation of Economic Changes
Some economists, like Sombart, Max Weber, Pareto, Oppenheimer,
Schumpeter have explained economic change as an aspect of social
change. According to them, the study of economics would be incomplete
without an understanding of human society. Economic system is
embedded in the social structure as a part of it. The society, its structures,
its organizations, its institutions, its strength and weaknesses etc., are
bound to affect the economic activities of its people. That is why a
celebrated modern economist has said that "Economics must be made
the handmaid of sociology".

Max Weber, a German sociologist, made classical attempt to show how

social factors, and particularly, religious beliefs and practical ethics
influence the economic activities of people. Не made this clear in his
celebrated book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. His
contention is that the progressive protestant ethic provided the stimulus
to the rapid growth of capitalism in the West, whereas Hinduism and
Buddhism, with their so called fatalistic approach, failed to stimulate the
growth of capitalism in the East.

Economic Interpretations of Social Changes

At the other end, there are environmentalists like Karl Marx and Veblen
according to whom social phenomena are determined by economic
forces. According to them social reality or social change can be explained
in terms of economic forces. According to Marx, the infrastructure of a
society is nothing but the economic relations among its people. However,
there is a growing aware- ness among social scientists about the mutual
interplay between the economic and non-economic forces of society.

Sociologists have contributed to the study of different aspects of

economic organization. Knowledge of property system, division of labor,
occupations, industrial organization, etc., is provided by a sociologist to
an economist. Such matters as labor relations, standard of living,
employer- employee relations, social classes, socio-economic planning,
socio-economic reforms, etc., are common to both economists and
sociologists.
The area of co-operation between sociology and economics is widening.
Economists are now analyzing the social factors influencing economic
growth. Economists are working with the sociologists in their study of the
problems of economic development in underdeveloped countries. Econo-
mists are more and more making use of the sociological concepts and
generalizations in the study of economic problems.
Further, there are certain socio-economic problems of greater importance
to be studied by both economists and sociologists. Such problems like
poverty, beggary, unemployment, over-population unregulated
industrialization have both social and economic implications. Combined
studies of both the experts in this regard may be of great practical help in
meeting the challenges.

SOCIOLOGY AND CRIMINOLOGY

Meaning of Criminology
Criminology refers to "the study of criminal behaviour" of man. The
French Anthropologist P Topinard seems to be the first man to use the
term criminology in his writings towards the end of the 19th century.
However, several studies in penology and the treatment of offenders had
been made still earlier. Even studies on crime were also made earlier.

"Scientific study of law breaking and serious attempts to uncover the

causes of criminality have usually taken place within an area of study
called "criminology", which is concerned with the objective analysis of
crime as a social phenomenon. Criminology includes within its scope
inquiry into the process of making laws, breaking laws, and reacting to
the breaking of laws"- Don C Gibbons

The Tasks of Criminology

As G.B. Trasler has pointed out in "A Dictionary of Sociology" edited by D.

Mitchell criminology embraces the studies of
1. The nature, forms and incidence of criminal acts, and of their social,
temporal and geo- graphic distribution;
2. The physical and psychological characteristics, histories and social
origins of criminals and of the relations between criminality and other
abnormalities of behaviour,
3. The characteristics of victims of crime;
4. Non-criminal and anti-social behaviour, (particularly, the acts such as
homosexual conduct, adultery, prostitution, etc., that are regarded as
criminal in some societies and not in others);
5. The procedures of the police and of the criminal courts including the
social influences upon the decisions of the judges;
6. Methods of punishing, training and treating offenders;
7. The social structure and organization of penal institutions;

8. Methods of preventing and controlling crime (The last four fields of

study are commonly grouped under the general name penology).
Some writers have even included within the domain of criminology the
science of criminalistics, i.e., of methods of identifying crimes and
detecting offenders. In the same way, studies of the origins and
development of the criminal law and of public attitudes to crime and
criminals are also included in it.

Criminology has its Roots in Sociology

The terms "Criminology" and "Criminologist" are most commonly used in

the study of criminality as a form of social behavior. Those sociologists
who specialize in this topic are called "Criminologists". Sociologists
interested in the study of law-violation as a form of social behavior have
made lot of sociological propositions and collected research evidence
about criminality.
Historically, in the U.S.A., a relatively small, specialized group of
sociologists inquired into criminology. Today, there is good deal of
interest in criminological topics, as witnessed in the works of students of
deviance, largescale organizations and sociology of law. That is, the social
origin of law and societal reactions to it are being studied in a number of
areas within sociology. Sociologists continue to evince interest in the
phenomenon of criminality and public responses to it. They are trying to
throw more light on the different facts of criminality.
Criminology has its roots in the disciplines of sociology, psychology,
psychiatry and law. It is also indebted to economics, political science and
other sciences. Criminologists have drawn upon the varied contributions
of these established sciences in order to pose economic, political, legal,
sociological, psychological and other kinds of questions about crime and
responses to it. Criminology.
Sociology borrows heavily from the work of sociologist. Because a good
deal of theoretical and research work that has been done on causes of
criminality and the organization of criminal justice agencies and processes
has been carried on by sociologists, many of whom call themselves
"Criminologists". Further, the sociologists have had much to say about
rehabilitation efforts and treatment programs.
The Sociology of Criminality

Criminal behavior is similar to any other social behavior in the sense it

springs from the same social set up or environment. No individual is born
as a criminal, but he may become one because of the provocative social
set up. Still, all those who live in such a kind of set up never invariably
turn out to be criminals. Hence the discover…of the causes of crime
including juvenile delinquency has been the principal task of
criminologist-sociologist. His major aim is to develop a body of
generalizations or propositions accounting for criminality. This task is a
many faceted one. Two main aspects of this task a sociologist has to do:
(1) The first has to do with the development of explanations for the kinds
and degree of criminality observed in society. "Sociological studies of
neighborhoods in which there are high rates of delinquency, have thrown
light on environmental correlates of delinquency and crime." (2) The
other center about discovery of the processes involved in the acquisition
of criminal behavior patterns by specific individuals. The field of sociology
of criminality has become quite interesting and challenging in the wake of
modern civilization.

Sociology and Criminology are Mutually Supportive

It is made abundantly clear from the above explanation that sociology

and criminology are mutually contributory. Criminology, which can be
called a branch of sociology, concentrates on only a part of the social life
of man, that is, the criminal life. A criminologist is basically a sociologist.
He looks at criminal behavior mainly from the social point of view. He
makes use of sociological concepts and techniques in his inquiry.
Criminological studies have influenced the sociological view towards
crime, criminal and rehabilitation of criminals. Criminological studies have
convincingly proved the sociological view that criminality is basically a
social product. Crime, the subject- matter of criminology, is after all, a
social phenomenon. As Durkheim stated we do not disapprove of an
action because it is crime, but it is a crime because society disapproves of
it.
of the causes of crime including juvenile delinquency has been the
principal task of criminologist-sociologist. His major aim is to develop a
body of generalizations or propositions accounting for criminality. This
task is a many faceted one. Two main aspects of this task a sociologist has
to do:
(1) The first has to do with the development of explanations for the kinds
and degree of criminality observed in society. "Sociological studies of
neighborhoods in which there are high rates of delinquency, have thrown
light on environmental correlates of delinquency and crime."
(2) The other center about discovery of the processes involved in the
acquisition of criminal behavior patterns by specific individuals. The field
of sociology of criminality has become quite interesting and challenging in
the wake of modern civilization.
Sociology and Philosophy
Historically, sociology has its closest relationship with philosophy.
Sociology was once called one of the branches of philosophy, i.e., at a
time when philosophy was regarded as the mother of all the sciences. In
the 19th century, psychology, or the science of human behavior; and
sociology, or the science of human society, emerged out of philosophy as
independent sciences. What had once been called the mental philosophy,
or the philosophy of mind, became the science of sociology; and what had
once been social philosophy, or the philosophy of history, became the
science of sociology. The word philosophy' is derived from Greek
language and it literally means 'love of wisdom'. Philosophy is concerned
with the task of acquiring knowledge regarding the causes and laws of all
things. Sociology can be said to have originated with some philosophical
 ambitions- to provide an account of the course of human history, to
explain the social crisis of the (European) 19th century, to seek out the
avenues for social welfare and social reform. As Bottom has pointed out
whether the philosophical ambitions or aims of sociology are still alive or
died out, one could find connections between sociology and philosophy in
three respects which are explained below.
Three Connections between the two Sciences
1, Philosophy of Sociology: Any science has a philosophy of its own in the
sense it is commit ted to acquire knowledge relevant to its field in its own
legitimate ways. Sociology is ever vigilant in its examination of the
methods, concepts and arguments. This philosophical scrutiny is more ur
gently felt in sociology than in the natural sciences because of the very
nature of sociology.
2. Sociology entertains Philosophical Thoughts: More than any other social
science, socio logy raises to a greater extent philosophical problems in its
studies. Hence a sociologist at studies is less consider the philosophical
issues which are always in the background of sociological prob. sample,
Marxism could invite and stimulate a lot of social research for it
represents not a sociological theory but also «Philosophical world view'"
and a "revolutionary doctrine".
3. Both Durkheim and Manheim seemed to claim that sociology can make a
direct contribution O Philosophy, in the sense of settling philosophical
questions. Durkheim, for instance, wrote "I believe that sociology. more
than any other science. has a contribution to make to the renewal of
philosophical questions. sociological reflection is bound to prolong itself
by. a natural progress in the form of philosophical reflection". In his own
study of religion Durkheim trans. the field of sociological thought and
stepped into epistemological discussion.
3. Intimate relationship between Sociology and Social Philosophy: Social
Philosophy seems to the meeting point of sociology and philosophy. Its
role in the social sciences is "the study of the Fundamental principles and
concepts of social life in their epistemological and axiological aspects ..."
epistemological aspect is concerned with the question of knowledge; and
the axiological aspect along with the questions of value. The former deals
with the fundamental principles and concepts of social life such as man,
society, justice, happiness, etc. It also delves deep into the validity of the
options, principles and inferences of the social sciences. It also tries to
synthesize its results those of the other sciences that deal with man. The
latter (i.e., the axiological aspect) deals with ultimate values of social life
and the means of attaining them. It thus tries to interpret and estimate
the social phenomena in terms of ethical principles. The object of social
philosophy is, there the attainment of social good itself.
The study of society is inextricably mixed up with moral values. Because
the subject-matter of sociology is human behavior which is directed and
guided by values on the one hand and impulses on the other.
Thus the sociologist is bound to study values and human valuations, as to
do this, he must have some knowledge of values in their own context,
that is, in moral and philosophy. For example, he must know the role and
influence of dharma' in the making of institutions, and that of
individualism and liberalism in the making of American institutions. e
concepts such as dharma', individualism and liberalism are mostly ethical
in nature, but studied as objects of knowledge only a sociologist who is
capable of distinguishing questions of facts and value questions can make
such studies more objective. As Bottom are only by some training in social
philosophy can the sociologist become competent to distinct different
issues, and at the same time to see their relationships to each other".

THE CONCEPT OF ROLE

Meaning of Role

1 According to Young and Mack, "A role is the function of a status"

2 Robert Bierstadt says that a "role is the dynamic or the behavioral
aspect of status. A role is what an individual does in the status he
occupies".
3. Duncan Mitchell writes that "a social role is the expected behavior
associated with a social position.
4 For Kingsley Davis role refers to "the manner in which a person actually
carries out the requirements of his position".

Nature of Role
 An analysis of social role' would reveal to us the following things.
1. Every individual member of social group or society is bound to play
social roles. It means role-playing is obligatory for all members. The
number of roles that one plays depends on the statuses that he assumes.
2. Some social roles are shared by a great many people. Ex There are
many adults, citizens, voters, authors, ministers, teachers, and so on.
3. Some social roles are enacted only by one or by comparatively a few
individuals at a particular time in a particular place. Ex. In India, there can
only a few governors at a time depending upon the number of states.
4. Some social roles may be assumed voluntarily. The individual may
choose to enact or not enact certain roles. Ex one may choose to live in
city as city dweller, play as a bowler in a cricket team, join a voluntary
association and play the role of its executive member or not.
5.The assumption of certain roles is largely involuntary The enactment of
many such roles has to take place continuously Example Females will have to
continuously enact the roles of females, males of males, whites of whites,
Harrijans of Harijans, and so on. They are unchangeable.

SOCIAL STATUS
Meaning of Social Status

Society is understood in terms of the network of social interaction and

interconnection. In any interaction situation we cannot expect everyone
to respond to the stimulus in the same manner. Because everyone has his
own separate identity which is already there even before entering the
social situation. Example: A husband expects sexual response from his
wife, but other men have no such right to expect such a response from
her. Similarly, patients expect treatment for their diseases from the
doctors, students expect clarification for their doubts in lessons from their
teachers, and so on. Thus, everyone enters a social situation with an
identity. This identity refers to his position or ztalus.
Definitions
1 According to Duncan Mitchell, social status refers to "the position
occupied by a person, family, or kinship group in a social system relative
to others. This determines rights, duties and other behaviors, including
the nature and extent of the relationships with persons of other statuses

2. Ralph Linton says that "status is the place in a particular system, which
a certain individual occupies at a particular time".

3. Robert Bierstadt is of the opinion that "A status is simply a position in

society or in a group the status is the position afforded by group
affiliation, group membership, or group organization. It is set' in the
structure of the group or of the society before a given individual comes
along to occupy it.
4. For Morris Ginsberg "A status is a position in a social group or grouping,
a relation to other positions held by other individuals in the group or
grouping".

Nature of Status

1. External symbols to identify the status. As Kingsley Davis has said, a

person's identity in a social situation reveals his status. Though not
always certain external symbols help the identification of one's statuses
in society The style of dress is one such indicator. Soldiers and army
officers, nurses, doctors, advocates, policemen, religious missionaries,
priests wear different dresses. Their statuses could be understood by
means of their dresses. The various badges the policemen, and the army
officials wear further pin point their status. Sex status of men and women
could be ascertained with the help of the dress that they wear. In some
societies married and unmarried persons, the old and young, the
merchants and craftsmen wear different costumes. This kind of
identification has its limitations because some unauthorized persons may
wear certain type of costumes for fun, fashion or for cheating.

2. Every status has its own rights, duties and obligations. The nature of
these rights and duties is decided by the normative system of society. A
right is a legitimate expectation that one can entertain as an occupant of
a status in relation to the behavior of a person in another position. From
the viewpoint of another person their claim represents only an obligation.
For example, it is the right of an employer to expect a particular behavior
from his employee and it is the obligation of the employee to behave in
the so desired manner. Similarly, it is the right of an employee to expect
some rewards for his labour from his employer, and it becomes the
obligation; but it becomes a duty on the part of the employer to give the
rewards to the employee. Thus, "rights' and 'obligations' are only
different definitions of the same relationship. . Statuses exercise an
influence upon the careers of individuals. The behavior of individuals can
be understood only by understanding the statuses that they assume in
their respective

groups or societies. For example, an Eskimo cannot think of becoming a

nuclear physicist because such a status is not there in his society Similarly,
no American boy at present wants to become a witch-doctor because
there is no such status in his society.

6. Statuses differ with their degree of importance. Some statuses are

more important than others in deciding the position of an individual in
society Different societies have different criteria for deciding the
importance of statuses. Sociologist ET Hiller has made use of the concept
of key status to denote a man's position in society. In most of modern
industrial societies, for example, occupational status has become the 'key
status' It mostly influences his various other statuses. In some societies,
kinship statuses, religious statuses or even political statuses may be more
important and hence become 'key statuses". In India, caste status and
occupational status may be more important. Russians may attach more
weightage to political status and so on. In primitive societies age, sex and
kinship statuses are important than others.

7. Statuses add to social order and social stability. We are all born into a
society in which the statuses are already there. They are the part of the
structure of our society. We are not creating them afresh. The statuses of
farmers, soldiers, teachers, clerks etc., are not our creations. In
exceptional cases some may find out new ways and new paths of living
and thus may create new statuses. Like other elements of culture, status,
which is cultural item, is also dynamic Some statuses, may, in course of
time, become obsolete, and disappear from the social structure. But most
of the individuals, in most of the cases occupy statuses that are already
there established in the societies in which they are born.

8. Social status has a hierarchical distribution also. All the statuses in

society are not equally distributed among all. Thus a few persons occupy
the highest positions while the majority assume the so called 'ordinary
statuses. The theoretical assumption behind the distribution of the
statuses is that the statuses are determined competitively by the
possession of abilities relative to the demand for abilities in society. Thus,
it could be said in the competitive struggle those who possess greater
abilities and qualities assume higher statuses in society But in actuality,
the relation between the possession of abilities and the assumption of
higher statuses has not been found to be invariable. The factors such as
private property, inheritance, social services, etc., all modify the form of
the distribution of statuses.

Social statuses are governed by norms.: These norms vary with persons,
situations and statuses, even though they are believed to be common to
all. For example, the norms like "be honest, be truthful etc., are believed
to be common to all. But in practice we know that a doctor cannot always
tell the truth to the patient regarding the state of his disease. Similarly, a
merchant cannot practice honesty always in his trade. Thus norms are
always relative to situations. Which norms apply in a given case depends
upon the relations between the statuses of the interacting persons and

the situations in which they interact. One individual may have several
statuses. Since society can be understood as the network of statuses, it is
quite natural that in every society we find a large number of groups which
have many statuses. Every individual occupies many such statuses. His
status will differ with the type of group
In a modern complex society each individual during the course of a single
day may find him- self in a large number of statuses. Example: A college
student may be a student to his teachers, a customer to the shop owner,
a depositor to his banker, a passenger to the bus driver, a brother to his
sister, a son to his father and mother, a secretary to the members of the
cricket club, a male to all females, a patient to his doctor, and so on. It
means the individual occupies the statuses such as student, customer,
depositor, passenger, brother, son, secretary of the cricket club, patient
and many such statuses in the course of a single day. It becomes thus
impossible to enlist all the statuses that each one is likely to occupy at
one time or other in the course of his entire life. Of course, in smaller and
simpler societies an individual can have only a fewer status.

Interrelationship between Roles and Statuses

(a) The terms 'role' and 'status' are interrelated. A status is simply a
position in society or in a group. A role is the behavioral aspect of status.
Statuses are occupied and roles are played. A role is the manner in which
a given individual fulfills the obligations of a status and enjoys its
privileges and prerogatives. A position or status is simply the means of
identifying a particular social role. The two terms are often used
interchangeably for example; the position of advocate identifies a
particular body of expected behavior or the role of advocate. To define a
social role is actually to define the essential or minimal features of the
expected behavior or role. Strictly, from the socio- logical point of view, to
define a social position completely means to define or to indicate its
(status) entire role prescriptions. In this way these two terms "position"
or status and role are only analytically separable.

(b) Role is a relational term. An individual plays a role vis-a-vis another

person's role which is attached to a counter-position For example, an
advocate plays his role as advocate in relation to the client's role. Role
concept is relevant at the level of individual when he is in interaction.
Because, it is individuals, not organizations, institutions, or sub-systems,
who play roles and occupy positions.

(c) 'Role' and 'status'-in a way point out the divergent interests of the two
sciences-social psychology and sociology. Status is a sociological concept
and a sociological phenomenon. On the contrary, role is a concept and a
phenomenon of social psychology Individual differences in personality,
ability, talents and behavior can alone explain as to why different
individuals play different roles in the same status. For example, though
the status of Prime Minister has been the same for Pandit Nehru, Lal
Bahadur Shastri, Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi. They have played
different roles in that status. d) Both status and role are dynamic and
constantly changing. Hence, role changes with each new incumbent in a
status. The status changes as the norms attached to it are altered. It is
quite likely that in course of time, new obligations and new
responsibilities may be added to a status or old ones may be removed.
Sometimes more rigorous role playing may expand the functions of a
status. Similarly, these functions may change due to the newly felt needs
of the system of which status is a part. For example, when an association
increases in size, its office-bearers may acquire new duties, or new
statuses may be established. Thus, both status and role are dynamic
elements in the life of a society but the statuses are cultural and roles are
behavioral in nature

(e) Though statuses and roles are correlative phenomena, it is possible to

have one without the other A status without a role may simply denote an
unfilled position in an association. For example, when the Vice-Chancellor
of a University resigns it may take some time to find a suitable successor
for the post. During this time gap the duties of the Vice-Chancellor may be
looked into by some of his assistants.

Meaning of Power
Power is a fundamental entity of human society. It is a universal
phenomenon. Society itself is built of power relations-the father
exercising his power over his child, a master over his slave, a teacher over
his student, a victor over the vanquished, an employer over his employee,
an army commander over the soldiers and so on. All these are examples
of social power. What then do we mean by power?

(1) Max Weber defined power as "the ability to control the behavior of
others, ever die absence of their consent"

() As lan Robertson says, power is the capacity to participate effectively in

a decision-making process"

(ii) According to N.J Demerath III and Gerald Marwell, "power may be
defined as the capacity to get things done despite obstacles and
resistance"
It may be pointed out that there are many types of power and many ways
of overcoming resistance. "One can threaten, cajole, influence, coerce,
wheedle, persuade, beg, blackmail, inspire, etc., to get his things done.
But power on a large scale is almost always embedded within
organizational structures whether they be governments, political parties,
business firms, schools, churches, or pro- test movements." "In each of
these settings power involves a kind of gamble. Because there is al- ways
the risk that the people in power will betray the common trust"-
Demerath and Marwell.
Power may be exercised blatantly or subtly, legally or illegally, justly or
unjustly. It may derive from many sources, such as wealth, status,
prestige, numbers, or organizational efficiency. Its ultimate basis,
however, is the ability to compel obedience, if necessary through the
threat or use of force .Social power has been identified in different ways
with prestige, influence, eminence, competence, dominance, rights,
strength, force, and authority

(1) Power and Prestige are closely linked. As Ross said, "The class that has
the most prestige will have the most power It can be said that the
powerful groups tend to be prestigious and prestigious groups powerful.
Knowledge, eminence, skill, and competence-all contribute to prestige,
but they need not necessarily accompany power. If at all power is
accompanied by these factors, then the association is only incidental.

(iii) Power and influence are more intimately connected. Still they are
different. Influence is persuasive whereas power is coercive. We submit
voluntarily to influence but power requires our submission. They are, so
as to say, independent variables. Influence does not require power and
power may dispense with influence.
Power and dominance are also to be distinguished. Power is a
sociological, and dominance a psychological phenomenon. The locus of
power is in both persons and groups, and in important cases it is in the
latter. But dominance is a function of personality or of temperament. It is
a personal trait. It is also possible to find dominant individuals playing
roles in powerless groups and submissive individuals playing roles in
powerful ones. Power is one thing and dominance quite another

(v) Power and Rights: Rights are more closely associated with privileges
and with authority than they are with power. A right is one of the
prerequisites of power and not power itself. One may have a right
without the power to exercise it. The man who has the power rarely waits
for the right to use it. A right always requires some support in the social
structure. No individual can successfully claim a right that is un recognised
in the law and non-existent in the mores. Rights in general, like privileges,
duties, obligations, responsibilities, etc., are attached to the statuses.
Whereas, power does not necessarily require the backing of the status.

(vi) Power, Force and Authority: Power is not force and power is not
authority, but it is related to both. As Robert Bierstedt said, "Power is
latent force; force is manifest power, and authority is institutionalized
power" Power is the prior capacity that makes the use of force possible.
Only groups that have power can threaten to use force and the threat
itself is power. Power is the ability to employ force, not its actual
employment. Power is always successful, when it is not successful, it
ceases to be power thus symbolizes the force that may be applied in any
social situation and supports the authority that is applied. "Power is thus
neither force nor authority but it makes both force and authority
possible"-Robert Bierstedt.

Weber's Views on Power

According to Demerath and Marwell, Weber, an authority on "power and
authority", saw power more as a property of organizations and
organizational roles than an attribute of individuals as such. This
relationship between power and organizations, throws light on three
theoretical innovations. Firstly, Weber provided rich and abundant
demonstration that power relationships are not restricted to the realm of
politics or the state but pervade the whole of everyday human
relationship. Secondly, Weber pointed out "a conception of power
involving only coercion or force, is all too narrow; it misses the subtlety
and variety entailed in its other forms" Thirdly, Weber showed that it is
very important "to understand the attitudes of the followers as well as
the leaders in any organizational setting since the relationship between
them is neither automatic nor unchanging An explanation of this third
point would take us to a discussion of Weber's use of the term
"authority" and its types.

2. AUTHORITY

The exercise of authority is a constant and pervasive phenomenon in the

human society. Hu- man society maintains itself because of 'order'-and it
is the authority that serves as the foundation of social order. It is wrong
to assume that 'authority' is purely a political phenomenon. In fact, in all
kinds of organizations, political as well as non-political, authority appears.
Every association in society whether it is temporary or permanent, small
or big, has its own structure of authority
"Authority is that form of power which orders or articulates the actions of
other actors through commands which are effective because those who
are commanded regard the commands as Legitimate -By EA Shils in
Dictionary of Sociology
2. Max Weber used the term authority to refer to legitimate power. 3. In
simple words, it can be said that authority refers to power which is
regarded as legitimate in the minds of followers.

Weber's notion of authority does not imply that power is legitimate and
that illegitimate power plays no role in society "Weber only argued that
legitimacy is a general condition for the most effective and enduring
manifestations of power Still this legitimacy may take different forms and
different justifications."
-Demerath and Marwell as lan Robertson has stated, "Power based on
authority is usually unquestionably accepted by those to whom it is
applied, for obedience to it has become a social norm. Power based on
coercion, on the other hand, tends to be unstable, because people obey
only out of fear and will disobey at the first opportunity for this reason
every political system must be regarded as legitimate by its participants if
it is to survive." Most people must consider it desirable, workable, and
better than alternatives. If the majority of the citizens in any society no
longer consider their political system legitimate, it is doomed, because
power that rests only on coercion will fail in the long run. The French,
Russian and the American Revolutions, for example, have proved it. The
authority of the respective monarchies was questioned, and their power
which was based mainly on coercion rather than on loyalty inevitably
crumbled. In these cases, the exercise of coercive control was in conflict
with the exercise of legitimate authority

"The legitimacy of authority is ultimately a matter of belief concerning the

rightfulness of institutional system through which authority is exercised"
It depends on "the rightfulness of the exerciser's incumbency in the
authoritative role with the institutional system" It also depends on "the
rightfulness of the command itself or of the mode of its promulgation
Weber describes three ideal types of legitimation which correspond to
three types of authority.

SOCIAL NORMS
The concept of 'social norms is of special interest for sociology because
they constitute the foundation of the social structure. The primary task of
sociology is to discover the source of der that society exhibits. Norms
here, represent such a source of social order. No society and no social
group can exist without Norms. Norms have made it possible the orderly
social intercourse of people in societies. Hence, everywhere they serve
the individual as guides to conduct. They are rally known as "standards of
group behavior

The term 'social norms' is relatively a newcomer to the dictionary of

sociology M Sherif in The Psychology of Social Norms", 1936, used the
term for the first time to describe the common standards or ideas which
guide members' responses in all established groups. Today, the word
norm very often used as a genetic term to represent folkways, mores,
laws, customs, etc., If, today, some action is called a norm or normative it
only emphasizes that it conforms to community expectations of behavior.
The degrees of conformity may, however, vary very much.

1. MEANING AND DEFINITION OF NORMS

Meaning of Norm

"Social norms" refer to the group-shared standards of behavior Norms

represent "standard- und generalization" concerning expected modes of
behavior They are based on social values. A is a pattern setting limits on
individual behavior Norms are the blueprints for behavior They
determine, guide, control and also predict human behavior

Norms are group-shared expectations. Such expectations are reflected in

statements such as-"A good citizen always respects laws", "A gentleman
pays his debts", "Younger one must always respect elderly people", "One
is supposed to be quiet and respectful, and not to disturb others in a place
of worship", "A lawyer must not produce damaging evidence in the court
against his own client", "A scientist must be a restless searcher of truth
and free from prejudices", "Any occupant of any profession must follow
the professional ethics associated with it", "He should not have done
that." Count-less such norms govern our social life in all situations.

Definition of Norms

1. According to Young and Mack, "norms' refer to the "group-shared

expectations" TR
2. According to H. M. Johnson. "A norm is an abstract pattern held in the
mind, that sets certain limits for behavior"
3. Nomis refer to "the rules that guide behavior in the value"-Donald Light
Jr. and Suzanne Keller everyday situations and are derived from
4. As Robert Bierstedt has pointed out, "A norm is a rule or standard that
governs our conduct in the social situations in which we participate" He
further writes that a norm can be treated as cultural specification that
guides our conduct in society"
5. "Social norms are rules developed by a group of people that specify
how people must, should may, should not and must not behave in various
situations."-GR. Leslie. RF Larson and BL Gorman

It is clear from the above definition that norms can be understood as rules
and regulations that groups live by Norms are the means through which
values are expressed in behavior.
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL NORMS

1. Social norms are universal. Social norms are the very basis of social
order No society can function smoothly in the absence of norms. In fact,
the concept of society pre-supposes the presence of norms. Even in the
uncivilized and barbaric societies also we find some norms.

2. Norms are related to the factual order. In every society we find two
types of order-(1) the normative order that insists how the individuals
should or ought to behave, and (ii) the factual order that is related to and
based on the actual behavior of the people. It is through the normative
order or system that society regulates the behavior of its members. But
this normative order should be related to the events in the real world for
it is meant to achieve result in the factual world. The factual order also
exercises an influence on the normative system. For example, a rule
requiring all men to have three wives would be valueless if the sex ratio
did not permit it. Similarly, a rule requiring everybody to bathe in salt
water in order to prevent tuberculosis would be valueless if bathing in
salt water had nothing to do with curbing the disease. Thus norms in
order to become effective must present correctly the relations between
real events. They must take into account the factual situation.

3. Norms Incorporate value judgements. A norm is a standard or

behavioral expectation shared by group members. They represent
"standardized generalization concerning expected modes of behavior As
standardized generalizations, they are concepts which have been
evaluated by the group and they incorporate value judgements. It is in
terms of norms that we judge whether some action is right or wrong,
good or bad, wanted or unwanted, expected or unexpected. Norms are
normally based on values Norms do not refer to an average tendency of
man. But they denote expected behavior or even ideal behavior

4. Norms are relative to situations and groups. Norms vary from society to
society. Sometimes, within the same society they differ from group to
group. Each group in a society, to a certain extent at least, has its own
norms. There is no social group without norms. Within the same society
they differ with age, sex, occupation and social status of the individuals.
Some norms do not govern the behavior of all the people always. Norms
of behavior meant for old people are not applicable to the children. What
is alright for a man is not alright for a woman Norms meant for soldiers
and policemen are different from those of teachers and advocates.
Behavior patterns meant for married people cannot be followed by
unmarried people. Especially in a multigroup society or a complex society
such wide variation in norms is found. But in primitive societies, in
general, single set of religious beliefs, practices and norms is found,
because their culture exhibits high degree of integration.

5. Norms are not always obeyed by all. It is wrong to assume that people
in a society obey all the norms always. Some obey some norms at some
times and disobey or ignore some others at some other times. Even those
who normally respect and obey norms may go against some norms in
some particular situations. This we can observe in some big political and
religious gatherings when highly religious and law abiding people break
laws and behave in a frenzy mood when they are provocated If everyone
always did the 'right' things at the right time and place, there would be no
need to have rules or laws.

6. Norms vary with sanctions. Norms also vary in the kinds of sanctions
that are attached to the violation of norms. Norms and sometimes go
hand in hand. Norms are the group's rules of proper behavior; sanctions
are the group's punishments for violation of the norms. Sanctions are the
re- wards or punishment used to enforce the norms in a society. In
addition to being punished for violation of norms, people tend to be
rewarded for the proper observance of them. Sanctions may be applied in
various ways, ranging from the use of physical force to symbolic means
such as flattery They are used to enforce or persuade an individual or
group to conform to social expectations. Rewards may include smiles,
approval, praise, appreciation, money, prestige, etc. Conformity to social
norms is secured through both rewards and punishments 6. punishments
in most of the instances

7. Norms are normally internalized by the people. People in most of the

instances accept norms and follow them or obey them. They do not
question most of the norms and accept them implicitly It is because
norms become the part and parcel of personality of the individual
through the process of socialization. In fact, socialization is often
described as the process whereby an individual internalizes the norms of
the group. The cultural rules and restrictions or norms are internalized by
 the new born individuals through socialization and hence, in most of the
times they tend to honor and obey them implicitly.

MEANING AND DEFINITION OF SOCIAL VALUES

Social Values' form an important part of the culture of a society Social
values, norms and institutions explain the way in which social processes
operate in a given society They are the social sources of patterned
interaction. Values account for the stability of the social order They
provide the general guidelines for conduct. In doing so, they facilitate
social control. Values are the criteria people use in assessing their daily
lives, arranging their priorities, measuring their pleasures and pains,
choosing between alternative courses of action.

Definition

1 "Values are group conceptions of the relative desirability of things" G.R.

Leslie, R.F Larson, H.L. Gorman

2. According to H.M. Johnson, "Values are general standards and may be

regarded as higher order norms

3. "Values are assumptions, largely unconscious, of what is right and

important"-Young and Mack.

4. "A value is a belief that something is good and worthwhile. It defines

what is worth having and worth striving for "-Michael Haralambos

5. "Values are general conceptions of "the good", ideas about the kind of
ends that people should pursue throughout their lives and throughout the
many different activities in which they gage Peter Worsley

4. In simple words. values may be defined as measure of goodness or

desirability. Thus, it is clear from the above definitions that values
represent wide range of ideas about the ands that men should pursue in
their life. The values of a society provide goals or ends for its members to
 aim for. These goals or ends are to be pursued in different contexts and
situations. If the dominant value is "success" then, it expects all the
individuals to become successful at school, in work, at sports and in life, in
general Values provide the general guidelines for the behavior of the
people. Thus, values such as respect for human dignity, fundamental
rights, private property, patriotism fidelity to wife or to the husband,
religiosity, sacrifice, helpfulness, co-operation, individual enterprise, free
marital selection, individuality, social equality, privacy, democracy, etc.,
guide our behavior in various ways.
12. FUNCTIONS OF VALUES

1. As it is already made clear, values provide goals or ends for the members to
aim for 2. Values provide for stabilities and uniformities in group interactions
They hold the society together because they are shared in common. Some
sociologists argue that the values form the basis for social unity or social
solidarity. Since they share the same values with others, the members of a
society are likely to see others as "people like themselves" They will, therefore,
have a sense belonging to a social group. They will feel a part of the wider
society of

3. Values bring legitimacy to the rules that govern specific activities. The rules
are accepted as rules and followed mainly because they embody the values that
most people accept. The Americans for example, believe that the capitalist
organisation is the best one because it allows people to sock success in life.

5. Values help to bring about some kind of adjustment between different

sets of rules. The people seek the same kinds of ends or goals in different
fields of their life. Hence it is possible for them to modify the rules to help
the pursuit of this end. For example, if the Indian people cherish the value
of "the principle of equality", then they will have to modify the rules
governing the inter personal relationship of husband and wife; and man
 and woman. As and when new activities emerge, people create rules in
the light of their beliefs about what is good and right.

FOUR ASPECTS OF VALUES

1. General and Specific Values

General Values. Values such as democracy, freedom, the right to dissent,
respect for fundamental rights and dignity of labour, etc., for example, are very
general in character. These values are abstract in nature and they pervade many
aspects of life. A large proportion of values are found to be very general in
nature. Sociologically, these are more significant.
(b) Specific Values. Values are often stated in specific terms. For example, we
may value physical health or affluence. More specifically, we may value silk over
nylon or the writing of a particular novelist over that of another Values normally
range from highly abstract to specified levels
2. Values are Hierarchically Arranged
All the values are not equally significant. We can make a distinction between-
Means Values Ends Values Dominant Values' and 'Ultimate Values (a) 'Means
Values' are instrumental values. They are sought as part of the effort to achieve
other values, (b) 'Ends Values' are more general and more important from the
point of view of the groups who are doing the valuing work. For example, if
health is the value, then the maintenance of good nutrition, securing proper
rest, avoidance of alcoholic drinks and drug addictions, doing proper exercises
regularly, etc., become means to that end. This difference is based on contexts
and situations. But it helps us to understand how the values are patterned and
how one is related to another
(c) 'Dominant Values' are those values which influence and condition the
behavior of the people to a great extent. Sociologist Williams has suggested the
following criteria for dominant values

ASSOCIATION
Definition
(1) An association is "an organization deliberately formed for the collective
pursuit of some interest, or a set of interests, which its members share".-R.M.
Maciver
(2) An association is "a group of social beings related to one another by the fact
that possess or have instituted in common an organization with a view to
securing a specific end or specific ends- Morris Ginsberg
(3) An association is a group of people organized for the achievement of a
particular interest or interests.
Main Characteristics of Association
The main characteristics of association are as follows
(1) Association-a Human Group. An association is formed or created by people It
is basically a social group. Without people there can be no association.
However, all groups are not associations, because, an association is basically an
organized group. An unorganized group like crowd or mob cannot be an
association.
(ii) Common Interest or Interests an association is not merely a collection of
individuals. It consists of those individuals who have more or less the same
interests. Accordingly, those who have political interests may join political
associations, and those who have religious interests may join religious
associations, and so on.
(iii) Co-operative Spirit an association is based on the co-operative spirit of its
members. People work together to achieve some definite purposes. For
example, a political party has to work together as a united group on the basis of
co-operation in order to fulfil its objective of coming to power
(iv) Organization. Association denotes some kind of organisation. An association
is known essentially as an organized group. Organisation gives stability and
proper shape to an association. Organisation refers to the way in which the
statuses and roles are distributed among the members.
(v) Regulation of Relations. Every association has its own ways and means of
regulating the relations of its members. Organisation depends on this element
of regulation. They may assume written or unwritten forms.
(vi) Association as Agencies Associations are means or agencies through which
their members seek to realize their similar or shared interests Such social
organizations necessarily act not merely through leaders, but through officials
or representatives, as agencies Associations normally act through agents who
are responsible for and to the association. This fact gives association a
distinctive character and its peculiar legal status. Further, association may have
its own methods of operation peculiar to it as an association.

(v) Regulation of Relations. Every association has its own ways and means of
regulating the relations of its members. Organisation depends on this element
of regulation. They may assume written or unwritten forms.

Vi Durability of Association an association may be permanent or temporary

There are some long-standing associations like the state, family, religious
associations etc. Some associations may be purely temporary in nature. Ex
Associations that are established to felicitate some great writers, scientists, and
religious leaders and associations created for performing some social, religious
or other ceremony or fair on a grand scale

It is clear from the above, that an association is not merely a group, it is

something more than that. It is a group expressly organized around a particular
interest. The qualification "expressly organized, helps us to distinguish between
associations and other social groups. Social groups like class, crowd, mob,
public, etc in this way, are not associations

In modern society, the number of associations is on the increase. Not only their
numbers are increasing, but their varieties are also increasing. In almost all the
fields of our social life we have associations. The rapid changes that are taking
place in different fields of our social life have necessitated the birth of a large
number of associations. In modern democratic countries associations have a
distinct role to play Their role in strengthening the democratic set-up can hardly
be exaggerated. The modern age today, is really an age of organizations or
associations. Man's life is, today, to a very great extent, lived and controlled by
the larger association (The state).
6. INSTITUTION
The concept of institution is one of the most important in the entire field of
sociology Unfortunately, it is a concept that has not been consistently used by
sociologist. The importance of understanding the concept of institution in order
to understand society is, at the same time, recognised by all the sociologists. In
fact, Durkheim has gone to the extent of defining sociology as the science of
social institutions. Sumner and Keller have said, "Folkways are to society what
cells are to the biological organism, institutions are its bones and tissues" FH
Giddings regards institutions as "the organs that conserve what is best in the
past of human race"
The term institution has been given various interpretations. Some sociologists
have used it in a vague manner also. Commenting on this, Harry M. Johnson
writes," both laymen and sociologists often speak of schools, churches, business
organizations, prisons, and the like as the institutions of the community. This
usage is so frequent that we should be foolish to condemn it"
Definition
(1) Ginsberg Institutions "may be described as recognised and established
usages governing the relations between individuals and groups" (2) Maciver and
Page Institutions may be defined as the "established forms or conditions of
procedure characteristic of group activity
(3) Kingsley Davis. Institution can be defined as "a set of interwoven folkways,
mores, and laws built around one or more functions"

(4) HE. Barnes. Institutions represent "the social structure and the machinery
through which human society organizes, directs and executes the multifarious
activities required to satisfy human needs
(5) CA. Ellwood. Institutions may be defined as "the habitual ways of living
together which have been sanctioned, systematized and established by the
authority of communities"

Characteristics of Institutions

The main characteristics of social institutions may be described here.

(1) Social in Nature Institutions come into being due to the collective activities
of the people. They are essentially social in nature. After all, institutions are the
products of the secular and repetitive forms of social relationships of the
individuals.
(2) Universality Social institutions are ubiquitous. They exist in all the societies
and existed at all the stages of social development. The basic institutions like
family, religion, property and some kind of political institutions are observed
even in the tribal or primitive societies.
(3) Institutions are Standardized Norms. An institution must be understood as
standardized
procedures and norms. They prescribe the way of doing things. They also
prescribe rules and regulation that are to be followed. Marriage, as an
institution, for example, governs the relations between the husband and wife.
Similarly, the school or college has its own rules and procedures
(4) Institutions as Means of Satisfying Needs Institutions are established by men
themselves They cater to the satisfaction of some basic and vital needs of man.
These basic needs are (1) the need for self-preservation, (2) the need for self-
perpetuation, and (3) the need for self-expression.

(5) Institutions are the Controlling Mechanisms. Institutions like religion,

morality, state, government, law, legislation, etc., control the behavior of men.
These mechanisms preserve the social order and give stability to it. Institutions
are like wheels on which human society marches on towards the desired
destination.

(6) Relatively Permanent Institutions normally do not undergo sudden or rapid

changes. Changes take place slowly and gradually in them. Many institutions are
rigid and enduring. They, in course of time, become the conservative elements
in society Ex caste, religion, etc. But under the pressure of circumstances they
also undergo changes.

(7) Abstract in Nature Institutions are not external, visible or tangible things.
They are abstract. Thus marriage cannot be kept in a museum, religion cannot
be rated or quantified, we cannot be weighed and law cannot be brought to the
laboratory experiments and so on.
(8) Oral and Written Traditions Institutions may persist in the form of oral
and/or written traditions. For the primitive societies they may be largely oral
but in modern complex societies they may be observed in written as well as
unwritten forms. There may be written institutional forms like constitutions,
sacred text books, syllabus, governmental orders, business contracts,
examination sys- tem, etc., relating to political, religious, educational and
economic institutions and so on.

(9) Synthesizing Symbols Institutions may have their own symbols, material or
non-material Ex. the state has flag emblem, national anthem as its symbols,
religion may have its own symbols like crucifix, crescent, star, swastika, the
school may have its own flag or school prayer, marriage may have its own
wedding ring or mangala sutra, and so on.

(10) Institutions are Interrelated. Institutions, though diverse, are interrelated.

Understanding of one institution requires the understanding of the other
related institutions. The religious, moral, educational, political, economic and
other types of institutions are essentially interlinked.
FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Institutions have great functional importance. Their main functions are as

follows:

(1) Institutions Cater to the Satisfaction of Needs Institutions contribute to the

fulfilment of the fundamental human needs such as (1) The need for self-
perpetuation, (11) perpetuation, and (iii) self-expression. They provide and
prescribe the ways and means of fulfilling them

(2) Institutions Control Human Behavior Institutions organize and regulate the
system of social behavior. Through the institutions the unexpected,
spontaneous, and irregular behavior of people is replaced by expected,
patterned, systematic, regular and predictable behavior. Thus, the interpersonal
relationships of the individuals are regulated by institutions. They make clear
for the members what is allowed and what is not, what is desirable and what is
undesirable This is particularly true of the governmental institutions
(3) Institutions, Simplify Actions for the Individual. Since the institutions
prescribe a particular way of behavior for the fulfilment of our basic needs, they
save much of our energy and also time They avoid confusion and uncertainties
and contribute to a system and order in society
(4) Institutions Assign Roles and Statuses to the Individual Institutionalization of
the social behavior consists of the establishment of definite norms. These norms
assign status positions and role-functions in connection with such behaviour
Institutions such as family, marriage, education, property, division of labour,
caste, religion, etc. provide some social standing for the individuals concerned.

(5) Institutions Contribute to Unity and Uniformity Institutions which regulate

the relations between individuals have largely been responsible for unity and
uniformity that are found in a society

(6) Manifest Functions of Institutions. Every institution has two types of

manifest functions- (1) the pursuit of its objectives or interests, and (ii) the
preservation of its own internal cohesion so that it may survive. For example,
the state must serve its citizens and protect its boundaries. At the same time,
the state must escape the danger of internal revolution and external conquests.

(7) The Negative Functions of Institutions may cause harmful effects also. They
do not undergo changes easily and quickly even if the circumstances demand
change. When they become too conservative they retard progress. They even
hamper the growth of personalities of the people. Religion and caste can be
mentioned here as examples to show how they often discourage people to do
achievements or adventures.
COMMUNITY

Different Meanings of the Term

The term Community is very loosely used. It is given different interpretations
and used in different ways to mean different things. In their casual talks, people
often use the term community to refer to a racial community, or a religious
community or a national community or a caste community or a linguistic
community or a professional community or sometimes, to refer to the entire
mankind in a restricted sense, it is used to mean an association or group, and in
wider sense, it is used to refer to the entire humanity

Definition

(1) Community is "a social group with some degree of "we-feeling" and living in
a given area" - Bogardus
(2) Community is "the smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of
social life" - Kingsley Daviς
(3) Community is "an area of social living marked by some degree of social
coherence"-R.M. Maciver
(4) "A community is a group or collection of groups that inhabits a locality". -
Ogburn and Nimkoff
(5) Community is "any circle of people who live together and belong together in
such a way that they do not share this or that particular interest only, but a
whole set of interests" – Manheim
Community is, therefore, a geographic area having common centers of interests
and activities. A community is essentially an area of social living. It is marked by
some degree of social coherence. Thus community is a circle in which common
life is living. "Community' is an all-inclusive term. It includes in itself all our
social relationships. It includes a variety of associations and institutions. Within
the range of a community the members may carry on their economic, religious,
political, educational and other activities. Hence community is the total
organisation of social life within limited space. Examples village, town, tribe,
city, district.

Elements of Community
The main bases of Community are (i) locality, and (ii) community sentiment.

(1) Locality

A community is a territorial group. It always occupies some geographic area.

Locality is the physical basis of community. Even the wandering tribe or a
nomad community, for example, has a locality, though changing habitation. A
group of people forms community only when it begins to reside in a definite
locality. In contrast with society, a community is more or less locally limited.
Living together facilitates people to develop social contacts, gives protection,
safety and
security. It helps the members to promote and fulfil their common interests.
Further, the very physical conditions may influence social life to a great extent.
Most communities are settled and derive from the conditions of their locality a
strong bond of solidarity Locality continues to be a basic factor of community
life. However, in modern times the local bond of community is weakened by the
development of the means of transport and communication
In fact, the extension of communication is itself the condition of a larger but still
territorial community The physical factors such as fertile soil, minerals, forests,
fisheries, water resources, vegetation, weather, climate, etc., are included in the
locality.
These factors condition or influence the lives of community members in several
ways. They have a close bearing on their economic activities in particular

(ii) Community Sentiment

Locality alone cannot make a group, a community Sometimes, people residing in
the same area may not have any contacts and communications. For example,
people living in different extensions of a city may lack sufficient social contacts.
They may not have common outlook and share no common interests. A
community is essentially an area of common living with a feeling of belonging.
There must be the common living with its awareness of sharing a way of life as
well as the common earth.

Community Sentiment means à feeling of belonging together The members

must be aware of their staying together and sharing common interests. The
members develop a sense of we feeling. It means a kind of identification with
the group. Without a sense of identification, a sense of aware- ness, a sense of
living and sharing some common interests in life, there cannot be any
community.
Other Aspects of Community
(1) Stability. A community has not only locality and community sentiment, but
also has stability. It is not a temporary group like a crowd or a mob. It is
relatively stable. It includes a permanent group life in a definite place.
(ii) Naturalness. Communities normally become established in a natural-way.
They are not deliberately created. They are not made or created by an act of will
or by planned efforts. Individuals become its members by birth itself
Membership, hence, is not voluntary Communities are spontaneous in their
origin and development. Of course, they cannot come into being suddenly and
automatically
(iii) Size of the Community involves the idea of size. A community may be big or
small. A small community may be included in a wider community A city and a
village may be included in a wider community called the district. Hence, there
are communities within communities. District, as a big community may enclose
small communities like villages, towns, cities, tribes, etc. Thus the term
community is used in a relative sense
(iv) Regulation of Relations. Every community develops in course of time, a
system of traditions, customs, morals, practices, a bundle of rules and
regulations to regulate the relations of its members. The sense of what they
have in common memories and traditions, customs and institutions shapes and
defines the general need of man to live together
However, in modern times, the nature of community sentiment is gradually
changing. Today, the interests of men are diverse and complex. Their
attachment towards their community iş gradually fading. In modern highly
industrialized urban communities, the spirit of community sentiment is very
much lacking
THE RURAL COMMUNITY
The social life of man has undergone different stages of development. The
earliest human communities were perhaps the loosely organized aggregations
of a few families who carried on mutually interdependent activities in gathering
food and defending themselves against their enemies. These primitive bands
were migratory. Gradually, man acquired skill and knowledge in agriculture.
Then began the settled life of man. With the development of agriculture and the
consequent stabilization of the source of food, human communities became
more permanent. These communities came to be known as Village
Communities. The village is the oldest permanent community of man. All early
communities were basically rural in character As Kropotkin points out, "We do
not know one single human race of single nation which has not had its period of
village communities." Bogardus says, "Human society has been cradled in the
rural group".

Meaning and Definition

Rural society or the village community consists of people living in physical area
who have common interests and common ways of satisfying them.
Psychological bonds play an important part in the rural community Physical
locality contributes to the integration and stability of the village community
Such proximity had developed a sociability and had encouraged solidarity and
mutuality
As the rural sociologist Dwight Sanderson has stated in his "The Rural
Community", a rural community consists of people living "on dispersed
farmsteads and in a hamlet or village which forms the center of their common
activities".
Rural community is often looked upon as an association in which there is "social
interaction of people and their institutions in the local area" The relationships in
the rural community tend to be what Cooley termed primary, that is, of the
intimate nature. The rural localities are often referred to as "country
neighborhood

The rural sociologists. Kolb and Brunner defined a village as a population centre
with 250 to 2500 persons and a hamlet as a somewhat smaller aggregation. A
rural community may be de- fined as a group of people permanently residing in
a definite geographic area who, having developed a certain community
consciousness and cultural, social and economic relations feel that they are
separate from other communities".
The rural community has a long history of its own. It has become almost natural
with the human life. No known community was started on purely urban
character Urban community is a phenomenon of recent development. Rural life
has preceded the urban life. It is said that God made the village and man built
the city. In spite of the growth of cities, the population of the world is largely
rural. In India alone more than 50 crores of people live in villages. More than 70
per cent of Indians live in more than five lakh villages in India. The urban life still
depends on the farm and what it produces.
Characteristics
 1. The Social Homogeneity. The rural community is largely homogeneous. The
rural social life is simple and smooth-going. Unity and uniformity in social life
are largely visible. We find similarity in the ways of thinking, behaving, dressing,
action and living. We also find agreement or consensus among people with
regards to habits, opinions, morals, customs, values, religious beliefs, dress, etc.
2. Dominance of Primary Relations. A village community is often regarded as a
primary group Hence the rural community is characterized by the primary
relations. There exist face-to- face relations among people. Every person knows
every other and hence everyone is interested in the welfare of all. The village
community is relatively small in size. The members frequently meet and
maintain regular contacts. The relationships are informal, personal and
inclusive. Community spirit prevails over individual interests. People are free
and frank in their expressions. A sense of belonging to the community holds
them together

3. Informal Social Control. Social control, that is, the control of social behavior of
people is relatively simpler and less problematic. Predominance of face-to-face
relationship has made the task of regulating relations a simple one. Customs,
traditions, group standards and morals are themselves effective as social
pressures. Any kind of social disobedience is easily noticed and the disobedient
is put to gossip and slander Formal means of social control such as law,
legislation, police, court, etc are not resorted to in normal situations to maintain
the social order
4. Occupations. The rural community is marked by a predominant type of
occupation, that is, agriculture is associated with different crafts like pottery,
basket-making, spinning. weaving, carpentry, smithery, brick-making, shoe-
making, tanning, curing hides, washing clothes, barbering, building houses and
repairing oil grinding, toy-making, etc. In contrast with the urban society there is
less division of labour and specialization in rural community Even opportunities
for specialization are also limited. Neither the villager is equipped with
sufficient qualification to pursue varied tasks. On the contrary, the villager at
times performs the role of an all-rounder He is often called a jack of all trades,
but master of none. Women assist their menfolk in various agricultural tasks.
Importance of Family. The rural community is built around the institution of
family. The rural family is very cohesive. It lives together as a unit, eats together
and works together. The family circle provides the greatest part of the economic
and social needs of its members. People are tradıtional and conservative.
People are bound by family customs and traditions. Rural women are very much
dependent on their menfolk. They are very much sentimental. They require the
support of institutions like marriage and family for a living. Most of the time,
the rural women engage themselves in indoor activities, but often they work in
fields.

In rural life, the family is the smallest unit and not the individual. Individual
interests are sub. ordinated to the family interests. Status of the individual is
mostly derived from his family is considered as a possession of the family itself.
Individual accepts the authority of the family in almost all fields. Marriage,
religion, occupation, mode of living, etc. are all influenced by the traditions of
the family.
Generally, there is less individual question and rebellion in a family. Further the
rural family is mostly a joint family Size of the family is normally big. Agricultural
operation re quires a large number of people. The rural joint family meets the
need for large labour force.

6. Role of Neighborhood: Neighborhood' is a community in miniature. It is

similar to a community, but it is a smaller area in which relationships tend to be
primary, or more or less inti mate. The neighborhood is a part of the village,
town or city, in which live a number of families among whom close relationships
exist. A neighborhood has been defined as an area in which the residents are
personally well acquainted with each other and are in the habit of visiting one
another of exchanging articles and services and, in general of doing things
together. In a village the neighborhood is of great importance. Neighbors share
the joys and sorrows together. They have the spirit of comradeship. There is not
enough of individuality and speed in the life of the village to disregard the
feeling, interests and expectations of the neighbors. They partier pate in all
common ceremonies, functions and festivals. They assist one another in all
important matters.
7. Faith in Religion. The rural people are mostly religious in their outlook. They
have deep faith in religion, in God. They have awe and reverence and, more
than that fear of God. Their main occupation is agriculture which mainly
depends on the mercy of Nature. The rural men believe that the Nature-Gods
will have to be pleased by various means to help them in agricultural
operations. The deep faith in religion and God has minimized their mental
tension and disturbance
8. Conservatism and Dogmatism. The rural people are said to be highly
conservative, traditional and dogmatic in their approach. It is true that their
social attitudes and behavior patterns are dictated by traditions. They do not
accept policies, plans, programs, principles, projects, doc- trines, etc. that the
majority disapproached. They are basically skeptical in their attitude.

9. Rural Community and Social Change. The villagers are generally simpletons.
They cling firmly to their beliefs, traditions and ago-old practices. Custom is
their 'Kin' They are not ready to go against it. Their behavior is natural and not
artificial. They are far away from the superficial manners and artificial gestures.
They live a peaceful life. They are free from mental tensions and conflicts. They
dislike conflicts and quarrels. They are sincere, hardworking and hospitable, but
their problem is that they cannot accept the urban people and their way of life
readily They are not ready for sudden change. They are for status quo. They are
in a way far away from the rapidly changing urban civilized world. There is gap
between the urban and the rural way of life. Of course nowadays the rural
people are awakened to the need of the modern world. They are also modifying
their behavior patterns slowly and gradually The Industrial Revolution and the
consequent industrialization have brought far-reaching results to the rural
community Rapid improvements in the fields of transport are d communication
progress in the fields of science and technology, introduction of uniform system
of education, implementation of various community welfare programs and
projects, opening of small factories and industries even in rural areas, provision
of modern civilized facilities like radio, electricity, tele phone, television, post
and telegraph, newspapers, introduction of various domestic electrical
appliances, increasing political consciousness of the people, the liberation of
women, etc. have all contributed to some radical changes in the rural life
RURAL PROBLEMS
The rural communities are not free from problems. Though they are simple and
less complex, they have their own social, economic, educational, medical and
other problems.
1. Economic Problems. Comparatively, the rural people are poorer. Increase in
population, disintegration of joint families, subdivision and fragmentation of
land holding, heavy load on land, traditional methods of cultivation,
unemployment and other factors have been responsible for poverty in the rural
areas especially in India. In India, more than 40% of the people are living below
the line of poverty.

2. Lack of Educational Facilities. Sizeable number of people are uneducated and

ignorant in the rural areas. In India, many villages do not have schools, and
some of the existing schools do not have teachers, and some others are not in
working conditions. Lack of education has contributed to the development of
traditionalism, and superstitious beliefs among the ruralizes. The ruralites also
fail to get the jobs for their inability to get themselves qualified through the
formal education
3. Traditionalism. The ruralites are traditional and custom-bound. They are
illiterate, ignorant and superstitious. They do not easily accept the change. They
are skeptical regarding the develop-mental programs of the government.
4. Lack of Adequate Civic Amenities. In comparison with the cities, the villages
are lacking in civic amenities. The necessary civic amenities such as medical
facilities, electricity, transport facilities, communication facilities, such as radio,
television, newspaper, post and telegraph, tele phone, etc., are not available to
the satisfaction of the people. Sometimes it becomes difficult for the rural
people to get the daily required necessities of life.
5. Defective Rural Administration. The ruralites are unorganized and politically
not awakened. Their failure to understand the democratic methods of
administration has contributed to the inefficient functioning of the rural
administrative bodies. In India the rural administrative bodies such as the
panchayats have been widely criticized as inefficient, defective, corrupt, selfish
and full of communal and caste feelings. Inefficient rural administration can
hardly serve the cause of the people.

Social Problems. Due to ignorance, illiteracy and poverty, the rural people
have become the victims of some evil habits and practices. Many of them
are habituated to smoking, gambling drinking liquors and prostitution The
evils of animosity, hatred, jealousy, fraud, cheating, etc., are also
widespread among the ruralites. Many of them simply idle away much of
their time in talking over useless topics. Their suspicious outlook makes
them to doubt and discourage even the good intentions of the rural
developmental programs. This is especially true in the case of the Indian
villages.
9. THE URBAN COMMUNITY

The urban community" means the city community. "The history of every
civilisation is the history, not of its countryside, but of its cities and towns.
Civilisation means the city, and the city means civilisation. Man originally
built the city, and the city, in turn, civilized man." Man became a citizen
when he became a member of a city-state. With the rise of the world-city, as
Spengler tells us, "there were no longer nobles see and bourgeoisie, freemen
and slaves, Hellenes and Barbarians, believers and nonbelievers, but only
cosmopolitans and provincials. All other contrasts pale before this one,
which dominates all events, all habits of life, all views of the world." The city
is culture par excellence; it is the epitome of culture. It is mankind's greatest
work of art-and of artifice-because it contains all others. Culture, a
manufactured environment, surrounds the city man. "It is an environment of
bricks and steel and mortar and cement, of bridges and tunnels, of sidewalks
and streets, of monuments and buildings, of elevators and subway
 platforms." The city is the product of man and his own achievement. The city
"has everything that is 'tawdry' and everything sublime. It holds both hope
and despair It encompasses millions of people, and it can be the loveliest
place on earth. It is a vital center of every civilized society. It is both a place
and a state of mind."- Robert Bierstedt.
The Meaning of Urban System of Community: Urban Community life
represents the city-life. Though the term "urban" is popularly used, it is not
properly defined. There is no single all-inclusive definition of a city or urban
community. The urban sociologist Howrad Woolston, in his 'Metropolis',
defined the city as a "limited geographic area, inhabited by a largely and
closely settled population, having many com- mon interests and institutions,
under a local government authorized by the State “Park in his "The City" says
that the city far from being a mere collection of individuals and of social
conveniences, is rather a "state of mind, a body of customs and traditions,
and the organized attitudes and sentiments that inhere in these customs."
James A. Quinn in his "Urban Sociology", viewed the city as a "phenomenon of
specialization", as a population aggregate whose occupations are
nonagricultural. Adna F Weber in his "The Growth of Cities" defined the city as
any incorporated place with a minimum of 10,000 inhabitants. Lowis Wirth in
his essay "Urbanism as a way of life" writes. "For sociological purposes a city
may be defined as a relatively large, dense and permanent settlement of
socially heterogeneous individuals.Though some sociologists have tried to
define the concept of 'urban' no one has given a satisfactory definition so far
Bergel writes, "Everybody seems to know what a city is, but no one has given a
satisfactory definition" Kingsley Davis writes, "Much ink has been wasted in
trying to define urban" Maclver remarks, "But between the two (urban and
rural communities) there is no sharp demarcation to tell where the city ends
and country beings" Every village possesses some elements of the city while
every city carries some features of the villages. Different criteria are used to
decide a community as urban. Some of them are population, legal limits, types
of occupations, social organizations.

Characteristics of Urban Community

 Social Heterogeneity. An urban society is heterogeneous. The city life is
complex and many sided. Wide difference is found in the ways of living of
the people. Uniformity and similarity are rarely found. It is more
characterized by diversity. As Louis Wirth in his "Urbanism as a way of Life",
points out "the greater the number of individuals participating in a process
of interaction, the greater the potential differentiation between them. "Louis
Wirth further says that the city has been the melting-pot of races, peoples
and cultures, and a most favorable breeding ground of new bio- logical and
cultural 1. hybrids" He also says that the city "has brought together people
from the ends of the earth because they are different and thus useful to one
another, rather than because they are homogeneous and likeminded" The
ways of thinking, behaving, acting, the habits, morals, religious beliefs and
practices, food and dress habits, occupations, etc., of the people differ
significantly Differentiation is potent in urban life.
2. Secondary Relations. The urban community is characterized by secondary
relations. A city by virtue of its size cannot be a primary group. It is a
secondary group. People are indifferent towards one another. Face-to-face,
friendly or intimate relations may not be observed among people Mass
media of communication such as telephone, radio, press, post and telegraph,
etc. are often resorted to by the urbanites for contacts in cities people rarely
take personal interests in others concerns. Superficial form of politeness and
manners are commonly found. Physical contact rarely results in intimacy and
closeness. Even the neighbors are often found to be strangers. Private
interests prevail over the common interests.
3. The Anonymity of the City Life. The city is an Ocean of stranger’s Heavy
concentration in a limited space makes it impossible for people to know one
another Every one appears to be a stranger for every other person. There
prevails a state of namelessness in which the individual identities remain
unknown. This kind of namelessness that is found in the city is often referred
to as anonymity of the city life The anonymity of the city life makes more
complex the problem of social control.
4. Secondary Control. Control of social behavior is more difficult in a city
Predominance of secondary relations makes it more complex, the social
control. The social behavior of people is no more regulated by customs,
traditions, religion and group standards. Instances of social deviation are
commonly found in a city is the ocean of strangers. Violations of standards of
behavior may pass unnoticed and unchecked. In this way, informal means of
social control are not very effective Regulation of social behavior is largely
done through the specialized agencies like law, legislation, police, court, etc.
The larger the city, the greater becomes the problem of control and more
complex the agencies of secondary regulation.
5. Large-scale Division of Labour and Specialization. An Urban community is
known for its large-scale division of labour and specialization. Specialization
is visible in every walk of life. The larger the city, the greater is the
specialization. Hence we find different people in society engaging themselves
in different kinds of activities like mechanical, commercial, educational,
political, recreational, artistic, literary, scientific and so on. There are skilled,
unskilled and semi-skilled workers, the artisans, the technicians, the 'paper
expert', the 'white-collar' employees, the financiers, the businessmen,
administrators, the politicians, the artists and others in society specializing
themselves in some particular kind of activity or the other City depends on
division of labour also. Work is divided among people on the basis of
interests, talents, efficiency, opportunities, age, sex and so on. Division of
labour and specialization are possible because of co-operation.
6. Large-scale Social Mobility. An urban community is characterized by
intense social mobility. Social Mobility' refers to the movement of people
from one social status to another, from lower community is determined
more by his achievements than by his birth. The status is not predetermined
mined. High stress is laid on accomplishments. Urban life in this way is highly
competitive. The cay with its elaborate division of labour competitiveness, its
impersonality, has a tendency to emphasize the achievements of people. A
city judge’s status according to what the individual does and how he speaks
and what he accomplishes an urban society provides for social mobility in
countless ways. It provides for occupational mobility and geographic mobility
on the one hand, and horizontal social mobility and vertical social mobility
on the other Individuals are busily engaged in improving their "career" An
element of chance is always present in city. Maciver and Page write-"An
accident, a lucky contract, a sudder opportunity seized or missed, a change of
style or fad, a happy or unhappy forecast of some event beyond his control,
may revolutionize his prospects in a day “Individuation. In an urban
community people are more individualistic in their attitudes. As Kingsley
Davis points out, "The secondary and voluntary character of urban
association, the multiplicity of opportunities and the social mobility all force
the individual to make his own decisions and to plan his life as a career
The concentration of people in a limited space has the effect of emphasizing
individuality. The city dweller takes his independent decisions on such
matters as education, marriage occupation, enterprise, adventure, and so on.
He is more selective in his choice and more individualities’ in his preferences!
He is guided by his own whims and fancies. He is detached except for the
attachment of his own choice. He is not tied to any particular relationship or
any particular cause. As Davis points out. The individual stands over against
the whole city, never completely absorbed by any one social group. The city
provides wide opportunities for the adventurous spirit of the individuals.
Similar observes. "The city person is free in behavior, less restrained, more
individualistic, more formal and less sympathetic and less of a conformist
than the country person.
8. Voluntary Association. An urban community is the breeding center of a
number of voluntary associations. The size of the urban population, its close
proximity, diversity, and easy contact, make it the proper ground for
voluntary associations. "No matter what a person's hobby or vocation,
national background of religion, age or color, he can always find others with
a similar basis of interest. As a result, new kinds of groups arise, based on
extremely specialized interests. The group must organize or its cause will
perish. People normally become members of a number of associations which
may be called secondary group in order to fulfil their varied interests.

9. Social Tolerance. Social tolerance characterizes city life. Diversity of

population, of contacts and heterogeneity in living style make it almost
inevitable for the city people to develop the spirit of tolerance. "People rub
elbows with and become indifferent to extremes of all kinds-extremes of
opinion and interest, extremes of poverty and wealth, extremes of education
and background" The spirit of tolerance gives the strength of unity in
diversity to the life in a city "Indeed the distinction between public and
private, between what is shown and what is concealed, is much sharper in
the city It is the public behavior that the city regulates, the private behavior
that it ignores. Its control is impersonal and general, that of the country
personal and Particular-Kingsley Davis. Spatial Segregation. Due to its very
nature, the city is bound to be overcrowded. It attracts a large number of
people from the village areas. It is found that various types of business tend
to concentrate in different spots of the city Occupational groups of people
also prefer to live together in distinct zones of a city That is to say, some kind
of functional segregation is found there. Commercial activities in the form of
big departmental stores, show rooms, fancy stores, legitimate the, fine
hotels, jewelry stores, etc. are located in the center. The same is true of high-
priced professional services-eg clinics, law offices, accounting firms,
government offices, etc. Retail grocery establishments, filling stations,
cleaning and pressing shops, shoe repair shops, garages, drug stores, etc.,
may be found at the cross-roads of the entire city. In the city land is so costly
that the buildings expand vertically, filling the center of the city with
skyscrapers. Unstable Family is said that the urban family is not firmly
organized. Many of the traditional functions of the family are transferred to
the external agencies. Family is no longer the economic, educational,
protective, recreational and effective unit. Family has lost much of its control
over its individual members. Individualism is developing even inside the
family Even the women are getting employed outside the family Relations
between the husband and wife, parents and children are strained to some
extent. Some sociologists have even remarked that the urban family is much
more disorganized.

URBAN PROBLEMS

The process of industrialization has added much to the phenomenal

growth of cities. Due to the rapid industrialization cities have grown in an
unsystematic manner Industrialization and urbanization have brought
along with them many vices.

1. The Problem of Concentration. Concentration of people in a definite

limited space is one of the problems of the urban society Due to the
attraction of city life (Pull-factors) men have started flocking towards the
cities. Lack of job opportunities in the rural societies (Push factor) also
forced people to desert villages and start moving to the cities. This has led
to urban concentration and rural depopulation

2. The Problem of Facilities. Concentration of people has resulted in other

problems such as overcrowding, congestion, housing problems, lack of
water facility and fresh air, insanitation, etc.

3. The Problem of Slums. Increasing industrialization and urbanization

have created slums in the city. The slum dwellers live in horrible areas.
Their living conditions are really unfortunate The low-paid workers live in
these slum areas. The facilities that are found in the cities are not found in
these places. Slums consist of sub-standard, ill-ventilated, insanitary and
poorly lighted houses. They consist of houses which are unfit for human
habitation.

4. The Problem of Privacy. Lack of privacy and intimacy are the natural
outcome of the city life. Due to the indirect and impersonal relationships,
closeness and intimacy will not develop. Life becomes mechanical,
competitive and charmless.

5. The Problem of Vices. The city is a center of economic insecurity,

mental illness, gam bling, prostitution, drunkenness, crimes, juvenile
delinquency, alcoholism, environment pollution and such other vices.
There is poverty in the midst of plenty The city life endangers the
physical, mental and moral health of the people.

6. The Problem of Individuation. The urban community encourages

individuation Individuals are moved by their own aspirations, ambitions,
aims, and interests. They have become more and more career-conscious
They are invariably caught in the competitive race for a successful career
The competitiveness of the city, places one over against everyone else.
The materialistic outlook that a city-dweller develops may often result in
what is known as the loss of community an individual may become
'alienated from his own community, his own people, his own profession.
This state, when it reaches the extreme, may drive a depressed and an
'alienated' man to commit suicide

Advantages and Disadvantages of the City

Advantages or Merits. (1) The city offers opportunities and facilities for
making full use of one's abilities and talents. (2) It can make life joyful and
comfortable. Major service agencies are centralized in the city to satisfy
various interests of the people such as work, education, recreation and
politics. (3) It encourages new ideals and inventions (4) It quickens social
movements and enlarges social contacts. Social mobility becomes easier
(5) There is less social distance being kept among people of different
castes, races and religions. Hence there is more tolerance towards others.
(6) The city is dynamic. This dynamism contributes to social changes. (7)
The city has liberated women from the exclusiveness of domesticity It has
made women to stand on an equal footing with men. (8) The city provides
various means of recreation in a city there is scope for personal
advancement. The multifarious associations of the city cater to the
multiple needs, interests and tastes of the people (9) That is why, as
Quinn says, "the great civilizations of Antiquity-Mesopotamian. Egyptian
Greek, Roman-were cradled in cities, that urban communities typically
have led in the creation of art the advancement of science, and the
dissemination of learning" (10) The city functions as a laboratory for
human genius Disadvantages or Demerits. The city has its dark or the ugly
side too.
(1) The city makes life materialistic and mechanical It takes away from
man his human aspect. (2) Secondary relations are dominant in the city
People are indifferent towards one another Superficial forms of
politeness and manners are commonly found. : There is lack of intimacy
and privacy in the city (3) The city has made the people to become
individualistic, selfish, rationalistic and calculative Relations are
commercialized. All relations are means to means and to no final ends. (4)
The city has posed a challenge to family The urban family is in doldrums.
Individualism is ripening within it. Divorce. desertion and separation are
increasing Joint family has disappeared. The family is cut to size (5) Social
control is complex and less effective in the city Instances of social
deviance are more in the city. (6) The city has made the life to become
uncertain, insecure, and competitive. (7) The society is said to be the
center of economic insecurity, mental illness, gambling, prostitution,
drunkenness, crime, juvenile delinquency, etc. (8) Concentration of
people in the city creates problems of housing. water and electricity
facility, over crowdedness, insanitation, etc. (9) The cities are condemned
as abnormal seed-beds of sin, skepticism, greed, crime, misery, filth and
congestion' It is branded as the center of corruption, vice and misery.

UNIT-II

THE CONCEPT OF SOCIALISATION

Little of man's behavior is instinctive. Rather, man's behavior is 'learnt
behavior. The human child comes into the world as a biological organism
with animal needs. He is gradually moulded in society into a social being
and learns social ways of acting and feeling. The continued existence of
society becomes impossible without this process. No individual could
become the per- son and no culture could exist without it. This process of
moulding and shaping the personality of the human infant is called
'socialization.

Definition

(1) Bogardus: Socialization is the "process of working together, of

developing group responsibility, or being guided by the welfare needs
of others".
(2) (ii) W.F. Ogburn: "Socialization is the process by which the individual
learns to conform to the norms of the group".
(3) (iii) Peter Worsley explains socialization as the process of
"transmission of culture, the process whereby men learn the rules and
practices of social groups".

(iv) Harry M. Johnson understands socialization as "learning that enables

the learner to perform social roles". He further says that it is a "process by
which individuals acquire the already existing culture of groups they come
into".
(v) Lundberg says that socialization consists of the "complex processes of
interaction through which the individual learns the habits, beliefs, skills
and standards of judgement that are necessary for his effective
participation in social groups and communities".'

TYPES OF SOCIALISATION

lan Robertson in his book "Sociology" (1977), has mentioned four types of
socialization. According to him, the socialization that a person undergoes
in the course of his lifetime may be one or more of four different types:
Primary socialization, anticipatory socialization, developmental
socialization and re-socialization.

Primary Socialization.
This is the most essential and basic type of socialization. It takes place in
the early years of life of the newborn individual. It concentrates on the
teaching of language and cognitive skills, the internalisation of cultural
norms and values, establishment of emotional ties, and the appreciation
of other roles and perspectives.
'Internalisation of norms' is the most important aspect of primary
socialization. Internalisation of norms refers to the process in which the
norms of society become a part of the personality of the individual. The
human child does not have a sense of right and wrong, desirable and
undesirable, moral and immoral. By trial and error, by direct and indirect
observation, and experience, the child gradually learns the norms relating
to right and wrong behavior. The socializing agents reinforce the child's
learning by rewards and punishments or by means of approval and
disapproval.
(ii) Anticipatory Socialization.
Men not only learn the culture of the group of which they are immediate
members. They may also learn the culture of groups to which they do not
belong. Such a process whereby men socialize themselves into the culture
of a group with the anticipation of joining that group, is referred to by
sociologists like Merton as 'anticipatory socialization'. A person who
intends to join the army may start doing physical exercises to toughen his
body and learning the manners of army personnel to become one with
them later. People may be socialized into groups of which they are
already members or into groups to which they wish to become attached.
Socialization is not a process that takes place merely in early childhood.
On the other hand, it takes place at different times and places throughout
life.

(iii) Developmental Socialization. This kind of learning is based on the

achievements of primary socialization. "It builds on already acquired skills
and knowledge as the adult progresses through new situations such as
marriage or new jobs. These require new expectations, obligations, and
roles. New learning is added to and blended with old in a relatively
smooth and continuous process of development"-Ian Robertson

(iv) Re-Socialization. Not only do individuals change roles within groups,

but they also change membership-groups. In some instances,
'resocialization "the stripping away of learned patterns. and substitution
of new ones for them"-must occur. Such re-socialization takes place
mostly when a social role is radically changed. It may also happen in
periods of rapid social mobility. For example, a newly wedded housewife
may be forced to become a prostitute in a brothel. In this instance the
social role of the individual got changed radically.

AGENTS OF SOCIALISATION
Personalities do not come ready-made. They are moulded or shaped
through the process of socialization. The process of socialisation is
operative not only in childhood but throughout life. It is a process which
begins at birth and continues till the death of the individual. It is an
endless process. From the societal point of view, the child is valued more
for 'what he will be than for "what he it' Socialisation helps the child to
become a useful member of the society. It gives him social maturity.
Hence it is helps the child the child's socialisation has not been left to
mere accident. Rather, it has been given an institutional framework and
controlled through institutional channels. The following are the agencies
that have been established by culture which socialise the new born child.

(1) Family and Parents. The process of socialisation begins for every one
of us in the family. Here, the parental and particularly the maternal
influence on the child is very great. The intimate relationship between the
mother and the child has a great impact on the shaping of child's abilities
and capacities. The parents are the first persons to introduce to the child
the culture of his group. The child receives additional communications
from his older siblings, ie. brothers and sisters, who have gone through
the same process - with certain differences due to birth order and to the
number and sex of the siblings.

(ii) Peers or Age mates. 'Peer groups' means those groups made up of the
contemporaries of the child, his associates in school, in playground and in
street. He learns from these children, facts and facets of culture that they
have previously learnt at different times from their parents. The members
of peer groups have other sources of information about the culture their
peers in still other peer groups and thus the acquisition of culture goes
on.

As time passes by, of course, the peer group surpasses the parental and
family groups in importance. It is true that the 'peer culture' becomes
more important and effective than the 'parental culture in the adolescent
years of the child. The advice of one's age mates whether overtly or
covertly communicated, sets the standards in almost every aspect of
conduct. However, we should not assume that the socialisation process is
completed by the time the teen ages are reached. On the other hand, this
is the time when pressures for conformity are perhaps, at their heights.

(iii) Teachers. The teachers also play their role in socialisation when the
child enters the school. It is in the school that the culture is formally
transmitted and acquired, in which the lore and the learning, the science
and art, of one generation is passed on to the next. It is not only the
formal knowledge of the culture that is transmitted there but most of its
premises as well its ethical sentiments, its political attitudes, its customs
and taboos. The children in the earlier school may uncritically absorb the
culture to which their teachers give expression. They may in the high
school respond with increasing skepticism. But wherever they are, and at
whatever age, the communications they receive from their teachers help
to socialise them and to make them finally mature members of their
societies.

(iv) Literature and Mass Media of Communication. There is another

source of socialisation. This is, of course, found only in literate societies
and that is the literature. The civilization that we share is constructed of
words or literature. "Words rush at us in torrent and cascade; they leap
into our vision, as in billboard and newspaper, magazine and textbook;
and assault our ears, as in radio and television”. The media of mass
communication give us their messages. These messages too contain in
capsule form, the premises of our culture, its attitudes and ideologies.
The words are always written by someone and these people too authors
and editors and advertisers - join the teachers, the peers and the parents
in the socialisation process. In individual cases, of course, some of these
influences are more important than others. The responses can also differ.
"Some of us respect tradition; others fear the opinions of their peers, and
still others prefer to listen to the thousand tongues' of conscience". But
all three modes of socialisation result in conformity of a kind and all three
thus contribute to the transmission of a culture by some and its
acquisition by others.
Who Socializes the Child? Is a question that can be answered in another
way also. Kingsley Davis says that there are two categories of persons
from whom the child acquires the sentiments. beliefs, and knowledge of
his culture. The first includes those who have authority over him. Persons
having authority over the child are generally older than he and command
obedience. They are the parents. Socialisation must naturally proceed
from those who have more of the culture to those who have less, from
the mature to the immature. Since the infant has no juniors and no
capacity for associating with equals, the parents play an important role at
this stage.

The second category includes those persons who have equality with him.
Persons sharing equality with the child, whether kin or not, are apt to be
of the same age. The child maintains equalitarian relations with those
who are of the same age, sex and rank. It is through the age mates or
peers that one learns some of the more informed aspects of culture such
as folkways, manners, style, shades of meanings, fads, fashions, erases,
habits, secret modes of gratification and forbidden knowledge. Some such
things are often socially necessary and yet socially tabooed. Example:
knowledge of sex relations.
THEORIES OF SOCIALISATION

(a) C.H. Cooley's Theory of 'Looking-Glass Self other people.

The "self" might be regarded as the internalized object representing one's

own personality. Where does this self-arise? Are we born with it ? Is it
something we have to learn to recognise and to know does this self-rise
the individual brings with him as we confront society of Is it something
that he something the chery as a gift of the confrontation? A brilliant
American social psychologist Charles Horton Cooley made some sustained
attempts to find answers to these questions Post Charles Horton Co
before us two primary propositions –
(1) The mind is social, and (it) Society H. Cooley has placed before one
has impressed a good number of sociologists. He wrote in details of the
society are twin-born, we know one as immediately as we his Social
 Organization, that of if separate and independent ego is an illusion".
Observing his own children, he concluded that the very idea of 'self or
'ego-of/- can arise only in relationship with Three Main Elements of
'Looking-Glass Self.
Cooley held that self and social are two sides of the same coin. Our ideas,
loyalties, attitudes, and points of view are derived from others. One means of
their transmission Cooley called the looking-glass self. According to him, self-
ideas or self-attitudes develop by a process of imagining what others think of us
by a kind of 'looking-glass' process. A self-idea of this sort seems to have three
main elements:

(1) The imagination of our appearance to the other person.

(ii) The imagination of his judgement of that (imagined) appearance.

(iii) Some kind of self-feeling such as pride or mortification. As Cooley has

stated in his 'Human Nature and the Social Order', the individual develops
the idea of self through contact with the primary group, particularly with
the members of the family. This he does by becoming conscious of their
attitudes towards him. In other words, the child gets his conception of his
self, and later of the kind of person he is, by means of what he imagines
others take him to be. Cooley, therefore, called the child's idea of himself
the 'looking-glass self. The child conceives of himself as better or worse in
varying degrees, depending upon the attitudes of others towards him.
Thus, the child's view of himself may be affected by the kind of name
given by his family or friends. A child called 'angel" by his mother gets a
notion of himself which differs from that of a child called 'rascal'".

The 'looking-glass self' assures the child which aspects of the assumed
roles will bring him praise, which blame; which ones are acceptable to
others, which ones unacceptable. People normally have their own
attitudes towards social roles and adopt the same. The child first tries out
these on others and in turn adopts towards his self. The self thus arises
when the person becomes an 'object' to himself. He is now capable of
taking the same view of himself that he infers others do. The moral order
which governs the human society, in large measure, depends upon the
'looking-glass self". Thus it is clear that we are prone to look at ourselves
through other's eyes. Depending upon the character and weight of that
'other" [in whose mind we see ourselves] we develop different feelings.
We are ashamed to seem evasive in the presence of a straightforward
man; cowardly in' the presence of a brave man, indecent in the presence
of a refined man, greedy in the presence of a generous man and so on.
We may boast to one person of an action but we may feel ashamed to
express it to another. The way we imagine ourselves to appear to another
person is an essential element in our conception of ourselves. Thus, 'I am
not what I think I am and I am not what you think I am. I am what I think
you think I am. Cooley concludes that "the self is social and that self-
consciousness would not exist in the absence of society". The 'looking-
glass self' affects the daily lite of all individuals.

(b) George Herbert Mead's Theory of 'Self'

G.H. Mead, the famous philosopher and psychologist at the University of

Chicago, also held the opinion like that of Cooley that the society is the
determining factor in the socialisation of the individual. He agreed with
Cooley that the 'Self' is social. Mead has stated, 'the individual, largely
through interaction, becomes aware of himself. It means the individual
comes to know about him- self by what is known as 'role playing'.

Role-playing.
Mead has said that the individual in order to get a picture of himself,
plays the roles of others. In seeing himself as others see him, the
individual is actually putting himself in the place of others, and imagining
what their response might be. This is 'role-playing'. The 'others may be his
parents, close associates, and finally, society as a whole. As the child gets
older, he can be observed to act towards his dolls or toys as the mother or
other members of the family have acted towards him. The child, in his
play, is taking the role of another person. Through 'role-playing', that is,
by playing the role of the mother, father or other persons, the child is
enabled to see himself objectively through the eyes of others. Of these
others' some are more "significant".

Significant Others

The new-born infant has needs like those for food, clothing that press for
satisfaction. The mother satisfies these needs and the child comes to
depend upon her and 'identifies himself' with her emotionally. But in
course of time, the child differentiates himself from his mother and
comes to know that he has a sub-ordinate role to the superior role of the
mother. Then the child understands the role of the father. He
differentiates his father from his mother and then integrates him into the
social system. In this way, the number of the 'significant others' increase
for the child.

The Generalized Others

The child not only differentiates itself from others but also begins to act
towards himself from the viewpoint of the whole group. The child tries to
understand the relative roles of various individuals involved in the same
social context. The child begins to anticipate the behavior of all the
members of a group in a particular context. In other words, the child
generalizes the roles of others. For example, if the child is playing the role
of a 'bridegroom' in its game of marriage, he must know not only the role
of the bridegroom but also that of the bride, the father-in-law, priest,
relatives, etc. In the above example, the child plays a number of roles
simultaneously, a generalized role of a number of people. The roles,
moreover, are built around the rules of the game. According to the rule,
the child generalizes his behavior. He plays the role of what Mead calls
'the generalised other. The team of children with its rules is thus a carbon
copy of the organized community. The whole community is 'generalised
other' with which the child becomes identified. 'Self' and 'society', in the
child's experience, are the two sides of the same coin. This is exactly like a
situation in which every one of us may say, or more likely think, 'what will
people think if 1 do this, or that? The 'people in this expression are not
any particular persons, but rather, generalised persons, or generalised
others. This 'generalised others' may include the associates of our
community. In this way the social explanation of the self is complete.

It is clear from the above description that the self is not something that
exists first and then into relationship with others. The 'self' is a product of
social interaction. 'It arises in social experience". "It is something that
develops out of social interaction and is constantly changing and adjusting
as new situations and conflicts arise..." The self develops and grows in a
social context.
Freud has divided human mind into three compartments. They are as
follows: (2) Id: The 'id' is concerned only with satisfying the animal
impulses of man.

(ii) Ego: The 'ego' serves as the mediator between desire and action. It
represses the urges of the 'id' when necessary.

(iii) Super Ego: The 'super ego always holds up the behaviour norms of
society. It provides the 'ego' the idea of moral and immoral and this in
turn intervenes with the id.

The Super Ego

In the Freudian analysis of the human mind the concept of 'super ego' is
of great sociological importance. It is significant in the study of
socialisation also. According to Freud, the individual's super ego is a
reflection of his parents' standards of right and wrong. The individual
imbibes these into his own personality by identifying himself with his
parents. The parents' standards are no other than the society's or one of
its sub-groups in which the individual happens to live. Thus, logically the
child, in its socialisation process adopts the norms of conduct of the
society through the super ego.
STAGES OF SOCIALISATION
Socialisation is a gradual process of learning. The new born child is not
taught all the things about social life at once. It proceeds from simplicity
to complexity During the early stages of life (infancy and childhood)
socialisation takes place within the 'simple', limited social world.
Gradually this social world becomes broader and broader and the child is
confronted with several things to learn and to adjust.

Socialisation means the child's learning to participate in social roles,

Hence the main objects to be internalized by the child are the social roles
themselves. In order to perform any social role adequately, one must
know' the other social roles in the same social system. Hence the child
must internalize the roles that he is expected to perform by himself and
also the roles of the other persons with whom he interacts. In fact, the
internalisation of roles is almost the same thing as the growth of
personality. At each stage of socialisation the child internalizes a 'system'
of roles, not just one role.
Socialisation consists of four stages from infancy to adulthood. They are
(1) the oral stage, (2) the anal stage, (3) the oedipal stage, and (4)
adolescence.

1. The First Stage - The Oral Stage. This stage begins with the birth of the
child and continues up to the completion of one year. Before birth the
child in the mother's womb is in the fetal form and is warm and
comfortable. At birth the little infant must breathe, must exert
himself, to be fed and he must be protected from cold, wet and other
discomforts. For everything the child cries a great deal. By means of
crying the child establishes its oral dependency. The child here
develops some definite expectations about the feeding time. The child
also learns to give signals for his felt needs. In this stage the child is
involved in himself and his mother. For the other members of the
family, the child is little more than a 'possession'. If the father or some
other person is providing the proper care for the child, that person,
will also be performing the role of 'mother'. It is difficult to say
 whether the child internalizes two roles-the role of the mother and his
own role-at this stage. Freud called this stage the stage of "primary
identification". It means the child merges his identity with that of the
mother. The child only tries to establish some control over the hunger
drive
2. The Second Stage-The Anal Stage. The second stage normally begins
soon after the first year and is completed during the third year. It is
here that the child learns that he cannot depend entirely on the
mother and that he has to take some degree of care for himself.
"Toilet training" is the main focus of new concern. The child is taught
to do some tasks such as toileting, keeping clothes clean, etc.

The child in this stage internalizes two separate roles his own role and
that of his mother. The child receives 'care' and also 'love' from the
mother and learns to give love in return. The child is enabled to
distinguish between correct and incorrect actions. The correct action is
rewarded and the incorrect action is not rewarded but punished.

In this second stage the socializing agent, that is, the mother plays the
dual role. She participates in the interaction system with the child in a
limited context and she also participates in the larger system that is the
family. The dual role of the mother helps the child to participate in a more
complex social system. Thus the mother 'represents the larger social
system in relation to the smaller. Further the mother as a socializing agent
mediates between the sub-system and the larger system. sometimes
yielding to the child's demands and some other times resisting its
tendencies some times to demands age. This stage mostly this stage the
child of the child and extended Stage- The Oedipus (12 or 13 years). It is in
this stage the child becomes the member of tends up to puberty (the age
here the child has to identify himself with the social role ascribed to him
on the basis of his sex.

According to the basts of by develops the 'Oedipus complex" -the feeling

of jealousy towards father to Freud, the boy to way, the girl develops the
believed Complete the feeling of love towards mother. In the sad love
towards the father. Freud believed that the feelings arises of jealousy
towards the mother was do not subscribe to this opinion. They say that
the child of four, five, or six rarely has a clear knowledge of sex or sexual
function.

In this stage sufficient social pressures are brought on the child to identify
with the right sex Boys be this stage sufficient social prestige like boys and
girls are rewarded for acting like girls. After the age this to be rewarded,
for understand the sexual difference. The boy tries to identify himself
with the father and the girl with the mother. When the children go to the
school or mix with other children father and the girl with the spective
playgroups. In this period interest in the opposite sex tends to be
suppressed for the boy or girl is busy with learning various skills.

In this stage the boy makes three kinds of identification-(1) He identifies

with his father and brothers (sex-role identification) (ii) He identifies with
all his siblings (role of child in the family); and (iii) He identifies with the
whole family as a member. Thus, in this stage the child internalizes clearly
his role- the role of the father, mother and siblings of each sex (brother
and sister). It is here he realizes that the father has a dominant role in the
family, more dominant than that of the mother. The parents help the
children to make proper sex identification. The father helps the son by
showing him, how to do things. For example, the Eskimo father shows the
boy how to shoot. In Bali Island the father helps the boy to learn the art
of dancing. When once the boy has learned the goal of being like men, he
will tend to imitate men especially the father and so is the case with the
girl who will tend to imitate the mother.
4. The Fourth Stage - The Stage of Adolescence. The fourth stage starts
with the period of adolescence. Due to the physiological and the
psychological changes that take place within the individual this stage
assumes importance. During this stage the boys and girls try to become
free from parental control. At the same time, they cannot completely
escape from their dependence on their parents. Hence they may
experience a kind of strain or conflict in themselves. They want to be free
in doing various activities. But the parents continue to control many of
their activities. This is particularly true of sexual activity.

In the modern society the parents intend to give more freedom to the
boys and girls to do some of their activities independently. The parents
try to lessen the open expression of their emotional attachment towards
the adolescent children. They encourage them to select their line of
education, their occupation and their life-partners. They expect the
adolescent children to accept responsibility and learn new roles assigned
to them. The adolescents thus learn new roles and new behavior patterns
and internalize new social norms associated with them. Hence in the
modern society the transition from the adolescent stage to the adult
stage is more difficult than in the traditional societies. In the traditional
societies, all such "life decisions" are mostly made by the parents.

IMPORTANCE OF SOCIALISATION
socialisation necessary? Does it really help the individual to become a
person and to express himself more fully and effectively as a person? Is it
essential to ensure stability, conformity and continuity in society? Or,
does it hinder the expression of individuality? Will it not hamper the
expression of free will of the individual and reduce him to the level of the
small fragment of the charmless societal uniformity? Will it not make his
life more miserable? These are some of the questions relevant to our
discussion of the importance of socialisation.

In Europe, a few centuries ago, there was a widespread belief that

civilization corrupted man's basic good nature, so that only the primitives
remained as "pure" human beings. A number of novels appeared on
"noble savage" and read by people who had never seen one. For example,
in his book Emile (1762) J.J. Rousseau urged that children be reared out
with good ness so that society would not spoil their natural goodness.
Most sociologists do not agree that socialisation necessarily brings misery.
"It is true as Freud suggested that we must renounce the gratification of
many impulses, but we learn to channel others into directions that can be
gratified within our own society". As Metta Spencer and Alex Inkeles have
noted, "without experience in society a human being would become, not
a "noble savage" but an unlovely brute, insensitive to the minds and
feelings of others".

Society can grant people some amount of freedom of impulses, but never
total freedom. Freud was right then. "Civilization itself requires some self-
denial for the sake of beauty, cleanliness, and social order". We do not
face a choice between whether to socialise our children or not, but only
how to do it. Social research can shed light on many factors relevant to
upbringing will far reach can, do it. Social research can shed lighter child-
rearing. No form of upbringing will fix a person' character so firmly that
he can never change.

1.The importance of socialisation in our life can hardly be exaggerated.

The following description it makes it very clear that Man, the Biological
Being into Man, the Social Being. Man is not born social. He becomes
social by virtue of the process of socialisation. Various instances like that
of Kaspar Hauser come the wolf children' of India and others have made it
very clear that only through constant training the new born child becomes
social in nature.

2. Socialisation Contributes to the Development of Personality.

Personality is a product of society. In the absence of groups or society no
man can develop a personality of his own. But socialisation is a process
through which the personality of the new born child is shaped and
moulded The process of socialisation prepares the child to lead an
approved way of social life. At the same time, it also provides enough
scope for the individual to develop his individuality.

3. Helps to Become Disciplined. Socialisation is social learning. Social

learning is essentially the learning of rules of social behavior. It is through
socialisation that the child learns not only rules of social behavior but also
the values, ideals, aims and objectives of life and the means of attaining
them. Socialisation disciplines an individual and helps him to live
according to the social expectations.
4. Helps to Enact Different Roles. Every individual has to enact different
roles in his life Every role is woven around norms and is associated with
different attitudes. The process of socialisation assists an individual not
only to learn the norms associated with roles but also to develop
appropriate attitudes to enact those roles.

5. Provides the Knowledge of Skills. Socialisation is a way of training the

new born individual in certain skills which are required to lead a normal
social life. These skills help the individual to play economic, professional,
educational, religious and political roles in his later life. In primitive
societies for example, imparting skills to the younger generation in
specific occupations was an important aspect of socialisation.

6. Helps to Develop Right Aspiration in Life. Every individual may have his
own aspirations, ambitions and desires in life. All these aspirations may
not always be in consonance with the social interests. Some of them may
even be opposed to the communal interests. But through the process of
socialisation an individual learns to develop those aspirations which are
complementary to the interests of society. Socialisation helps him to
direct or channelize his whole energy for the realization of those
aspirations.

7. Contributes to the Stability of the Social Order. It is through the process

of socialisation that every new generation is trained according to the
cultural goals, ideals, and expectations of a society. It assures the cultural
continuity of the society. At the same time, it provides enough scope for
variety and new achievements. Every new generation need not start its
social life afresh. It can conveniently rely on the earlier generation and
follow its cultural traditions. In this regard, socialisation contributes to the
stability of the social order.

8. Helps to Reduce Social Distance. Socialisation reduces social distance

and brings people together if proper attention is given to it. By giving
proper training and guidance to the children during their early years, it is
possible to reduce the social distance between people of different castes,
aces, regions, religions and professions. 9. Provides Scope for Building the
Bright Future. Socialisation is one of the powerful instruments of changing
the destiny of mankind. It is through the process of socialisation that a
society can produce a generation of its expectations. By giving
appropriate training to the new born children the coming generation can
be altered significantly. "The improvement of socialization offers one of
the greatest possibilities for the future alteration of human nature and
human society.

Definition Control

Social Control is the social group within society, secures conformity to

expectation on the part of its constituent units, individuals and groups".

2. E. A. Ross. "Social Control refers to the "system of devices whereby

society brings its members into conformity with the accepted standards
of behavior".

3. Manheim. "Social Control is the sum of those methods by which a

society tries to influence human behavior to maintain a given order."

4. Ogburn and Nimkoff have said that social control refers to "the
patterns of pressure which a society exerts to maintain order and
established rules."

5. J.S. Roucek. "Social Control' is a collective term used to refer to "those

processes planed of unplanned, by which individuals are taught,
persuaded or compelled to conform to the usages and life-values of
groups".
6. G.A. Lundberg and others have said that social control designates
"those social behaviors which influence individuals or groups toward
conformity to established or desired norms",

Nature of Social Control

The above-mentioned definitions suggest that social control consists of

the following essential aspects:

(1) Social Control denotes some kind of influence. The influence may be
exercised in various ways by means of public opinion, coercion, religion,
morality, ideology, leadership, etc.

(ii) The influence is essentially exerted by the society or community. The

influence is exerted at various levels. It may indicate the entire society's
influence over all the innumerable smaller groups, sub-groups and
individuals. It may denote the influence of a dominant group over several
smaller groups. It may signify the group's dominance over the individual
members. It may reflect in some cases the influence of a few extra-
ordinary individuals over other ordinary individuals.

(iii) The influence is exercised for promoting the welfare of all the
individuals or of the group as a whole. Social Control is not aimless. It is
there to serve the general interests of all and to curb the dangerous
selfish interests of those who try to satisfy them.
(iv) The influence of the society has been there since times immemorial.
Social Control is as old as human society. It is an essential condition of the
human society. In the absence of social control, no society can ever hold
together its members for any length of time.

(v) The influence is universal. Where there is society there is social

control. It is there even in the so-called uncivilized, barbaric and
cannibalistic societies.

1. Social Control brings about social conformity.

 This is the main purpose of social control. Since the modern complex
society is a multigraph society differential norms will have to co-exist.
As a result, behavioral patterns of different groups differ significantly.
But these differences should not be allowed to exceed the limits of
tolerance. People must be made to feel the need for security. For the
sake of security, they are obliged, to accept conformity. Social Control
thus provides for conformity.

2. Social Control brings about solidarity.

The second main purpose of social control is to create in the minds of
people the feeling of identity and of solidarity. For the proper and
smooth functioning of the society the different organizations and
institutions …2. and institutions of the social system must be properly
integrated. Otherwise, in this competitive world the weaker group
may be completely exploited by the stronger one, or equally powerful
groups may clash among themselves and spoil peace and order. Some
groups may even develop anti-societal attitudes and pose permanent
danger to the organization of the society. It becomes necessary for the
society to establish a reasonable balance or equilibrium between
different groups and institutions. This would repose confidence
among people. Society does this through various means of social
control.

3. Social Control assures the continuity of social group or society.

Societies not only struggle for stability and solidarity but also for their
own survival or continuity. Continuity is the bed-rock on which the
future of the society depends. Society maintains its continuity by
controlling effectively its people and their groups. Due to this
continuity the means of social control become in course of time a part
of culture. As a part of culture they are transmitted from one
generation to another. Thus, various means of social control function
endlessly to maintain the continuity of the society.

3. TYPES OF SOCIAL CONTROL

Society makes use of various means of social control depending upon the
time and social situation for the realization of its purposes. It is left to the
discretion of the group to decide what means must be used at what time
and in what social situation. In some primitive communities’ magic and
superstitious beliefs are enough to exercise control. In a rural society
means such as folkways, mores, customs, traditions, beliefs are enough to
act as social pressures on individual behavior. But in the modern urban
society, radio, television, newspapers, schools and colleges, police force,
etc., may be used for enforcing conformity. In fact, societies have
developed consciously or unconsciously various devices for the purpose of
controlling the behavior of their members. Formal and informal control
represent two kinds of devices.

Formal and Informal Control

Social Control can be classified into two major types on the basis of the
means of social control that are employed.

They are: (i) Formal control, and (ii) Informal control.

1. Formal Control. The state makes use of law, legislation, military force,
police force, administrative devices, etc., for the purpose of social control.
Similarly, different political, religious, economic, cultural and other
associations and institutions also institute formal control over the
behavior of the members. Formal control is deliberately created. Various
rules are laid down to make it specific. The necessity of following formal
control or rules is clearly stated by associations and institutions. Violators
of formal control are given punishments depending upon the nature and
type of violation. The organization that makes use of formal control may
even create a body of officials vested with power to enforce control as we
find it in the case of state which has established the police, military force,
etc. In brief, an association, whether it is a state or a bank, or an army, or
a factory or anything has its own norms through which it controls the
behavior of the members. All these come under formal control. Formal
control has become a necessity in the modern complex societies in which
interaction is mostly impersonal in nature. Sympathy, sense of justice,
folk ware, mores, customs, religion, morality and such other agents.
These are not purposefully created. Nothing could be said with certainty
regarding their origin. They arise course of time gain currency and
popularity. They become people in their practices. No specific punishment
would be given to the violators of informal control on their own way and
in Still they are more effective than the formal control. They do not
require any extra staff to enforce them as it is so in the case of formal
control. They do not have the physical force to enforce conformity to
them. Hence, people may not observe them or go against them without
being physically punished for the same. Faith in religion, moral
convictions, public opinion, artistic standard, and the general state of
enlightenment are found to be more important in informal control. deep-
rooted.

Informal control is more effective in primary social groups such as family,

tribe, rural community where interaction takes place on a personal basis.
Whenever the group of the society becomes larger (in terms of
population) and more complex, the informal devices of control become
less effective. Simple gossip and slander and censure can correct an erring
ruralite but not an urban citizen. The anonymity of city life which has
added to the confidence of the individual that he owns business,
contributes to the non-effectiveness of informal control. Hence informal
methods coercion and codes though less have given place to the portions
along with formal control in urban areas in regulating people's activities.

4. AGENCIES OF SOCIAL CONTROL

Society or group maintains social control by creating its own agencies

which may enforce Society or group maintains les such as law, education,
physical coercion and codes on the one hand, folks, mores, customs,
convention, tradition, religion, etc., on the other, have been used by the
society for this purpose. The number and variety of devices and agencies
employed depend on the degree of complexity of life in a society. The role
of some of these agencies may be briefly discussed here.

1. Control by Law

Law is the most powerful formal means of social control in the modern
society. Laws appear only in societies with a political organization, that is
a government. The term 'Law' has been defined in various ways. J.S.
Roucek opines that "Laws are a form of social rule emanating from
political agencies". Roscoe Pound says that "law is an authoritative canon
of value laid down by the force of politically organized society".

The main characteristics of law are (1) Laws are the general conditions of
human activity prescribed by the state for its members. (2) Law is called
law, only if enacted by a proper law- making authority. It is a product of
conscious thought, deliberate attempts and careful planning (3) Law is
definite, clear and precise. (4) Law applies equally to all without exception
in identical circumstances. (5) Violation of law is followed by penalties
and punishments determined by the authority of the state. (6) Laws are
always written down and recorded in some fashion. Hence they cannot
appear in non-literate society. (7) Laws are not the result of voluntary
consent of persons against whom they are directed.

Law is derived from various sources. As J.S. Roucek has pointed out, "All
social rules including political rules, or laws, originated first in custom or
folkways of long standing and are based upon existing conceptions of
justice and right in a given community". It is true that "in all societies law
is based upon moral notions". Laws are made and legislations are enacted
on the basis of social doctrines, ideals and mores. It does not mean that
the domains of law and morals are co-extensive Still it can be said that
"the maintenance of legal order depends upon the moral climate of a
society (Bottomore). The effectiveness of legal regulation never rests
solely upon the threat of physical sanctions. It very much depends upon a
general attitude of respect for law, and for a particular legal order. This
attitude itself is determined by moral approval of law as containing social
justice. Law requires enforcing agencies. Laws are enforced with the help
of the police, the court, and sometimes the armed forces. Administrative
machinery of the state is the main law-enforcing agency. Increasing
complexity of the modern industrial society has necessitated enormous
growth of administrative agencies. Law is, in fact the control of
administrative power which is vested in the government officials. Law as
an instrument of control performs two functions:
(i) It eliminates and suppresses the homicidal activities of individuals.
(ii) (ii) Law persuades individuals to pay attention to the rights of
others as well as to act in co-operation with others. In this way law
tries to protect the individuals and society and promotes social
welfare.

It is almost impossible now-a-days to conceive of a society of any degree

of complexity in which social behavior would be completely regulated by
moral sanctions. Law has thus become inevitably a pervasive
phenomenon. Contemporary international relations would reveal the
importance of law in social control. It may be true that the moral unity of
the mankind is now greater than ever before. But moral sentiments alone
are not enough today to regulate relations. They are by necessity
supplemented by the law.

2. Control by Education

Education may be defined as a process whereby the social heritage of a

group is passed on from one generation to another. It is in this sense,
Durkheim conceived of education as "the socialisation of the younger
generation". He also stated, "It is actually a continuous effort to impose
on the child ways of seeing, feeling and acting which he could not have
arrived at spontaneously". Brown and Roucek have said that education is
"the sum total of the experience which moulds the attitudes and
determines the conduct of both the child and the adult". Education is
every experience, trifling or profound, which durably modifies, thought,
feeling or action.
Education is not just concerned with transmitting a way of life. In the
modern times it is largely devoted to the communication of empirical
knowledge. It is required today to prepare individuals for a changing
rather than a static world. Formal education has been communicating
ideas and values which play a part in regulating behavior. In modern
society science and technology are the basis of a general rational
approach to nature and social life. The whole rationalization of the
modern world is connected with the development of science. The chief
instrument of this development is educational system. In this way, formal
education can be viewed as a type of social control. Education has
contributed to the regulation of conduct in the early socialisation of the
child. Educational reformers such as Montessori and Froebel have
brought about great changes in the education of young children. These
reforms reveal the moral notions external to the educational system. But
they have been influential in changing moral ideas in society at large.

Some educators have suggested that education must be used for making
a "good society". Education is not primarily an attempt to stuff the mind
with information, but train people to think to distinguish between truth
and error to arrive at reality. In this regard, the school is taken to mean a
"community of experience" rather than as a "series of planned lessons".
George S. Counts has re- marked that "Education, emptied of all social
control and considered solely as method, points no- where and can arrive
nowhere...." . Today people send their children to the schools to be
taught properly. "To be taught properly means, of course, to be taught in
accordance with the wishes of the community". The community is most
sensitive, in particular, to those aspects of teaching that have social and
moral significance. Hence much attention is paid to select right persons
for the teaching profession.

Education from infancy to adulthood is a vital means of social control.

Through education new generation learns the social norms and the
penalties for violating them. Theoretical education, that is reading and
serves form the education the harmony of the quite normal. It converts it
output this into practice. Without pro. Education makes social control
quite nom social Converts social merely difficult but also impossible in the
absence of a well-organized educational education control would control
into self-control. In the pressure which may not last long. Hence,
education is a necessary condition for the proper exercise of social
control.

3. Control by the Public Opinion

Public Opinion is an important agency of social control. As K. Young has

said to Public Opinion consists of the opinion held by a public at a certain
time". According to V.V. Akolkar, "Public opinion simply refers to that
mass of ideas which people have to express on a given issue". Public
opinion may be said to be the collective opinion of majority of members
of a group.
Public opinion is of great significance especially in democratic societies.
Through public opinion the knowledge of the needs, ideas, beliefs, and
values of people can be ascertained. It influences the social behavior of
people. Behavior of the people is influenced by ideas, attitudes and
desires which are reflected by public opinion. People get recognition and
respectability when they behave according to accepted social
expectations. Public opinion helps us to know what type of behavior is
acceptable and what is not. There are various agencies for the
formulation and expression of public opinion. The press, radio, movies
and legislatures are the main controlling agencies of public opinion.

The 'press' includes newspapers, magazines and journals of various kinds.

The newspaper provides the stuff of opinion for it covers everyday events
and policies. Many decisions of the people are influenced by information
available through the press. As an agency of social control the press seeks
to influence the tastes, ideas, attitudes and preferences of the readers. It
affects their ideology also. It enforces morality by exposing the moral
lapses of the leaders.

Radio is another agency of public opinion that influences behavior. It

influences our language, customs and institutions. It is through the radio
that human voice can reach millions of people at the same time. It can
dramatize and popularize events and ideas. In the same way, television
has also been influencing people's behavior.

Movies or motion pictures exert great influence on public opinion. They

have effectively changed the attitudes and behavior of the people. Movie-
goers are relaxed and unaware of the fact that they are being affected by
ideas and values. They identify themselves with the leading characters
and unconsciously accept the attitudes, values, etc., implicit in the role.
Some emotionally disturbed people often search solutions for their
problems through, movies. Through films it is possible to improve
people's tastes, ideas and attitudes to some extent. Legislature at present
is the most effective agency for the formulation and expression of public
opinion. The debates in the legislatures influence public opinion
particularly in democratic sys- tem. It makes laws that control people's
life and activities. It should be noted that legislature itself is subject to the
influence of the people.

4. Control by Propaganda

"Propaganda is an organized or systematic attempt made by a person or a

group to influence public opinion and attitudes in any sphere”. -Akolkar.
It refers to the techniques of influencing human action by the
manipulation of representations. It is a means of influencing others, often
to- wards a desirable end.
Propaganda can affect people's faith, ideology, attitude and behavior. It
can also be used to replace old beliefs and practices with the new ones.
Propaganda may bring about positive as well as negative results.
Governmental departments such as medical department, planning
department, co- operative department, customs department, income tax
department, etc. make propaganda to help people to mend their ways
and also to develop right habits, practices and approaches. Every
government maintains a department to influence people in the direction
of accepted patterns. This department is called the department of 'public
relation" or "publicity". The health department may make use of various
devices and techniques of propaganda to impress upon people to take
precautions to control contagious diseases. The planning department may
try to appeal to the people through effective propaganda the necessity of
controlling birth rate. The income tax department may try to create fear
in the minds of tax payers of the consequences of evading taxes through
propaganda.

Propaganda plays a vital role in both democratic and dictatorial countries.

In democratic countries propaganda is mainly used to persuade people to
accept some opinions or reject some others or to follow some new
practices or drop out some old ones. But in dictatorial countries it is used
by the government mainly to suppress public opinion or to make people
to believe what it wants them to believe. Mass media of communication
are used for this purpose. Propaganda by itself is neither good nor bad. It
depends on the purpose for which it is used and how it is used.
To make propaganda very effective the propagandists repeat them
regularly and systematically. They present only one side of the question
and furnish vast evidences in support of it. They condemn their
opponents and resort to self-praise in an intelligent way. To get enduring
effects they concentrate on children and try to 'brainwash them.
Totalitarian states normally try to do this. They even make education an
instrument of propaganda.

5. Control by Coercion

Coercion, that is, the use of physical force is one of the forms of social
control. Coercion refers to the use of physical force to stop or control a
work or an action. Whenever people are refrained from doing a particular
work or whenever some limits are put deliberately on the range of their
choice through the use of force, or through the threat of its
consequences, they may be said to be under coercion. Coercion is an
extreme form of violence. State is the only association which is
empowered to use coercion in social control. No other association is
vested with this power. It becomes necessary for the state to resort to
coercion to suppress anti-social trends and activities. Otherwise there
would be no security for social life. It is necessary to keep within limits
the self-interest, the greed, the lawlessness, and the intolerance ever
ready to assert its will over others. It is necessary to protect the interests
of the weaker groups, minorities, servants, slaves, poor and the like.
Safeguarding the political and social order is the main service of force.
Force alone cannot protect the social order, but without force the order
could never be secure. "Without force law is in danger of being
dethroned, though force alone can never keep law in its throne".

Though force is essential, it has its own limitations. The intervention of

force substitutes a mechanical for a social relationship. The use of force
indicates the denial of the possibility of co- operation. It treats the human
being as though he were merely a physical object. Force is the end of
mutuality. Force by itself admits no expression of human impulses against
whom it is wielded. Further, the exercise of power is a wasteful
operation. It checks all the ordinary processes of life, all the give-and-take
of common living. Human experience has revealed that coercion or force
is necessary as the guarantee of political laws. Its service is best rendered
when it is used to the minimum.
6. Control by Customs
customs of society Macher and Page. Many of our daily activities are
regulated Customs represent a kind of informal social control. "The
socially by customs. Our ways of dressing, speaking, eating, working,
worshipping, training the young, celebrating festivals, etc., are all
controlled by customs. They are self-accepted rules of social life
Individuals can hardly escape their hold. accredited ways of All normal
people prefer to live according to the customs for they save much and
time. They save us from the objections and ridicule of our energy of the
society, Customs give guidance for people in every activity. One need not
have to resort to original thinking on every aspect. The role in animals.
Customs of his social life. are conformed mostly unconsciously. Man
learns harmful customs childhood and Customs are conformed mostly
very rarely opposed. Even the harmful customs are also obeyed goes on
obeying them. Custom they do not consider them harmful individuals
who consider the by most of the people because they them, only some
exceptional individuals have the courage of going against them or carrying
on protest against them.

Customs are basic to our collective life. They are found everywhere. They
are more influential and Customs are basic to our daily life in the modern
society. In the Indian politics they act as dominant and slowly losing its
hold over people, and giving place to law.

7. Control by Folkways and Mores

Folkways and mores represent two important types of informal control.

Folkways, "Folkways refer to the ways of the people. They are "the
repetitive petty acts of the people" Folkways are the norms to which
people conform because it is expected of them. Conformity to the
folkways is neither required by law nor enforced by any special agency of
society. For example, there is no law that compels us to wash clothes, to
take bath, to brush teeth, to greet friends, to give respect to elders, etc.
Still we do many such activities without thinking over them. It is a matter
of usage. They are our folkways.

Folkways are not as compulsive and obligatory as laws or morals. Those

who violate folkways are not punished by formal means. But the violators
are put to gossip, slander and ridicule. One can ignore a few of the
folkways but no one can neglect or violate all of them. They constitute an
important part of the social structure. They contribute to the order and
stability of social relations Human infants learn them through their elders
through socialisation. They learn different folk. ways at different stages
relevant to their class, caste, ethnic, religious, occupational, marital and
other statuses. We are made to follow them because they are binding.
They become with us a matter of habit.

The Mores. 'Mores' or 'Morals' represent another category of norms.

When 'folkways' act as regulators of behavior then they become 'mores'.
Mores are considered to be essential for group welfare. The positive
mores prescribe behaviour patterns while the negative mores or taboos
pre- scribe or prohibit behaviour patterns. Mores for example, instruct
people to love their country, to look after their wives and children, to tell
the truth, to be helpful to others, etc. They also insist on people not to
become unpatriotic, not to show disrespect to the god, not to steal, cheat,
etc.

Mores represent the living character of the group. They are always
considered as 'right' by the people who share them. They are morally
right and their violation morally wrong. Hence they are more compulsive
in nature. Mores contribute to the solidarity and harmony of the group.
They help the individuals to identify themselves with the group. Every
group has its own mores. There are mores for each sex, for all ages, for all
classes, for all families and so on.
Mores help the individuals to realize that community living or collective
life is possible only when one conforms to the norms. Mores weld the
individual with the group or the society without damaging his personal
liberty. Individual learns through mores that the society is not against
him. They differ from place to place and time to time. They become in
course of time the basis of law. Laws are often called "codified mores".
Control by Religion and Morality Religion and morality are the most
effective means of informal social control in both modern and primitive
societies.

8. Control by Religion

Religion refers to man's faith or belief in some supernatural power or

force. As MacIver and Page have said, religion "implies a relationship not
merely between man and man but also between man and some higher
power". Religious concept is thus linked with man's relationship with
God. The behaviour which is in conformity with this relationship is
religious behaviour. The norms concerned with religious behaviour
constitute the religious code. The main purpose of religious code is to
insist on religious conformity. Religious conformity in most of the cases
will be in consonance with social conformity. Because, the main intention
of the religious code is to make man basically good, obedient and helpful
to others.

Religion regulates the activities of people in its own way. It regulates

human conduct, through religious code. The conceptions of spirits, ghosts,
taboos, soul, divine commandments, sermon, etc., control human actions
and enforce discipline. Ideas of hell and heaven too have great effects on
the behaviour of people. It has a great disciplinary value.

Man as a religious being tries to adjust, or restrain or mend his behaviour

to secure the blessings of the divinity. He is afraid of going against the
divine will or the divine rule. Religion has a supra-social sanction' to
enforce obedience to the religious code. Religion demands total surrender
to the divine force or power. Man by surrendering himself to the divine
force tries to suppress his own impulses and selfish desires.

In yet another way also religion serves as a means of social control.

Religion conserves the norms and values of life. Religion defines and
redefines values. Moral, spiritual and social values are strongly supported
by religion. Through the agencies such as family, church, school, religion
inculcates the values of life in the minds of growing children. As Thomas
F. O'Dea has pointed out, "religion sacralises the norms and values of
established society". It "maintains the dominance of group goals over
individual impulses".

Religion has its own methods to deal with those individuals who violate
religious code or norms. Various religious agencies such as temples,
churches, mutts, monasteries created by religion also help to control and
humble the disobedient. Religion has its own ways and means to re-
integrate grate the disobedient into the social group. Further, religious
sanctions are widely made use of to support the ethical codes and moral
practices.

MEANING OF CULTURE
"Culture' is one of the most important concepts in social science. It is
commonly used in Psychology, Political Science and Economics. It is the
main concept in Anthropology and a fundamental one in Sociology. The
study of human society immediately and necessarily leads us to the study
of its culture. The study of society or any aspect of it becomes incomplete
without a proper under- standing of the culture of that society. Culture
and society go together. They are inseparable.

Definition of Culture

1. B. Malinowski has defined culture as the 'cumulative creation of man'.

He also regards culture as the handiwork of man and the medium through
which he achieves his ends.

2. Graham Wallas, an English sociologist has defined culture as an

accumulation of thoughts, values and objects, it is the social heritage
acquired by us from preceding generations through learn- ing, as
distinguished from the biological heritage which is passed on to us
automatically through the genes.

3. C.C. North is of the opinion that culture "consists in the instruments

constituted by man to assist him in satisfying his wants."

4. Robert Bierstedt is of the opinion that "culture is the complex whole

that consists of all the ways we think and do and everything we have as
members of society".

5. E.V. de Robertv regards culture as 'the body of thoughts and

knowledge, both theoretical and practical, which only man can possess.

6. Edward B. Tvior, a famous English anthropologist, has defined culture

as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
member of society". Tylor's definition is widely quoted and used today.
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

The definitions cited above reveal some of the characteristics of culture.

For a clear understanding of the concept of culture, it is necessary for us
to know its main features.

1. Culture is Learnt

Culture is not inherited biologically, but learnt socially by man. It is not an

inborn tendency. There is no cultural instinct as such. Culture is often
called 'learned ways of behaviour. Unlearned behaviour, such as closing
the eyes while sleeping, the eye blinking reflex and so on, are purely
physiological and not cultural. Shaking hands or saying 'namaskar' or
'thanks' and shaving and dressing, on the other hand, are cultural.
Similarly, wearing clothes, combing the hair, wearing ornaments cooking
the food, drinking from a glass, eating from a plate or a leaf, reading a
newspaper, driving car, enacting a role in a drama, singing, worshipping,
etc., are all ways of behaviour learnt by man culturally.

2. Culture is Social

Culture does not exist in isolation. Neither is it an individual

phenomenon. It is a product of society. It originates and develops through
social interactions. It is shared by the members of society
No man can acquire culture without association with other human beings.
Man becomes man only among men. It is the culture which helps man to
develop human qualities in a human environment. Deprivation of
company or association of other individuals to an individual is nothing but
deprivation of human qualities.

3. Culture is Shared
Culture in the sociological sense, is something shared. It is not something
that at individual alone can possess. For example, customs, traditions,
beliefs, ideas, values, morals, etc., are all shared by people of a group or
society. The inventions of Arya Bhatta or Albert Einstein, Charkas or
Charles Darwin, the literary works of Kalidasa or Keats, Dandi or Dante;
the philosophical works of Confucius or Lao , Shankar Acharya or…
example, fulfilled according to the cultural ways. Culture determines and
guides the varied activities of man. In fact, culture is defined as the
process through which human beings satisfy their wants.

4. Culture Varies from Society to Society

Every society has a culture of its own. It differs from society to society.
Culture of every society is unique to itself. Cultures are not uniform.
Cultural elements such as customs, traditions, morals, ideals, values,
ideologies, beliefs, practices, philosophies, institutions, etc., are not
uniform everywhere. Ways of eating, speaking, greeting, dressing,
entertaining, living, etc., of different societies differ significantly. Culture
varies from time to time also. No culture ever remains constant or
changeless. If Manu were to come back to see the Indian society today, he
would be bewildered to witness the vast changes that have taken place in
our culture.

5 Culture is Super organic and Ideational

Culture is sometimes called 'the super organic". By 'super organic' Herbert

Spencer meant that culture is neither organic nor inorganic in nature but
above these two. The term implies the social meaning of physical objects
and physiological acts. The social meaning may be independent of
physiological and physical properties and characteristics. For example, the
social meaning of a national flag is not just a piece of colored cloth". The
flag represents a nation. Similarly, priests and prisoners, professors and
professionals, players, engineers and doctors, farmers and soldiers, and
others are not just biological beings. They are viewed in their society
differently. Their social status and role can be understood only through
culture.

Material and Non-Material Culture

(1) Material Culture

Material culture consists of man-made objects such as tools, implements,
furniture, automobiles, buildings, dams, roads, bridges, and in fact, the
physical substance which has been changed and used by man. It is
concerned with the external, mechanical and utilitarian objects. It
includes technical and material equipment’s like a printing press, a
locomotive, a telephone, a television, a tractor, a machine gun, etc. It
includes our banks, parliaments, insurance schemes, currency systems,
etc. It is referred to as civilization.

(ii) Non-Material Culture

The term 'culture' when used in the ordinary sense, means 'non-material
culture'. It is some- thing internal and intrinsically valuable, reflects the
inward nature of man. Non-material culture consists of the words the
people use or the language they speak, the beliefs they hold, values and
virtues they cherish, habits they follow, rituals and practices that they do
and the ceremonies they observe. It also includes our customs and tastes,
attitudes and outlook, in brief, our ways of acting, feeling and thinking.

FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE
1. Culture is the Treasury of Knowledge. Culture provides knowledge
which is essential for the physical, social and intellectual existence of
man. Birds and animals behave instinctively. With the help of instincts,
they try to adapt themselves with the environment. But man has greater
intelligence and learning capacity. With the help of these he has been
able to adapt himself with the environment or modify it to suit his
convenience. Culture has made such an adaptation and modification
possible and easier by providing man the necessary skills and knowledge.
Culture preserves knowledge and helps its transmission from generation
to generation through its element, that is, language. Language helps not
only the transmission of knowledge but also its preservation,
accumulation and diffusion. On the contrary, animals do not have this
advantage. Because, culture does not exist at sub-human level.

2. Culture Defines Situations. Culture defines social situations for us. It not
only defines but also conditions and determines - what we eat and drink,
what we wear, when to laugh, weep, sleep, love, to make friends with,
what work we do, what God we worship, what knowledge we rely upon,
what poetry we recite and so on.

3. Culture Defines Attitudes, Values and Goals. Attitudes refer to the

tendency to feel and act in certain ways. Values are the measure of
goodness or desirability. Goals refer to the attainments which our values
define as worthy. It is the culture which conditions our attitude towards
various issues such as religion, morality, marriage, science, family
planning, prostitution and so on. Our values concerning private property,
fundamental rights, representative government, romantic love, etc., are
influenced by our culture. Our goals of winning the race, understanding
others, attaining salvation, being obedient to elders and teachers, being
loyal to husband, being patriotic, etc., are all set forth by our culture. We
are being socialized on these models.
4. Culture Decides our Career. Whether we should become a politician, a
social worker, a doctor, an engineer, a soldier, a farmer, a professor, an
industrialist, a religious leader, and so on is decided by our culture. What
career we are likely to pursue is largely decided by our culture. Culture
sets limitations on our choice to select different careers. Individuals may
develop, modify or oppose the trends of their culture but they always live
within its framework. Only a few can find outlet in the culture.

5. Culture Provides Behaviour Pattern. Culture directs and confines the

behaviour of an individual, Culture assigns goals and provides means for
achieving them. It rewards his noble works and punishes the ignoble
ones. It assigns him statuses and roles. We see, dream, aspire, work,
strive, marry, enjoy according to the cultural expectation. Culture not only
 controls but also liberates hu- man energy and activities. Man, indeed, is a
prisoner of his culture.

6. Culture Moulds Personality. Culture exercises a great influence on the

development of personality. No child can develop human qualities in the
absence of a cultural environment. Culture prepares man for group life
and provides him the design of living. It is the culture that provides
opportunities for the development of personality and sets limits on its
growth. As Ruth Benedict has pointed out, every culture will produce its
special type or types of personality. This fact has been stressed by her in
her "Patterns of Culture" an analysis of the culture of three primitive
societies. Yet another American anthropologist by name Margaret Mead
has stated that "a culture shapes the character and behaviour of
individuals living in it......". This fact she has established in her "Sex and
Temperament in Three Primitive Societies" - a study of New Guinea tribal
life.

It is true that the individual is exposed to and moulded by the culture of

the group into which he is born. But the culture provides not only for
'universals' but also for 'alternatives'. There is not only conformity in
cultural learning but also variations. Still no individual is completely
culturally determined. Every individual is unique in any culture. The
uniqueness may be based on individual differences in ability, aptitude and
learning. The impact of culture on the individual is not always identical in
every case. Every individual is sooner or later exposed to influences which
are not completely predetermined by culture. He meets other people
outside the culture. Travelling, books, radio, cinema, television, theatre,
newspapers expose an individual to many influences outside the culture.
Various biological and social factors bring about the uniqueness of the
individuals in any culture
7. Culture is Super organic and Ideational
Culture is sometimes called 'the super organic". By 'super organic' Herbert
Spencer meant that culture is neither organic nor inorganic in nature but above
these two. The term implies the social meaning of physical objects and
physiological acts. The social meaning may be independent of physiological and
physical properties and characteristics. For example, the social meaning of a
national flag is not just a piece of colored cloth". The flag represents a nation.
Similarly, priests and prisoners, professors and professionals, players, engineers
and doctors, farmers and soldiers, and others are not just biological beings.
They are viewed in their society differently. Their social status and role can be
understood only through culture.
Material and Non-Material Culture
(1) Material Culture
Material culture consists of man-made objects such as tools, implements,
furniture, automobiles, buildings, dams, roads, bridges, and in fact, the physical
substance which has been changed and used by man. It is concerned with the
external, mechanical and utilitarian objects. It includes technical and material
equipment’s like a printing press, a locomotive, a telephone, a television, a
tractor, a machine gun, etc. It includes our banks, parliaments, insurance
schemes, currency systems, etc. It is referred to as civilization.
(ii) Non-Material Culture
The term 'culture' when used in the ordinary sense, means 'non-material
culture'. It is some- thing internal and intrinsically valuable, reflects the inward
nature of man. Non-material culture consists of the words the people use or the
language they speak, the beliefs they hold, values and virtues they cherish,
habits they follow, rituals and practices that they do and the ceremonies they
observe. It also includes our customs and tastes, attitudes and outlook, in brief,
our ways of acting, feeling and thinking.

COMPONENTS OF CULTURE:
CULTURE TRAIT AND CULTURE ITEM
This term refers to a small bit of culture in any one of the three components ie.
Ideas, Norms and Material. We should be inclined to use the word 'item' when
referring to material, either 'item' or 'trait' when referring to an idea, and
probably, the word 'trait' when referring to a norm. For example, a spark plug is
an item of material culture etc.
CULTURE COMPLEX
Items combine with item and trait with trait to form culture complexes. In other
words, it is a combination of culture items or culture traits. Thus, for example,
handshaking may be considered only one practice in culture complex of meeting
and greeting practices that include polite forms of address and so on.
CULTURE PATTERN AND CULTURE CONFIGURATION
Combinations of culture traits and culture items - culture complexes-
themselves combine with other combinations and give us culture patterns or
culture configurations. Sometimes 'pattern' is the larger term and sometimes
'configuration' but they both refer, despite imprecise usage, to the major
constellations of culture that appear in all societies and that distinguish one
society from another. They designate combinations not only of ideas or norms
or material but of all three together. For example, all kinds of polite practices
combine to make up the distinctive cultural patterns of etiquette or the
configurations of hospitality that characterize various societies.
ACCULTURATION
The process of acquiring the culture of a different society from one's own is
called acculturation. It occurs on a large scale when one society is invaded by
another. Acculturation is inevitable when people meet. Sometimes, of course,
the traits of one culture do not harmonize well with those of another and their
transmission is resisted. Acculturation, like education, is a constant process in
society. It is the result of the contact of cultures.
CULTURE DIFFUSION
It refers to the spread or diffusion of culture from one society to another by
various means, such as; modern means of communications and transportation,
soldiers and settlers, missionaries and migrant workers and more.
None of the complex societies to be found on earth today created more than a
very few of the total number of cultural elements to be found in it. All of them
have 'borrowed' elements from other societies. Indeed, Ralph Linton has
estimated that in no case does the number of indigenous or native elements
exceed 10 per cent of the total culture.

CULTURAL LAG
Cultural lag, a concept introduced by William F. Ogburn, refers to a situation in
which one part or phase of culture lags behind another and causes imbalance or
disharmony in society. For example, political arrangements generally lag behind
technological, demographic, and other kinds of changes. The law in general is
frequently laggard, and in many instances does not change quickly enough to
meet social requirements.
CULTURAL CONFLICT
The term culture conflict is an ellipsis; that is, it is people, groups or societies
who are in conflict with one another, not cultures. Their contention, however,
usually has a cultural base. For example, the religious wars, and the conflict
between Protestants and Catholics in the U.S.A
GROUP:
1. DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUP
Definition
1. Harry M. Johnson says that 'A social group is a system of social interaction.
2. Marshal Jones is of the opinion that a social group is 'two or more people
between whom there is an established pattern of interaction."
3. R.M. Maclver and Page define social group as 'any collection of human beings
who are brought into human relationships with one another."
4. Ogburn and Nimkoff: ""Whenever two or more individuals come together
and influence one another, they may be said to constitute a social group."
5. Emory S. Bogardus defines social group as 'a number of persons, two or more,
who have common objects of attention, who are stimulating to each other, who
have common loyalty and participate in similar activities.'
Characteristics of Social Groups
The main characteristics of social groups are as follows:
(1) Collection of Individuals. Social group consists of people. Without individuals
there can be no group. Just as we cannot have a college or a university without
students and teachers we cannot have a group in the absence of people.
(ii) Interaction Among Members. Social interaction is the very basis of group life.
Hence mere collection of individuals does not make a group. The members must
have interaction. A social group, is in fact a system of social interaction. The
limits of social groups are marked by the limits of social interaction.
(iii) Mutual Awareness. Group life involves mutual awareness. Group members
are aware of one another and their behaviour is determined by this mutual
recognition. This may be due to what
Giddings calls 'the consciousness of kind". (iv) 'We-feeling'. 'We-feeling' refers
to the tendency on the part of the members to identify themselves with the
groups. It represents group unity. "We-feeling' creates sympathy in and foster
co-operation among members. It helps group members to defend their interests
collectively.
(v) Group Unity and Solidarity. Group members are tied by a sense of unity. The
solidarity or integration of a group is largely dependent upon the frequency, the
variety, and the emotional quality of the interactions of its members. A family
or a friends group, or a religious group is highly united and integrated, because
its members are related by several common interests and have frequent social
contacts with one another and express a high degree of morale and of loyalty. is
maintained more often by conscious effort.
(vi) Common Interests. The interests and ideals of group are common. Groups
are mostly formed or established for the fulfilment of certain interests. In fact,
men not only join groups but also form group for the realization of their
objectives or interests. Form of the groups differs depending upon the common
interests of the group. Hence, there are political groups, religious groups,
economic groups, educational groups, racial groups, national groups and so on.
(vii) Similar Behaviour. The members of group behave in more or less similar
way for the pursuit of common interests. Social groups represent collective
behaviour.
(viii) Group Norms. Every group has its own rules or norms which the members
are supposed to follow. These norms may be in the form of customs, folkways,
mores, traditions, conventions, laws, etc. They may be written or unwritten
norms or standards. Every group has its own ways and means of punishing or
correcting those who go against the rules. The continued group-life of man
practically becomes impossible without some norms.
(ix) Size of the Group. Every group involves an idea of size. Social groups vary in
size. A group may be as small as that of dyad (two members' group e.g.,
husband-and-wife family) or as big as that of a political party having lakhs of
members. Size will have its own impact on the character of the group. (x)
Groups are Dynamic. Social groups are not static but dynamic. They are subject
to changes whether slow or rapid. Old members die and new members are
born. Whether due to internal or external pressures or forces, groups undergo
changes.

(xi) Stability. Groups are stable or unstable; permanent or temporary in

character. Some groups like, the crowd, mob, audience, spectators' group etc.,
are temporary and unstable. But many groups are relatively permanent and
stable in character.
(xii) Influence on Personality. Social groups directly or indirectly shape the
personality of their members. They also provide opportunities for the
expression of individuality
Social Bonds-The Factors of Group Life
Various forces are at work to make man social. Particularly, the psychological,
biological kinship and physical factors have enforced man to lead group life.
These factors can be called social bonds
1. Psychological Factors. The psychological bond that promotes group life is
what Prof Giddings calls "the consciousness of kind. It means the recognition of
similarities. It compels men to come together and live in groups. Further, man is
psychologically equipped to live together Solitary life is unbearable for him.
Groups provide opportunities not only for the development of man's
personality but also for the expression of his individuality. It is in an
environment of groups only that man discovers his capacities, learns new ideas
and new habits and new attitudes.
Reaction to fear is another psychological force that drives man to lead a group
life. Solitary life brings man not only boredom but also fear. As Herbert Spencer
has pointed out, the fear of the living produced the state [a political group], and
the fear of the dead created religion.
2. Biological Factor. Unlike other animals, human beings are susceptible to
sexual pressures throughout their life. Sex desire on the one hand, and the
desire for progeny on the other, have drawn nearer men and women into group
called family. Thus, strong sexual impulse, the natural biological processes of
procreation and upbringing of children have made family almost universal and
inevitable. The prolonged human infancy coupled with the helplessness of the
newborn baby have further added to this inevitability. Human beings at birth
possess the 'biological potentiality of being converted into social animals.

3. Kinship Bond. Kinship is popularly known as 'blood relationship. Kinsmen are

regarded as people who are related by 'blood through descent from some
human or mythical ancestor. Kins men are better united and have a sense of
identity. In primitive societies the element of kinship is more effective in
bringing people together than in the civilized societies. But still, the social bond
of racial kinship also promotes group life. However, in modern times, the
influence and the hold of the kinship factor are declining due to urbanization,
industrialization and other processes.
4. Geographic Factor. The geographic factors such as climate, soil, natural
resources, rivers, mountains, play their role in helping people to have social
relations with others. The fact of living in a particular physical area has made
possible for people to have regular contacts. These contacts are the basic
requirements of social group. Good and conducive geographic environment
attracts people to live together than the unfavorable one. Ancient civilizations,
for example, flourished on the banks of the rivers while dense forests, barren
lands, dry deserts are uninhabited by the people even today Groups are rarely
found in such places.

5. Cultural Factors. A common cultural outlook and group interests together

have long constituted a significant element in promoting group life. Common
language, common historic traditions, common literature, common faith,
beliefs, values, attitudes, customs, traditional and educational heritage have all
served to bring people together and cement them into groups. 6. Economic
Factors. Experience has taught man that his basic economic needs - the need for
food, clothing and shelter-can better be fulfilled by being in groups than alone.
The major economic processes of production, distribution and exchange take
place primarily in groups. Economic groupings have become more prominent
especially after Industrial Revolution of the 19th century.
7. Religious Factors. Man is a religious or spiritual being also. His soul craves for
religious experience. Worshipping, meditation, prayer, singing songs in praise of
God, etc., are the essence of religious experience. These are commonly
observed. Religion brings people together into religious groups in the name of
God or some supernatural force. A sense of belonging to a religion holds people
together into groups.
The Classifications
1. 'In-Groups' and 'Out-Group'. W.G. Sumner in his 'Folkways' differentiates
between 'in-groups' and 'out-groups'. An 'In-Group' is simply the We-group, an
"Out-Group' the "They group'. This classification is more subjective, in the
sense, it depends on the tendency on the part of an individual to identify
himself with a particular group in a particular situation for a particular reason.
For example, for a Hindu, all the other Hindus constitute his 'in-group' and
members of other religious groups, out-group'. For a Lingayat, the other
Lingayats may constitute his 'in-group", and other people, his 'out-group' and so
on.
2. Involuntary and Voluntary Groups, Institutional and Non-Institutional Groups
and Temporary and Permanent Groups. Charles A. Ellwood in his 'Psychology of
Human Society has mentioned these three categories. Involuntary groups
include the groups such as family, city, the state, community, caste, race etc.,
and the voluntary groups include political parties, trade unions, youth
associations, religious associations, cultural associations and so on. Institutional
groups are mostly permanent in nature and include church, state, caste, the
school and so on while the non-institutional groups are temporary in nature and
include groups such as crowds, mobs, public, audience and so on. 3. Horizontal
Groups and Vertical Groups. P.A. Sorokin has divided groups into two major
types the horizontal and the vertical. The former are large, inclusive groups such
as nations, religious organizations and political parties. The latter are smaller
divisions, such as economic classes which give the individual his status in
society.
4. Territorial Groups and Non-Territorial Groups. Park and Burgess have
distinguished between territorial groups [e.g., communities and states] and
non-territorial groups [e.g., classes, castes, crowds and public].
5. Crowds, Groups and Collectivities. Leopold Von Wiese and Howard Becker
classified human groups into three categories:
(1) Crowds, which are described as 'loose-textured and transitory',
(2) Groups, aggregations of long duration, and
(3) abstract collectivities such as a state or a church.

6. Primary Groups and Secondary Groups. On the basis of nature and quality of
social interaction groups have been classified into primary and secondary. The
name of C.H. Cooley is very much associated with this classification though in
actuality, he has not made any such classification. Cooley introduced the term
'primary group' and spoke nothing about 'secondary group'. The secondary
groups are regarded as a 'residual category.
7. Social Groups, Social Category and Statistical Aggregate. A distinction is also
made between social groups, social categories and statistical aggregate. (i)
Social groups are those which
 characterized by some established pattern of interaction. Example: Peer
groups, classroom groups, family, political partials, soldier social category refers
to the people who share a common status sample: Bank officials, soldiers,
teachers, farmers, women etc. (ii) A statistical aggregate Example: Cricket fans.
8. Genetic Groups and Congregate Group. F. Q. Giddings has introduced this
classification. Genetic groups are involuntary in nature and the individuals are
born in them. Congregate groups are voluntary in nature and the individuals are
at liberty to join them or not. Family groups, facial groups, ethnic groups are
genetic groups, political parties, trade unions, etc. are congregate groups.
9. Tönnies' Classification of Communities (or Groups). A German Sociologist
Ferdinand Tonnies has classified communities into "Gemeinschaft" and
"Gesellschaft". These two terms have been translated into English as
"Community" and "Association" respectively. Tonnies made the distinction
between 'Community' and 'Association' at two levels. The distinction was
applied to both: (1) to the social groups within a society, and (ii) to the societies
themselves.

(10) Gemeinschaft (Community). The "Gemeinschaft" is characterized by

"intimate, private, and exclusive living together." It represents a community or
social groups in which individuals are involved in the process of interaction as
'persons'. They feel that they can satisfy all or most of a wide range of purposes
in the group. The family, kin group, the neighborhood, the rural village, the
friends group represent the Gemeinschaft. In such groups intimate, friendly and
personal relations are found among the members.

(ii) Gesellschaft (Association). The Gesellschaft is defined as "public life", as

something which is purposefully entered upon. Tonnies says that these
associations largely represent group with economic interests. The Gesellschaft
or the 'association' represents relationships that are specific, partial and
utilitarian. Business contract, legal pacts between individuals represent the
Gesellschaft relationships. Business Companies, Corporations, Cities, Towns etc.
represent 'Gesellschaft' type groups. In these groups the individuals are not
wholly involved in the group life. They look to the group for the satisfaction of
some specific and partial ends.
Thus, Gemeinschaft or the Community is united by kind of feeling or sentiment
between individuals. It acts as a cementing factor. On the other hand,
Gesellschaft or the Association is united by a rational agreement of interests.
This classification of communities made by Tonnies is very much important to
the classification of groups into 'primary groups' and 'secondary groups. Small
Groups and Large Groups. George Simmel introduced this classification. Size is
the basis of this classification. Small groups include 'dyad', 'triad' and other
small groups. Large groups represent racial groups, political groups, nation and
other big collectivities. Other Classifications. In addition to the above, there are
also other classifications such as the following:

1. Organized groups and Unorganized groups.

2. Congregated groups and Dispersed group

3. Majority groups and Minority groups.

4. Open groups and Closed groups.

5. Independent groups and Dependent groups.

6. Formal groups and Informal groups.

THE PRIMARY GROUPS

The Meaning of Primary Group. The concept of "primary groups" is a significant
contribution of C.H. Cooley to the social thought. Primary groups are found in all
the societies. The primary group is the nucleus of all social organizations. It is a
small group in which a few persons come into direct contact with one another.
These persons meet face to face for mutual help, companionship and discussion
of common questions.
Cooley used the term 'primary groups' to mean a social group characterized by
'face-to-face relationship, mutual aid and companionship. By primary groups,
Cooley meant the intimate, personal 'face to face' groups in which we find our
companions and comrades as the members of our family and our daily
associates. These are the people with whom we enjoy the more intimate kinds
of social relations. The primary groups can be referred to as the 'We' groups.
Cooley explained that primary group involves the sort of sympathy and mutual
identification for which We' is the natural expression.
Cooley writes "By primary groups I means those characterized by intimate face-
to-face association and co-operation. They are primary in several senses, but
chiefly in that they are fundamental in forming the social nature and ideals of
the individual......"

Primary groups are universal groups functioning in all states of cultural

development. They are the chief basis of what is universal in human nature and
human ideals. The 'self' is developed and moulded by the primary group
relations. Primary groups socialise the individuals. As McIver says they are the
breeding ground of our mores and the nurse of our loyalties. In primitive
culture, and even in advance cultures before the growth of cities, the majority
of associations occurs in primary groups. Example for primary groups: family,
neighborhood, children's playground, local brother- hood, friends club, peer
group etc.
Chief Characteristics of Primary Groups
The characteristic features described below throw more light on the nature and
character of primary groups.
1. Dominance of Face-to-Face Relations. Primary groups are characterized by
close and inti- mate relationships. There exists a fact-to-face relationship among
the members. In primary groups everyone knows everyone else; one's name
and fame, one's status, wealth, occupation, level of education etc. Close contact
between them increases intimacy among the members. Face-to-face relations
are commonly observed in small groups like family, children's playgroup,
neighborhood and so on.
The Character of Primary Relations
(a) Identity of Ends. Members of the primary groups have more or less identical
desires and attitudes. They work together for the attainment of their common
ends without disagreement. They look at the world through the same eyes.
Every member of the group pursues, as one of his ends, the welfare of the
other. The identification of ends is connected with the fusion of personalities
within the group.
(b) The Relationship is an End in Itself. The primary relationship is regarded as
an end in itself, but not a means to an end. It is neither utilitarian nor motivated
by any economic gain. It is intrinsically enjoyable. True love between husband
and wife or genuine friendship between two individuals is for example, beyond
the consideration of any selfish motive

(c) The Relationship is Personal. In the primary group the interest of each is
centered in others as persons. The relationship disappears if the particular
person disappears from it. As Kingsley Davis says, 'the primary relationship is a
matter of persons, it exists because of the person, not despite him. The
relationship is non-transferable and irreplaceable. For example, the relationship
between the husband and wife is such that no third person can replace any one
of the two.
(d) The Relationship is Inclusive. The individual in a personal relationship is not
an abstraction. Individuals are treated as complete human beings. All persons of
the group are fused together completely. Individuals know each other very well.
Different sides of member's personality are known to all the other members.
(e) The Relationship is Spontaneous. A purely primary relationship is voluntary.
It is not planned. It is not based on any contract. Relationships develop between
members naturally and spontaneously. The relationships that develop between
the mother and the child, friend and a friend, husband and wife, child and a
child are, for example, purely voluntary, and spontaneous.
2. Small size. Primary Groups are smaller is size. Effective participation of the
members is possible only when the group is of a small size. Other factors being
equal, the smaller the group the more intimate it is. The character of the group
tends to change with its size. The increase in the size of the group will have a
negative effect on the intimacy of the members.
3. Physical Proximity or Nearness. Face-to-face relations can be found only
when members reside in a particular area more or less permanently. Seeing and
talking with each other facilitates the exchange of ideas, opinions and
sentiments. It makes possible the 'conversation of gestures of which Mead
speaks. Caressing, kissing, eating and dwelling together, playing, travelling,
studying together-all tend to be regarded as external symbols of close solidarity.
Physical proximity provides an opportunity for the very development of primary
groups.
4. Stability of the Group. A primary group is relatively a permanent group. Other
things being equal, the longer the group remains together, the more numerous
and deeper are the contacts be- tween its members. Social ties deepen in time.
Although a husband and wife may have quarreled for ten years, the very fact
that they have lived together for that long, makes it hard for them to do
without each other.
5. Similarity of Background. The members of a primary group must have more
or less the same background. There must be some approximations in their levels
of experience. Each must have something to contribute, to give as well as to
take. The person "who is too far above or below it, disturbs the process of group
participation". This is essential even for the easy interplay of personalities in the
family, the play group, the gang etc.
6. Limited Self-Interest. Members of the primary group subordinate their
personal interests to the interests of the group. The common interest of the
group is strong enough to control individual interest. The commonness of
interests provides mental pleasure and contentment to the members.
7. Intensity of Shared Interest. The shared interests of the group also hold them
together. The interest which is shared acquires a new significance, a new
emphasis, a new valuation. It has a breadth of support. The group is relatively
durable because of these shared interests. The primary group sustains the
interest of living itself.
8. Communication. Communication in the case of primary group like family or
children's play group, for example, is very quick and effective. Direct or face-to-
face contact helps easy communication between the members.
9. Unspecialized Character of the Primary Group. A primary group is not
deliberately created nor is it specialized in character. It has not come into being
for the pursuit of any particular interest of the people. On the other hand, the
interests of primary groups are always comprehensive. Hence, the group is
unspecialized in character.
10. Direct Cooperation. Direct cooperation characterizes primary group.
Members work directly and in cooperation with each other to achieve their
common interests. They do not act independently nor even interdependently,
but all participate in the same process. Division of labour.as it is understood in a
complex industrial society, does not exist in a primary group. Work is essentially
a mode of sharing a common experience'. The group is 'a unity in the
performance of its function.

8. IMPORTANCE OF PRIMARY GROUPS

Primary groups are of great individual as well as social importance. They are the
medium through which we learn our culture. They prepare the individuals to
lead a successful social life They socialise individuals and give proper shape to
their personality. Some of the primary groups may secure certain external
advantages such as better wages, production efficiency, workers morale,
counselling and guidance and so on.
1. Primary Group-A Great Humanizing Agent. The primary group enacts the role
of a humanizing agency. Family is the immediate primary group in which a child
finds itself as soon as it is born. The family, peer groups and the neighborhood
play an important role in socializing or humanizing the child. Primary groups
teach the child the social norms, standards, morals, beliefs, values and ideas of
the society. They introduce to the child the culture of the society. They emotion.
ally condition the child's personality. The animal drives of man become human
only through constant training. The primary groups, as McIver says, are 'the
nursery of human nature."
2. Development of Personality. C.H. Cooley is of the opinion that the primary
group, particularly the family, is the chief moulder of the human personality.
The primary group is the source of our notions of love, freedom, justice and the
like'. The qualities of behaviour that a child picks up during the early years in
primary groups find their expression in his adult life. Fair play, equality, free
expression, submission to the will of the group and willingness to sacrifice for it
are characteristics of family groups. These have a great impact on the
personality development of the individuals. Primary groups mould our opinions,
guide our affections, influence our actions, and in large mea sure determine our
loyalties. These are not the groups in which we merely work or play. These are
the groups in which we live and have our being.
3. Satisfaction of Psychological Needs. Primary groups satisfy many
psychological needs of the individuals. Individuals get mental happiness,
contentment and security from the primary groups. They get the advantages of
companionship, sympathy and exchange of thoughts and feelings. They reduce
mental tensions and emotional stresses and strains. An individual finds his
nearest and the dearest companions in the primary groups. He also realizes
from his experiences that the primary group is his noble center of human
affection, love and sympathy.
4. Provision of Stimulus. The primary group not only provides satisfaction and
happiness to the individuals, but it also provides a stimulus to pursue their
interests. With confidence and courage, the individual members work, strive
and struggle to achieve their goals. Everyone feels that he is not alone pursuing
the interest but there are others who along with him are devoted to same
pursuit. This feeling stimulates him to keener efforts.
5. United in Process. The primary group is a cohesive group. Direct cooperation
characterizes the face-to-face group. Hence the members participate in the
same group process. The group is essentially a "mode of sharing a common
experience". There is a unity in the performance of its function. Hence it meets
the physical as well as psychological needs of its members. It is better equipped
to face crisis also. 6. Strengthens the Democratic Spirit. The primary group
selves the needs of society also.
Primary groups help the individual to acquire basic attitudes towards people,
social institutions and the world around him. The attitudes of kindness,
sympathy, love, tolerance, mutual help and sacrifice which provide the
cementing force to social structure are developed in the primary groups. From
such experiences and attitudes spring the desire for democracy and freedom.
The very democratic spirit is developed and reinforced in primary groups acts as
an Agent of Social Control. From the point of view of society, the primary group
but also control their behaviour and regulate their relations. For example,
family, neighborhood. peer group helps in group control much of the activities
of their members.
9. THE SECONDARY GROUPS
An understanding of the modern industrial society requires an understanding of
the secondary groups. The secondary groups are almost the opposite of primary
groups. The social groups other Ben those of primary groups may be termed as
'secondary groups. They are a residual category They are often called 'special
interest groups. Maclver and Page refer to them as 'great association .They are
of the opinion that secondary groups have become almost inevitable today
mainly due to the growing cultural complexity.
Primary groups are found predominantly in societies where life is relatively
simple. With the expansion in population and territory of a society, however,
interests become diversified and other relationships, which can be called
'secondary' or impersonal, become necessary. The service of experts is required.
Techniques are elaborated, and the average member has neither the time nor
the energy nor the skill to attend to them. The new range of the interests
demands a complex organization. The members are numerous and too
scattered to conduct her business through face-to-face relationships. Specially
selected persons must act on behalf of all and hence, arises a hierarchy of
officials called 'bureaucracy'. These features characterize he rise of the modern
state, the great corporation, the large church, the factory, the army, the labour
anon, a university, a nationwide political party and so on. These are secondary
groups.
Meaning of Secondary Group
Oghurn and Nimkoff say that the groups which provide experience lacking in
intimacy' can be called secondary groups.
Frank D. Watson writes, 'the secondary group is larger and more formal, is
specialized in its contacts and relies more for unity and continuance upon the
stability of its social organization than does the primary group".
Characteristics
1. Dominance of Secondary Relations. Secondary groups are characterized by
indirect, impersonal, contractual and non-inclusive relations. Relations are
indirect because secondary groups are bigger in size and the members may not
stay together. Relations are contractual in the sense; they are oriented towards
certain interests or desires. Further, members are bound to one another by
mutual rights, duties and obligations for the realization of their objectives or
interests. Relations are impersonal, because members are not very much
interested in other members as 'persons'. They are more concerned with their
self-centered interests than with other persons. Relations are noninclusive
because they are partial and have limited range. These kinds of relations among
people can be found in big factories, business corporations, governmental
offices, banks, universities, political parties, trade unions, international
associations etc.
2. Largeness of the Size. Secondary groups are relatively larger in size. City,
nation, political parties, trade unions, corporations, international associations,
such as the Rotary Club, Lions Club, Vishwa Hindu Parishad, Society of Jesus,
etc., are, for example, bigger in size. They may have thousands and lakhs of
members. There may not be any limit to the membership in the case of me
secondary groups.
3. Membership. Membership in the case of secondary groups is mainly
voluntary. Individuals at at liberty to join or to go away from the groups. For
example, they are at liberty to join political parties, international associations
like the Rotary Club, Lions Club, business corporations and so on. However,
there are some secondary groups like the state whose membership is almost
involuntary 4. No Physical Basis. Secondary groups are not characterized by
physical proximity. Many Secondary groups are not limited to any definite area.
There are some secondary groups like the Rotary Club and the Lions Club which
are almost international in character. The members of such groups are scattered
over a vast area.
5. Specific Ends or Interests. Secondary groups are formed for the realisation of
some specific interests or ends. They are called special interest groups Members
are interested in the groups.
6. Indirect Communication. Contacts and communications in the case of
secondary groups are mostly indirect. Mass media of communication such as
radio, telephone, movies, magazines, post and telegraph etc., are resorted to by
the members to have Communication may not be quick and effective even.
Impersonal nature of social relationships in secondary groups is both the cause
and the effect of indirect communication. communication
7. Nature of Group Control. Informal means of social control are less effective in
regulating the relations of members. Moral control is only secondary. Formal
means of social control such as law, legislation, police, court etc., are made use
of to control the behaviour of members. The behaviour of the people is largely
influenced and controlled by public opinion, propaganda, rule of law and
political ideologies.
8. Greup Structure. The secondary group has a formal structure. A formal
authority is set up with designated powers and a clear cut division of labour in
which the function of each specified in relation to the function of all. Secondary
groups are mostly organized groups. Different statuses and roles that the
members assume are specified. Distinctions based on caste, color, religion or
region, class, language etc., are less rigid and there is greater tolerance towards
other people and groups.
9. Limited Influence on Personality. Secondary groups are specialized in
character. People's involvement in them is also of limited significance.
Members' attachment to them is also very much limited. Further, people spend
most of their time in primary groups than in secondary groups. Hence secondary
groups have very limited influence on the personality of the members. Maclver
is of the opinion that the specialized character of the secondary groups is an
obstacle to the realization of the individual's fuller life and the development of
his humane impulses.
10. IMPORTANCE OF SECONDARY GROUPS
The secondary groups are playing a very important role in the modern civilized
and industrialized societies. For a long time, the primary groups could meet the
essential requirements of people. Due to the growth of cities and population,
complexity of social structure and differentiation of secondary groups have
become a necessity. Particularly, the processes of Industrialization and
urbanization have added to the unprecedented expansion and growth of
society. As a result, the simple face-to-face groups could no longer serve the
basic needs of the people. Secondary groups have replaced the earlier primary
groups in many fields.
The Industrial Revolution, modern science and technology on the one hand, and
the new political and religious outlook and ideologies on the other, have
changed the very character of the modern society. There has been a radical
change in the attitudes and outlook, interests and tastes. needs and necessities,
ideas and ideologies of the people. Secondary groups of innumerable kind have
come into being in order to cater to the needs and demands of the modern
society. Nor only the number but even the variety of the secondary groups are
increasing. People are becoming more and more dependent on these groups
now.
Our life is, today, to a great extent, lived and controlled by large number of
secondary groups Our social set up is such that we are often inevitably dragged
into one kind of secondary group or another. For example, a labourer working in
a factory is forced to join a trade union whether he wants it or not. It becomes
almost a necessity for the labourer to join one union or the other to protect his
rights and fulfil his interests. Secondary groups have entered almost all the
fields - political, economic, commercial, industrial, religious, educational,
cultural etc.
More than the primary group the secondary groups are dominating our life.
Much of our activities and achievements are carried on through secondary
groups. They provide opportunities for us to develop our faculties and express
our talents. They liberate and limit our energy. Much of our attitudes and
outlook, ideas and ideologies are shaped and moulded by them. The modern
civilized life is such that men have started establishing primary groups within
the broader secondary groups. Small cliques', 'gangs', 'unions' consisting of a
few may be found in the form of informal groups within the larger secondary
groups.
Men have started showing their loyalties towards their larger groups. The spirit
of sacrifice, helpfulness, service, cooperation, dedication, sympathy, fair play
etc., which we consider to be the characteristic qualities of primary group are
also often found to a very great extent in secondary groups. Commitment to a
political party or religious association, loyalty to the nation, sense of duty
towards society, identification with a trade union, allegiance to the army etc.,
are qualities which are found commonly in many secondary groups.

MARRIAGE:
Definition of Marriage
There is no definition which adequately covers all types of human marriage. It
has given a number of definitions and explanations among which the following
may be noted.
(1) Edward Westermarck in his "History of Human Marriage" defines marriage
as "the more or less durable connection between male and female lasting
beyond the mere act of propagation till after the birth of offspring".
(ii) Malinowski says that marriage is a "contract for the production and
maintenance of children".
(iii) According to Robert H. Lowie, "Marriage is a relatively permanent bond
between permissible mates
Characteristics of Marriage
1. Universality. Marriage is more or less a universal institution. It is found
among the pre- literate as well as literate peoples. It is enforced as a social rule
in some of the societies. Examples: In Japan, celibacy is publicly condemned. In
Korea, unmarried individuals are called half persons. among the Hindus
marriage is a sacrament which is regarded as more or less obligatory. The Todas
of Nigari refuse to perform funeral rites for a girl if she dies before her marriage.
But they do perform it after completing some sort of marriage ceremony for the
corpse. According to the Chinese philosopher Confucius an individual who
remains unmarried throughout his life commits a great crime.
2. Relationship Between Man and Woman. Marriage is a union of man and
woman. It indicates relationship between one or more men to one or more
women. Who should marry whom? One should marry how many? -are the
questions which represent social rules regarding marriage which differ
significantly.
3. Marriage Bond is Enduring. Marriage indicates a long lasting bond between
the husband and wife Marriage Bond extensive with sex life. It excludes
relationships with prostitutes or any other sexual relationship which is viewed
as casual and not sanctioned by custom, law or church Marital relationship
between man and woman lasts even after the sexual satisfaction is obtained.
The Hindus, for example, believe that marriage is a sacred bond between the
husband and wife which even the death cannot break.
4. Marriage Requires Social Approval. A union of man and woman becomes a
marital bond only when the society gives its approval. When marriage is given
the hallmark of social approval, becomes a legal contract.
5. Marriage is Associated with Some Civil or Religious Ceremony. Marriage gets
its social recordation through some ceremony. This ceremony may have its own
rites, rituals, customs, formalities, etc. It means marriage has to be concluded in
a public and solemn manner. Sometimes it receives as a sacrament the blessings
of religion. Marriage among the Hindus, for example, is regarded as a
sacrament. It is connected with rituals such as - Homa, Saptapadi, Panigrahana,
Mangalya- Dharana, etc.
6. Marriage Creates Mutual Obligations. Marriage imposes certain rights and
duties on both the husband and wife. Both are required to support each other
and their children.
2. FUNCTIONS AND IMPORTANCE OF MARRIAGE
The importance of marriage consists in the functions that it performs. The main
functions of marriage are as follows:
1. Regulation of Sex Life. Marriage is the powerful instrument of regulating the
sex life of man. Sexual impulse is powerful in man. He is exposed to its influence
throughout his life. It is an urgent and an irresistible need of man. It has to be
controlled and regulated in a proper manner to avoid chaos and confusion in
society. Marriage has come to be such a regulative means. Hence marriage is
often called the license for sex life.
Marriage regulates sex relations also. It prohibits sex relations between the
closest relatives, that is, between father and daughter, mother and son, brother
and sister, etc. Such a kind of prohibition is called "incest taboo". Marriage also
puts restrictions on the premarital and extra-marital sex relations.
2. Marriage leads to the Establishment of the Family. Sexual satisfaction offered
by marriage results in self-perpetuation. It means marriage insists on the couple
to establish a family of procreation. It is here the children are born and bred up.
It is the marriage which determines the descent of the new born individual.
Inheritance and succession follow the rule of descent.
3. Provides for Economic Cooperation. Marriage makes division of labour
possible on the basis of sex. Partners of marriage distribute and divide work
among themselves and perform them. In some of the primitive tribes we find a
clear-cut division of work between the husband and wife. Even in the modern
industrial societies, we find husband and wife working outside the family to get
more income to elevate their economic status.
4. Marriage Contributes to Emotional and Intellectual Interstimulation of the
Partriers. Marriage brings life-partners together and helps them to develop
intense love and affection towards each other, It deepens the emotions and
strengthens the companionship between the two. It also helps them to develop
intellectual cooperation between them.
5. Marriage aims at Social Solidarity, Marriage not only brings two individuals of
the opposite sex together but also their respective families, groups . Friendship
between groups is reinforced through marriage. It is often suggested that by
encouraging marriage between different groups, castes, races, classes, religious,
linguistic and other communities, it is possible to minimize the social distance
between groups and strengthen their solidarity.
FORMS OF MARRIAGE
The main forms of marriage are: Polygyny, Polyandry, Monogamy, and Group
Marriage. Each of these types may be analyzed here.
1. POLYGYNY
Polygyny is a form of marriage in which one man marries more than one woman
at a given time. Polygyny is more popular than polyandry but not as universal as
monogamy. It was in practice in most of the ancient civilizations. It prevailed
among the ancient Hebrews, Assyrians, Babylonians, Indians and others. At
present, it is widespread among primitive tribes but it is often simply confined
to the wealthier classes. Polygyny is in practice among the Eskimo tribes, Crow
Indians. Hidatsa of North America, African Negroes, the Nagas, Gonds and
Baigas of India. However, it is permitted in Muslim Community
Type of Polygyny

Polygyny is of two types: (i) Sororal Polygyny and (ii) Non-Sororal Polygyny.
(1) Sororal Polygyny is a type of marriage in which the wives are invariably the
sisters. It is often called 'sororate'. The Latin word 'Soror' stands for sister.
When several sisters are simultaneously, or potentially the spouses of the same
man, the practice is called 'sororate'. It is usually observed among the tribes
which pay a high bride price. The death of the wife or her childlessness is
compensated by supplying a new spouse who is generally the younger sister of
the deceased woman.
(ii) Non-Sororal Polygyny as the term indicates, is a type of marriage in which
the wives are not related as sisters. For social, economic, political and other
reasons, both the types are practiced by some people
4. POLYANDRY
Polyandry is the marriage of one woman with several men. It is much less
common than polygyny. It is practiced among the Tibetans, Marquesan
Islanders of Polynesia, the Bahama of Africa, the tribal of Samoa and others. In
India, the tribes such as Tiyan, the Toda, the Kota, the Khasa and Ladakhi Bota
also practice polyandry. The Nair’s of Kerala were polyandrous previously.
Types of Polyandry
Polyandry is of two types. (i) Fraternal Polyandry, and (ii) Non-Fraternal
Polyandry.
(i) Fraternal Polyandry. When several brothers share the same wife, the practice
can be called alelphicot fraternal polyandry. This practice of being mate, actual
or potential, to one's husband's brothers is called "levirate." It is prevalent
among the Todas.
(ii) Non-Fraternal Polyandry. In this type, the husbands need not have any close
relationship prior to the marriage. The wife goes to spend some time with each
husband. So long as a woman lives with one of her husbands, the others have
no claim over her. Nair polyandry was of this type. Tibetans too have this type.
Both these types of polyandry must be distinguished from "wife-sharing" or
'wife-lending', which is much more common among the primitives. But in all
cases it is temporary.
. MONOGAMY
Monogamy is the form of marriage in which one man marries one woman. This
is the most widespread form of marriage found among the primitives as well as
the civilized people. If it was Rey popular during the early times, it has almost
become a universal practice at present. It is practiced among the tribal such as
Kadars, Santals, the Khasis, the Canella, the Hopi, the Iroquois, the Andaman
Islanders, the Veddas of Ceylon, the Sevangas of Malaya and others. Monogamy
has a long history of its own. Westermarck is of the opinion that monogamy is
as old as humanity. Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle had recommended only
monogamous marriage. Ancient Romans and Spartans also had given
recognition to it. Ancient Jews, Christians and Indians had given importance to
it. Ancient Hindus regarded monogamy as the most ideal form of marriage.
Advantages of Monogamy
Monogamy seems to be superior to other forms of marriage. It enjoys certain
merits over other forms. Some of them may be noted.
(1) Universally practicable. Since there is one-to-one ratio (One-man-to-one-
woman) in al- most all the societies, only monogamy can provide marital
opportunity and satisfaction to all the individuals. Neither polygyny nor
polyandry can equally satisfy all.
(ii) Economically Better Suited. No man of ordinary income can think of
practicing polygyny. Only a rich man can maintain a couple of wives and their
children. Only monogamy can adjust itself with poverty. For example, even
though Koran permits a Muslim to have four wives at a time, no ordinary
Muslim can think of marrying four wives for the simple reason that he cannot
maintain them.
(iii) Promotes Better Understanding Between Husband and Wife. Monogamy
produces the highest type of love and affection between husband and wife. It
contributes to family peace, solidarity and happiness. Vatsayana, an authority
on "Kama Sutra" remarked, "At best a man can only please one woman
physically, mentally and spiritually. Therefore, the man who enters into
marriage relations with more than one woman, voluntarily courts unhappiness
and misery".
(iv) Contributes to Stable Family and Sex Life. Monogamous family is more
stable and long- lasting. It is free from conflicts that are commonly found in
polyandrous and polygynous families.
There is no scope for sexual jealousy also. Unlike polyandry and polygyny, it
does not give opportunity for having extra-marital sex relationship because sex
relations are more strictly regulated here. Herbert Spencer has said that
monogamy is more stable and the consequent family bond is stronger.
(v) Helps to Better Socialisation. Since husband and wife have better
understanding, they can give greater attention to the socialisation of their
children. Children are well looked after and the parents can give their special
attention to them. Under polygyny, the husband cannot devote himself fully to
each of his wives and children because they are too numerous. (vi) Aged Parents
are not Neglected. It is only in monogamy that old parents are protected and
looked after properly. Under polygyny, old wives are often discarded and in
their place younger wives are brought in.
(vii) Provides Better Status for Women. Women are given only a very low
position in polygyny. Their rights are never recognized. They can be divorced at
will. But in monogamy, women enjoy better social status. In the modern
societies they enjoy almost equal social status with men.
MARRIAGE RESTRICTIONS OR RULES OF MARRIAGE
No society gives absolute freedom for its members to select their life-partners.
Even in societies where 'free marital choice' is allowed, the selection is not
absolute but relative. Rules regarding "who should marry whom" always govern
such a selection. Endogamy and exogamy are the two main rules that condition
marital choice.

7. ENDOGAMY
Endogamy is a rule of marriage in which the life-partners are to be selected
within the group It is marriage within the group, and the group may be caste,
class, tribe, race, village, religious group, etc. Thus, we have caste endogamy,
class endogamy, subcaste endogamy, race endogamy, tribal endogamy and such
other forms.
Example. In caste endogamy, marriage has to take place within the caste.
Brahmin has to marry a Brahmin. In subcaste endogamy, it is limited to the
subcaste groups. Here a Shivalli Brahmin has to marry within Shivalli subcaste, a
Gangadiagar Vokkaliga has to marry within his sub-caste group, and so on.
Endogamy prohibits marriage outside the group. Even today intercaste
marriages are pot encouraged. Factors, such as the policy of separation, virtual
geographic separation of people, the desire to keep wealth within the group,
religious, racial and cultural differences between peoples, sense of superiority
or inferiority, etc., are said to be the causes of endogamy.
Endogamy as a rule of marriage has its own advantages. It contributes to the
group unity and solidarity. It keeps women happier within their group. It helps
to preserve the property within the group. It also safeguards the purity of the
group. Finally, it helps to keep under secret the strength and weakness and also
the professional secrets of the group.
Endogamy has its, disadvantages also. (i) By dividing the society into small
endogamous units, it strikes at national unity. (ii) By limiting the choice of life-
partners, it often gives scope for evil practices such as polygyny, dowry system,
bride price, etc. (ifi) It may also make its followers to develop hatred and
contempt for other groups. (iv) It is also said that close-in-breeding caused by
endogamy may affect the biological potentiality of the offspring’s. For these
disadvantages, endogamy is condemned. The modern civilized people are more
in favor of exogamy than endogamy.

8. EXOGAMY
Exogamy is almost the opposite of endogamy. Exogamy is a rule of marriage in
which an individual has to marry outside his own group. It prohibits marrying
within the group. The rule of exogamy insists that the so-called blood relatives
shall neither have marital connections nor sexual contacts among themselves.
Near relatives are not supposed to marry among them- selves. But the degree of
nearness differs from community to community. In Malenesia and Australia
among some people, a son may marry his father's wife if she is not his direct
mother. Similarly, marriage of cousins is allowed among Muslims.
Forms of Exogamy
Exogamy assumes various forms in India.
(i) Gotra Exogamy. The Hindu practice of one marrying outside one's own 'gotra'
is gotra exogamy.
(ii) Pravara Exogamy. Those who belong to the same pravara (uttering the name
of a common saint at religious functions) cannot marry among themselves.
(iii) Village Exogamy. Many Indian tribes (Example: Naga, Garo, Munda) have
the practice of marrying outside their village.
(iv) Pinda Exogamy. Those who belong to the same 'Pinda' (or sapinda) cannot
marry within themselves ('Pinda' means common parentage).
1. MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS
The word "Family' has been taken over from Latin word 'Famulus' which means
a servant. In connected word denoted a group of producers and slaves and
other servants as well as members by common descent or marriage. Thus,
originally, family, consisted of a man and woman with a child or children and
servants. The meaning of family can be explained better by the following
definitions:
1. M.F. Nimkof says that "Family is a more or less durable association of
husband and wife with or without child, or of a man or woman alone, with
children"
2. Burgess and Locke. "Family is a group of persons united by ties of marriage,
blood or adoption constituting a single household interacting and
intercommunicating with each other in their respective social roles of husband
and wife, father and mother, son and daughter, brother and sister, creating a
common culture".
3. Eliot and Merrill: Family is "The biological social unit composed of husband,
wife and children".
4. MacIver: Family is "a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise
and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children".
General Characteristics of the Family

(1) A Mating Relationship. A family comes into existence when a man and
woman establish mating relation between them.
(ii) Selection of Mates. Wife or husband may be selected by parents or by the
elders, or the choice may be left to the wishes of the individuals concerned.
Various rules govern this selection.
(iii) A Form of Marriage. The mating relationship is established through the
institution of marriage. Marriage is an institutional arrangement made by the
society according to which the individuals establish marital relationships among
themselves. Marriage may assume any one of the forms-monogamy, polygamy,
polyandry or group marriage.
(iv) A System of Nomenclature. Every family is known or recognized by a
distinctive name.
(v) A Way of Tracing the Descent: Every family has its own mode of tracing the
descent. Descent refers to the social recognition of biological relationship
between individuals. Descent may be traced through the male line (Patrilineal
Descent) or through the female line (Matrilineal De- sceni) or through both the
lines (Bilateral Descent).

(vi) A Common Residence. Family requires a home or a household to live in.

After the marriage the wife may reside in husband's parental home (Patrilocal
or Virilocal Residence) or she may stay her parental home to which the husband
pays occasional visits (Matrilocal or Uxorilocal Residence) or both of them may
establish a separate home of their own (Neolocal Residence).
(vii) An Economic Provision. Family provides for the satisfaction of the economic
needs of its members.
DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE FAMILY
The family is an organization par excellence. Of all the social organizations, large
or small, family is of the greatest sociological significance. It occupies the central
position in our social structure. The family, unlike other institutions, enjoys a
unique position in society. Its distinctive features may be noted here.
1. Universality. After having made an analysis of more than 250 societies,
Murdock concludes that the family is universal. There is no human society in
which some form of the family does not appear nor has there ever been such a
society. B. Malinowski writes: "The typical family. consisting of mother, father,
and their progeny, is found in all communities, savage, civilized". The irresistible
sex need, the urge for reproduction and the common economic needs
contributed to this universality. barbarians,
2. Emotional Basis. The family is grounded in emotions and sentiments. It is
based on impulses of mating, procreation, maternal devotion, fraternal love and
parental care. It is built sentiments of love, affection, sympathy, co-operation
and friendship.
3. Limited Size. The family is smaller in size. As a primary group its size is
necessary limited. It seems to be the smallest social unit. The biological
conditions have also contributed to its size. The family is the earliest social
environment which surrounds, and educates the child. It shapes the personality
and moulds the character of its members. It emo and educates the child It is the
nursery of human nature', and the 'breeding ground of our and the nurse of our
loyalties".

5. Nuclear Position in the Social Structure. The family is the nucleus of all other,
organizations. The whole social structure is built of family units. It influences the
whole life society.
6. Responsibility of the Members. The member of the family has certain
responsibilities, duties and obligations. The smooth running of family depends
on how best the members discharge the responsibilities in co-ordination with
the other individuals of the family. As Maclver points out, times of crisis men
may work and fight and die for their country, but they toil for their families and
their lives".
7. Social Regulation. The family is peculiarly guarded both by social taboos and
by legislations and regulations. The society takes precaution to safeguard this
organization from any possible by divorce, desertion or separation.
8. The Permanent and Temporary Nature of the Family. The family as an
institution is permanent Since it is based on the organic and emotional nature of
man, it continues to exist. But family as an association may be temporary in
character. These characteristics indeed reveal the sociological significance of the
family.
3. FUNCTIONS OF THE FAMILY
The family as a social institution performs several functions. Various opinions
have been e pressed regarding the functions of family. Kingsley Davis speaks of
four main functions of the family: (1) Reproduction, (ii) Maintenance, (iii)
Placement, and (iv) Socialisation.
Ogburn and Nimkoff have mentioned six major functions of family: (i)
Affectional, (ii) Economic, (iii) Recreational, (iv) Protective, (v) Religious, and (vi)
Educational. Reed has described four functions of the family: (1) Race
perpetuation, (ii) Socialisation, (iii) Regulation and satisfaction of sex needs, and
(iv) Economic functions.
Primary and Secondary or Essential and Non-Essential Functions
MacIver classifies the functions of family into two types: Essential and Non-
essential functions. According to him, the essential functions include (i) the
stable satisfaction of sex need, () production and rearing of children, and (iii)
provision of a home. Under the non-essential functions, he includes, religious,
educational, economic, health and recreation, and other functions.
The Primary Functions
Some of the functions of family are basic to its continued existence. They are
referred to essential functions by Maclver. They may also be regarded as
Primary functions of family. They are explained below.
1) Stable Satisfaction of Sex Need. Sex drive is powerful in human beings. Man is
susceptible to sexual stimulation throughout his life. The sex need is irresistible
also. It motivates man to seek an established basis of its satisfaction. Family
regulates the sexual behaviour of man by its agent, the marriage. Thus it
provides for the satisfaction of the sex need for man. Even Manu, the Hindu
Law- giver and Vatsyayana, the author of Kamasutra, have stated that sexual
satisfaction is one of the main aims of family life.
(ii) Reproduction or Procreation. Reproductive activity is carried on by all lower
and higher animals. But it is an activity that needs control or regulation. The
result of sexual satisfaction is reproduction. The process of reproduction is
institutionalised in the family. Hence it assumes a regularity and a stability that
all societies recognise as desirable. Thus family introduces a legitimacy into the
act of reproduction. All societies surround this function with norms and support
them with strong sanctions. By fulfilling its reproductive function family has
made it possible to have the propagation of species and the perpetuation of the
human race (in) Production and Rearing of the Child. The family gives the
individual his life and a chance to survive. We owe our life to the family. The
human infancy is a prolonged one. The child which is helpless at the time of
birth is given the needed protection of the family. Further, family is an
institution par excellence, for the production and rearing of children. No other
institution can as efficiently bring up the child as can the family. This can be
referred to as the function of 'maintenance' also.
(iv) Provision of Home. Family provides the home for its members. The desire
for home is strongly felt in men and women. Children are born and brought up
in homes only. Though, often children are born in hospitals, clinics, maternity
homes, etc., they are nursed and nourished in the homes only. Even the parents
who work outside are dependent on home for comfort, protection and peace.
Home remains still the 'sweer' home.
(v) Family-An Instrument of Culture Transmission and an Agent of Socialisation.
The family serves as an instrument of culture transmission. The family
guarantees not only the biological continuity of the human race but also the
cultural continuity of the society of which it is a part. It transmits ideas and
ideologies, folkways and mores, customs and traditions, beliefs and values from
one generation to the next.
The family is an agent of socialisation also. Socialisation is its service to the
individual. Socialisation is the process whereby one internalizes the norms of
one's groups so that a distinct self emerges unique to the individual. The family
indoctrinates the child with the values, the morals, beliefs, and ideals of the
society. It prepares its children for participation in larger world and acquaints
them with a larger culture. It is a chief agency which prepares the new
generation for life in community. It emotionally conditions the child. It lays
down the basic plan of the personality. Indeed, it shapes the personality of the
child. Family is a mechanism for disciplining the child in terms of cultural goals.
In short, it transforms the infant barbarian into the civilized adult.
(vi) Status Ascribing Function. The family also performs a pair of functions-(i)
status ascription for the individual, and (ii) societal identification for the
individual. Statuses are of two kinds: Ascribed and achieved. The family
provides the ascribed statuses. Two of these, age and sex are biological
ascriptions. Others, however, are social ascriptions. It is the family that serves
almost exclusively as the conferring agency or institution.
People recognise us by our names, and our names are given to us by our family.
Here, the family is the source of our societal identification. Various statuses are
initially ascribed by our families. Our ethnic status, our nationality status, our
religious status, or residential status, or class status-sometimes our political
status and our educational status as well-are all conferred upon us by our
families. Of course, these may be changed later.

Secondary Functions of Family

In addition to the above described essential or primary functions the family
performs some secondary or non-essential functions in some way or the other.
Of these, the following may be noted Economic Functions. The family fulfils the
economic needs of its members. This has been the traditional function of family.
Previously, the family was an economic unit. Goods were produced in the
family. Men used to work in family or in farms for the production of goods.
Family members work together for this purpose. It was to a great extent self-
sufficient. A clear cu division of labour between sexes, that is, between men and
women, was evident. But today, the situation has changed. The family members
do not work together at home. They are engaged i different economic activities
outside the home. They are no longer held together by division of labour.
The economic role of modern family is considerably modified. The process of
industrialization has affected family. The center of production has moved from
home to the factory. The factory in giving job only to the individual worker and
not to the entire family. The factory is producing goods which are consumed
within the family. Thus, family has become more a consuming unit than a
producing one. Its members are busy with "earning wages" rather than with
"making a living Family is thus slowly transferring its economic functions to the
external agencies. Still, the institution of property is embedded with the family.
(ii) Educational Functions. The family provides the basis for the child's formal
learning, la spite of great changes, the family still gives the child his basic
training in the social attitudes and habits important to adult participation in
social life. "The manner in which he learns how to get along with his family will
be carried over to his interactions with school authorities, religious leaders, the
police and other agents of social control". When the child grows up, he learns to
manage situations outside the home and family. He extends his interests to
other groups. With all this his intelligence, his emotions, and his social habits
develop until he weans himself from the original dependence on the mother,
father and other family members.
(iii) Religious Functions. The family is a center for the religious training of the
children. The children learn from their parent’s various religious virtues.
Previously, the homes were also centers of religious quest. The family used to
teach the children the religious values, moral precepts, way to worshipping God,
etc. Even today, it is in the family that the foundations are laid down for the
moral standards that are to guide the children throughout their life. The family
meets the spiritual needs of its members. It is through the family that the
religious inheritance is passed on to the next generation.
(iv) The Recreational Functions. At one time, recreation was largely family
based. It fostered a close solidarity. Reading aloud, visiting relatives, family
reunions, church socials, singing, dancing, playing indoor games, etc., brought
together the entire family. Elders would organize social gathering among
themselves in each other's homes. Children would organize their own
recreations among themselves or together with other children. Often parents
and children would join together in the same recreational activities. The effect
of this on the cohesion of the family was considerable recreation is now
increasingly organized outside the family.
THE NUCLEAR FAMILY
The individual nuclear family is a universal social phenomenon. It can be defined
as "a small group composed of husband and wife and immature children which
constitutes a unit apart from the rest of the community." (Duncan Mitchell in
his "Dictionary of Sociology").
In simple words, a nuclear family is one which consists of the husband, wife and
their children. Soon after their marriage, the children leave their parental home
and establish their separate household. Hence, a nuclear family is an
autonomous unit free from the control of the elders. Since there is physical
distance between parents and their married children, there is minimum
interdependence between them. Thus, a nuclear family is mostly independent.
The American family is a typical example of the modern independent nuclear
family.
The nuclear family is a characteristic of all the modern industrial societies. As
Lowie writes: "It does not matter whether marital relations are permanent or
temporary; whether there is polygyny or polyandry or sexual license the one
fact stands out beyond all others that everywhere the husband, wife and
immature children constitute a unit apart from the remainder of the
community"
According to T.B. Bottomore, the universality of the nuclear family can be
accounted for by the important functions that it has been performing. The
nuclear family has been performing the sexual, the economic, the reproductive,
and the educational functions. According to him, the indispensability of these
and a few other functions has contributed to its universality. Anthropologists
too have consistently emphasized the economic functions of the family in
primitive societies. A major factor in maintaining the nuclear family is economic
co-operation based upon division of labour between sexes. Levi Strauss has said
much about the miserable situation of unmarried individuals in most of the
primitive societies.
The Structure of Nuclear Family
The nuclear family depends very much on incest taboos. The members of the
family cannot have marriage from among themselves. Hence it is confined to
two generations only. A third generation can be established by the formation of
new families. This can be done by an exchange of males and females between
existing nuclear families. It means daughters can be given in marriage to other
nuclear families and girls of the other nuclear families can be taken in as
spouses to the sons. This gives rise to two kinds of nuclear families: (a) the
family of orientation, and (b) the family of procreation.
Every normal adult in every human society belongs to two nuclear families. The
first is the family of orientation in which the person was born and brought up,
and which includes his father. mother, brothers and sisters. The second is the
family of procreation which the person establishes by his marriage and which
includes the husband or wife, the sons and daughters.
The structure of the nuclear family is not the same everywhere. Bottomore
makes a distinction between two kinds of family system; (i) the family systems
in which the nuclear family is relatively independent, and (if) systems in which
the nuclear family is incorporated in, or subordinated 10, a larger group, that is
to the polygamous or the extended family. The independent nuclear family is
more often incorporated in some larger composite family structure.

The independent nuclear family which is dominant in modern industrial

societies has emerged mainly due to the growth of individualism and intense
geographic and social mobility. The social welfare functions of the modern state
have also affected it. The state now comes to the help of the individual to face
misfortunes. Hence he is no longer dependent on his family in times of distress
. THE JOINT FAMILY
(A STUDY OF JOINT FAMILY WITH REFERENCE TO INDIA)

The joint family is also known as 'undivided family' and sometimes as 'extended
family' normally consists of members who at least belong to three generations:
husband and wife, their married and unmarried children; and their married as
well as unmarried grandchildren. The joint family system constituted the basic
social institution in many traditional societies, particularly in the Eastern
societies. In India, this system prevailed among the Hindus as well as non-
Hindus.
The Joint Family in India
The joint family, the taste system and the village system are often regarded as
the pillars on which the whole Hindu social edifice is built. The joint family is the
bedrock, on which Hindu values and attitudes are built. It is found in almost all
the parts of India. Family for a Hindu is a sacred institution deriving sanction
from religion and social traditions with myths and legends. Hence this form of
family is still found in India. It is deeply rooted in the traditional Hindu culture.
It is an age-old system having a long history of its own
Definition of Joint Family
(1) The joint family is a mode of combining smaller families into larger family
units through the extension of three or more generations including at least
grandparents, parents and children. (ii) The joint family is one which consists of
members related through blood and spread over several generations living
together under a common roof and work under a common head.

(iii) The definition given by Smt. Iravati Karve seems to be more satisfactory.
According to her, the joint family may be defined as "a group of people who
generally live under one roof, who eat food cooked at one hearth, who hold
property in common, and who participate in common family worship and are
related to each other as some particular type of kindred"
Types of Joint Family
The joint family may assume two forms:
(1) Patriarchal joint family, and (ii) Matriarchal joint family. Both the forms are
found in India. The patriarchal joint family is father-centered and the
matriarchal joint family is mother-dominated. Examples: The patriarchal joint
families are found among the Nambudaris of Malabar, the Mundas of
Chhotanagpur and the Angami Nagas of Assam. The Nambudari joint family is
generally de- scribed as "Illom". The matriarchal joint families are found among
the Nairs of Malabar, the Khasis and Garos living on the Garo hills of Assam. The
Nair joint family is popularly known as Tarawad.
Characteristics of the Joint Family
1. Depth of Generations. The joint family consists of people of three or more
generations including at least grandparents, parents and children. Sometimes,
other kith and kin such as uncles, aunts, cousins and great grandsons also live in
the joint family itself.
2. Common Roof. Members of the joint family normally reside together under
the same house- hold. Due to the scarcity of accommodation or due to
educational and employment problems, members of the joint family may reside
separately. Still, they try to retain regular contacts and the feeling of belonging
to the same family.
3. Common Kitchen. Members eat the food prepared jointly at the common
kitchen. Normally, the eldest female member of the family supervises the work
at the kitchen. In the patriarchal joint families, women serve the food to men at
first and take their meals afterwards.

4. Common Worship. The Hindu joint family derives its strength from religion.
Hence, it is associated with various religious rituals and practices. Every family
may have its own deity of 'Kula devata and its own religious tradition. Members
of the family take part in common worship, rites and ceremonies.
5. Common Property. The members hold a common property. As Melley writes:
the joint family "is a co-operative institution similar to a joint stock company in
which there is a joint property". The head of the family manages the family
property like a trustee. The total earnings of the members are pooled into a
family treasury and family expenses are met with out of that.
6. Exercise of Authority. In the patriarchal joint family usually the eldest male
member exercises authority. The super-ordination of the eldest member and
the subordination of all the other members to him is a keynote of the joint
family. His commands are normally obeyed by others. As opposed to it, in the
matriarchal joint family the eldest female member in theory exercises the
supreme authority.
7. Arranged Marriages. In the joint family, the head considers it as his privilege
to arrange the marriages of the members. The individual's right to select his/her
life-partner is undermined. The younger members rarely challenge their
decisions and arrangements. But now-a-days, the feelings
MERITS AND DEMERITS OF JOINT FAMILY
The joint family claims certain merits and suffers from certain defects. Some of
them may be mentioned here.
Merits of Joint Family
(1) Stable and Durable. The joint family is more stable and durable than the
single unit family or the nuclear family. Individuals may come and go but the
family as a unit stands. It contributes much to the continuation of the cultural
tradition.
(ii) Ensures Economic Progress. The joint family meets the basic needs of its
members-food, clothing and shelter-a first condition of economic progress.

Further, it provides larger labour force especially for the agricultural

communities. It prevents the sub-divisions and fragmentation of land-holdings
and helps scientific farming.
(iii) Ensures Economy of Expenditure. Savings are possible here since the
household purchases are done jointly. No single member has an absolute right
in family property. Everyone is bound to become spendthrift. The head of the
family does not permit the members to become extravagant.
(iv) Secures the Advantage of Division of Labour. Here the work is distributed
among the members on the basis of age and sex. Members co-operate with one
another since they hold the property in common. Especially for agricultural
tasks, the joint family is better fitted. As K.M. Kapadia has pointed out: "The
Indian farmer used to be producer, seller, labourer and investor combined. Each
of these functions can be performed efficiently to the advantage of the family if
it is a joint one."
(v) Serves as a Social Insurance Company. For the people such as orphans,
widows, the deserted, divorced, separated and the neglected, the joint family
serves as a social insurance company It gives them food, shelter and protection.
(vi) Provides Social Security. The joint family gives social security to the weak,
aged, sick, infirm, the unbaled, the disabled and such other needy persons. An
individual's life from cradle to cremation is looked after by the joint family. In
times of accidents, crises and emergencies, one can rely on one's joint family for
the needed help.
(vii) Provides Leisure. Since the work is shared by all the members on the basis
of age, sex and experience, they get more leisure time. More hands at home can
finish off the work with minimum time and provide enough leisure to the
members to relax. Here women are the main beneficiaries of leisure.
(viii) Provides Recreation Also. The joint family is an ideal place of recreation for
all the members. Childish play between the two aged and the little babies, the
funny talks of the old, the broken language of the younger ones, the expression
of sisterly, brotherly and motherly love and the like make the joint family life
pleasurable one. Social and religious ceremonies that take place all the family
bring even the relatives together and tighten the ties.

(ix) Helps Social Control. The joint family by exercising control over the
behaviour of its member’s acts as an agency of social control. The individuals
are taught to subordinate their individual interests to the group interests.
(x) Provides Psychological Security. The joint family provides psychological
security to its members. By creating a harmonious atmosphere in the family, it
contributes to the development of social solidarity. It prevents the growth of
excessive individuation inside the family.
(xi) Promotes Co-operative Virtues. Joint family is said to be the breeding
ground of love, self- help, co-operation, tolerance discipline, loyalty, generosity,
sacrifice, service-mindedness and obedience and such other virtues of life. It
instils the socialistic spirit among the members, "Work according to one’s ability
and obtain according to one's needs", and "all for one and one for all are said to
be the mottos of a joint family.
Demerits of Joint Family
(1) Retards the Development of Personality. The joint family does not provide
enough scope for the members to develop qualities of adventure, self-
determination, industriousness, etc. The elder ones take up too many
responsibilities and the younger ones are overprotected.
(ii) Damages Individual Initiative and Enterprise. The joint family does not
provide proper opportunities for the members to develop their talents. Any
new enterprise or adventure on the part of the young people is discouraged by
the head of the family. This adversely affects the individual- ity, originality and
creativity of the young members.
(iii) Narrows Down Loyalties. Joint family makes the members to develop
narrow-mindedness. It is said that a member is more likely to develop a sense of
loyalty to the family rather than to the larger society. These family units
develop strong opposite principles which result in disintegration and division
within the society at large.

(iv) Promotes Idleness. The joint family is said to be the home of idlers and
drones. Since all the members are assured of their basic necessities of life, no
one takes much interest in the productive activities. Further, all the relatives
may flock to the joint family with their idle habits and may become life-long
parasites.
(v) Not Favorable for Saving and Investment. The need for saving does not arise
here because all are assured of their basic needs. There is no inspiration for the
accumulation of capital and investment. Saving is not possible also for one has
to share one's income with the large family.
(vi) The Centre of Quarrels. The joint family is said to be the hotbed of quarrels
and bickering especially among the womenfolk. Since women come to the
family (after the marriage) from diverse socio-economic and religious
backgrounds, they may find it difficult to adjust themselves properly. Quarrels
very often take place between the elder and the younger members of the
family.
(vii) Denies Privacy. Since the joint family is always overcrowded, privacy is
denied to the newly wedded couple. They cannot express openly their love and
affection for the invariable presence of other members causes embarrassment
for them. They rarely get opportunity to talk about their personal matters.
Hence they fail to develop intimacy.
viii)
Affects Socialisation of Children. Due to the lack of intimacy and privacy
between the husband and wife, the socialisation of children is affected very
badly. The parents cannot always give personal attention to the upbringing of
their children. The children become more attached to their grandparents and
often they pick up the idle habits and age-old ideas.
(ix) Undermines the Status of Women. In patriarchal joint families, women have
only secondary role. They are not given sufficient freedom to express and to
develop their personality. Their inner feelings are never recognized. They are
made to work like servants. Women are treated as non- entities here. They can
hardly resist their elders even for just causes because obedience is enforced
upon them. In such family’s sons are preferred to the daughters.

(x) Encourages Litigation. The joint family encourages litigation. Normally

disputes over the common property crop up at the time of partition. Such
disputes are taken to the courts which are dragged on for years leading to the
waste of time, energy, money and more than that, loss of mental peace.
(xi) Favours Uncontrolled Reproduction. The joint family is found to be
associated with higher birth rate. Members do not feel the need to adopt birth-
control measures. Since the joint family takes up directly the responsibility of
feeding, rearing and educating the children, the married members do not
experience the urgency and necessity of restricting the number of issues.
(xii) Limits Social Mobility. The joint family is said to be more conservative in
nature. Since it is dominated by tradition, it is slow to respond to the modern
trends. It does not encourage its members to go after change. Members are
more concerned with safeguarding their statuses rather than with changing
them. Hence social mobility is very much limited here.
(xiii) Encourages Nepotism. Some are of the opinion that the joint family system
is the root cause of nepotism and discrimination. It is said that the public
servants and officials belonging to one or the other family are more likely to
favor their own kith and kin on public issues or in matters of providing job even
at the cost of merit.
12. CAUSES FOR THE CHANGES IN THE JOINT FAMILY SYSTEM
The traditional joint system of India has undergone vast changes. These changes
have so destroyed the system as such. They have definitely affected its structure
and functions and also stability. Milton Singer [1968] has identified five factors
which have affected the family men These are: education, industrialization,
urbanization, change in the institution of marriage, basically in the age of
marriage and the legislative measures.
1. Influence of Education
Modern system of education introduced by the British Government affected
joint family in several ways. It has brought about a change in the attitudes,
beliefs, values and ideologies of the people. Education which is spreading even
amongst the females has created and aroused the individualistic feelings. While
the male literacy level has increased from 9.8% in 1901 to 55.7% in 199 among
the females it has increased from 0.6% to 30.09% during the same period.
The increasing education not only brings changes in the philosophy of life of
men and women, but also provides new avenues of employment to the latter.
After becoming economically independent women demand more freedom in
family affairs. They refuse to accept anybody's dominance over them. Education
in this way brings changes in relations in the family. As the level of education
rises, the percentage of those in favor of nuclear families’ increases and the,
percentage of those supporting joint family living, decreases.
. 2 Impact of Industrialization
Factory system of production, new system of organization and management and
new style of life have also affected the joint family. It has made young men and
women leave their joint family faraway places in search of better prospects and
employment. It has resulted in the breakdown of the link between the kinship
and the occupational structure. Many of the traditional skills, crafts and
household industries associated with the joint family have declined because of
the onslaught of factory system of production.
Some important effects of industrialization on joint family system may be noted
here.
(1) The Family which was a principal unit of production has been transformed
into a consumption t unit. Instead of all family members working together in an
integrated economic enterprise, a female members go out of the home to earn
the family's living. This affected family relations.
Factory employment has freed young adults from direct dependence upon their
families. This financial independence of the youngsters has weakened the
authority of the head of the house- bold over those earning members in many
cities even women too joined men in working outside the families on salary
basis. In the changed social situation children have ceased to be economic
assets and have become liabilities. Children's educational requirements have
increased. They are to be supported for a very long time till they get into some
good job. Industrialization separated the home from the work. This has made
the working members 10 bear themselves all the burden and headache
connected with their job. Their families can hardly lend support in this regard.

3. Influence of Urbanization
The phenomenon of urbanization has become now widespread. Urban
population is increasing steadily. In the mid-eighteenth century, around 10% of
the population in India were urban residents. Their percentage increased to
36.19% in 1991. The studies made by Aileen Ross, M.S. Gore, Milton Singer and
others have revealed that the city life is more favorable to small nuclear families
than to big joint families.
On the basis of the studies made, it could be said that the urban living weakens
joint family pattern and strengthens nuclear family patterns. Educated persons
in urban areas are less in favor of joint family norms. Cities provide
opportunities to women also for gainful employment and when woman starts
earning, she seeks freedom in many spheres. She tries to break away more and
more from her husband's family of orientation. Urban residence thus seems to
introduce a certain measure of variation in family pattern in our society.
4. Change in Marriage System
Change in the age at marriage, freedom in mate-selection and change in the
attitude towards marriage have also affected our family system. Modern young
men and women not only marry at a late age but also take personal decision in
this matter. They do not wait for parental permission. Parents' role in mate-
selection has diminished. Marriage is not very much considered a religious affair
but only a social ceremony. Modern marriage does not symbolize the superior
authority of the family head over other members.
5. Legislative Measures
The impact of legislative measures on the family system cannot be ignored.
Prohibition of early marriages and fixing the minimum age of marriage by the
Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 and the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, have
lengthened the period of education. The freedom of mate- selection and
marriage in any caste and religion without the parents' consent after certain age
per- mitted through by the Special Marriage Act, 1954, gave a blow to the
parental authority to decide their children's marriage. Other legislations such as
the Widow Remarriage Act, 1856 which gives sanction for widow remarriage,
the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 which permits divorce and the Hindu Succession
Act, 1956 which gives share to daughters in parental property all have modified
inter- personal relations within the family, the composition of the family and
the stability of the joint family.
6. Other Causes
Influence of Western Values: The western values relating to modern science,
rationalism. individualism, equality, free life, democracy, freedom of women
etc. have exerted a tremendous influence on the Hindu family system. The
modern educated youths who came under the influence of these values took
the earliest opportunity to become free from the tight grip of the joint family.