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TOPIC 1-TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Transport defined.
• This is the movement of substances from one part of the
body of an organism to another.
• It involves the movement of materials to the sites where
they are required and the removal of metabolic wastes
from the site of production to the site of elimination.
Importance of a transport system.
• It facilitates the distribution of nutrients and oxygen to all
living cells of the body.
• It facilitates the removal of metabolic waste products
(e.g. nitrogenous wastes and carbon (IV) oxide from the
body cells.
Transport in unicellular organisms.
• The unicellular organisms (e.g. bacteria) have a large
surface area to volume ratio hence transport of PARTS OF A ROOT
substances is through diffusion across their cell 1. Root cap- it consists of simple parenchyma cells that
membranes and within the cells of the organism. protect the root tip/ apical meristem as the root tip
Transport in multicellular organisms. pushes past soil particles.
• They have a small surface area to volume ratio .This 2. Piliferous layer- this is a special epidermis of young
makes the tissues and organs far removed from the site of roots whose cells form/ which give rise to root hairs.
supply of the materials. 3. Cortex- it consists of loosely packed parenchyma cells.
• This requires a transport system to supply materials to the It acts as storage tissue.
deep seated organs and also remove metabolic wastes. 4. Pericycle-this is a single layer of cells below the
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS endodermis that gives rise to lateral roots.
• Simple plants e.g. mosses and liverworts lack specialized 5. Vascular bundle- it consists of xylem and phloem. In
transport system hence the transport of substances occur monocot root, the xylem alternates with phloem. In dicot
through diffusion, osmosis and active transport. root, xylem is star shaped and the phloem is located
• Higher plants have specialized transport system called between the arms of the xylem.
vascular system. 6. Endodermis- this is a single layer of cells which
surround the vascular bundle. It controls the amount of
• The vascular bundle consists of:
water and mineral salts entering the vascular bundle. It is
1. xylem- it transports water and mineral salts from the soil
characterized by;
to other parts of the plant.
7. Starch grain that stain blue-black with iodine.
2. Phloem- it transports manufactured food substances e.g.
8. Casparian strip which has impervious deposit on the radial
glucose from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
and cross walls.
STRUCTURE OF A ROOT.
9. Root hairs- they arise from the epidermal cells. They
• The root is the part of the plant which is embedded in the
provide a large surface area for absorption of water and
soil.
mineral salts.
Functions of the root.
Adaptation of root hairs
1. Anchorage- holding the plant firmly in the soil.
1. They are long to provide a large surface area for
2. Absorption- of water and mineral salts.
absorption of water and mineral salts.
Internal structure of a root
2. They are thinned walled to reduce the distance hence
faster diffusion of water and mineral salts.
3. They are numerous to increase the surface area for
absorption.
4. They have numerous mitochondria to provide energy for
active uptake of mineral salts.
5. They have large sap vacuole whose sap exerts a high
osmotic pressure necessary for water absorption.

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• The walls are thickened with cellulose and pectin hence
serves as strengthening tissue/ providing mechanical
support.
b) Parenchyma / Chlorenchyma tissue- the cells are
irregular in shape, thin walled and loosely packed.
• This creates intercellular spaces filled with air.
• The cells act as storage tissue for water and food.
• They also contain chloroplasts hence manufacture food/
photosynthesize and make some stems green.
c) Sclerenchyma tissue- it is found in close association
with the vascular bundles. The walls are thickened with
lignin which provide mechanical support.

Differences between dicot root and monocot root Differences between monocot stem and dicot stem.
Dicot root Monocot root Dicot stem Monocot stem

1. Xylem is star shaped 1. Xylem and phloem are 1. Has cambium. 1. Lacks cambium
at the centre with arranged alternately in a ring
phloem within the arms 2. Vascular bundles are 2. Vascular bundles are scattered
2. It lacks pith 2. It has a pith arranged in a ring. within the cortex.
THE STEM 3. It has a pith. 3. It lacks a pith
• This is the part of the plant above the ground onto which
the branches and leaves are attached.
Functions of a stem Differences between monocot stem and monocot root
1. Supports and exposes the leaves and flowers to the
environment.
2. Conducts/ transports water and mineral salts from the
Monocot stem Monocot root
roots to the other parts of the plant.
3. Conducts/ transports manufactured food from leaves to
other parts of the plant. 1. Vascular bundles are 1. Vascular bundles are
4. Storage of food and water in some plants e.g. cactus. scattered within the arranged in a ring.
5. Vegetative propagation (perennation) e.g. in cassava. cortex.
6. Gaseous exchange in woody plants. 2. It lacks pericycle. 2. It has pericycle

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A STEM

1. The epidermis- it is a single layer of cells covering all 3. Phloem and xylem are 3. Phloem and xylem are
plants. closely associated separate.
• Epidermal cells lack chloroplasts and their outer walls are 4. It lacks a pith 4. It has apith
covered by a waxy cuticle:
a) That prevents excessive loss of water through
evaporation. 5. It lacks root hairs. 5. It has root hairs
b) Protects the inner tissues from infection and mechanical
injury. Differences between a dicot root and dicot stem
c) Prevents entry of pathogens.
• Young stems have stomata on the epidermis through
which air moves in and out of the underlying stem tissues. Dicot root Dicot stem
2. The pith- this is the central region in the dicot stem.
• It consists of parenchyma cells that store water and food 1. Xylem is star shaped 1. Xylem and phloem are
substances. with phloem located arranged in a ring, separated by
3. Vascular bundles- it consists of: within the arms. cambium with phloem on the
a) Xylem- which transports water and mineral salts from outside and xylem on the inside.
soil to other parts of the plant and provides mechanical
support. 2. It has root hairs 2. It lacks root hairs.
b) Phloem- transports manufactured food from leaves to
other parts of the plant. 3. It lacks a pith. 3. It has a pith.
4. The cortex- this is the region below the epidermis. It 4. It lacks cambium. 4. It has cambium.
consists of the following tissues:
a) Collenchyma tissue- it is found below the epidermis.
• The cells are elongated with pointed ends.
Internal structure of a stem

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Monocot stem a) Absorption and movement of water from roots
to leaves and atmosphere.
 Water is absorbed/ drawn into the root hairs by
osmosis.
 Soil particles are surrounded by film of water and the cell
sap of the root hair is more concentrated than soil water.
 Due to difference in concentration between cell sap and
water in the soil, water moves into the root hair by
osmosis across the semi permeable cell membrane.
 This reduces concentration of the cell sap in the root hair
hence water moves into neighboring cells by osmosis.
 This continues until water reaches the xylem of the root,
Dicot stem through cell sap to cell sap, cytoplasm to cytoplasm and
through intercellular spaces into xylem of stem.
 Once inside the stem water moves up aided by
capillarity/ narrowness of xylem vessels, root pressure,
attraction of water molecules to each other/ cohesion,
attraction of water molecules to the walls/ adhesion from
xylem of stem to xylem of leaves.
 Once inside the leaves, water enters the mesophyll and
by osmosis moves from cell to cell into the sub-stomatal
air spaces where it evaporates into the air creating
transpiration pull.
b) Absorption of mineral salts.
 Soil water contains dissolved mineral salts which plants
require for their growth and proper functioning.
 Generally, the concentration of the cell sap in the root
hairs is greater than that of soil.
 Therefore the mineral salts/ions enter the root hairs
against the concentration gradient/ through active
transport.
 Mineral salts whose concentration is higher in the soil
solution than the root hairs are taken up by diffusion.
 The mineral salts/ ions then move into the vascular
tissues of the root then into the xylem of the stem.
 Inside the xylem of the stem the mineral salts/ ions and
water move up the stem by a combination of the
following forces, osmosis, diffusion, root pressure
and capillary attraction.

ABSORPTION OF WATER AND MINERAL SALTS.

Role/ importance of water to plants.
1) It is a raw material for photosynthesis
2) It is a medium of transport of materials and a medium of
metabolic reactions.
3) It acts as a solvent for solutes in the plant body.
4) It provides mechanical support because when the plant
cells are turgid they are firm and rigid.
5) It has a cooling effect to the plant after transpiration due
to its higher latent heat of vaporization.

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• This increases the osmotic pressure of the spongy
mesophyll cells.
• The higher osmotic pressure of spongy mesophyll cells
causes water to flow from other surrounding cells, which
in turn take in water from the xylem vessels of the leaf
veins.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF XYLEM

 The functions of xylem are:
i. Transport of water and mineral salts
ii. Has lignified walls that provide mechanical support
• Xylem consists of:
TRANSPIRATION.
i. Xylem vessels
• Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water ii. Tracheids
in form of vapour into the atmosphere. A. XYLEM VESSELS.
• Wilting is the process which occurs when the rate of • They are tubular and non-ling tissues. The non-living
water is more than the rate of absorption, and the plant material in the vessel reduce resistance to water flow
droops. allowing for smooth uninterrupted flow of water
• Wilting is important because it causes rolling of leaves • They are more efficient in transportation of water than
which reduce the surface area for transpiration/ water tracheids because they are hollow.
loss. This prevents further loss of water.
• Their walls are strengthened by lignin to provide
mechanical support and prevent them from collapsing.
Structures used for transpiration.
i. Stomata • They have pits/ are perforated at the cross walls to allow
ii. Lenticels lateral movement of water to the cells surrounding the
iii. Cuticle. xylem.
Types of transpiration. • The pattern of lignification can be:
i. Cuticular transpiration- loss of water through the i. Annular lignification.
cuticle. ii. Spiral lignification.
ii. Lenticular transpiration- loss of water through the iii. Pitted lignification.
lenticels. Lenticels are areas with loosely packed cells on iv. Reticulate lignification.
woody stems Adaptations of xylem vessels for conduction of
iii. Stomatal transpiration- loss of water through the water
stomata. i. They are hollow for continuous flow of water from roots
Advantages/significance of transpiration. to leaves.
i. Helps in transportation of dissolved mineral salts in the ii. They have dead cells to allow flow of water and mineral
plant. salts without interruption.
ii. It brings about the cooling effect on the plant during the iii. The walls are strengthened with lignin to prevent
hot day. collapsing.
iii. It helps in uptake of water up the xylem vessels. iv. They have narrow lumen to enhance capillarity.
iv. It removes excess water from plants. v. They have pits on the side walls for lateral movement of
v. It helps to maintain turgor of the plant cells. water.
Process of transpiration. B. TRACHEIDS.
• As water vaporizes from the spongy mesophyll cells into • They are dead cells with tapered ends / chisel shaped with
the sub-stomatal air spaces their cell sap becomes more pits to allow flow of water.
concentrated than the adjacent cells. • They have pits/ are perforated at the cross walls to allow
lateral movement of water to the cells surrounding the
xylem.

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• The tapered which are perforated make them less • This process requires energy and respiratory inhibitors
efficient in transportation off water than vessels. e.g. cyanide reduce root pressure.
• Their walls are strengthened by lignin to provide • Cohesion and adhesion.
mechanical support and prevent them from collapsing. • Cohesion is the force that keeps water molecules
Similarities together. Water molecules attract each other maintaining
• Both have lignified walls. a continuous and uninterrupted water column in the
• Both have lateral pits on cross walls. xylem.
• Both have dead cells. • Adhesion is the force between water molecules and the
Difference between xylem tracheid and vessel walls of xylem vessels. Water molecules are
Tracheid Vessel attracted/cling to the surface of xylem.
• The combination of cohesion and adhesion causes a
1. Has tapered end 1. It is hollow/ tubular continuous flow of water up the xylem.
C. Capillarity.
Different types of thickening in xylem vessels • This is a tendency of water to rise up in narrow tubes.
• The xylem vessels are narrow to facilitate capillarity.
D. Transpiration pull
• This is the suction force that pulls a stream of water from
the xylem vessels in the stem and roots.
• As water vaporizes from the spongy mesophyll cells into
the sub-stomatal air spaces, their cells become more
concentrated than adjacent cells.
• As a result, water flows into these cells from the
surrounding cells through osmosis which in turn take in
water from the xylem vessels within the leaf veins. This
causes transpiration pull.
• Transpiration pull is important because it replaces water
lost from the plant through transpiration.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

A. STRUCTURAL FACTORS.
Tracheid 1. Cuticle.
• Thick cuticle (e.g. in cactus and aloe plant) increases
the distance of diffusion of water vapour hence
reduces the rate of transpiration.
• Thin cuticle increases the rate of transpiration to get rid
of excess water.
2. Glossy leaf surface.
• Glossy/ waxy and shiny leaf surfaces reflect light landing
on the leaf surface. This reduces internal heating of the
leaf and stomatal opening reducing the rate of
transpiration.
3. Leaf size and shape
• Broad leaves increase the surface area for water loss
hence higher rate of transpiration.
FORCES INVOLVED IN WATER MOVEMENT IN THE • Small and needle like leaves reduce the surface exposed
XYLEM. hence low rate of transpiration.
• They include: 4. Hairy leaves
A. Root pressure. • Hair on leaves trap a layer of moist air on the surface of
B. Cohesion and adhesion. leaves reducing the concentration gradient hence reduces
C. Capillarity. transpiration.
D. Transpiration pull. 5. Stomata
A. Root pressure. • Few stomata reduce the surface area reducing the rate of
• This is the force that pushes water up the stem. transpiration
• It results from the active uptake of mineral salts by the • More stomata on the upper surface than the lower part
roots increasing the osmotic pressure in the root xylem. increases the rate of transpiration.
• This causes water to move into the root xylem through • Some plants have reversed stomatal rhythm (opening
osmosis causing an increase in pressure. during the night and closing during the day) reduces the
• This pressure in the root causes the upward movement of rate of transpiration.
water in the xylem of the stem. • Small stomatal apertures reduce the rate of transpiration.

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• Sunken stomata (located on the inner part of the iii. Air bubble is removed by opening the tap for water to
epidermis) lowers the rate of transpiration. This is flow.
because water vapour accumulates in the iv. To introduce one air bubble the end of the tube is exposed
pits/depressions of the stomata reducing the for a few seconds.
concentration gradient hence low rate of v. To control the movement of the bubble the tap is opened
transpiration. slowly so that water flow from the reservoir.
• Some plants close their stomata on a hot dry sunny day to vi. The air bubble should be at the end of the capillary tube
lower the rate of transpiration. This is called midday vii. The movement of the bubble is recorded against time
closure to protect the plants from wilting. hence the rate calculated as:
B. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Rate of transpiration= Distance moved by water bubble
1. Temperature. High temperature increases internal Time taken in minutes
temperature of the leaf which in turn increases the Study question.
latent heat of vaporization leading to high rate of - An experiment shown below was set-up to investigate a
transpiration. certain physiological process in plants.
2. Wind- On a windy day the rate of transpiration is high
because wind blows away/ carries the water vapour on
the leaf surface.
• This increases the concentration gradient between the
inside of the leaf and the outside of the leaf.
3. Humidity- It refers to the amount of water vapour in
the atmosphere.
• High humidity (a lot of vapour in the atmosphere)
reduces the transpiration/concentration
gradient between the inside and outside of the leaf
hence lowering the rate of transpiration and vice versa.
4. Light intensity- it affects the rate of transpiration
through stomatal opening. a) What process was being investigated?
• High light intensity causes the stomata to open fully. This Transpiration.
increases the rate of transpiration. b) Give the role of the oil layer in this experiment.
5. Atmospheric pressure. Prevent evaporation of water from the surface.
- Higher atmospheric pressure can hold a lot of water c) What observation did the students make after leaving the
vapour in the atmosphere reducing the set-up in bright sunlight for two hours?
concentration gradient/concentration deficit The level of water drops.
hence reduces the rate of transpiration and vice versa. d) Explain the observation in (c) above.
6. Availability of water. Bright sunlight increases internal temperature/latent heat of
- When less water is available, plants close their stomata vaporization hence faster rate of transpiration.
thus reducing the rate of transpiration. e) What effect will the following have on the observation
made?
EXPERIMENT TO INVESTIGATE THE RATE OF (i) Fanning the shoot.
TRANSPIRATION Faster drop in water level.
• It is done by use of a potometer. (ii) Removing all the leaves from the shoot.
• Arrange the apparatus as shown below. No change in water level.
(iii) Placing the set-up in the dark.
Slower/very slow drop in water level.
f) Suggest a suitable control for this experiment.
Another set up using a leafless twig.
Experiment to investigate the rate of transpiration from leaf
surfaces
Requirements.
i. Leafy shoots.
ii. Anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride paper.
iii. Glass slides.
iv. Elastic bands.
v. Stop watch/clock.
vi. Cellotape.
Precautions taken. vii. Pair of forceps.
i. The leafy shoot should be cut under water to prevent the Procedure.
entry of air bubble into the xylem tissue. i. Select one healthy leaf.
ii. There should be no air bubble in the apparatus at the ii. Pick two pieces of anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride paper
beginning. and note their colour.
iii. Place each piece on the two surfaces of the leaf.

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iv. Quickly cover them with dry glass slides holding them in A. Sieve tubes.
position by use of bands. • A sieve tubes are arranged end to end separated from each
v. Notice the time each of the two papers take to turn pink other by sieve plates.
i.e. as soon as the pink spot appears and the time when • Sieve plates have perforations/holes/pores called sieve
the whole paper turns pink. pores. This allows continuous flow of substances.
vi. Hold a covered anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride paper to • Sieve tubes have fine cytoplasmic strands that run
act as a control. from one tube element to another passing through the
vii. Record the time taken for the Anhydrous cobalt (II) sieve pores.
chloride paper to turn pink in air, above the leaf surface • Cytoplasmic strands provide room/passage for
and under the leaf surface. translocation of manufactured food.
B. Companion cells.
• A companion cell is a cell connected to each sieve
element.
• It has a dense cytoplasm, prominent nucleus and cell
organelles e.g. mitochondria.
• They communicate with the sieve elements/tubes
through pores called plasmodesmata.
Functions of companion cells.
• It regulates the activities of the sieve tubes/elements
• It contains numerous mitochondria to supply energy to
the sieve tubes for translocation of food

Observation and conclusion

• The paper on the upper side of the plant takes longer to
turn pink. This is because there are fewer stomata on the
upper side hence low rate of transpiration.
• The paper on the lower side take a shorter time to turn
pink. This is because there are many stomata on the lower
side hence faster rate of transpiration.
• The control experiment is used to provide a contrast to
the experiment.
• The bare hands should not used to hold the paper because Adaptation of the phloem to its functions.
they would be moist hence affecting the Anhydrous cobalt 1. It contains companion cells with numerous mitochondria
(II) chloride paper. to supply energy for active translocation of food.
2. Cytoplasmic strands are contractile in nature and are able
TRANSLOCATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS/ to push materials from one tube element to the next.
MANUFACTURED FOOD 3. Sieve tubes are hollow/ lack other cell organelles to allow
• Translocation refers to the transport of manufactured movement of materials/food from one element to the
food materials/ organic compounds from one part of the next.
plant to the other. 4. Have sieve pores that allow the movement of materials
• It takes place in the phloem. from one element to the next.
• The food materials transported include sugar/ glucose, 5. It has plasmodesmata (between sieve elements/ tubes and
amino acids and vitamins. companion cells) to allow exchange of materials between
• The material are translocated to various parts of the plant the companion cells and the sieve tube.
where they are required, for example: 6. Has sieve plates that support the phloem tissue.
a) The growing and developing regions of the plant e.g.
young shoots, leaves, flowers, fruits and roots. Experiment to demonstrate translocation of food
b) The storage organs or tissues e.g. tubers, corms, bulbs, (ringing experiment)
rhizomes and seeds. • The bark (phloem) of the tree is removed and the xylem
c) Secretory organs e.g. nectar gland in insect pollinated is left intact to the plant for four weeks.
plants e.g. banana (Musa sp)
Structure of the phloem.
• The phloem is a living tissue which consists of:
A. Sieve tubes/ elements.
B. Companion cells.

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• Blood flows from the heart to the haemocoel and back to
the heart through the openings called ostia (sing.
Ostium).
• The heart has valves that prevent back flow of
haemolymph.

Observation.
• After 4 weeks it is observed that the upper part is swollen.
B. CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.
• There is no swelling on the lower part.
Explanation. • It consists of blood vessels and muscular heart.
• The translocated materials from the leaves accumulated • The heart pumps blood into blood vessels which carry
on the upper part of the plant stem leading to swelling. blood to the body tissues and back to the heart.
• It is found in vertebrates.
Differences between xylem and phloem
Xylem Phloem
1. Made up of dead cells. 1. Made up of living
cells
2. Walls are lignified for 2. Lack lignin and
mechanical damage. support is by fibres
3. Transport water and 3. Transport organic
mineral salts. materials
4. Lack companion cells. 4. Have companion
cells

TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OPEN AND CLOSED

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
• In unicellular organisms transport of materials occurs
through simple diffusion because they have a large surface Open circulatory Closed circulatory
area to hence called intracellular transport. system. system.
1. Transport fluid is 1. Transport fluid is
• In multicellular organisms diffusion is not sufficient
in contact with not in direct
because:
the tissues. contact with
i. Body organs are bulky.
tissues/ are
ii. The organisms are complex with organs separated from
found in blood
each other.
vessels.
• Therefore they have a circulatory system with vessels,
2. Pressure is low. 2. Pressure is high.
transporting medium/fluid (blood) and a pumping organ.
3. Transport fluid 3. Transport fluid
• Transport in multicellular organisms is called extra flows slowly. flows faster.
cellular transport.
4. Facilitates slow 4. Facilitates higher
Types of circulatory system.
rate of activity in rate of activity in
A. Open circulatory system.
the organism. organisms.
B. Closed circulatory system.
5. Tissues receive 5. Tissues receive
A. OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
nutrients and nutrients and
other other
• In this system blood flows in general body cavities called requirements requirements
coelom/haemocoel. slowly and faster and
• The fluid involved in the transport is called metabolic wastes metabolic wastes
haemolymph and in direct contact with the body got rid off slowly. are got rid off at a
tissues. higher speed.
• Haemolymph consists of white blood cells and 6. Transport fluid 6. Transport fluid
• It is found in Arthropods e.g. insects which have one heart has no pigment has a red pigment
and main blood vessel called dorsal vessel/aorta. since it is not called
• The aorta empties the haemolymph into sinuses in the involved in the haemoglobin for
head. transport of transportation of

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