Chapter 1: Fundamentals of vibration

Introduction
This chapter introduces the subject of vibrations in a relatively simple manner. The basic concepts
of degrees of freedom are introduced. The various classifications of vibration namely, free and
forced vibration, undamped and damped vibration, linear and nonlinear vibration. The various
steps involved in vibration analysis of an engineering system are outlined, and essential definitions
and concepts of vibration are introduced. The basic definitions and terminology related to
harmonic motion, such as cycle, amplitude, period, frequency, phase angle, and natural frequency,
are given.
1. Basic concept of vibration
1.1.Vibration
Any motion that repeats itself after an interval of time is called vibration or oscillation. The
swinging of a pendulum and the motion of a plucked string are typical examples of vibration. The
theory of vibration deals with the study of oscillatory motions of bodies and the forces associated
with them.
A vibratory system, in general, includes a means for storing potential energy (spring or elasticity),
a means for storing kinetic energy (mass or inertia), and a means by which energy is gradually lost
(damper).
The vibration of a system involves the transfer of its potential energy to kinetic energy and of
kinetic energy to potential energy, alternately. If the system is damped, some energy is dissipated
in each cycle of vibration and must be replaced by an external source if a state of steady vibration
is to be maintained.
1.2.Number of Degrees of Freedom (DOF)
The minimum number of independent coordinates required to determine completely the positions
of all parts of a system at any instant of time defines the number of degrees of freedom of the
system. The simple pendulum shown in Fig. 1, as well as each of the systems shown in Fig. 2,
represents a single-degree-of-freedom system. For example, the motion of the simple pendulum
(Fig. 1) can be stated either in terms of the angle or in terms of the Cartesian coordinates x and y.
If the coordinates x and y are used to describe the motion, it must be recognized that these
coordinates are not independent. They are related to each other through the relation x 2 + y 2 = l 2
where l is the constant length of the pendulum. Thus any one coordinate can describe the motion
of the pendulum. In this example, we find that the choice of  as the independent coordinate will
be more convenient than the choice of x or y. For the slider shown in Fig. 2(a), either the angular
coordinate or the coordinate x can be used to describe the motion. In Fig. 2(b), the linear coordinate
x can be used to specify the motion. For the torsional system (long bar with a heavy disk at the
end) shown in Fig. 2(c), the angular coordinate  can be used to describe the motion.

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 Some examples of two- and three-degree-of-freedom systems are shown in Figs. 3 and 4,
respectively. Figure 3(a) shows a two-mass, two-spring system that is described by the two linear
coordinates and Figure 3(b) denotes a two-rotor system whose motion can be specified in terms of
1 and  2 . The motion of the system shown in Fig. 3(c) can be described completely either by X
and  or by x, y, and X. In the latter case, x and y are constrained as x 2 + y 2 = l 2 where l is a
constant.

Fig. 1

Fig. 2: Single-degree-of-freedom systems

Fig. 3: Two-degree-of-freedom systems

Fig. 4: Three-degree-of-freedom systems

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 2. Classification of vibration
Vibration can be classified in several ways. Some of the important classifications are as follows.
2.1.Free and forced vibration
Free Vibration: If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on its own, the ensuing
vibration is known as free vibration. No external force acts on the system. The oscillation of a
simple pendulum is an example of free vibration.
Forced Vibration: If a system is subjected to an external force (often, a repeating type of force),
the resulting vibration is known as forced vibration. The oscillation that arises in machines such
as diesel engines is an example of forced vibration.
If the frequency of the external force coincides with one of the natural frequencies of the
system, a condition known as resonance occurs, and the system undergoes dangerously large
oscillations. Failures of such structures as buildings, bridges, turbines, and airplane wings have
been associated with the occurrence of resonance.
2.2.Undamped and Damped vibration
If no energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other resistance during oscillation, the vibration is
known as undamped vibration. If any energy is lost in this way, however, it is called damped
vibration. In many physical systems, the amount of damping is so small that it can be disregarded
for most engineering purposes. However, consideration of damping becomes extremely important
in analyzing vibratory systems near resonance.
2.3. Linear and Nonlinear vibration
If all the basic components of a vibratory system the spring, the mass, and the damper behave
linearly, the resulting vibration is known as linear vibration. If, however, any of the basic
components behave nonlinearly, the vibration is called nonlinear vibration. The differential
equations that govern the behaviour of linear and nonlinear vibratory systems are linear and
nonlinear, respectively.
3. Spring elements
3.1.Linear spring and potential energy
A spring is a type of mechanical link, which in most applications is assumed to have negligible
mass and damping. The most common type of spring is the helical-coil spring used in retractable
pens and pencils, staplers, and suspensions of freight trucks and other vehicles. Several other types
of springs can be identified in engineering applications. In fact, any elastic or deformable body or
member, such as a cable, bar, beam, shaft or plate, can be considered as a spring. A spring is
commonly represented as shown in Fig. 5(a). If the free length of the spring, with no forces acting,
is denoted l, it undergoes a change in length when an axial force is applied. For example, when a
tensile force F is applied at its free end 2, the spring undergoes an elongation x as shown in Fig.

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5(b), while a compressive force F applied at the free end 2 causes a reduction in length x as shown
in Fig. 5(c). A spring is said to be linear if the elongation or reduction in length x is related to the
applied force F as:
F = kx (1.1)

where k is a constant, known as the spring constant or spring stiffness or spring rate. The spring
constant k is always positive and denotes the force (positive or negative) required to cause a unit
deflection (elongation or reduction in length) in the spring.

Fig. 5: Deformation of a spring

When the spring is stretched (or compressed) under a tensile (or compressive) force F, according
to Newton s third law of motion, a restoring force or reaction of magnitude is developed opposite
to the applied force. This restoring force tries to bring the stretched (or compressed) spring back
to its original unstretched or free length as shown in Fig. (b) (or 5(c)). If we plot a graph between
F and x, the result is a straight line according to Eq. (1.1). The work done (U) in deforming a spring
is stored as strain or potential energy in the spring, and it is given by:

1 2
U= kx (1.2)
2

3.2.Combination of springs
Springs in parallel: To derive an expression for the equivalent spring constant of springs
connected in parallel, consider the two springs shown in Fig. 6(a). When a load W is applied, the
system undergoes a static deflection  st as shown in Fig. 6(b). Then the free-body diagram, shown
in Fig. 6(c), gives the equilibrium equation:

W = k1 st + k2 st (1.3)

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 Fig. 6: Springs in parallel

If keq denotes the equivalent spring constant of the combination of the two springs, then for the
same static deflection  st we have

W = keq st (1.4)

Equations (1.3) and (1.4) give

keq = k1 + k2 (1.5)

In general, if we have n springs with spring constants k1, k2, ……., kn in parallel, then the
equivalent spring constant keq can be obtained:

keq = k1 + k2 + .... + kn (1.6)

Springs in Series: Next we derive an expression for the equivalent spring constant of springs
connected in series by considering the two springs shown in Fig. 7(a). Under the action of a load
W, springs 1 and 2 undergo elongations  1 and  2 respectively, as shown in Fig. 7(b). The total
elongation (or static deflection) of the system, is given by

 st = 1 +  2 (1.7)

Since both springs are subjected to the same force W, we have the equilibrium shown in Fig. 7(c):
W = k11 and W = k2 2 (1.8)

If keq denotes the equivalent spring constant, then for the same static deflection,

W = keq st (1.9)

We the obtain by doing some substitutions the equivalent spring constant as

1 1 1
= + (1.10)
keq k1 k2

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 Fig. 7: Springs in series

Equation (1.10) can be generalized to the case of n springs in series:

1 1 1 1
= + + ... + (1.11)
keq k1 k2 kn

Note: In certain applications, springs are connected to rigid components such as pulleys, levers,
and gears. In such cases, an equivalent spring constant can be found using energy equivalence, as
illustrated in Examples 1.3 and 1.4.
Example 1:

A hinged rigid bar of length l is connected by two springs of stiffnesses k1 and k 2 and is subjected
to a force F as shown in Fig. 8(a). Assuming that the angular displacement of the bar  is small,
find the equivalent spring constant of the system that relates the applied force F to the resulting
displacement x

Fig. 8: Rigid bar connected by springs.

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 4. Mass or Inertia elements
The mass or inertia element is assumed to be a rigid body; it can gain or lose kinetic energy
whenever the velocity of the body changes. From Newton’s second law of motion, the product of
the mass and its acceleration is equal to the force applied to the mass. Work is equal to the force
multiplied by the displacement in the direction of the force, and the work done on a mass is stored
in the form of the mass s kinetic energy.
In many practical applications, several masses appear in combination. For a simple analysis, we
can replace these masses by a single equivalent mass, as indicated below

Fig. 9: Translational masses connected by a rigid bar

Case 1: Translational Masses Connected by a Rigid Bar. Let the masses be attached to a rigid
bar that is pivoted at one end, as shown in Fig. 9(a). The equivalent mass can be assumed to be
located at any point along the bar. To be specific, we assume the location of the equivalent mass
to be that of mass m1. The velocities of masses m2 ( x2 ) and m3 ( x3 ) can be expressed in terms of
the velocity of mass m1 ( x1 ) , by assuming small angular displacements for the bar, as

x1
x1 = l1   =
l1
l2 l2
x2 = l2 = x1  x2 = x1 with xeq = x1 (1.12)
l1 l1
l3 l3
x3 = l3 = x1 x3 = x1
l1 l1

By equating the kinetic energy of the three-mass system to that of the equivalent mass system, we
obtain
1 1 1 1
m1 x12 + m2 x22 + m3 x32 = meq xeq2 (1.13)
2 2 2 2

This equation gives, in view of Eqs. (1.12) :

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 2 2
l  l 
meq = m1 +  2  m2 +  3  m3 (1.14)
 l1   l1 

Case 2: Translational and Rotational Masses Coupled Together. Let a mass m having a
translational velocity x be coupled to another mass (of mass moment of inertia J 0 ) having a
rotational velocity  as in the rack-and-pinion arrangement shown in Fig. 10.

Fig. 10: Translational and rotational masses in a rack-and-pinion arrangement.

These two masses can be combined to obtain either (1) a single equivalent translational mass meq
or (2) a single equivalent rotational mass J eq as shown below.

1. Equivalent translational mass. The kinetic energy of the two masses is given by

1 2 1
T= mx + J 0 2 (1.15)
2 2

and the kinetic energy of the equivalent mass can be expressed as

1
Teq = meq xeq2 (1.16)
2

Since xeq = x and  = x / R , the equivalence of T and Teq gives

1 1 1  x2 
meq x 2 = m x 2 + J 0   (1.17)
2 2 2 R

J0
That is meq = m + (1.18)
R2

2. Equivalent rotational mass. Here  eq =  and x = R , and the equivalence of T and leads Teq
leads to
1 1
( ) 1
2
J eq xeq2 = m R + J 0 2 (1.19)
2 2 2

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With J eq = J 0 + mR 2 (1.20)

Example 2: Equivalent Mass of a System

Find the equivalent mass of the system shown in Fig. 1.38, where the rigid link 1 is attached to the
pulley and rotates with it.

Fig. 11: System considered for finding equivalent mass.

5. Damping elements
In many practical systems, the vibrational energy is gradually converted to heat or sound. Due to
the reduction in the energy, the response, such as the displacement of the system, gradually
decreases. The mechanism by which the vibrational energy is gradually converted into heat or
sound is known as damping.
Viscous Damping: Viscous damping is the most commonly used damping mechanism in vibration
analysis. When mechanical systems vibrate in a fluid medium such as air, gas, water, or oil, the
resistance offered by the fluid to the moving body causes energy to be dissipated. In this case, the
amount of dissipated energy depends on many factors, such as the size and shape of the vibrating
body, the viscosity of the fluid, the frequency of vibration, and the velocity of the vibrating body.
In viscous damping, the damping force is proportional to the velocity of the vibrating body.
Combination of Dampers: In some dynamic systems, multiple dampers are used. In such cases,
all the dampers are replaced by a single equivalent damper. When dampers appear in combination,
we can use procedures similar to those used in finding the equivalent spring constant of multiple
springs to find a single equivalent damper. For example, when two translational dampers, with
damping constants c1 and c2 , appear in combination, the equivalent damping constant ( ceq ) can
be found as :

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 1 1 1
Parallel dampers: ceq = c1 + c2 ; Series dampers: = +
ceq c1 c2

Example 3: Equivalent Spring and Damping Constants of a Machine Tool Support

A precision milling machine is supported on four shock mounts, as shown in Fig. 11(a). The
elasticity and damping of each shock mount can be modelled as a spring and a viscous damper, as
shown in Fig. 11(b). Find the equivalent spring constant, keq , and the equivalent damping constant,
ceq , of the machine tool support in terms of the spring constants ( ki ) and damping constants ( ci )
of the mounts

Fig. 11: Horizontal milling machine.

keq = k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 = 4k
ceq = c1 + c2 + c3 + c4 = 4c

6. Definitions and terminology

Natural frequency: n = keq meq

Period of oscillation: The time taken to complete one cycle of motion is known as the period of
oscillation or time period and is denoted by  with the expression as  = 2  .

Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from its equilibrium position is called
the amplitude of vibration.

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 Tutorials
Exercise 1
1. Determine the equivalent spring constant of the system shown in Fig. 1
2. find the equivalent spring constant of the system in the direction of 

Fig. 2:

Fig. 1:

Exercise 2
1. Find the equivalent mass of the system shown in Fig. 3
2. Determine the equivalent spring constant of this system
3. Find the natural frequency

Fig. 3:

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Exercise 3
Find the equivalent stiffness and natural frequency of the systems described by figures below:

Fig. 4:

Fig. 5:

Exercise 4
Figure 6(a) shows a motorcycle with a rider. Develop a sequence of three mathematical models of
the system for investigating vibration in the vertical direction. Consider the elasticity of the tires,
elasticity and damping of the struts (in the vertical direction), masses of the wheels, and elasticity,
damping, and mass of the rider.

Fig. 6(a): Motorcycle with a rider: a

physical system

Solution: We start with the simplest model and refine it gradually. When the equivalent values of
the mass, stiffness, and damping of the system are used, we obtain a single-degree-of-freedom
model of the motorcycle with a rider as indicated in Fig. 6(b). In this model, the equivalent stiffness

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( k ) includes the stiffnesses of the tires, struts, and rider. The equivalent damping constant ( c )
eq eq

includes the damping of the struts and the rider. The equivalent mass includes the masses of the
wheels, vehicle body, and the rider. This model can be refined by representing the masses of
wheels, elasticity of the tires, and elasticity and damping of the struts separately, as shown in Fig.
6(c). In this model, the mass of the vehicle body ( mv ) and the mass of the rider ( mr ) are shown
as a single mass, mv + mr . When the elasticity (as spring constant k r ) and damping (as damping
constant cr ) of the rider are considered, the refined model shown in Fig. 6(d) can be obtained.

Note that the models shown in Figs. 6(b) to (d) are not unique. For example, by combining the
spring constants of both tires, the masses of both wheels, and the spring and damping constants of
both struts as single quantities, the model shown in Fig. 6(e) can be obtained instead of Fig. 6(c).

Fig. 6(b, c, d, e): Mathematical model

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