DEPARTMENT OF INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL

ENGINEERING
Lecture Notes

w. Godfrey Daniel, Assistant Professor, ICE

Subject: Industrial Unit Operations
Subject Code: U20ICE510
Year/ Sem: III / V
 OVERVIEW OF UNIT OPERATIONS

Introduction to industrial processes - Concepts of unit operations

and unit processes - Material balance and energy balance -Types
UNIT - I
of reactions - General idea of controlling operations

PART –A TWO MARK QUESTIONS

1. Explain unit operation with example?

The operation which involves only physical changes in the material handled in the
system. Eg : Transportation, Filtration, evaporation, crushing, sieving.

2. Explain unit process with example?

The operation which involves physical as well as chemical changes in the material
handled in the system. Eg chemical absorption, oxidation, reduction, nitration.
3. List the difference between Unit operations and Unit Process.

Unit Operation Unit Process

Process in which chemical Process in which chemical changes

changes takes place are takes place are considered as unit
considered as a unit process. process.

Mixing, blending, crushing

Bromination, halogenation,
distillation, etc. are considered
sulphonation, etc are called unit process
as unit operations

4. Build the general balance equation of a system?

A balance on a conserved quantity (total mass, mass of a particular species, energy, and
momentum) in a system (a single process unit, a collection of units, or an entire process) may be
written in the following general way
 5. Classify the types of chemical reactions?

REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE REACTION

ELEMENTARY AND NON ELEMENTARY REACTION
SINGLE & MULTIPLE REACTION
HOMOGENEOUS & HETEROGENEOUS REACTION.

6. Build the balance equation in Continuous steady-state Process of a system?

1.1 Introduction to Industrial Processes:

 Every industrial chemical process is designed to produce economically a desired

product from a variety of starting materials through a succession of treatment steps.
 Figure 1.1 shows a typical situation. The raw materials undergo a number of
physical treatment steps to put them in the form in which they can be reacted chemically.
Then they pass through the reactor.
 The products of the reaction must then undergo further physical treatment-
separations, purifications, etc.- for the final desired product to be obtained.
 Design of equipment for the physical treatment steps is studied in the unit
operations. Economically this may be an inconsequential unit, perhaps a simple mixing
tank. Frequently,
 However, the chemical treatment step is the heart of the process, the thing that
makes or breaks the process economically. Design of the reactor is no routine matter, and
many alternatives can be proposed for a process.
 The thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, fluid mechanics, heat transfer, mass
transfer, and economics. Chemical reaction engineering is the synthesis of all these
factors with the aim of properly designing a chemical reactor.
1.2. Unit Operations:

The basic physical operations of chemical engineering in a chemical process plant, that is
distillation, fluid transportation, heat and mass transfer, evaporation, extraction, drying,
crystallization, filtration, mixing, size separation, crushing and grinding, and conveying. In simple
terms, the operation which involves physical changes are known as Unit Operation.
Classification of Unit Operations:
1. Fluid Flow: Concerns the principles that determine the flow or transformation of fluids from one
point to another. The fluid can be a liquid or a gas. This unit is entirely based on Bernoulli e's
equation followed by continuity correlation.
2. Heat Transfer: Deals with principles that govern accumulation and transfer of heat and energy
from one place to another. The three concepts followed here are conduction, convection and
radiation.
3. Evaporation: A special case of heat transfer which deals with the evaporation of volatile
solvent such as waste from a non-volatile solute such as salt or any other material in the solution.
The evaporation of trichloro-ethylene a cleaning agent in the automobile service industry and
acetone in the case of glassware in a chemical process industries follow this unit operations
4. Drying : An operation in which volatile liquids (usually water) are removed from solid material.
5. Distillation: An operation where a components of the liquid mixture are separated by boiling
because of their difference in vapor pressure
6. Absorption: A process whereby a component is removed from gas mixture by treatment with
liquid.
7. Crystallization: The removal of a solute such as a salt from solution by precipitation in the
industries for large scale operations, electrostatic precipitation is operated for this concept.
8.Mechanical physical separation: This involves separation of solids, liquids or gases by
mechanical means such as filtration, settling, size reduction which are classified as separate unit
operations.
1.2. Unit Process:

The operation which involves physical as well as chemical changes in the material handled in
the system. Eg chemical absorption, oxidation, reduction, nitration.
PROCESS CLASSIFICATION:

Chemical processes may be classified as batch, continuous, or semi batch and as either steady
state or transient. Before writing material balances for a process system, you must know into
which of these categories the process falls.
1. Batch process. The feed is charged (fed) to a vessel at the beginning of the process and
the vessel contents are removed sometime later. No mass crosses the system boundaries
between the time the feed is charged and the time the product is removed.
Example: Add reactants to a tank and remove the products and unconsumed reactants
sometime later when the system has come to equilibrium. Neglect any reactions that occur
during charging and discharging.
2. Continuous process. The inputs and outputs flow continuously throughout the duration of
the process.
Example: Pump a mixture of liquids into a distillation column at a constant rate and steadily
withdraw product streams from the top and bottom of the column.
3. Semi batch process. Any process that is neither batch nor continuous.
Examples: Allow the contents of a pressurized gas container to escape to the atmosphere;
slowly blend several liquids in a tank from which nothing is being withdrawn.
If the values of all the variables in a process (i.e., all temperatures, pressures, volumes,
flow rates) do not change with time, except possibly for minor fluctuations about constant
mean values, the process is said to be operating at steady state.

1.3. Material balance and energy balance:

Material and energy balances are based on a conservation law which is stated generally
in the form

Input + source = output + sink + accumulation

 The individual terms can be plural and can be rates as well as absolute quantities.

 Balances of particular entities are made around a bounded region called a system.

 Input and output quantities of an entity cross the boundaries.

  The law of conservation of matter states that matter cannot be created or destroyed.
Conservation of mass requires that the materials entering any process must accumulate or
leave the process.

 The process is debited with everything that enters it and it is credited with everything that
leaves it. The sum of the credit must be equal to the sum of debits.

 A mass balance, also called a material balance, is an application of conservation of mass

to the analysis of physical systems. By accounting for material entering and leaving a
system,

 Mass flows can be identified which might have been unknown, or difficult to measure
without this technique.

 The exact conservation law used in the analysis of the system depends on the context of
the problem, but all revolve around mass conservation, i.e. that matter cannot disappear or
be created spontaneously.
 The General Balance Equation:
A balance on a conserved quantity (total mass, mass. of a particular species,
energy, and momentum) in a system (a single process unit, a collection of units, or an
entire process) may be written in the following general way

 Two types of balances / Rules to simplify the material balance :

1. Differential balances indicate what is happening with a system at an instant in time.
Each term of the balance equation is a rate (rate of input, rate of generation, etc.) and has units of
the balanced quantity unit divided by a time unit (people/yr, g SO2 /s, barrels/day). This is the type
of balance usually applied to a continuous process.
2. Integral balances describe what happens between two instants of time. Each term
of the equation is an amount of the balanced quantity and has the corresponding unit (people, g
SO2 , barrels). This type of balance is usually applied to a batch process, with the two instants of
time being the moment after the input takes place and the moment before the product is
withdrawn.
We are concerned in this text primarily with differential balances applied to continuous
steady state systems and integral balances applied to batch and semi batch systems between
their initial and final states.
 The following rules may be used to simplify the material balance:
• If the balanced quantity is total mass, set generation = 0 and consumption = 0. Except in
nuclear reactions, mass can neither be created nor destroyed.

• If the balanced substance is a nonreactive species (neither a reactant nor a product), set
generation = 0 and consumption =0.

• If a system is at steady state, set accumulation =0, regardless of what is being balanced.
By definition, in a steady-state system nothing can change with time, including the amount
of the balanced quantity.

Integral Balances on Semi batch Processes

Integral balances can also be written for semi batch and continuous processes. The
procedure is to write a differential balance on the system and then to integrate it between two
instants of time.
1.3.1 Mass and Energy Balance:

Basic Principles

If the unit operation, whatever its nature is seen as a whole it may be represented
diagrammatically as a box, as shown in Figure. 1. 3. The mass and energy going into the box
must balance with the mass and energy coming out.

The law of conservation of mass leads to what is called

a mass or a material balance.

Mass In = Mass Out + Mass Stored

Raw Materials = Products + Wastes + Stored Materials.

mR = ∑mP + ∑mW + ∑mS

(where ∑ (sigma) denotes the sum of all terms).

∑mR = ∑mR1 + ∑mR2 + ∑mR3 = Total Raw Materials

∑mP = ∑mp1 + ∑mP2 + ∑mP3 = Total Products.

∑mW= SmW1 + S mW2 + SmW3 = Total Waste Products

∑mS = ∑mS1 + ∑mS2 + ∑mS3 = Total Stored Products.

If there are no chemical changes occurring in the plant, the law of conservation of mass will
apply also to each component, so that for component A:

mA in entering materials = mA in the exit materials + mA stored in plant.

1.4. Types of reactions:

There are many ways of classifying chemical reactions. In chemical reaction engineering
probably the most useful scheme is the breakdown according to the number and types of phases
involved, the big division being between the homogeneous and heterogeneous systems.

1. REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE REACTION

2. ELEMENTARY AND NON ELEMENTARY REACTION
3. SINGLE & MULTIPLE REACTIONS
4. HOMOGENEOUS & HETEROGENEOUS REACTION.
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE REACTION

REVERSIBLE REACTION

A reversible reaction is a chemical reaction that can proceed in both forward and backward
direction.

aA+bB⇋cC+Dd

A and B can react to form C and D or, in the reverse reaction, C and D can react to form A
and B.
Consider again the reaction in which hydrogen gas and oxygen gas combine to produce
water. This reaction is reversible if an electric current is applied to the water that is
produced. The current causes the water molecules to break down to individual hydrogen
and oxygen atoms. Then these atoms recombine to form molecules of hydrogen gas and
oxygen gas.

H2 + O2 ⇌⇌ H2O

Balancing Act
In a reversible reaction, both forward and reverse directions of the reaction generally occur at the
same time. While reactants are reacting to produce products, products are reacting to produce
reactants. Often, a point is reached at which forward and reverse directions of the reaction occur
at the same rate. When this happens, there is no overall change in the amount of reactants and
products, even though the reactions keep occurring in both directions. This point is
called equilibrium. The term equilibrium means “state of balance,” and it is used to refer to a state
of balance between any opposing changes.
IRREVERSIBLE REACTION

Some chemical reactions can occur in only one direction. These reactions are called irreversible
reactions. The reactants can change to the products, but the products cannot change back to the
reactants.

if a reaction cannot take place in the reverse direction, i.e, the products formed do not react to give
back the reactants under the same condition is called an irreversible reaction.
BaCl2(aq)+Na2SO4(aq)→BaSO4(s)+NaCl (aq)

Combustion reactions are generally irreversible. Combustion occurs whenever a fuel burns. In this
type of reaction, the fuel may combine with oxygen (in the air) and produces carbon dioxide and
water vapor. The chemical equation for a combustion reaction is:

Fuel + O2 → CO2 + H2O

In a complete combustion reaction, fuel and oxygen are the reactants and the products are carbon
dioxide and water. These two products cannot react to reform the fuel and oxygen, so the reaction
is irreversible. The one-way arrow in the equation shows that the reaction can go in only one
direction.

ELEMENTARY AND NON ELEMENTARY REACTION

An elementary reaction is a chemical reaction that includes a single sub-step. In these

reactions, one chemical species undergoes a direct change to give the final product in one step.
Here, a single transition state is observed. Experimentally, if we cannot detect any intermediate
products during a chemical reaction, we can categorize that reaction as an elementary reaction.

The key difference between elementary and non-elementary reaction is thatthe elementary
reactions have a single step, while the non-elementary reactions have multiple steps.
Furthermore, there are several types of elementary reactions. They are as follows:

Unimolecular Reactions
In this, a single reactant undergoes a reaction such as a decomposition to give the final product(s).
Examples of unimolecular reactions include cis-trans isomerization, ring-opening, racemization,
radioactive decay, etc.
Bimolecular Reactions
Meanwhile, in bimolecular reaction, two particles undergo collision to give the product(s). These
are second-order reactions because the rate of the reaction depends on both reactants. Examples
include nucleophilic substitution reactions.

Trimolecular Reactions
Similarly, in the trimolecular reaction, three particles undergo collision at the same time to give the
product(s). However, this type is rare because it is difficult for three reactants to collide at the
same time.

NON ELEMENTARY REACTION

A non-elementary reaction is a chemical reaction that includes multiple sub-steps. That means;
these reactions have a series of steps and different transition states with different intermediates as
well. Therefore, these reactions are very complex in nature.

Unlike in elementary reactions, the order of the reaction does not agree with the stoichiometric
coefficients of the reaction. Apart from that, the order of these reactions can be either an integer or
a fraction.
Difference between elementary reaction and non-elementary reaction.

 For elementary reaction the order and stoichiometric coefficient of the reactants are same
 For non-elementary reaction the order and the stoichiometric coefficients are not the same.
 Elementary reaction is single step reaction
 Non elementary reaction is a multiple step reaction
 Elementary reactions are simple in nature because of its single step but
 Non elementary reactions are complex in nature because of its multiple steps involved
 Molecularity is only defined for elementary reaction whereas it is not defined for non-
elementary reaction
 The order of reaction for elementary reaction must be an integer whereas for a non-
elementary reaction, the order of reaction may be an integer or a fractional value.

 Example of elementary reaction is C2 H5OH + CH3COOH→ CH3COOC2H5 + H2O

 Examples of non-elementary reactions are H2 + Br2 → 2HBr & CH3CHO CH4 + CO
SINGLE & MULTIPLE REACTION

In single reactions, the performance (size) of a reactor was influenced by the pattern of
flow within the vessel.

In multiple reactions, both the size requirement and the distribution of reaction products
are affected by the pattern of flow within the vessel.
The distinction between a single reaction and multiple reactions is that the single reaction
requires only one rate expression to describe its kinetic behavior whereas multiple reactions
require more than one rate expression.

In multiple reactions,

it is more convenient to deal with concentrations rather than conversions.

Product distribution is examined by eliminating the time variable by dividing one rate equation by
another.
Equations relating the rates of change of certain components with respect to other components of
the systems are involved in the analysis two analyses; one for determination of reactor size and
the other for the study of product distribution are used.

Minimization of reactor size and maximization of desired product, may run counter to each other,
thus, economic analysis will yield the best option. However, product distribution is often preferred.

DESIGN OF SINGLE AND MULTIPLE REACTORS FOR MULTIPLE REACTIONS

More than one reaction occurs within a chemical reactor. Minimization of undesired side reactions
that occur with the desired reaction contributes to the economic success of a chemical plant. The
distinction between a single reaction and multiple reactions is that the single reaction requires only
one rate expression to describe its kinetic behavior whereas multiple reactions require more than
one rate expression. Multiple reactions are of two primary types: parallel reactions and series
reactions.

Multiple Reactions

1) Parallel or competing reactions

When a reactant gives two product (desired, and undesired) simultaneously with
differentrate constant then this is called a parallel reaction.
With an example

2) Series reactions

When a reactant gives an intermediate (desired product) which decomposes to product

With an example

3) Series-Parallel reactions

Multiple reaction that consist of steps in series and steps in parallel reaction. In these
reactionproper contacting pattern is very important.
The general representation of these reaction are
 Here the reaction is parallel with respect to reactant B and in series with A.

With an example

Halogenations of alkane is a example of this kind of reaction where reaction is parallel

withrespect to halogen

HOMOGENEOUS AND HETEROGENEOUS REACTION

Homogeneous reactions are chemical reactions in which the reactants and products are in the
same phase of matter. There are three phases of matter; solid phase, liquid phase,, and gas
phase. If the reactants of a homogeneous reaction are in the gas phase, then the products given
by that reaction are also in the gas phase.

The most important homogenous reactions are the reactions between gases and reactions
between liquids or substances that are dissolved in liquids.

These reactions are very simple reactions compared to heterogeneous reactions. It is because the
chemical changes taking place during these reactions depends only on the nature of the
interactions between reactants.
Examples:

 The reaction between carbon monoxide and oxygen in the air

 The reaction between HCl and NaOH in water
 Oxy-acetylene torch burning
Heterogeneous reactions are chemical reactions in which the reactants and products are in two
or more phases. Therefore, any of the reactants and products can be in one of the three phases;
solid phase, liquid phase or gas phase. Due to this reason, heterogeneous reactions lack the
uniformity.

Moreover, the reactions that take place on the surface of a catalyst of a different phase are also
heterogeneous. These reactions are more complex because they consider the phase of matter
along with the nature of interactions between the reactants.
Examples:

 Coal burning in air

 The reaction between salt and water
 Iron rusting underwater
 The reaction between sodium metal and water

1.5 General idea of controlling operations:

SINGLE STEAM CONTROL:

Flow, level, and pressure are process variables that can be controlled by manipulating their own
process stream. Flow control is typically used to establish throughput, whereas level and
pressure are measures of liquid and gas inventory, which must be maintained to establish the
overall process material balance.

The process material balance is typically controlled in the forward direction, as shown in Figure
1.5 (A), where the feed flow rate to the process is set, establishing the throughput and ultimate
product rate after allowing for yield losses. For the reaction area of a process, the large tank
shown first in these figures may be thought of as a shift or day tank, with its inventory maintained
by the periodic transfer of raw material into it from outside the boundary limits of the process. For
the refining area of a process, it may be thought of as a large crude tank used to isolate the crude
and refining areas of the process

In either case, the tank is sized large enough to provide continued operation of the downstream
equipment during short periods of interrupted supply. When such a tank is used as a transition
between a batch and continuous process, it is desirable for the tank to hold at least three batches
of material.
FLOW CONTROL:

Flow control is probably the most common control loop in most processes. Typically, a liquid or
gas flow rate is maintained in a pipe by a throttling valve downstream of the measurement, as
shown in Figure 3.4(A). Locating the valve upstream of the measurement is not recommended
because many measurement problems can arise.

Another method of controlling liquid flow is to adjust the speed of a variable-speed drive on a
pump, as shown in Figure 3.4(B). This approach is applicable to either centrifugal or positive
displacement pumps and can provide significant energy savings at lower rates because the power
required is proportional to the speed cubed. This approach also provides good control
performance; however, a separate block valve is required to prevent leakage when the pump is
stopped.

Variable-speed drives have become much more practical in recent years due to advanced
electronics and microprocessor developments, which allow variable frequency „„vector‟‟ drives for
standard AC induction motors. In addition to providing precise control and energy savings, these
drives provide a soft start/stop and do not require separate starting circuits. Gas flow rate may also
be controlled with variable-speed drives on compressors, blowers, or fans.

The adjustment of louvers or variable pitch fan blades, as shown in Figure 3.4(C), are additional
methods for gas flow control. However, these latter devices have mechanical linkages that require
high maintenance and introduce significant hysteresis, which will degrade control loop
performance.

Solids may have their flow controlled by adjusting a motor speed and inferring flow from the rate of
displacement.
 TRANSPORT OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES

Study of Unit operation in Transport of Solids, liquids and gases -

Different crushers and grinders - Adjusting of particle size, Mixing-
UNIT - II
Separation- Leaching and extraction.

PART –A TWO MARK QUESTIONS

1. Compare and contrast the transportation of solids and liquids in unit operation?
In contrast to fluids which are transferred almost exclusively through pipelines with
pumps or blowers, a greater variety of equipment is employed for moving solids to and from
storage and between process equipment. Most commonly, solids are carried on or pushed along
by some kind of conveyor. Solids in granular form also are transported in pipelines as slurries in
inert liquids or as suspensions in air or other gases.

2. Infer the Prilling Method?

Prilling is a method of producing reasonably uniform spherical particles from molten solids,
strong solutions or slurries.

3. How are gases transported in unit operation?

Gas flows down a pressure gradient and diffuses down a concentration gradient. The
predominant mechanism of gas transport by convection is bulk flow, whereas the predominant
mechanism of gas transport by diffusion is Brownian motion.

4. How to adjust the particle size in unit operation?

Many industrial processes include operations for reducing the size of the bulk raw materials or
intermediate products through crushing, milling or grinding. Other industries use unit processes for
increasing particle size through agglomeration , palletizing. Most of these processes must be
automatically controlled.
5. Describe leaching?
Leaching is a process of extracting a substance from a solid material that is dissolved in a
liquid. This process is commonly referred to as extraction, particularly in the chemical industry.
Three basic steps are involved in the leaching process: contact, separation, and extraction.

6. Describe the extraction process?

Extraction is a process in which one or more components are separated selectively from a
liquid or solid mixture, the feed (Phase 1), by means of a liquid immiscible solvent (Phase 2).

2.1 Transport of Solids liquids and gases:

Many industrial processes must handle bulk solids, often in granular or powdered form.
Various devices, such as conveyors, screw augers, vibrating platforms, pneumatic tubes, bucket
elevators and so on can be used for transporting and metering these materials. Automatic control
requires that the transport device be controllable over a reasonable range by means of some type
of control variable.

The screw conveyor shown in figure 1., varies the flow by varying the speed of the screw. Here,
the amount of material allowed to drop from the silo onto the conveyor belt is controlled by the

opening of the discharging chute from the silo. Even though, the belt has constant speed, the total
material delivered will be controlled. Flow form, the hopper in figure is controlled either by rotation
speed of the table or the position of the scraper.

Methods of adjusting particle size of bulk solids

Many industrial processes include operations for reducing the size of the bulk raw
materials or intermediate products through crushing, milling or grinding. Other industries use unit
processes for increasing particle size through agglomeration, palletizing. Most of these processes
must be automatically controlled.
Continuous ball mill:

The raw material enters the center of a large rotating cylinder lined with steel or rubber
plates. The cylinder contains a large number of steel balls , becase of wear and tear , usually have
different diameters. The rotation of the cylinder causes the steel balls to rise and fall inside the
cylinder, applying a grinding and crushing action on the material. The speed with which the size of
the material is reduced depends on many characteristics of both mill and the material. Most
important characteristics are

● Level of the material in the mill

● Solid – liquid ratio in the case of wet milling process
● Rotation speed of the mill
● No. of balls in the mill

The dynamics of a mill depend primarily on whether the mill is operated as a

closed circuit system, with a classifier and recycle of the rejects. The mill is followed by a classifier
that separates the oversized particles and sends them back to the mill. A step closed circuit
process used for wet grinding also. In this system, a primary mill is followed by a rake classifier
that returns the larger particles (rejects) to the primary feed, while the fine particles(accepts) are
sent to bowl classifier. The rejects from this classifier are sent to another rake classifier that feeds
the secondary mill. The accepts from the bowl classifier are sent to a thickening device, often a
sedimentation tank.

Figure 2-Continuos ball mill

 Figure 2-Closed loop control of Continuous ball mill

The dynamics of a mill depend primarily on whether the mill is operated as a closed circuit
system, with a classifier and recycle of the rejects. The mill is followed by a classifier that
separates the oversized particles and sends them back to the mill. A step closed circuit process
used for wet grinding also. In this system, a primary mill is followed by a rake classifier that returns
the larger particles (rejects) to the primary feed, while the fine particles(accepts) are sent to bowl
classifier. The rejects from this classifier are sent to another rake classifier that feeds the
secondary mill. The accepts from the bowl classifier are sent to a thickening device, often a
sedimentation tank.
Agglomeration of powdered and granulated materials.

Many industrial processes require that the raw materials have minimum particle size in
order to assure proper processing or chemical reaction. Ex. Reduction of iron ore.

Perhaps, the most common method of forming pellets (granules) is to roll dry
powdered materials together with little moisture ( the choice of the actual liquid depends upon the
material and the use). This action causes the powdered particles to stick together, forming granules
of increasing size. Two such processes are shown in figure. This action produces an even
distribution of granules up to the desired size.

The larger granules will tend to move outward on the plate and eventually fall off the edge, thus
undergoing a natural size selection process. The powder and liquid are added and each of the
supply streams must be carefully controlled and a possible control variable of granule size is the
rotation speed of the disc. The angle of inclination of the disc could also be a control variable.

Fig- Fluidized bed agglomeration

Prilling:

Priling is a dynamic process where jets of concentrated/molten liquid are formed at

the showerhead and broken into droplets. The droplets fall down while they are solidified and
cooled by heat transfer to a counter-current air stream.

Prilling is a method of producing reasonably uniform spherical particles from molten solids, strong
solutions or slurries. Higher temperatures require taller towers, as do larger particle sizes.
Prilling towers in the fertilizer industry are typically over 50 m high for a mean particle size of
about 2 mm.

2.2-Different crushers and grinders:

A crusher is a machine designed to reduce large rocks into smaller rocks, gravel, or rock
dust. Crushers may be used to reduce the size, or change the form, of waste materials so they can be
more easily disposed of or recycled, or to reduce the size of a solid mix of raw materials (as in rock
ore), so that pieces of different composition can be differentiated.

Types of crushers

Crushers are divided into two main categories on the basis of crushing property.

Primary crusher

Secondary crushers
Primary Crushers

The primary crusher mainly refers to the jaw crusher and impact crusher. They reduce 1.5
meter feed to approximately 10-20 cm particles. In the designing of a crushing plant of any nature
and size, to select the right type and size of primary gyratory crusher is of great significance.
Generally speaking, this machine is the largest and most expensive single item in the plant; a
mistake in the choice may lead to a full replacement. Therefore, you have to pay close attention
when choosing primary crushers. The following tips may be helpful for the selection of primary
crushers.

● The name, hardness, humidity of material

● Pay attention to the hourly, daily or yearly capacity

 ● The discharging granularity or the final particle size of the finished products

● Crushing machine type and size

● Feeding method

Secondary Crushers
Secondary crushers mainly handle rocks of smaller particle size that have already been
impacted and crushed from their original size. They reduce feed in .5-2 cm particles.In recent
years, with the rapid development of infrastructure projects, rock crushers have found more
applications in various fields and industries, such as mining, chemical industry, road construction,
metallurgy, construction etc

2.2.1 Jaw Crusher:

A jaw or toggle crusher consists of a set of vertical jaws, one jaw being fixed and the
other being moved back and forth relative to it by a cam or pitman mechanism. The jaws are
farther apart at the top -than at the bottom, forming a tapered chute so that the material is crushed
progressively smaller and smaller as it travels downward until it is small enough to escape from
the bottom opening. The movement of the jaw can be quite small, since complete crushing is not
performed in one stroke.

Figure – Jaw Crusher

Gyratory Crusher

A gyratory crusher is similar in basic concept to a jaw crusher, consisting of a concave

surface and a conical head;both surfaces are typically lined with manganese steel surfaces. The
inner cone has a slight circular movement, but does not rotate; the movement is generated by an
eccentric arrangement. As with the jaw crusher, material travels downward between the two
surfaces being progressively crushed until it is small enough to fall out through the gap between
the two surfaces.

Figure – Gyratory Crusher

Cone Crusher

A cone crusher is similar in operation to a gyratory crusher, with less steepness in

the crushing chamber and more of a parallel zone between crushing zones.

A cone crusher breaks rock by squeezing the rock between an eccentrically gyrating spindle,
which is covered by a wear resistant mantle, and the enclosing concave hopper, covered by a
manganese concave or a bowl liner.

As rock enters the top of the cone crusher, it becomes wedged and squeezed between the mantle
and the bowl liner or concave. Large pieces of ore are broken once, and then fall to a lower
position (because they are now smaller) where they are broken again. This process continues until
the pieces are small enough to fall through the narrow opening at the bottom of the crusher.
 Figure - Cone Crusher

Grinders:

Horizontal shaft impactor (HSI) / Hammer mill:-

The HSI crushers break rock by impacting the rock with hammers that fixed upon the
outer edge of a spinning rotor. The practical use of HSI crushers is limited to soft materials and
non-abrasive materials, such as limestone, phosphate, gypsum, weathered shales.

Figure - Hammer Mill

Vertical shaft impactor (VSI):

VSI crushers use a different approach involving a high speed rotor with wear resistant
tips and a crushing chamber designed to 'throw' the rock against. The VSI crushers utilize velocity
rather than surface force as the predominant force to break rock. In its natural state, rock has a
jagged and uneven surface.

Applying surface force (pressure) results in unpredictable and typically non-cubicle resulting
particles. Utilizing velocity rather than surface force allows the breaking force to be applied evenly
both across the surface of the rock as well as through the mass of the rock. Rock, regardless of
size, has natural fissures (faults) throughout its structure. As rock is 'thrown' by a VSI Rotor
against a solid anvil, it fractures and breaks along these fissures.

Final particle size can be controlled by 1) the velocity at which the rock is thrown against the anvil
and 2) the distance between the end of the rotor and the impact point on the anvil.

Figure - Vertical shaft impactor

Adjusting of particle size:

Mineral Sizers

The basic concept of the mineral Sizer, is the use of two rotors with large teeth, on small
diameter shafts, driven at a low speed by a direct high torque drive system. This design produces
three major principles which all interact when breaking materials using Sizer Technology. The
unique principles are; The Three- Stage Breaking Action, The Rotating Screen Effect, and The
Deep Scroll Tooth Pattern.
 Figure - Mineral Sizers

The Three-Stage Breaking Action: Initially, the material is gripped by the leading
faces of opposed rotor teeth. These subject the rock to multiple point loading, inducing stress into
the material to exploit any natural weaknesses. At the second stage, material is broken in tension
by being subjected to a three point loading, applied between the front tooth faces on one rotor,
and rear tooth faces on the other rotor. Any lumps of material that still remains oversize, are
broken as the rotors chop through the fixed teeth of the breaker bar, thereby achieving a three
dimensional controlled product size.

2.3 Mixing:

There are many kinds of mixing operations needed in the process industries and there
are nearly as variations of mixing devices and systems. Some liquids are soluble in each other
while others are not. Insoluble liquids can be mixed to promote a chemical reaction to heat or cool
one of the liquids. Or to form permanent emulsions.. Solids of various types, usually powders or
granules, must also be mixed with each other.
Good mixing is defined as , which is actually, the best possible distribution of one
material in the other- requires creation of an internal mixing ( or transport) velocity high enough to
create a high probability of contact between elements of the different materials. The physical form
of mixing depends on what is to be mixed.
The basic phase possibilities are: gas-gas, gas-liquid, gas-solid, liquid-liquid, liquid-solid,
solid- solid.

Gas-gas mixing is probably the simplest problem, and he comments regarding liquid-
liquid mixing also apply in principle to the mixing of gases. Contact between liquids and gases is
important in the following unit operations; Distillation, absorption, adsorption, evaporation,
humidification, de humidification etc.
Mixing of gases and solids:

This is especially important in drying and chemical reactions. One very common mixer
for this combination is a rotating drum, mounted at a slight angle to the horizontal, in which the
solid material is tumbled, preferably counter current to the flow of gas.

An increasingly popular and very efficient method is the fluidized bed, where gas at high velocity
actually floats the solid. In this case, the solid circyulates in the bed as the gas moves upward.
This floating or fluidization provides excellent contact between the solid particles and the gas. A
third method is prilling tower.

Liquid- solid mixing

The choice of equipment can be used for liquid – solid mixing will depend on whether the
liquid or the solid is the dominant material. For very viscous materials(dominated by the solid), a
screw mixer, similar to the familiar kitchen meat grinder The mixing efficiency is strongly
dependent on hold up time and internal velocity.

If a chemical reaction accompanies the mixing , then the holdup time must be sufficient for the
reaction to reach the desired degree of completion. It consists of a silo fitted with a screw conveyor
that has the dual function of mixing the materials and in lower section, removing the mixture from
silo. A conical screw mixer for mixing various viscous materials.

2.4. SEPARATION:

The possible combinations that might have to be separated in industrial processes are: Gas-
gas, gas-liquid, gas-solid, liquid-liquid, liquid –solid, solid-solid.
The choice of equipment for separation depends upon the materials to be separate. We
can use screens or fiber filters for separating solids from liquids., fiber or electrostatic filters for
separating solids from gases and centrifuges for separating solids from gases and liquids,
magnetic separators for separating magnetic from non-magnetic materials, floatation cells for
separating materials with different surface properties.

Separation of gas from solid

Separation of gas from solids is required in many processes. One method is drying by
means of either separation or sublimation. Another gas/ solids separation process is used for
removing dust or dirt from gas. This can be done by means of cyclone separator, a bag filter,
scrubbers, or an electrostatic filter.
Cyclone separator is probably the most widely used , in this device, gas that contains small
particles of dirt or dust that enters the upper part of the cyclone., tangentially to the cyclone wall.
Because, they are heavier than the gas, the dirt particles are forced toward the wall. Then, they fall
along the wall and eventually leave the cyclone converter at the bottom.

The gas is forced to the center at the bottom , reverses direction and flows upward in the direction
and out the top of the cylinder. A cyclone does not have control variables; but can be controlled by
manipulating the pressure drop across the cyclone .In practices, a single cyclone does not provide
the required degree of separation, it can be followed by additional cyclone stages or separation
devices.

Figure – Cyclone Separators

Bag filters

A rug is used in bag filter. It is thin , fine- meshed material or it can be made of quick
thick filtering material. When thin material is used, the mesh size is usually larger than the size of
the particles to be removed. The filtering actions are provided by a filter cake, which is buildup of
filtered particles on the mesh material.

The filter cake will continue to build up until the pressure drop across it, provided by a filter cake,
which is a buildup of filtered particles on the mesh material. It continue to build up until the
pressure drop across it gets high that some of the cake must be removed. Control of the bag filter
is generally limited to monitoring the pressure drop across the filter cake and measuring the
particle content of the filtered gas.

Figure - Bag Filters

Disk centrifuge

The most common form of centrifuge is shown in figure12. The mixture is added at
the top center, but it actually enters the centrifuge at the bottom. The liquid rises through a series
of conical metal plates that are to be separated by a distance of about 0.3 to 2mm, depending
upon the material to be centrifuged.

There are about one hundred of these plates, each of which has a number of holes. A centrifuge
rotates at very high speed up to about 10000 rpm. The holdup time of a centrifuge is determined
by a ratio of the holdup volume to the through put rate for each of the liquid components.

Figure - Disk centrifuge

Scrubbers

The actual lay out of the scrubber system depends upon the method used to atomize
the liquid. The solids can be separated from the scrubbing liquid by a filtration process. Cleaning
or washing a gas in a scrubber consists of literally washing the solid particles out of the gas by
means of a conter current liquid shower, usually water.
 Figure - Scrubbers

A scrubber is usually designed to remove finer particles than either a cyclone or a bag
filter removes and therefore it is often installed in cascade following those devices if they cannot
satisfactorily separate the solid particles from the gas.

Magnetic Separator

Separation of solid particles on the basis of density or size can also be done by
dispersing the solids in a liquid. Separation of solids by magnetic means is widely used in the
mining and mineral refining industries.

The schematic diagram is shown in figure. A number of fixed permanent magnets mounted inside
the drum create a magnetic field that holds the magnetic material. The non magnetic material
remains in suspension and leaves the system.

The magnetic particles remain on the drum until they leave the field of the last magnet where they
will drop and or be scraped off the drum. The efficiency or separation quality of a magnetic
separator is characterized by the amount of magnetic materials remaining in the suspension,
relative to the amount of non-magnetic material.
 Figure - Magnetic Separators

Leaching and Extraction:

Removing one constituent from a solid or liquid by means of a liquid solvent.

These techniques fall into two categories. The first called leaching or solid extraction
is used to dissolve solvable matter from its mixture with an insolvable solid. The second called
liquid extraction is used to separate two miscible liquids by the use of a solvent that preferentially
dissolves one of them.

Although the two processes have certain common fundamentals, the differences in equipment and
to some extent in theory are sufficient to justify separate treatment.

LEACHING:
Leaching differs very little from the washing of filtered solids and leaching equipment
strongly resembles the washing section of various filters .In leaching the amount of solvable
material removed is often rather greater than in ordinary filtration washing and the properties of the
solids may change considerable during the leaching operation. Hard or granular feed solids may
disintegrate into pulp when their content of solvable material is removed.

Leaching When the solids form an open permeable mass throughout the leaching operation,
solvent may be percolated through an un agitated bed of solids. With impermeable solids or
materials that disintegrated during leaching the solids are dispersed into the solvent and are later
separated from it. Both methods may be either batch or continuous.

LEACHING BY PERCOLATION THROUGH STATIONARY SOLID BEDS:

Stationary solid bed leaching is done in a tank with a perforated false bottom to support
the solids and permit drainage of the solvent.
Solids are loaded into the tank, sprayed with solvent until their solute content is reduced to the
economical minimum and excavated.

In some case the rate of solution is so rapid that one passage of solvent through the materials is
sufficient but counter current flow of Solvent through a battery of tank is more common.

In this method fresh solvent is fed to the tank containing the solids that it most nearly extracted
battery. The solid in any one tank is stationary until it is completely extracted .

The piping is arranged so that fresh solvent can be introduced to any tank and strong solution
withdrawn from any tank, making it possible to charge and discharge one tank at a time, the other
tanks in the battery are kept in counter current operation by advancing inlet and draw off tank one
at a time as material is charged and removed such a process is called sometime called shanks
process

Figure – Extractors
 DISTILLATION, CHEMICAL REACTORS STEAM BOILERS, FURNACES

Study of Unit operation in Distillation: Flash distillation - Batch

distillation- Continuous distillation- Operational features- construction
UNIT - III
and working principle of Chemical reactors- Steam boilers- Furnaces.

1. Differentiate batch reactor and continues reactor?

If a continuous reactor is stopped, it takes time and wastes material to return it to
consistent steady-state production. Batch reactors are also more flexible, in that one can easily
use different compositions in different batches to produce products with different specifications.

2. Clarify the term flash distillation?

The system is called ”flash” distillation because the vaporization is extremely rapid after the
feed enters the drum. Because of the intimate contact between liquid and vapor, the system in the
flash chamber is very close to an equilibrium stage.

3. List out the applications of Batch reactor?

 Batch reactors are usually used in small scale industries.
 It is also used to produce many different products from small piece of equipment‟s
 It is used for the manufacturing of expensive products like pharmaceuticals, dyes, dye
intermediates etc.

3.Distillation:

It is a very important separation process. Distillation process makes use of the fact that
two or more materials can be separated on the basis of their different boiling points. A schematic
diagram is shown in figure. Liquid and vapor are in contact with each other at the same temperature
and pressure at each tray. Each tray contains a number of holes, each with a cover. Vapor
produced by the re boiler enters at the bottom and rises through the column, passing through each
tray where it bubbles through the liquid. The liquid moves down through the column, through a
space that acts as a liquid seal.
 The liquid leaves each tray by passing over a barrier that combined with the hydro
dynamic conditions in the seal chamber, determines the liquid level on the tray. The holes in the
trays are provided to assure good contact between the vapor and the liquid.

The resistance to upward flow of the vapor gives the pressure gradient in the column,
which is such that the absolute pressure is highest at the bottom and lowest at the top of the
column. Likewise, there will be a temperature gradient over the column, with the highest
temperature at the bottom and lowest at thetop.

3.1. Binary Distillation

In binary distillation, the liquid is assumed to have two components. It is fed into the
system at some tray, somewhere between the top and bottom of the column. Because of its
weight, the liquid will flow downward from the tray to tray to the bottom of the column, where part
of it is evaporated by the re boiler. The reminder of the liquid is removed from the system as
bottom product. The vapor that leaves the column at the top is condensed and collected in an
accumulator. Some of the liquid from the accumulator is recycled to the column and the remainder
is drawn offas top product (distillate). It is shown in figure 3.1

Figure - Binary Distillation

 Distillation columns are used in a very broad range of applications. In sugar industries, the
distillation of a mixture of water and different alcohols, produced by fermentation of sugar. Pure
oxygen, used for medical purposes is produced by the distillation process. Oil refineries make use
of distillation for separating all the petroleum by products.

Here's a step-by-step explanation of how binary distillation works:

1. Feed Introduction: A mixture of the two components is introduced into the distillation column.
This mixture is typically a liquid at the beginning of the process.

2. Heat Addition (Reboiler): The mixture is heated in a reboiler at the bottom of the column. The
reboiler provides the necessary heat to vaporize the more volatile component in the mixture. As
the mixture is heated, the more volatile component (with the lower boiling point) starts to vaporize.

3. Rising Vapor: The vaporized components rise up the distillation column. The column consists of
multiple trays or packing materials to facilitate the contact between the rising vapor and the
descending liquid.

4. Condensation (Condenser): At the top of the column, the rising vapor encounters a condenser.
The condenser cools the vapor, causing it to condense back into a liquid. The condensed liquid
consists of a higher concentration of the more volatile component.

5. Liquid-Vapor Separation: The condensed liquid is separated into two streams: the distillate (the
product enriched in the more volatile component) and the bottoms product (the less volatile
component). The distillate is the desired product of the separation.

6. Reflux: Some of the condensed liquid, typically the more volatile component, is returned to the
column as reflux. This reflux helps maintain efficient separation by providing additional contact
between the vapor and liquid in the column. The reflux ratio can be adjusted to control the
separation.

7. Equilibrium Stages: Inside the distillation column, there are a series of equilibrium stages where
vapor and liquid interact. The more volatile component tends to rise, while the less volatile
component tends to fall. The number of equilibrium stages and the efficiency of separation depend
on factors like column design and operating conditions.
8. Continuous Process: The process is continuous, with vapor continuously rising, and liquid
continuously descending through the column. The binary distillation process can achieve a high
degree of separation between the two components.

The key to successful binary distillation is to optimize various parameters, including reflux ratio,
temperature profiles, and column design, to achieve the desired separation. The distillation
column's efficiency depends on factors such as the relative volatility of the components and the
column's height. By controlling these factors, you can obtain the desired purity of the distillate
product while leaving the less volatile component in the bottoms.

3.1. Flash (Equilibrium) Distillation

A single-stage continuous operation where a liquid mixture is partially vaporized: the

vapour produced and the residual liquid are in equilibrium, which are then separated and removed,
which is shown in figure

Figure . Flash Distillation

We again consider a binary mixture of A (MVC) and B (LVC). The feed is preheated
before entering the separator. As such, part of the feed may be vaporized. The heated mixture
then flows through a pressure-reducing valve to the separator. In the separator, separation
between the vapor and liquid takes place. How much of A is produced in the vapor (and remained
in the liquid) depends on the condition of the feed, i.e. how much of the feed is entering as vapor
state, which in turn is controlled by the amount of heating. In other words, the degree of
vaporization affects the concentration (distribution) of A in vapor phase and liquid phase.

There is thus a certain relationship between the degree of heating (vaporization) and
mole fraction of A in vapor and liquid (y and x). This relationship is known as the Operating Line
Equation.
Batch distillation refers to the use of distillation in batches, meaning that a mixture is distilled to
separate it into its component fractions before the distillation still is again charged with more
mixture and the process is repeated.

This is in contrast with continuous distillation where the feedstock is added and the distillate
drawn off without interruption. Batch distillation has always been an important part of the
production of seasonal or low capacity and high-purity chemicals. It is a very frequent separation
process in the pharmaceutical industry.

3.3. Batch distillation

Figure - Diagram of a Batch Rectifier

The simplest and most frequently used batch distillation configuration is the batch
rectifier, including the alembic and pot still. The batch rectifier consists of a pot (or reboiler),
rectifying column, a condenser, some means of splitting off a portion of the condensed vapour
(distillate) as reflux, and one or more receivers.

The pot is filled with liquid mixture and heated. Vapor flows upwards in the rectifying
column and condenses at the top. Usually, the entire condensate is initially returned to the column
as reflux. This contacting of vapor and liquid considerably improves the separation. Generally, this
step is named start-up. The first condensate is the head, and it contains undesirable components.

The last condensate is the feints and it is also undesirable, although it adds flavor. In
between is the heart and this forms the desired product. The head and feints may be thrown out,
refluxed, or added to the next batch of mash/juice, according to the practice of the distiller. After
some time, a part of the overhead condensate is withdrawn continuously as distillate and it is
accumulated in the receivers, and the other part is recycled into the column as reflux.
Owing to the differing vapor pressures of the distillate, there will be a change in the
overhead distillation with time, as early on in the batch distillation, the distillate will contain a high
concentration of the component with the higher relative volatility. As the supply of the material is
limited and lighter components are removed, the relative fraction of heavier components will
increase as the distillation progresses.

3.4 Chemical reactor

Chemical reactors are vessels which house the chemical reactions. Chemical
reactors are designed re to maximize net present value for the given reaction. It is ensured that the
reaction proceeds with the highest efficiency towards the desired output product, producing the
highest yield of product while requiring the least amount of money to purchase and operate. Energy
changes can come in the form of heating or cooling, pumping to increase pressure, frictional
pressure loss

Chemical reactor designs include continuous stirred tank reactors, batch stirred tank
reactors, tubular reactors, and the packed bed reactors.

3.4.1 CSTR

In a CSTR, one or more fluid reagents are introduced into a tank reactor (typically)
equipped with an impeller while the reactor effluent is removed. The impeller stirs the reagents to
ensure proper mixing. Simply dividing the volume of the tank by the average volumetric flow rate
through the tank gives the space time, or the average amount of time a discrete quantity of reagent
spends inside the tank.
1. Continuous Flow: In a CSTR, reactants are continuously fed into the reactor vessel, and products
are continuously withdrawn. This ensures a steady-state operation and a continuous flow of
reactants and products.
2. Mixing: A key feature of a CSTR is the continuous and vigorous mixing of the reactants inside the
reactor. This is typically achieved using an impeller or agitator that stirs the contents of the reactor,
ensuring that the reactants are well-mixed and that the reaction is homogeneous.
3. Reaction: The chemical reaction takes place within the CSTR. The reactants in the reactor vessel
are thoroughly mixed, allowing the reaction to occur uniformly throughout the solution. The
reaction can be exothermic (releasing heat) or endothermic (absorbing heat), depending on the
specific reaction.
4. Temperature Control: To maintain a consistent reaction temperature, the CSTR may have a
heating or cooling system. The temperature control system ensures that the reaction proceeds at
the desired temperature.
5. Residence Time: The time it takes for a given volume of reactants to pass through the CSTR is
known as the residence time. The residence time can be adjusted by controlling the flow rates of
the reactants, and it is a critical factor in determining the extent of reaction and product formation.
6. Outlet Stream: The product stream, which contains the desired products and any unreacted
reactants, exits the CSTR continuously. It can be collected for further processing or analysis.
Steady-State Operation: CSTRs are typically operated in a continuous, steady-state manner.
This means that the input and output rates of the reactants and products remain constant over
time, assuming no changes in operating conditions

At steady-state, the mass flow rate in must equal the mass flow rate out, otherwise the
tank will overflow or go empty (transient state). While the reactor is in a transient state the model
equation must be derived from the differential mass and energy balances. The reaction proceeds
at the reaction rate associated with the final (output) concentration, since the concentration is
assumed to be homogenous throughout the reactor.

Often, it is economically beneficial to operate several CSTRs in series. This allows, for
example, the first CSTR to operate at a higher reagent concentration and therefore a higher
reaction rate. In these cases, the sizes of the reactors may be varied in order to minimize the total
capital investment required to implement the process.
Advantages of CSTR:

▪ It is possible to maintain this reactor at isothermal conditions for high heat of

reaction.

▪ It is quite easy to maintain good temperature control with this reactor.

 ▪ Due to large volume, it provides a long residence time.

▪ It also has low cost of construction.

Disadvantages:
▪ It is not recommended for high pressure reactions because of cost
consideration. For high pressure reactions it requires complex sealing
arrangements for the agitator which increase the initial as well as
maintenance cost.
▪ Conversion of these reactors is low due to this they are not preferred.
▪ These reactors are not suited for high heat effect since availability of both
heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer per unit area is low.
Applications:

▪ These reactors are normally employed on commercial scale mainly for liquid
phase reaction at lower medium pressure.

▪ It is commonly used in industrial processing of homogeneous reactions (only

liquid phase) and usually used in series.
BATCH REACTOR:
In the batch reactor, the reactants are charged at the beginning into the reactor, it left to the
react for certain period of time. During agitation no material is fed into the reactor. After certain
time the product is withdrawn from the reactor. Actually batch reactor is used in the unsteady state
condition as in this reactor composition is changes with time. The batch reactor actually consist of
a cylindrical vessel have agitator for mixing the contents. External jacket is provided to heating or
cooling the reactor contents.
Advantages :

▪ It is simple in construction

▪ It is so easy to operate

▪ Cost is relatively low

▪ It can give high amount of conversion

Disadvantages:

▪ It has high labor cost per unit volume of production.

▪ It requires considerable amount of time to empty, refill and clean out.

▪ Large scale production is difficult in this reactor.

Applications:

▪ Batch reactors are usually used in small scale industries.

▪ It is also used to produce many different products from small piece of

equipment‟s

▪ It is used for the manufacturing of expensive products like pharmaceuticals,

dyes, dye intermediates etc.

3.5-Steam Boilers

A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The fluid does not
necessarily boil. The heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or
heating applications include water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation,
cooking, and sanitation. Types of boilers are Pot boiler, fire tube boiler, water tube boiler are some
of the types of steam boilers.

Pot boiler or Haycock boiler/Haystack boiler: a primitive "kettle" where a fire heats a
partially filled water container from below. 18th century Haycock boilers generally produced and
stored large volumes of very low- pressure steam, often hardly above that of the atmosphere.
These could burn wood or most often, coal. Efficiency was very low.
 Fire-tube boiler.

Fire-tube boilers usually have a comparatively low rate of steam production, but high
steam storage capacity. Fire-tube boilers mostly burn solid fuels, but are readily adaptable
to those of the liquid or gas variety.

A fire tube boiler is a type of boiler commonly used for heating and generating steam in
industrial and commercial settings. Here's how it works:

1. Combustion Chamber: In a fire tube boiler, fuel, such as natural gas, oil, or coal, is burned in a
combustion chamber. The heat generated by the burning of fuel is transferred to the water-filled
tubes.
2. Tubes: The boiler contains a series of tubes that are filled with water. These tubes are typically
arranged in a cylindrical shape. The heat from the combustion chamber passes through these
tubes, heating the water inside.
3. Water Surrounds Tubes: In a fire tube boiler, water surrounds the tubes, as opposed to a water
tube boiler where the tubes contain water. This design allows for a smaller boiler size and simpler
construction.
4. Steam Generation: As the heat from the combustion gases transfers to the water in the tubes, the
water is heated, and it eventually turns into steam. The steam is then collected at the top of the
boiler and can be used for various purposes, such as heating, power generation, or industrial
processes.
5. Safety Features: Fire tube boilers typically have safety features, including pressure relief valves,
to prevent overpressure and ensure safe operation.
6. Exhaust: The combustion gases, which are now cooler after transferring their heat to the water,
exit the boiler through a chimney or exhaust stack.

Fire tube boilers are relatively simple and have been used for many years. They are known for
their ease of maintenance and are suitable for applications where high pressure and high steam
output are not required. However, they are less efficient than water tube boilers and may not be
suitable for all industrial applications. The choice between fire tube and water tube boilers
depends on factors such as the required steam capacity, pressure, and efficiency, as well as the
specific needs of the application.

Water Tube Boiler:

In this type, tubes filled with water are arranged inside a furnace in a number of possible
configurations.

Often the water tubes connect large drums, the lower ones containing water and the
upper ones steam and water; in other cases, such as a mono-tube boiler, water is circulated by a
pump through a succession of coils. This type generally gives high steam production rates, but
less storage capacity than the above.

Water tube boilers can be designed to exploit any heat source and are generally preferred in
high-pressure applications since the high-pressure water/steam is contained within small diameter
pipes which can withstand the pressure with a thinner wall.
Water Circulation: Water tube boilers consist of a network of tubes that contain water. The water
is circulated through these tubes by a pump or natural convection, allowing it to absorb heat from
the combustion process.

Combustion Chamber: In a water tube boiler, the fuel (commonly natural gas, oil, or coal) is
burned in a combustion chamber. This generates hot combustion gases.

Heat Transfer: The hot combustion gases pass around the outside of the tubes, heating them.
The tubes are typically arranged in a cylindrical shape, and the hot gases flow over and between
the tubes.
Steam Generation: As the water inside the tubes absorbs heat, it gradually turns into steam. The
steam rises to the top of the boiler and is collected for various applications, such as power
generation, heating, or industrial processes.

Steam Drum: In many water tube boilers, there is a steam drum at the top. The steam collects in
the steam drum, where it is separated from any remaining water and then sent out for use. The
water that drops back into the tubes is reheated and recirculates.

Safety Features: Water tube boilers are equipped with safety features to prevent overpressure,
such as safety valves and pressure relief devices.

Water tube boilers are known for their efficiency and ability to generate high-pressure
steam. They are commonly used in power plants, large industrial facilities, and other applications
where high steam capacity and pressure are required. The design of water tube boilers allows for
better control of temperature, pressure, and steam quality.

However, water tube boilers are generally more complex and expensive to
manufacture and maintain than fire tube boilers. The choice between water tube and fire tube
boilers depends on factors such as the required steam capacity, pressure, and efficiency, as well
as the specific needs of the application.
 3.6. Furnaces

Furnaces are devices in which heat energy is transferred to a charge or feed in a

controlled manner. The typical furnace usually takes the form of a metal housing lined with a heat
conserving refractory. The charge can enter as a solid, liquid or gas, and may or may not be
transformed to a different state by the energy be supplied. The charge can be carried through the
furnace or heater continuously, through metal tubes or toughs.

Main functions of furnaces:

1. To heat and/ or vaporize the charge

2. To provide heat of reaction to reacting fluids

3. To provide an elevated and controlled temperature for the physical change of

charge materials.

An example of a heating and vaporizing furnace is a refinery crude oil heater, where crude oil
is heated and partially vaporized preparatory to distillation.

A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical furnace used for smelting to produce industrial
metals, generally iron, but also others such as lead or copper.

In a blast furnace, fuel, ores, and flux (limestone) are continuously supplied through the top
of the furnace, while a hot blast of air

(sometimes with oxygen enrichment) is blown into the lower section of the furnace through a
series of pipes called tuyers, so that the chemical reactions take place throughout the furnace as
the material moves downward. The end products are usually molten metal and slag phases tapped
from the bottom, and flue gases exiting from the top of the furnace.

The downward flow of the ore and flux in contact with an up flow of hot, carbon monoxide-rich
combustion gases is a countercurrent exchange and chemical reaction process
 A blast furnace is a large, cylindrical furnace used in the production of iron and steel. It's a
critical component of the iron making process, where iron ore, coke (a type of coal), and limestone
are combined to produce molten iron. The blast furnace operates on the principle of reduction and
is a key part of the integrated steelmaking process.

1. Charging: The process begins by charging the blast furnace with three main raw materials:
 Iron Ore: Iron ore, typically in the form of iron oxides (e.g., hematite and magnetite), serves
as the primary source of iron.
 Coke: Coke is a high-carbon fuel derived from coal. It serves as the source of heat and
carbon for the reduction of iron ore. The coke also provides a reducing atmosphere inside
the furnace.
 Limestone: Limestone is added to act as a flux. It helps in removing impurities and forms a
slag with the non-metallic components of the iron ore.
2. Heating and Reduction: A blast of hot air, preheated to temperatures around 900-1,150°C, is
introduced into the furnace through tuyeres (nozzles) near the bottom. This hot air, often enriched
with oxygen, reacts with the coke to create a combustion reaction. The heat generated by this
reaction raises the temperature inside the furnace to approximately 1,600-2,000°C.
3. Chemical Reactions: Several chemical reactions occur inside the blast furnace:
 Carbon in the coke reacts with the oxygen in the hot air to produce carbon dioxide (C + O2
-> CO2).
 The carbon dioxide then reacts with more coke to produce carbon monoxide (CO2 + C ->
2CO). Carbon monoxide is an essential reducing agent.
 Carbon monoxide reduces the iron ore to produce molten iron: Fe2O3 + 3CO -> 2Fe +
3CO2
 The impurities in the iron ore combine with the limestone to form a slag, which floats on top
of the molten iron.
4. Product Separation: The molten iron, being denser, collects at the bottom of the furnace, while
the slag floats on top. The slag is periodically tapped and removed. The molten iron, known as pig
iron, is periodically tapped through a hole at the base of the furnace.
5. Tapping and Casting: When the molten iron has reached the desired composition, it is tapped
from the furnace and cast into molds to form pig iron or further processed into steel. The slag is
also used in various applications, including as a construction material.
6. Continuous Operation: Blast furnaces are designed to operate continuously, with the raw
materials continuously charged at the top and the molten iron and slag periodically tapped from
the bottom. The temperature and chemical reactions are carefully controlled to achieve the desired
iron quality and efficiency.
 DRYERS, CRYSTALLIZERS, EVAPORATOR

Study of Unit operation in Dryers, Crystallization, Evaporators

4, Heat
UNITexchangers,
- IV Humidification, De- humidification - Different types - operational
features, construction and work Working Principle

PART –A TWO MARK QUESTIONS

1. Interpret the term dehumidification?

Dehumidification is the process of reducing or removing excess moisture or humidity from the
air. This is done to achieve a more balanced and comfortable indoor environment. Excessive
humidity levels can lead to discomfort, create an environment conducive to the growth of mold and
mildew, cause structural damage to buildings, and adversely affect health.

2. Specify the need for evaporators in unit operation?

1. Concentration: Evaporators concentrate solutions by removing solvent, increasing solute

concentration, crucial in industries such as food processing and chemical manufacturing.
2. Product Recovery: They aid in recovering valuable products by separating solvents from
solutions, essential in producing concentrated extracts or purified substances.

3. Illustrate the difference in application of blowers and pumps in a process?

Pumps and Blowers are ubiquitous in industry, used in manufacturing, processing and
chemical plant, HVAC installations, aerospace propulsion systems, medical applications, and
everywhere else where there is a need to pump liquids, or circulate or compress gasses.
 Used for combustion air suppliers, drying and cooling systems. Used for dust control, air
conveyor systems, fluid bed aerators etc.
 4.1. Unit operation of Dryers:

The purpose of drying unit operation is to separate liquids from solids. Many commercial
dryers are available. Various factors are considered in determining the correct type of dryer for any
given application, including the material to be dried, drying process requirements, production
requirements, final product quality requirements and available facility space.

4.2 Rotary dryer :

Rotary dryer in which, a long cylinder with an axis tilted slightly with respect to the horizontal.
Cylinders of this type contain baffles or plates on the inner surface, which carry the solid material
around part of the inner periphery of the cylinder in order to increase exposure of the material to
the drying medium and to agitate the solid material. The rotary dryer is shown in figure 4.1

The unit operation of a rotary dryer involves the following key components and processes:

1. Cylinder or Drum: The main body of the rotary dryer is a large, rotating cylinder or drum. It is
typically made of steel and can vary in size and length depending on the capacity and application
requirements.
2. Material Feed: The wet material to be dried is fed into the rotary dryer through a feed chute or
conveyor system. The material may contain moisture and needs to undergo drying.
3. Heat Source: A heat source, such as gas burners, electric heaters, or steam coils, is used to
supply the required heat energy for the drying process. This heat source is usually located at one
end of the rotary dryer.
4. Lifting Flights or Fins: Within the drum, lifting flights or fins are attached to the inner surface.
These flights lift and cascade the material as the drum rotates, ensuring efficient contact between
the material and the heated surface, thereby facilitating drying.
5. Rotating Motion: The drum rotates slowly, typically on a slight incline. This rotation helps to move
the material through the dryer and allows for even drying as the material is continuously exposed
to the heat source.
6. Evaporation of Moisture: As the material moves through the rotating drum and comes into
contact with the heated surface, moisture within the material evaporates. The evaporated moisture
is removed from the system through an exhaust system or by means of air flow.
7. Discharge and Collection: Once the material reaches the desired level of dryness, it is
discharged from the rotary dryer. It can be collected in a hopper, conveyor, or other discharge
mechanism for further processing or storage.

The efficiency of a rotary dryer depends on various factors, including the characteristics of the
material being dried, the design and size of the dryer, the temperature and flow rate of the drying
medium, and the residence time of the material within the dryer.

Overall, the unit operation of a rotary dryer involves the continuous movement of material through
a rotating drum while heat is applied to remove moisture, resulting in the drying of the material to
the desired moisture content.

4.3. Fluidized bed Dryer:

In a fluidized bed method, the solid material is suspended in fluidized form by a strong
gas stream. This provides very effective contact between the material and the drying gas, which
leads to the evaporation of the liquid in the solid material.

A fluidized bed dryer is a unit operation used for drying granular materials, powders, or
particles by suspending them in a fluidized state. This type of dryer utilizes the principle of
fluidization to efficiently and evenly dry materials.
1. Chamber or Vessel: The fluidized bed dryer consists of a chamber or vessel that holds the
material to be dried. This chamber is typically cylindrical and equipped with a perforated plate or
distributor at the bottom.
2. Air Distribution System: A system for supplying hot air or gas is employed at the base of the
chamber. This air distribution system includes blowers or fans that force air or gas through the
perforated plate, creating upward airflow through the bed of material.
3. Bed of Material: The material to be dried is loaded into the chamber, forming a layer or bed.
Initially, the material rests on the distributor plate.
4. Fluidization: As the hot air or gas is introduced from the bottom, it passes through the
perforations in the distributor plate, causing the particles of the material to become suspended or
fluidized within the airstream. This fluidization creates a dynamic state where the particles behave
like a fluid, exhibiting characteristics of both solids and liquids.
5. Heat Transfer and Drying: The suspended particles in the fluidized state have increased contact
with the hot air or gas, promoting efficient heat transfer. The moisture within the particles
evaporates due to the heat, and the drying process occurs as the moist air rises through the
fluidized bed, carrying away the evaporated moisture.
6. Temperature Control and Residence Time: The temperature and airflow rate are carefully
controlled to ensure effective drying without damaging the material. The residence time of the
material within the fluidized bed can be adjusted by controlling the airflow and the speed of the
fluidization process.
7. Moisture Evacuation: The moist air or gas, carrying the evaporated moisture, exits the fluidized
bed chamber and may pass through a separation system (such as cyclones or filters) to remove
the moisture before being discharged or recirculates back into the system.
8. Discharge of Dried Material: Once the material reaches the desired level of dryness, it is
discharged from the fluidized bed dryer for further processing or storage.

Fluidized bed dryers are favored for their efficient heat and mass transfer properties, uniform
drying, and the ability to handle a wide range of materials. They are commonly used in industries
such as pharmaceuticals, food processing, chemicals, and agriculture for drying various granular
or powdered substances.
 4.4 Counter current gas stream Dryer:

A counter-current gas stream dryer is a type of drying system where the airflow direction
is arranged in opposition to the direction of material flow. In this setup, the gas or air used for
drying moves in the opposite direction to the movement of the material being dried. This counter-
current arrangement is employed to maximize the efficiency of the drying process. Here's a brief
explanation:

1. Gas Flow and Material Flow: In a counter-current gas stream dryer, the material to be dried is fed
into the dryer at one end. Simultaneously, the drying gas or air enters at the opposite end of the
drying chamber.

2. Opposite Flow Direction: The material moves through the drying chamber from the feeding end
to the discharge end while being exposed to the drying gas. Meanwhile, the drying gas flows in the
opposite direction, moving from the discharge end towards the feeding end.

3. Efficient Heat and Mass Transfer: The counter-current arrangement enhances the efficiency of
heat and mass transfer during the drying process. As the material and the drying gas move in
opposite directions, it creates a gradient that allows for greater contact and better absorption of
moisture from the material.

4. Gradual Reduction in Moisture Content: As the material progresses through the dryer, it
continuously loses moisture due to exposure to the increasingly drier gas. This facilitates a more
thorough and controlled drying process, resulting in a gradual reduction in the material's moisture
content.
5. Optimized Drying Conditions: Counter-current gas stream dryers enable better control over
temperature, humidity, and airflow within the system. This control helps to maintain optimal drying
conditions throughout the drying chamber, leading to more uniform drying and preventing over
drying or uneven moisture removal in the material.

6. Discharge of Dried Material: Once the material reaches the desired level of dryness, it exits the
dryer, having passed through the drying chamber against the flow of the drying gas.

Counter-current gas stream dryers are commonly used in various industries such as food
processing, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and chemicals. Their design allows for efficient and
effective drying of materials while providing better control over the drying process and resulting in
high-quality dried products.

4.5 Perforated conveyor Dryer:

Perforated conveyor dryers are a type of continuous drying system used in various
industries to dry bulk materials, granules, or products conveyed on a perforated belt or conveyor.
These dryers operate by passing heated air or gas through the perforations in the conveyor belt to
efficiently dry the material being transported. Here's a brief explanation of perforated conveyor
dryers:

1. Conveyor Belt with Perforations: The key component of a perforated conveyor dryer is a
continuous conveyor belt made of a material that allows the passage of air. This conveyor belt is
equipped with perforations or small holes along its surface.
2. Material Loading and Movement: The material to be dried is uniformly spread or conveyed onto
the perforated conveyor belt at the feeding end. The conveyor belt then transports the material
through the drying chamber.
3. Heated Airflow: A heating system generates hot air or gas, which is then blown or circulated
through the perforations in the conveyor belt. The hot air/gas passes directly through the material
on the conveyor, facilitating the drying process.
4. Uniform Drying: The perforations in the conveyor belt allow for even distribution of heated air
across the entire surface area of the material being dried. This promotes uniform drying and
ensures that moisture is removed consistently throughout the product.
5. Controlled Temperature and Airflow: Temperature and airflow settings are controlled to optimize
the drying process and prevent overheating or under-drying of the material. This control helps
maintain the quality of the dried product.
6. Residence Time: The speed of the conveyor belt can be adjusted to control the residence time of
the material within the drying chamber. This allows for flexibility in achieving the desired level of
dryness.
7. Discharge of Dried Material: Once the material reaches the end of the perforated conveyor belt,
it is discharged from the dryer for further processing or packaging.

Perforated conveyor dryers are commonly used in industries such as food processing,
agriculture, pharmaceuticals, and manufacturing, where continuous and efficient drying of
materials in bulk or granular form is required. Their design provides a versatile and effective
method for drying a wide range of products while ensuring consistent quality and uniform moisture
removal.

4.6 Infrared Radiation Dryer:

Infra-red radiation can be applied on a solid material on a conveyor

 An infrared radiation dryer is a type of drying system that utilizes infrared radiation as the
primary heat source for drying various materials or surfaces. Infrared radiation is a form of
electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer than visible light, but shorter than microwaves.
In these dryers, infrared energy is emitted and transferred directly to the material to be dried,
causing moisture evaporation and drying. Here's an explanation of how an infrared radiation dryer
typically operates:

1. Infrared Emitters: The dryer is equipped with infrared emitters or heating elements that generate
and emit infrared radiation. These emitters can be quartz tubes, ceramic panels, or lamps
designed to emit infrared energy.
2. Focused Heat Transfer: Infrared radiation emitted by these sources is directed towards the
material or surface to be dried. Unlike conventional drying methods that rely on heated air, infrared
radiation transfers heat directly to the material without heating the surrounding air. This focused
heat transfer accelerates the drying process by penetrating the material's surface and causing the
moisture within to evaporate.
3. Selective Heating: Infrared radiation selectively heats the moisture within the material or surface,
allowing for targeted drying. This method is efficient because it heats the material itself rather than
the surrounding air, resulting in quicker moisture removal.
4. Controllable Heat: The intensity and duration of infrared radiation can often be adjusted or
controlled, allowing for precise temperature regulation. This control enables operators to tailor the
drying process to suit the specific requirements of different materials and drying applications.
5. Variety of Applications: Infrared radiation dryers find applications in industries such as printing,
textiles, food processing, paint curing, wood finishing, and more. They are particularly useful for
drying coatings, inks, paints, and moisture-sensitive materials where rapid and efficient drying is
required without causing damage to the product.
6. Energy Efficiency: Compared to some conventional drying methods that rely on heating large
volumes of air, infrared radiation dryers can be more energy-efficient since they directly transfer
heat to the material. This focused energy transfer reduces the overall energy consumption and
drying time.

In summary, infrared radiation dryers use focused infrared energy to heat and evaporates
moisture directly from the material being dried. They offer efficient and controlled drying
processes, making them suitable for various industrial applications where fast and precise drying
is essential.
 4.7 Cylindrical Dryer:

A cylindrical dryer can be used for continuous drying of wet material such as paper,
textiles.

A cylindrical dryer is a type of dryer commonly used in industrial settings to dry bulk materials,
granules, powders, or other substances that require continuous drying. As the name suggests, this
dryer consists of a rotating cylindrical vessel where the material to be dried is processed. Here's
an overview of the cylindrical dryer:

1. Cylindrical Vessel: The primary component of a cylindrical dryer is a long, rotating cylinder or
drum. This drum is typically made of stainless steel or other durable materials and is horizontally
mounted, allowing it to rotate on its axis.
2. Material Loading and Movement: The material to be dried is fed into one end of the cylindrical
dryer. As the drum rotates, the material gradually moves along the length of the cylinder, propelled
by the drum's rotation.
3. Heat Source: A heat source is positioned externally or internally to provide the necessary heat for
drying. This heat source can be in the form of hot air, gas, steam, or thermal oil circulated through
the rotating drum or around its exterior.
4. Lifting Flights or Fins: Inside the drum, there may be lifting flights or fins attached to the inner
surface of the cylinder. These flights lift and cascade the material as the drum rotates, ensuring
good contact between the material and the heated surface, thereby enhancing the drying
efficiency.
5. Evaporation of Moisture: As the material moves through the rotating drum and comes into
contact with the heated surface, moisture within the material evaporates. The heated drum helps
in the evaporation process, and the moisture-laden air or gas is removed from the system.
6. Controlled Temperature and Residence Time: The temperature and rotation speed of the
cylindrical dryer can be adjusted to control the drying process. The residence time of the material
inside the drum can also be regulated to achieve the desired level of dryness.
7. Discharge of Dried Material: Once the material reaches the desired moisture content, it exits the
cylindrical dryer from the other end. The dried material can then be collected for further processing
or packaging.

Cylindrical dryers are versatile and widely used in industries such as agriculture,
pharmaceuticals, chemicals, food processing, and minerals processing. They offer continuous and
efficient drying of materials by providing a large surface area for heat transfer and allowing for
uniform drying due to the tumbling action of the material within the rotating drum. The design
variations in flight configurations, heat sources, and control systems make cylindrical dryers
adaptable to a wide range of drying applications.

4.8- Crystallization:

Crystals are solids of very high purity that can be produced from solutions
containing significant pollutants. Many products are marketed in crystalline form, making
crystallization an important industrial process. The crystallization process requires very little
energy compared with distillation and other methods of separation. Not all materials form crystals,
so crystallization is limited to certain types of materials. The most common, but not only, solution
medium in which crystallization takes place is water.

The concentration at which crystallization will occur, in a solution consisting of a solid such
as a salt dissolved in a liquid, depends on temperature. The conditions for the formation and
growth of crystals are
1. There must be small particles that can form the nuclei for growth

2. The solution must be super saturated.

Forced circulation Crystallizer:

A cylindrical tank is mounted integrally with a conical section at the bottom. The solution is
circulated to the bottom, out of the bottom and into a single effect evaporator and back to the
cylindrical tank. The steam is driven out of the top, when the solution reaches super saturation.
Crystals form and then, the crystals can be removed by means of a vacuum pump.

OSLO CRYSTALLIZER:

The Oslo Crystallizer is a type of crystallizer used in the production of high-quality, uniform
crystals from a solution. It is commonly employed in industries such as pharmaceuticals,
chemicals, and food processing. The Oslo Crystallizer operates based on the principle of
controlled cooling and continuous stirring to promote the nucleation and growth of crystals.
1. Nucleation
 The process begins with a supersaturated solution, meaning that it contains more solute
than it would normally dissolve at a given temperature.
 To initiate crystallization, the solution is cooled down slowly and uniformly. This controlled
cooling helps in the controlled formation of crystals.
2. Cooling
 The Oslo Crystallizer uses a cooling jacket or a heat exchanger to remove heat from the
solution.
 The cooling rate is crucial because it affects the size and quality of the crystals formed.
Slower cooling rates generally lead to larger and more well-defined crystals.
3. Stirring
 Continuous and controlled stirring is a key feature of the Oslo Crystallizer. Stirring ensures
uniform mixing of the solution and prevents the crystals from adhering to each other or the
vessel walls.
 Stirring also helps in distributing the heat uniformly throughout the solution, preventing local
overheating or undercooling.
4. Continuous Operation
 The Oslo Crystallizer is often designed for continuous operation, allowing for a steady
production of crystals.
 Fresh solution is continuously fed into the crystallizer, and the crystals are continuously
removed. This allows for a continuous and consistent production process.

5. Monitoring and Control:

 The process is typically monitored and controlled using sensors that measure temperature,
concentration, and other relevant parameters.
 Feedback control systems may be employed to adjust the cooling rate or other process
parameters to optimize the crystallization process.
6. Crystal Harvesting:
 Once the crystals have reached the desired size, they are harvested from the solution. This
can be done by filtration or other separation methods.

Overall, the Oslo Crystallizer provides a controlled environment for crystallization, resulting in high-
purity, well-formed crystals suitable for various industrial applications. The precise design and
operation parameters may vary depending on the specific requirements of the crystallization
process and the type of crystals being produced.
 4.9- Evaporators:
Evaporators are devices used to concentrate a solution by removing the solvent, typically
water, through the process of evaporation. These devices are widely used in various industries,
including food and beverage, chemical processing, and wastewater treatment. The working
principle of evaporators involves the application of heat to the solution to facilitate the conversion
of liquid to vapor, leaving behind a more concentrated solution. Here's a general overview of the
working principle of evaporators:

1. Introduction of Feed Solution:

 The process begins with the introduction of the feed solution into the evaporator. This
solution usually contains the substance to be concentrated (solute) dissolved in a solvent,
commonly water.
2. Application of Heat:
 Heat is applied to the solution to increase its temperature and facilitate the evaporation of
the solvent.
 The heat input can be supplied through various means, such as steam, hot water, or
electrical heaters, depending on the design and application of the evaporator.
3. Vaporization:
 As the solution is heated, the solvent (typically water) undergoes a phase change from
liquid to vapor. The solute remains in the liquid phase and becomes more concentrated as
the solvent is removed.
4. Separation of Vapor and Concentrated Solution:
 The vapor generated during evaporation is separated from the concentrated solution. This
separation can be achieved through various methods, depending on the evaporator design.
 Common separation methods include using vapor-liquid separators, distillation columns, or
other separation devices.
5. Condensation of Vapor:
 The separated vapor is condensed back into a liquid form. This condensation step is
important for recovering the solvent, especially in systems where water or other valuable
solvents are used.
6. Product Collection:
 The concentrated solution, now with a reduced amount of solvent, is collected as the final
product. This concentrated solution can be further processed or used in various industrial
applications.
7. Heat Recovery:
 In many evaporator systems, efforts are made to recover and reuse heat from the
condensed vapor. This improves the overall energy efficiency of the process.
 There are different types of evaporators, including falling film evaporators, rising film evaporators,
forced circulation evaporators, and others. The specific design and operation of an evaporator
depend on factors such as the characteristics of the solution, desired concentration levels, and
energy efficiency considerations.

Overall, evaporators play a crucial role in concentrating solutions and are essential in industries
where the removal of excess solvent is necessary for the production of various products.

Single Effect Evaporator:

Single-effect evaporators are a type of evaporator system that uses only one stage of
vaporization to concentrate a liquid solution. These evaporators are relatively simple in design and
are commonly used in various industries for concentrating liquids, especially in applications where
the energy cost is not a critical factor. Here's an overview of the working principle of a single-effect
evaporator:

Components and Working Principle:

1. Heat Source:
 A heat source, typically steam, is used to provide the necessary energy for the evaporation
process. The steam is passed through a heat exchanger (calandria) within the evaporator.
2. Feed Solution Inlet:
 The solution to be concentrated, known as the feed, is introduced into the evaporator.
3. Heating the Feed Solution:
 The feed solution is heated as it flows through the heat exchanger. The heat causes the
solvent (usually water) to evaporate, leaving behind a more concentrated solution.
4. Vapor Generation:
 The heat causes the solvent to vaporize, generating vapor. This vapor is typically water
vapor if the solvent is water.
5. Separation of Vapor and Concentrated Solution:
 The vapor is separated from the concentrated solution. This separation is often achieved
using a vapor-liquid separator.
6. Condensation:
 The separated vapor is condensed back into liquid form using a condenser. The condenser
may use cooling water or air to facilitate the condensation process.
7. Product Collection:
  The concentrated solution, now with a reduced amount of solvent, is collected as the final
product.

Operation and Considerations:

 Energy Efficiency:
 Single-effect evaporators are not the most energy-efficient design since they use only one
stage of vaporization. However, they are suitable for applications where energy costs are
less critical.
 Multiple Effects:
 In situations where energy efficiency is a primary concern, multiple-effect evaporators are
often used. These systems consist of two or more stages (effects), where the vapor
generated in one effect is used to heat the next effect, leading to improved overall energy
efficiency.
 Applications:
 Single-effect evaporators find applications in industries such as food and beverage
processing, chemical manufacturing, and wastewater treatment, where moderate
concentration levels are sufficient, and energy costs are not a limiting factor.

 Single-effect evaporators are a basic and economical solution for concentrating solutions,
and their efficiency can be enhanced by incorporating heat recovery systems or using
alternative heat sources. However, for higher concentration ratios and improved energy
efficiency, multiple-effect evaporators are often preferred

Figure. Single Effect Evaporator

 Multi Effect Evaporator

Multi-stage evaporators are industrial systems designed to remove the solvent or liquid
content from a solution, typically by heating the solution to promote vaporization. These
evaporators are employed in various industries, including food processing, chemical
manufacturing, and wastewater treatment. The multi-stage design allows for increased efficiency
in the evaporation process.

1. Introduction of the Solution: The solution to be concentrated is introduced into the first stage of
the evaporator system. This solution often contains a solvent that needs to be evaporated or
removed.
2. First Stage Evaporation: In the first stage, the solution is heated, and a portion of the solvent
begins to vaporize. This vapor is separated from the remaining liquid.
3. Vapor Recompression: The vapor separated in the first stage is then recompressed. This is done
to increase the temperature and pressure of the vapor, making it more efficient for further use in
the evaporation process.
4. Introduction to Subsequent Stages: The recompressed vapor is then introduced into the next
stage of the evaporator system, where it is used to heat the solution in that stage. This process is
repeated in multiple stages, with each stage usually operating at a lower pressure than the
previous one.
5. Concentration Increases: As the solution moves through the various stages, the concentration of
the solute increases, and the solvent content decreases. This is because the solvent continues to
evaporate in each stage.
6. Final Concentrate: The final stage of the evaporator system produces a concentrated solution or
slurry, and the remaining vapor is often condensed and recovered to be reused in the process.

The use of multiple stages in the evaporator system allows for better energy efficiency and
greater concentration levels in the final product. It also enables the recovery and reuse of heat and
vapor, reducing overall energy consumption and operating costs. Multi-stage evaporators are a
crucial component in many industrial processes where concentration or separation of liquids is
required.
Heat exchangers:

The conversion of thermal energy from one medium to another generally referred to as
heat exchange, plays a major role in many industrial production processes. Heat exchangers are
most commonly used for the transfer of energy between two fluids. Exchangers can be operated in
many configurations and the fluid can be gas or liquid on either the primary or secondary side of
the exchanger.

The efficiency of a heat exchanger depends very much on its being designed to meet
the capacity required by the particular process in which it is to be installed. The control
characteristics usually a matter of secondary importance, but if the exchanger is to be operated in
a dynamic mode, the overall efficiency and performance will also be determined by the control
characteristics. The most common heat exchanger consists of a cylindrical tank filled with a
number of parallel tubes aligned in the axial direction.

If we let the primary medium flows through the tank, and the secondary medium flow
through the tubes, the schematic diagram of a heat exchanger is shown in figure.
 There are two possible configurations are possible, known as co current and counter
current heat exchangers. The heating and feed are flowing in the same direction, it is known as
concurrent heat exchangers.

If they pass in the opposite direction, it is known as counter current heat exchangers.

4.9- Humidification:
Basic concepts Humidification is the process of constituting the water-vapor content in a
gas. The reverse of the operation is called dehumidification. Both are important for many industrial
operations such as air conditioning, gas cooling, controlled drying of wet solids, comfort heating
etc. When a gas is brought in contact with a pure liquid in which it is essentially insoluble,
interphase mass and heat transfer takes place.
Humidification is the process of adding moisture or water vapor to the air to increase its
humidity level. This is commonly done to achieve comfortable indoor conditions, improve certain
industrial processes, or maintain specific environmental requirements. The humidification process
involves introducing water vapor into a space to achieve the desired level of humidity

Relative Saturation (Relative Humidity)

If the partial pressure of a vapor in the gas mixture is less than the vapor pressure of the
liquid at the existing pressure, the gas mixture is partially saturated. The ratio of the partial
pressure of the vapor to the vapor pressure of the liquid at the liquid at the existing temperature,
expressed in percentage, is termed relative saturation.
The term „humidity‟ is used if the vapor is water and the gas is air.
 Relative saturation = PA P sat A × 100
where PA = partial pressure of the vapor (A) in the gas mixture P sat A = vapor pressure of
component A.

Humidity and Temperature:

The capacity of a gas to hold water depends on its temperature. The higher the temperature, the
more water vapor it can contain.

 normal room temperature - air typically holds about 1% of water vapor hot-atmosphere
has greater capacity to hold water vapor When the air holds the maximum amount of
water vapor at a particular temperature it is said to be saturated.

 Relative humidity is strongly governed by temperature.

 Interaction of water-vapor with materials is often in proportion to relative humidity.

 Lowering the relative humidity of surrounding air increases evaporation and drying of
materials
.

1. Types of Humidification: There are several methods of humidification, and the choice depends
on the specific application. Common methods include:
 Evaporative Humidifiers: These devices use a wick filter or other medium to absorb
water, and a fan blows air through the wet medium, causing water to evaporate and
humidify the air.
 Ultrasonic Humidifiers: These devices use ultrasonic vibrations to produce a fine mist of
water droplets, which is then released into the air.
 Steam Humidification: Steam humidifiers boil water to produce steam, which is then
released into the air to increase humidity.
 Spray or Atomization: Water is sprayed or atomized into small droplets and released into
the air.
2. Humidity Control System: In more advanced humidification systems, humidity levels are often
controlled by a humidistat. A humidistat measures the humidity in the air and activates or
deactivates the humidification process as needed to maintain a specific setpoint.
3. Distribution of Moisture: The method used to distribute moisture depends on the humidification
system. It could involve fans, blowers, or natural air currents to disperse the humidified air
throughout the space.
4. Monitoring and Control: In modern humidification systems, there is often a control system in
place to monitor and regulate the humidity levels. This helps to ensure that the desired humidity
set point is maintained consistently.
5. Benefits of Humidification:
 Comfort: Humidification is commonly used to improve comfort in indoor environments,
especially during the winter when heating systems can dry out the air.
 Health: Proper humidity levels can contribute to respiratory health by preventing the air
from becoming too dry, which may lead to issues like dry skin, irritated throat, and
respiratory discomfort.
 Industrial Processes: In certain industrial applications, maintaining specific humidity
levels is crucial for manufacturing processes, such as in the production of textiles,
pharmaceuticals, and electronics.

It's important to note that while humidification is beneficial, excessive humidity can lead to
issues like mold growth and discomfort. Therefore, maintaining the right balance is essential for
both comfort and health.

4.8- De- humidification:

Dehumidification is the process of reducing the level of humidity in the air, which involves
extracting moisture or water vapor from the air to achieve a more comfortable or suitable humidity
level. This process is commonly used in various settings, including homes, commercial buildings,
industrial spaces, and even in certain industrial processes.

Several methods are employed to dehumidify air, some of which include:

1. Desiccant Dehumidification: This method uses desiccants (substances with a high affinity for
water) such as silica gel or zeolite to absorb moisture from the air. The desiccant material attracts
and retains water molecules, allowing dry air to pass through.
2. Refrigeration (Condensation) Dehumidification: This is one of the most common methods used
in household dehumidifiers. It operates similarly to an air conditioner but with the specific aim of
removing moisture. Warm, humid air is drawn into the dehumidifier and passed over a set of cold
coils. As the air cools, moisture condenses into water droplets, which are collected in a reservoir,
and the dry air is released back into the room.
3. Absorption Dehumidification: This technique involves using absorbent materials, such as
calcium chloride or lithium chloride, to extract moisture from the air. The absorbent material
attracts and retains water vapor, and the dry air is released.
4. Ventilation and Air Exchange: Proper ventilation can help reduce humidity by allowing moist air
to escape while bringing in drier air from the outside. Air exchange systems are designed to
replace humid indoor air with fresher, drier air from the outside.
5. Membrane Dehumidification: This method uses specialized membranes that allow the passage
of water vapor while blocking other gases. By passing humid air through these membranes, water
vapor is removed, resulting in drier air on the other side.

The choice of dehumidification method often depends on factors such as the required capacity,
the specific environment or space to be dehumidified, energy efficiency, and cost considerations.

Dehumidification is crucial in controlling indoor humidity levels to prevent issues like mold growth,
musty odors, damage to furniture or electronics, and to create a more comfortable living or working
environment. However, it's important to balance humidity levels as excessively dry air can also
lead to discomfort and health issues like dry skin and respiratory problems.
 Operational Features:
The operational features of a dehumidification process can vary depending on the specific
method or technology used. Here are some common operational features and considerations
across different dehumidification processes:

1. Humidistat Control: Most dehumidifiers are equipped with a humidistat, which functions similarly
to a thermostat but measures humidity levels instead of temperature. Users can set a desired
humidity level, and the dehumidifier will work to maintain that level by turning on and off as
needed.
2. Airflow Control: Dehumidifiers regulate airflow to ensure efficient moisture removal. Adjustable
fan speeds or multiple fan settings allow users to control the rate at which air passes through the
dehumidifier. Higher speeds are typically used for faster dehumidification, while lower speeds
might be used for quieter operation or in less humid conditions.
3. Defrost Cycle (for refrigeration-based dehumidifiers): In colder environments, frost can
accumulate on the coils of refrigeration-based dehumidifiers. To prevent frost buildup and maintain
efficiency, these dehumidifiers often have a defrost cycle. This cycle temporarily stops the
dehumidification process to allow the coils to warm up and melt accumulated frost.
4. Auto-Off or Auto-Restart Function: Many dehumidifiers have automatic shut-off features that
turn the unit off when the desired humidity level is reached or when the water collection bucket is
full. Some also have an auto-restart function that switches the dehumidifier back on if there's a
power outage, maintaining the previous settings.
5. Water Collection and Drainage: Dehumidifiers collect water extracted from the air in a reservoir
or bucket that needs to be emptied periodically. Some models also have continuous drainage
options, allowing water to be drained directly into a sink, floor drain, or external reservoir using a
hose.
6. Energy-Saving Features: Energy-efficient dehumidifiers might have features like automatic shut-
off when the set humidity level is achieved, timer functions for scheduling operation at specific
times, or energy-saving modes that adjust performance to minimize power consumption.
7. Maintenance Indicators: Modern dehumidifiers often include indicators or lights that alert users
when the filter needs cleaning or when maintenance is required, ensuring optimal performance
and longevity of the device.

These operational features aim to enhance the effectiveness, convenience, and energy efficiency
of the dehumidification process, offering users more control over their indoor environment while
also ensuring the proper functioning and longevity of the equipment.
 PUMPS, COMPRESSORS,EXTRUDERS, BLOWERS,
CENTRIFUGES

Study of Unit operation in Pumps, Compressors, Extruders. Blowers,

Centrifuges - operational features, construction and working principle. Case
UNIT - V studies: Unit Operations and Control schemes applied to Thermal Power
plant, Paper and Pulp Industry

5.1- Study of Unit operation in Pumps:

The unit operation of pumps refers to the fundamental principles and functioning of these
devices in various industrial, commercial, and residential applications. Pumps are mechanical
devices designed to move fluids (liquids or gases) from one place to another by applying

mechanical force, usually through the conversion of energy.

Classification of Pumps
Application:
1. Agriculture & Irrigation
2. Petroleum
3. Steam and diesel Power plant
4. Hydraulic control system
5. Pumping water in buildings
6. Fire Fighting
Positive Displacement:

Amount of liquid taken on suction side is equal to amount of liquid transferred to deliver side.
Hence discharge pipe should be opened before starting the pump to avoid the bursting of casing.
Rotodynamic Pump:

Increase in energy level is due to a combination of centrifugal energy, Pressure energy and
kinetic energy. i.e. fluid is not displaced positively from suction side to delivery side. Pumps can
run safely even the delivery valve is closed.
Centrifugal Pump: Mechanical energy of motor is converted into pressure energy by means of
centrifugal force acting on the fluid.
Sr. No. Centrifugal Pump Inward Flow Turbine
1 It consumes power It produces power
2 Water flows radially outward Water flows radially inward
from

periphery
3 Flow from low pressure to Flow from high pressure to low
high pressure

pressure
4 Flow is decelerated Flow is accelerated

Construction and working of centrifugal PumpComponents:

1. Impeller: A wheel with series of backward curved vanes.

2. Casing: Air tight chamber surrounding the impeller.

3. Suction Pipe: One end is connected in eye and other is dipped in a liquid.

4. Delivery pipe: One end is connected to eye, other to overhead tank.

5. Foot valve: Allow water only in upward direction.

6. Strainer: Prevent the entry of foreign particle/material to the pump

Working of Centrifugal Pump:

When a certain mass of fluid is rotated by an external source, it is thrown away from the centralaxis
of rotation and centrifugal head is impressed which enables it to rise to a higher level.

1. The delivery valve is closed and pump is primed i.e. suction pipe, casing and portion of
delivery pipe up to the delivery valve are completely filled with water so that no air pocket
is left.
2. Keeping the delivery valve is closed the impeller is rotated by motor, strong suction is
created at the eye.
3. Speed enough to pump a liquid when is attained delivery valve is opened. Liquid enter the
impeller vane from the eye, come out to casing.
4. Impeller action develops pressure energy as well as velocity energy.

5. Water is lifted through delivery pipe upto required height.

6. When pump is stopped, delivery valve should be closed to prevent back flow from
reservoir.

Types of casing

1. Volute Casing: Area of flow gradually increases from the eye of impeller to the
delivery pipe. Same as shown in fig of components. Formation of eddies.
 Fig: Vortex casing
Fig: Volute casing
2. Vortex casing: Circular chamber provided between the impeller and volute
chamber.
Loss of energy due to formation of eddies is reduced.

3. Casing with guide blades: Casing impeller is surrounded by a series of guide vanes
mounted on a ring which is known as diffuser. Water enters the impeller without
shock.
 Various head of centrifugal Pump

The heads of a centrifugal pump are as follows:

(1)Suction head (2) delivery head

(3) Static head (4) Monometric head

1. Suction head (hs) : It is vertical distance between level of sump and eye of an impeller. It is
also called suction lift.
2. Delivery head (hd): It is the vertical distance between between eye of an impeller and the
level at which water is delivered.
3. Static head (Hs): It is sum of suction head and delivery head. It is given byHs = (hs+ hd)
4. Manometric head (Hm): The head against which the centrifugal Pump has to work. It is
given by following equations:
(i) Hm = (Head imparted by the impeller to the water) – (Loss of head in the pump
impeller and casing)

𝑉 𝑢
Hm = 𝑤2 2 – (hLi + hLc)
𝑔

Where, hLi= Loss in impellerhlc = Loss in casing

 Inlet and outlet velocity triangles for Centrifugal PumpWork done By Impeller on liquid
1. Liquid enters eye of impeller in radial direction i.e. α = 900, 𝑉𝑤1 = 0, V1=Vf1

2. No energy loss in impeller due to eddy formatting

3. No loss due to shock at entry

4. Velocity distribution in vanes is uniform.Let,

N = Speed of impeller (rpm)

2𝜋𝑛
𝜔 = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = (rad/s)

Tangential velocity of impeller

Losses in Centrifugal Pump

1. Hydraulic losses : Friction loss shock , eddy losses

2. Mechanical losses: Bearing friction, impeller

3. Leakage losses: leakage of liquid

Efficiencies of a Centrifugal Pump

1. Monomeric efficiency (𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑜):

𝐻 𝑔 𝐻𝑚
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑜 =
𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑑 =
𝑚
= 𝑉 𝑉𝑤2𝑢2
𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦
𝑤
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟
2𝑢
2
𝑔

Francis
Turbine,
𝜂

2. Volumetric Efficiency (𝜂𝑣)

𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝

𝜂𝑣 =
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟
 𝑄
=
𝑄+𝑞

Where,

Q = Actual liquid discharged at the pump outlet per second q = Leakage of liquid per
second from impeller

3. Overall efficiency 𝜂𝑜

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝜌𝑔𝑄 Hm

𝜂 = =
𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑃

Turbine
,
𝜂 =

𝜂𝑜 = 𝑕 x 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑜

Performance characteristics of Centrifugal Pump

The following are the important characteristics curves of centrifugal pump.

i. Main characteristics curves

ii. Operating characteristics curves

iii. Constant efficiency curves or Muschel curves

iv. Constant head and constant discharge curves.

1. Main characteristics curves

The main characteristics curves are obtained by keeping the pump at constant speed and
varying the discharge over desired range.
The discharge is varied by means of deliver valve. For different values of discharge the
measurements are taken or calculated for manometric head, shaft power and efficiency These
curve are useful in evaluating the performance of pump at different speeds.
2. Operating characteristics curve

The maximum efficiency occurs when centrifugal pump operates at the constant
designed speed.
If the speed is kept constant, the variation in manometric head power and efficiency with
respect to discharge gives the operating characteristic curves for pump.

3. Constant efficiency curve

The constant efficiency or iso efficiency curve gives the performance of pump over its entire
range of operations.
With the help of data obtained in main characteristic curves the constant efficiency curves
are plotted.

4. Constant head and constant discharge curves

These curves are helpful in determining the performance of variable speed pump. These
curves are plotted as follows.
Selection of Pumps:

Selection of pump is based on the specific speed for the pump.

The specific speed is calculated from the values of discharge (Q) head (H) and speed (N) For low
heads of about 6 m and large discharge, axial flow pumps are used.
 For high heads, radial flow pumps are used.

If it is possible to increase the speed for low specific pump, multistage pump are suitable.
Depending upon type of impeller, the pump is selected for particular operation as follows
i) Shrouded type impeller is used for pumping fresh and clean water.

ii) Unshrouded or propeller type impeller is used for pumping solid-liquid mixture.

iii) Mixed flow impellers with diffusers vanes are used for deep well or submersiblepumps.

5.2- Unit operation of Compressors:

Introduction:
Compression of air and vapor plays an important role in engineering fields. Compression of air is
mostly used since it is easy to transmit air compared with vapor.

Fig.5.2Classification of Air Compressor

Uses of compressed air:

The applications of compressed air are listed below:
1) It is used in gas turbines and propulsion units.
2) It is used in striking type pneumatic tools for concrete breaking, clay or rock drilling, chipping,
caulking, riveting etc.
3) It is used in rotary type pneumatic tools for drilling, grinding, hammering etc.
4) Pneumatic lifts and elevators work by compressed air.
5) It is used for cleaning purposes
6) It is used as an atomizer in paint spray and insecticides spray guns.
7) Pile drivers, extractors, concrete vibrators require compressed air.
8) Air-operated brakes are used in railways and heavy vehicles such as buses and lorries.
9) Sand blasting operation for cleaning of iron castings needs compressed air.
10) It is used for blast furnaces and air-operated chucks.

Working principle of a compressor:

Fig: 5.2 Air Compressor

A line diagram of a compressor unit is shown in fig:5.2 The compression process requires
work input. Hence a compressor is driven by a prime mover. Generally, an electric motor is used as
prime mover. Air from atmosphere enters into the compressor It is compressed to a high pressure.
Then, this high pressure air is delivered to a storage vessel (reservoir). From the reservoir, it can be
conveyed to the desired place through pipe lines.
Some of the energy supplied by the prime mover is absorbed in work done against friction. Some
portion of energy is lost due to radiation and coolant. The rest of the energy is maintained within the
high pressure air delivered.

Classification of compressors:
Air compressors may be classified as follows:
According to design and principle of operation:
(a) Reciprocating compressors in which a piston reciprocates inside the cylinder.
(b) Rotary compressors in which a rotor is rotated. According to number of stages:
(a) Single stage compressors in which compression of air takes place in one cylinder only.
(b) Multi stage compressors in which compression of air takes place in more than one cylinder.
According to pressure limit:
(a) Low pressure compressors in which the final delivery pressure is less than 10 bar,

(b) Medium pressure compressor in which the final delivery pressure is 10 bar to 80 bar and
(c) High pressure compressors in which the final delivery pressure is 80 to 100 bar.
According to capacity:
(a) Low capacity compressor (delivers 0.15m3 /s of compressed air),
(b) Medium capacity compressor (delivers 5m3 /s of compressed air) and
(c) High capacity compressor (delivers more than 5m3 /s of compressed air). According to
method of cooling:
(a) Air cooled compressor (Air is the cooling medium) and
(b) Water cooled compressor (Water is the cooling medium). According to the nature of
installation:
 (a) Portable compressors (can be moved from one place to another).
(b) Semi-fixed compressors and
(c) Fixed compressors (They are permanently installed in one place). According to applications:
(a) Rock drill compressors (used for drilling rocks),
(b) Quarrying compressors (used in quarries),
(c) Sandblasting compressors (used for cleaning of cast iron) and
(d) Spray painting compressors (used for spray painting).
According to number of air cylinders
(a) Simplex - contains one air cylinder
(b) Duplex - contains two air cylinders
(c) Triplex - contains three air cylinders

Reciprocating compressors may be classified as follows:

(a) Single acting compressors in which suction, compression and delivery of air (or gas) take
place on one side of the piston.
(b) Double acting compressors in which suction, compression and delivery of air (or gas) take
place on both sides of the piston.

Single stage reciprocating air compressor:

In a single stage compressor, the compression of air (or gas) takes place in a single
cylinder. A schematic diagram of a single stage, single acting compressor is shown in fig:

Construction: It consists of a piston which reciprocates inside a cylinder. The piston is connected to
the crankshaft by means of a connecting rod and a crank. Thus, the rotary movement of the
crankshaft is converted into the reciprocating motion of the piston. Inlet and outlet valves (suction
and delivery valves) are provided

at the top of the cylinder.

Fig : Single stage reciprocating Air Compressor
 Working: When the piston moves down, the pressure inside the cylinder is reduced. When the cylinder

pressure is reduced below atmospheric pressure, the inlet valve opens. Atmospheric air is drawn into the

cylinder till the piston reaches the bottom dead centre.

The delivery valve remains closed during this period. When the piston moves up, the pressure inside the

cylinder increases. The inlet valve is closed, since the pressure inside the cylinder is above atmospheric.

The pressure of air inside the cylinder is increased steadily. The outlet valve is then opened and the

high pressure air is delivered through the outlet valve in to the delivery pipe line.
At the top dead centre of the piston, a small volume of high pressure air is left in the clearance
space. When the piston moves down again, this air is expanded and pressure reduces, Again the
inlet valve opens and thus the cycle is repeated.

Multi-stage air compressor:

In a multi stage air compressor, compression of air takes place in more than one cylinder.
Multi stage air compressor is used in places where high pressure air is required. Fig. shows the
general arrangement of a two-stage air compressor. It consists of a low pressure (L.P) cylinder, an
intercooler and a high pressure (H.P) cylinder. Both the pistons (in L.P and H.P cylinders) are driven
by a single prime mover through a common shaft.
Atmospheric air at pressure p1 taken into the low pressure cylinder is compressed to a high pressure
(p2). This pressure is intermediate between intake pressure (p1) and delivery pressure p3). Hence this
is known as intermediate pressure.
The air from low pressure cylinder is then passed into an intercooler. In the intercooler, the air
is cooled at constant pressure by circulating cold water. The cooled air from the intercooler is then
taken into the high pressure cylinder. In the high pressure cylinder, air is further compressed to the
final delivery pressure (p3) and supplied to the air receiver tank.

Multistage compressor (Two stage)

 pV diagram of two stage compressor

Advantages:

1. Saving in work input: The air is cooled in an intercooler before entering the high pressure
cylinder. Hence l e s s power is required to drive a multistage compressor as compared to a single
stage compressor for delivering same quantity of air at the same delivery pressure.

2. Better balancing: When the air is sucked in one cylinder, there is compression in the other
cylinder. This provides more uniform torque. Hence size of the flywheel is reduced.

3. No leakage and better lubrication: The pressure and temperature ranges are kept within
desirable limits. This results in a) Minimum air leakage through the piston of the cylinder and b)
effective lubrication due to lower temperature.

4. More volumetric efficiency: For small pressure range, effect of expansion of the remnant air
(high pressure air in the clearance space) is less. Thus by increasing number of stages, volumetric
efficiency is improved.

5. High delivery pressure: The delivery pressure of air is high with reasonable volumetric efficiency.

6. Simple construction of LP cylinder: The maximum pressure in the low pressure cylinder is less.
Hence, low pressure cylinder can be made lighter in construction.

7. Cheaper materials: Lower operating temperature permits the use of cheaper materials for
construction.
Disadvantages:
1. More than one cylinder is required.
2 An intercooler is required. This increases initial cost. Also space required is more.
3. Continuous flow of cooling water is required.
4. Complicated in construction.
Work input required in multistage compressor:

The following assumptions are made for calculating the work input in multistage compression.
1. Pressure during suction and delivery remains constant in each stage.
2. Intercooling takes place at constant pressure in each stage.
3. The compression process is same for each stage.
4. The mass of air handled by LP cylinder and HP cylinder is same.
5. There is no clearance volume in each cylinder.
6 There is no pressure drop between the two stages, i.e., exhaust pressure of one stage is equal
to the suction pressure of the next stage Work required to drive the multi-stage compressor can be
calculated from the area of the p - V diagram . Let, p1,V1 and T1 be the condition of air entering the
LP cylinder.
P2, V2 and T2 be the condition of air entering the HP cylinder.
p3 be the final delivery pressure of air.

Rotary compressors:
Rotary compressors have a rotor to develop pressure. They are classified as
(1) Positive displacement compressors and (2) Non positive displacement (Dynamic)
compressors

In positive displacement compressors, the air is trapped in between two sets of engaging surfaces.
The pressure rise is obtained by the back flow of air (as in the case of Roots blower) or both by
squeezing action and back flow of air (as in the case of vane blower). Example: (1) Roots blower,
(2) Vane blower,
(3) Screw compressor.

In dynamic compressors, there is a continuous steady flow of air. The air is not positively contained
within certain boundaries. Energy is transferred from the rotor of the compressor to the air.
The pressure rise is primarily due to dynamic effects.
Example: (1) Centrifugal compressor, (2) Axial flow compressor.
Roots blower:
The Roots blower is a development of the gear pump.

Construction: It consists of two lobed rotors placed in separate parallel axis of a casing as shown in
fig:. The two rotors are driven by a pair of gears (which are driven by the prime mover) and they
revolve in opposite directions. The lobes of the rotor are of cycloid shape to ensure correct mating. A
small clearance of 0.1 mm to 0.2 mm is provided between the lobe and casing. This reduces the
wear of moving parts.

Working:

When the rotor is driven by the gear, air is trapped between the lobes and the casing. the trapped air
moves along the casing and discharged into the receiver. There is no increase in pressure since the
flow area from entry to exit remains constant. But, when the outlet is opened, there is a

back flow of high pressure air in the receiver. This creates the rise in pressure of the air
delivered. These types of blowers are used in automobiles for supercharging.

Fig: Roots blowe

 Vane blower:

Construction:
A vane blower consists of (1) a rotor, (2) vanes mounted on the rotor, (3) inlet and outlet
ports and (4) casing. The rotor is placed eccentrically in the outer casing. Concentric vanes
(usually 6 to 8 nos.) are mounted on the rotor. The vanes are made of fiber or carbon. Inlet
suction area is greater than outlet
Working:
When the rotor is rotated by the prime mover, air is entrapped between two consecutive
vanes. This air is gradually compressed due to decreasing volume between the rotor and the
outer casing. This air is delivered to the receiver. This partly compressed air is further increased
in pressure due to the back flow of high pressure air from the receiver.
Advantages: 1. Very simple and compact, 2. High efficiency 3. Higher speeds are
possible

Fig: Vane blower

Centrifugal compressor

It consists of an impeller, a casing and a diffuser. The impeller consists of a number of blades
or vanes, is mounted on the compressor shaft inside the casing. The impeller is surrounded by the
casing
Working: In this compressor air enters axially and leaves radially. When the impeller rotates, air
enters axially through the eye of the impeller with a low velocity. This air moves over the
impeller vanes. Then, it flows radially outwards from the impeller.

The velocity and pressure increases in the impeller. The air then enters the diverging passage
known as diffuser. In the diffuser, kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy and the
pressure of the air further increases. It is shown in fig:. Finally, high pressure air is delivered to
the receiver. Generally half of the total pressure rise takes place in the impeller and the other
half in the diffuser.
Applications: Centrifugal compressors are used for low pressure units such as for refrigeration,
supercharging of internal combustion engines, etc.

Axial flow compressor

In this air compressor, air enters and leaves axially.
Construction: It consists of two sets of blades: Rotor blades and stator blades. The blades are
so arranged that the unit consists of adjacent rows of rotor blades and stator blades as shown
in fig: The stator blades are fixed to the casing.

The rotor blades are fixed on the rotating drum. The drum is rotated by a prime mover through a
driving shaft. Single stage compressor consists of a row of rotor blades followed by a row of
stator blades. Compression of air takes place in each pair of blades (one rotor blade and one
stator blade). Hence there are many stages of compression in this type of compressor.

Working: When the switch is switched on, the prime mover rotates the drum. Air enters
through the compressor inlet and passes through the rotor and stator blades. While passing
through the blades, the air is compressed between the blades. The air is also compressed
between the casing and the blades.
The air flow passage area is gradually reduced from the inlet to the outlet of the compressor.
This increases the pressure of the air considerably. Finally, high pressure air is delivered to the
receiver.
 Applications:
1. They are widely used in high pressure units such as industrial and marine gas turbine plants,
2. They are most suitable for aircraft work (Jet propulsion) since they require less frontal area.

Comparison of Reciprocating and Rotary compressors

Reciprocating compressors Rotary compressors

1. It is suitable for low rates of flow.
Flow rate is limited to m³/s
2. It is used for high pressure rise. It It is used for medium pressure rise. The
can compress fluids up to 1000 bar. pressure rise is limited to 10 bar.
3. It cannot be coupled to turbines or It can be directly coupled to turbines or
I.C. engines. high speed internal combustion engines
due to their higher speeds.
4. The flow of air is intermittent. It gives uniform delivery of air.

5. The criterion of thermodynamic The criterion of thermodynamic efficiency

efficiency is isentropic. is isothermal.
6 .Due to lubrication sliding parts it require No sliding parts. Hence needs lesser
more lubrication. It gives clean supply of air.
7. Maintenance cost is high because of Maintenance cost is less.
large number of reciprocating parts.
8. Complicated construction. It has Simple in construction. It has less number
more number of parts. of parts.
9. Torque is not uniform. Uniform torque.

5.3- Extruders:
Extruders are mechanical devices used in various industries to create objects with a
consistent cross-sectional profile. They function by pushing or pulling a material through a
shaped die to produce long objects of a fixed cross-sectional shape.

Construction of Extruders:
1. Hopper: The hopper is the initial entry point where raw material is loaded. It can hold granules,
powders, or other forms of material to be processed.
2. Barrel: The barrel houses a screw or auger, which is responsible for moving and compressing
the material. The barrel often consists of multiple heating and cooling zones to control the
temperature of the material during the extrusion process.
3. Screw or Auger: The screw is a critical component that rotates and pushes the material through
the barrel. It's designed with specific flights and grooves to facilitate the movement,
compression, and mixing of materials.
4. Die: At the end of the barrel, there's a die, which shapes the material into the desired form as it
is pushed through. Dies come in various shapes and sizes depending on the final product
required.
Working:
1. Material Feeding: The process starts by feeding raw material, such as plastic pellets, rubber,
metal, food ingredients, or other substances, into a hopper or a feeding system.
2. Hopper and Screw Mechanism: The material moves from the hopper into a chamber where it
encounters a rotating screw or screws.
3. The screw(s) turn(s) to push the material forward while also generating heat through friction due
to the movement.
4. Heating and Melting: The frictional heat generated by the rotating screw(s) softens or melts the
material. In some cases, additional heating elements may be used along the extruder barrel to
further raise the temperature, especially for materials that require higher temperatures for
processing.
5. Pressure and Extrusion: As the material becomes molten or viscous, it is pushed through a
specifically shaped die at the end of the barrel. The die imparts the desired shape and size to the
material as it exits, forming a continuous profile. The pressure within the extruder is controlled by
the screw speed, barrel temperature, and the design of the die.
6. Cooling and Shaping: Once the material exits the die, it is cooled down using various methods
such as air, water, or specific cooling systems. This cooling process helps the material solidify
and maintain the desired shape.
7. Cutting or Forming: After the material has solidified, it may be cut into specific lengths or further
processed according to the intended use. Some extruders have additional mechanisms for
cutting or shaping the extruded product inline.

Extruders can vary significantly in design and functionality based on the material being
processed and the desired end product. They are widely used in industries such as plastics
manufacturing, food processing, pharmaceuticals, construction, and more, to create products
ranging from pipes, tubes, and sheets to various food items, filaments for 3D printing, and
beyond.

Operational Features:
1. Temperature Control: Extruders often have multiple heating and cooling zones along the barrel
to control the temperature precisely. Different materials require specific temperature profiles for
efficient extrusion.
2. Screw Speed Control: The speed of the screw or auger can be adjusted to regulate the rate of
material flow and the pressure inside the barrel.
3. Die Design: Dies can be changed to produce different shapes or sizes of the extruded product.
4. Pressure Control: Monitoring and controlling the pressure inside the barrel is crucial for
consistent and efficient extrusion.
5. Material Handling: Extruders are versatile and can process a wide range of materials, including
plastics, metals, food products, and more.
6. Automation: Modern extruders often incorporate automation and computer control systems for
precise operation and monitoring, enhancing efficiency and quality control.

Extruders play a vital role in manufacturing various products across industries, from plastic pipes
and sheets to food products like pasta and snacks, by offering a reliable and efficient method of
shaping materials into specific forms.

5.4- Blowers:

Construction:
Blowers are devices used to move air or gas by creating a flow through a mechanical
arrangement. They are commonly found in various applications such as HVAC systems,
industrial processes, pneumatic conveying, and more. The construction of blowers can vary
based on their intended use, but here are the basic components and construction features
typically found in blowers:

1. Housing or Casing: The outer shell of the blower is usually made from metal, plastic, or other
durable materials. This housing encloses and supports the internal components while providing
protection and structural integrity.
2. Impeller or Rotor: This is the rotating component within the blower responsible for generating
airflow. Impellers are typically composed of blades or vanes arranged around a central shaft.
The shape, size, and arrangement of the blades can vary depending on the blower type
(centrifugal, axial, etc.) and the desired airflow characteristics.
3. Shaft and Bearings: The impeller is connected to a shaft that transfers the rotational motion
from the motor or drive system to the impeller. Bearings are used to support the shaft, ensuring
smooth rotation while minimizing friction and wear.
4. Motor or Drive System: Blow motors can be electrically driven, powered by engines, or
connected to other drive systems depending on the application. The motor provides the
necessary power to rotate the impeller and generate airflow.
5. Inlet and Outlet Ports: Blowers have openings or ports for air intake (inlet) and air discharge
(outlet). These ports are strategically designed to optimize airflow efficiency and minimize
resistance during operation.
6. Sealing and Insulation: In certain applications, blowers may require specialized sealing to
prevent air leakage and insulation to minimize noise or maintain specific temperature conditions.
7. Controls and Accessories: Some blowers come equipped with control mechanisms such as
variable speed drives or dampers to regulate airflow. Additionally, filters, silencers, and other
accessories may be included to enhance performance or meet specific requirements.

The construction of blowers can vary significantly based on factors like intended use,
capacity, pressure requirements, and environmental conditions. Manufacturers often design
blowers with specific materials, configurations, and features tailored to meet the demands of
various industries and applications. Regular maintenance and proper operation are essential to
ensure optimal performance and longevity of blowers.

Working Principle:
The working principle of a blower involves creating airflow by utilizing an impeller that
rotates within a housing. There are different types of blowers, such as centrifugal blowers and
axial flow blowers, each operating based on distinct principles.

Centrifugal Blowers:
1. Air Intake: Air enters the blower through an inlet port, and it's directed towards the center of the
impeller.
2. Impeller Rotation: The impeller, typically equipped with blades or vanes, rotates at high speeds
within the housing. As the impeller spins, centrifugal force is generated, causing the air to move
radially outward.
3. Acceleration and Pressure Build-Up: The centrifugal force created by the rotating impeller
accelerates the air outward, causing an increase in air velocity and pressure.
4. Discharge: The high-speed, high-pressure air is then discharged through an outlet port located
on the periphery of the housing. The discharged air can be used for various purposes, such as
ventilation, cooling, or pneumatic conveyance.

Axial Flow Blowers:

1. Airflow Direction: In axial flow blowers, air flows parallel to the axis of rotation of the impeller.
2. Impeller Rotation: The impeller of an axial flow blower typically consists of axial blades that
rotate and propel air in the same direction as the axis of the impeller.
3. Air Movement and Pressure Increase: As the impeller rotates, it pushes air in a linear
direction, creating airflow and increasing pressure along the blower's pathway.
4. Discharge: The air exits the blower through an outlet port in a continuous axial flow.

Common Aspects:
 Both types of blowers rely on the rotation of an impeller to create airflow and generate pressure.
 The impeller design, speed, and housing configuration play crucial roles in determining the
volume, pressure, and efficiency of the generated airflow.
 Control mechanisms, such as adjustable inlet guide vanes or variable speed drives, can regulate
the airflow output of the blower based on specific requirements.

Blowers are utilized in various industries for applications ranging from HVAC systems, industrial
processes, aeration, pneumatic conveying, and more, providing efficient air movement and
pressure to meet different operational needs.

Operational Features:
The operational features of blowers are critical for their effective functioning in various
applications. These features encompass aspects related to performance, control, efficiency, and
safety. Here are key operational features of blowers:

1. Airflow Capacity: The blower's capacity to move air is a fundamental operational feature. It's
measured in terms of cubic feet per minute (CFM) or cubic meters per hour (m³/h) and
determines the volume of air the blower can handle within a specific time frame.
2. Pressure Generation: Blowers produce air pressure, measured in inches of water gauge
(inWG) or pascals (Pa). Different applications require varying levels of pressure to meet specific
operational needs, whether it's for ventilation, pneumatic conveyance, or other processes.
3. Efficiency: Efficiency is crucial for minimizing energy consumption and maximizing performance.
Well-designed blowers with optimized impeller shapes, motor efficiency, and streamlined airflow
paths can achieve higher efficiency, reducing operational costs.
4. Variable Speed Control: Some blowers feature variable speed drives or control mechanisms
that allow operators to adjust the blower's speed and output. This capability helps in matching
airflow and pressure requirements more precisely, leading to energy savings and enhanced
flexibility in diverse operating conditions.
5. Noise Reduction: Noise levels can impact the environment and safety within a facility. Blowers
equipped with noise-reducing features such as sound-insulating materials, silencers, or vibration
dampeners help maintain a quieter working environment.
6. Heat Dissipation and Cooling: For blowers operating continuously or in high-demand
applications, effective cooling systems prevent overheating and ensure optimal performance and
longevity of the equipment.
7. Durability and Maintenance: Robust construction using quality materials and components
contributes to the blower's durability. Additionally, easy access to components for routine
maintenance or repairs helps in ensuring minimal downtime.
8. Safety Features: Safety mechanisms such as overload protection, emergency shut-off systems,
and guards protect both the equipment and personnel operating around the blower.
9. Environmental Considerations: Some blowers are designed to meet specific environmental
standards or regulations, incorporating features that reduce emissions, improve energy
efficiency, or use eco-friendly materials.
10. Remote Monitoring and Control: Advanced blowers may have systems enabling remote
monitoring and control, allowing operators to adjust settings or diagnose issues from a distance,
enhancing operational efficiency and troubleshooting capabilities.

5.5- Centrifuges:
Centrifuges are devices used to separate particles from a solution according to their
size, shape, density, viscosity, and other properties using centrifugal force. They are widely used
in various industries such as pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, food and beverage, oil and gas,
and research laboratories.

The basic construction of a centrifuge typically includes several key components:

1. Rotor: The rotor is the central part of the centrifuge where samples or containers holding the
mixture to be separated are placed. It spins at high speeds, creating the centrifugal force
necessary for separation. Rotors come in various shapes and sizes depending on the specific
application.
2. Drive Mechanism: Centrifuges have a motor that provides the rotational energy needed to spin
the rotor at high speeds. This can be an electric motor or in some cases, more specialized
systems such as air-driven or ultracentrifuges that use high-pressure gases or specialized drives
for higher speeds.
3. Safety Features: Centrifuges often include safety features such as lid locks and interlocks to
prevent the lid from opening while the rotor is spinning. This ensures the safety of the user and
prevents accidents.
4. Control Panel: Modern centrifuges typically have digital control panels where users can set
parameters such as speed, time, and temperature (if applicable) for the separation process.
5. Cooling Systems (optional): Some centrifuges, especially those used for sensitive biological
samples, may have cooling systems to maintain lower temperatures during operation and
prevent sample degradation.
6. Outer Casing: The outer casing of a centrifuge encloses the internal components and provides
structural support. It's often made of durable materials to ensure stability and safety during
operation.

Centrifuges can be classified into various types based on their design and application, such as:

 Ultracentrifuges: These are high-speed centrifuges capable of reaching speeds of up to

100,000 revolutions per minute (RPM) or more. They are used for separating very small particles
and biomolecules.
 Refrigerated Centrifuges: Equipped with cooling systems, these centrifuges are used for
temperature-sensitive samples, maintaining low temperatures during centrifugation.
 Micro centrifuges: Designed for smaller volumes and typically used in molecular biology,
microbiology, and clinical laboratories for smaller sample sizes.

The construction of a centrifuge involves precision engineering to ensure balance, stability, and
safety during operation. Different centrifuges are designed for various purposes and capacities,
each tailored to meet specific separation needs across different industries and scientific
disciplines.

Sedimentation Centrifuges
These have solid walls and separation is by sedimentation. The feed enters a solid –
walled bowl rotating about a vertical axis.. The solid and liquid phases are acted upon by
centrifugal force and gravity.

Fig. Filteration Centrifuge

Filteration Centrifuge
These machines have perforated walls which retain the solids on a permeable surface
and through which the liquid can escape. The action is similar to a filter but with much higher g
force than possible in gravity or pressure filtration. The centrifugal force obtained in industrial
machines is several times the force of gravity. For a particle rotating with an angular velocity w at
radius r from the axis of rotation, the centrifugal separating effect is given by G= WR/g. Filtration
centrifuges are also of three types: Batch, automatic batch and fully continuous.

Centrifuge selection
1. The machines‟ ability to process the given feed slurry or emulsion at the desired
degree of separation

2. Reliability of the machine

3. Operating and maintenance requirements
4. Investment

The selection of centrifuge involves a balance between several factors:

The instrument engineer should concentrate on two aspects of the process centrifuge
installations.

Feed slurry control – regulation of feed slurry at the correct continuous rate or the right batcg
size is of utmost importance, since the machine cannot usually tolerate major variations in feed
rate or composition. Control of wash liquor feed is equally important.
Sequencing operations

All batch machines are sequentially operated, and the related interlock design is one of the
important steps in engineering a system.

A fully continuous solid bowl sedimentation centrifuge is ised in petrochemical processing,

polymerization and waste treatment systems.

The slurry is introduced in the revolving bowl of the machine through a stationary feed
tube at the center. It is acted upon by a centrifugal force and the solids are thrown against the
wall. Inside the rotating bowl is a screw conveyor with a slight speed differential with respect to
the bowl rotation and it moves the solids up the beach and out of the liquid layer. It is important
that a reasonably uniform slurry be supplied to the machine. For this purpose, a circulating pump
with a recycle line is usually installed to keep the slurry in motion and thus preventing settling out
of crystals in the tank or in the pipelines.
Figure.6 solid bowl sedimentation centrifuge

5.6 - Unit Operations and Control schemes applied to Thermal Power Plant:

Introduction:
Thermal power plants play a pivotal role in generating electricity by converting
thermal energy into electrical energy. These plants rely on Unit Operations and Control
schemes to efficiently produce power while adhering to safety, environmental, and
operational standards. Various Unit Operations and Control strategies are implemented
throughout the different stages of power generation.
Control schemes in thermal power plants often incorporate sophisticated instrumentation,
automation, and control systems such as Distributed Control Systems (DCS) or Plant
Automation Systems (PAS). These systems use real-time data monitoring, predictive analytics,
and advanced control algorithms to optimize plant operations, increase efficiency, reduce
emissions, and ensure safety and regulatory compliance. Additionally, modern thermal power
plants increasingly integrate digital technologies like IoT sensors, AI-based predictive
maintenance, and remote monitoring to enhance performance and minimize downtime.

 Steam is an important medium for producing mechanical energy. Steam is usedto drive
steam engines and steam turbines.
 Steam has the following advantages.
 Steam can be raised quickly from water which is available in plenty.
 It does not react with materials of the equipment used in power plants.
 It is stable at temperatures required in the plant.

Equipment of a Steam Power Plant:

A steam power plant must have the following equipment.
1. A furnace for burning the fuel.
2. A steam generator or boiler for steam generation.
3. A power unit like a turbine to convert heat energy into mechanical energy.
4. A generator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
5. Piping system to carry steam and water.
 Operation of Thermal power plant:
The working of a steam power plant can be explained in four circuits.
1. Fuel (coal) and ash circuit
2. Air and flue gas circuit
3. Feed water and steam flow circuit
4. Cooling water flow circuit

Coal and Ash circuit:

 The fuel and ash circuit includes coal delivery, preparation, coal handling, boiler furnace,
ash handling and ash storage.

 The coal from coal mines is delivered by ships, rail or by trucks to the power
station and unloaded the transporting vehicle. This process is called as Coal
delivery and unloading
 This coal is by crushers or breakers so this process is called as coal
sized
preparation.
 The sized coal is then stored in coal storage (stock yard).
 From the stock yard, the coal is transferred to the boiler conveyors, elevators
etc.
 The coal is burnt in the boiler furnace and ash is formed by burning of coal.

It consists of feed pump, economizer, boiler drum, super heater,

condenser,etc

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Feed pump is used for passing the refined feed water is pumped to theeconomizer.
 This water is preheated by the flue gases in the economizer.
 This preheated water is then supplied to the boiler drum.
 Heat is transferred to the water by burning of coal and then water is convertedinto steam.
 The steam raised in boiler is passed through a super heater.
 It is superheated by the flue gases and then superheated steam is forced to rotate a turbine to do
work.

 The turbine drives a coupled generator to produce electric power.

The expanded (exhaust) steam is then passed through In the condenser, the steam is condensed into
water and re-circulated

Air and Flue gas circuit:

 It consists of forced draught fan, air pre heater, boiler furnace, super heater,
 economizer, dust collector, induced draught fan, chimney etc.
Air is taken from the atmosphere by the action of a forced draught fan(F.D fan).
 It is passed through an air pre-heater and this air is pre-heated by the flue gases in the pre-

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 heater.

 This pre-heated air is supplied to the furnace to help the combustion of fuel.
 Due to combustion of fuel, hot gases (flue gases) are formed.

The flue gases from the furnace pass over boiler tubes and super heater tubes.
Then the flue gases pass through economizer to heat the feed water.
 After that, it passes through the air pre-heater to pre-heat the incoming air.
 It is then passed through a dust catching device (dust collector) for removing
 the ashes involved in the air.
 Finally, it is exhausted to the atmosphere through chimney.

Cooling water circuit:

 The circuit includes a pump, condenser and cooling tower.
 The exhaust steam from the turbine is condensed in condenser.
 In the condenser, cold water is circulated to condense the steam into water.
 The steam is condensed by losing its latent heat to the circulating cold water.
 Thus the circulating water is heated and this hot water is taken to a cooling
 tower.
 In cooling tower, the water is sprayed in the form of droplets through nozzles.
 The atmospheric air enters the cooling tower from the openings provided at the
 bottom of the tower.
 This air removes heat from hot water.
 Cooled water is collected in a pond and this water is again circulated through the
 pump, condenser and cooling tower.
 Thus the cycle is repeated again and again

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5.7 - Unit Operations and Control schemes applied to Paper and Pulp Industry:

Introduction:
The Paper and Pulp Industry relies heavily on Unit Operations and Control schemes to efficiently
convert raw materials into high-quality paper products. Unit Operations refer to individual processes or
stages involved in the production, while Control schemes are implemented to optimize these operations
and ensure consistent product quality.
Control schemes applied to these Unit Operations often integrate automation, real-time
monitoring, and data analysis through advanced control systems (e.g., Distributed Control Systems or
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) to enhance efficiency, reduce waste, and ensure product
quality. Moreover, advancements in Industry 4.0 technologies, such as IoT sensors, AI-driven analytics,
and machine learning, are increasingly being utilized to optimize operations and predict maintenance
needs in the Paper and Pulp Industry.

The pulp and paper industry is very diversified, using many types of raw materials to produce very
different kinds of paper by different methods in mills of all sizes. Pulp and paper are manufactured from
raw materials containing cellulose fibers, generally wood, recycled paper, and agricultural residues.

In developing countries, about 60% of cellulose fibers originate from non-wood raw materials such as
bagasse (sugarcane fibers), cereal straw, bamboo, reeds, esparto grass, jute, flax, and sisal (Gullichsen,
2000). The paper manufacturing process has several stages: raw material preparation and handling, pulp
manufacturing, pulp washing and screening, chemical recovery, bleaching, stock preparation, and
papermaking,

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 Paper production is basically a two-step process in which a fibrous raw material is first converted into
pulp, and then the pulp is converted into paper.

The harvested wood is first processed so that the fibers are separated from the unusable fraction of the
wood, the lignin. Pulp making can be done mechanically or chemically.

The pulp is then bleached and further processed, depending on the type and grade of paper that is to be
produced. In the paper factory, the pulp is dried and pressed to produce paper sheets.

Post use, an increasing fraction of paper and paper products is recycled. Non Recycled paper is either
landfilled or incinerated. Pulp mills and paper mills may exist separately or as integrated operations.

The paper and pulp industry is a multifaceted sector that involves the transformation of raw materials,
primarily wood, into various paper products widely used in everyday life. Here's a comprehensive
overview of its working principle:

Raw Material Procurement The process begins with the procurement of raw materials, usually wood
obtained from trees. These trees, predominantly softwood species like pine or hardwood species like
birch, are harvested from managed forests or plantations. Sustainable forestry practices aim to maintain
ecological balance by replanting trees to replace those harvested.

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 Wood Preparation Once harvested, the logs undergo several preparatory steps at the pulp mill. These
steps involve debarking, where the outer bark is removed, and chipping, where the logs are cut into
small, uniform chips or pieces. This preparation is essential for the subsequent pulping process.

Pulping Methods There are primarily two methods of pulp production: mechanical and chemical pulping.

 Mechanical Pulping This process involves mechanically grinding or refining the wood chips against a
stone or metal surface to separate the wood fibers. The method retains a higher percentage of the
wood's cellulose fibers but can result in shorter and weaker fibers, leading to lower-quality paper.
 Chemical Pulping Contrarily, chemical pulping involves using chemical agents, typically a mixture of
sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and sodium sulfide, to break down lignin, the natural adhesive that binds
wood fibers. The process dissolves lignin, separating the fibers and resulting in a stronger and higher-
quality pulp.

Bleaching Process (Optional): After pulping, the pulp may undergo a bleaching process. Bleaching
aims to remove any remaining lignin and other impurities from the pulp. This process can involve various
chemicals or environmentally friendly alternatives like oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, or ozone to achieve
the desired brightness and purity of the pulp.

Papermaking: The prepared pulp, either mechanically or chemically produced, is mixed with water to
create a pulp slurry. This slurry is then fed onto a continuously moving mesh screen or conveyor belt,
where water drains away, and the fibers begin to bond and form a sheet of paper. The process involves
pressing the sheet to remove excess water and further drying it through a series of heated rollers or
drying cylinders to solidify the paper.

Finishing Processes: Once the paper sheet is formed and dried, it may undergo additional treatments to
meet specific requirements. These treatments can include coating the paper for added strength or gloss,
calendaring to smoothen the surface, or cutting and trimming the paper into specific sizes and shapes.

Packaging and Distribution The finished paper products are then packaged according to customer
specifications. These products can range from various types of paper, such as newsprint, office paper,
packaging materials, and specialty papers. Once packaged, these products are distributed to various
markets for use in printing, packaging, writing, and other industries.

Sustainability and Environmental Concerns: Efforts within the paper and pulp industry often focus on
sustainable practices and environmental responsibility. Many companies prioritize responsible forestry

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practices, recycling of paper waste, reducing water consumption, and implementing energy-efficient
technologies to minimize their environmental footprint.

Fig- Paper and Pulp Industry Block Diagram

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