MODULE 1: Philosophical Perspectives in

Education
Philosophy begins with wonder -Socrates

Overview

Philosophy means "love of wisdom." It is made up of two

Greek words, philo, meaning love, and sophos, meaning wisdom.
Philosophy helps teachers to reflect on key issues and concepts in
education, usually through such questions as: What is being
educated? What is the good life? What is knowledge? What is the
nature of learning? And What is teaching? Philosophers think about
the meaning of things and interpretation of that meaning. Even
simple statements, such as "What should be learned? Or What is adolescence?" set up
raging debates that can have major implications. For example, what happens if an
adolescent commits a serious crime? One interpretation may hide another. If such a
young person is treated as an adult criminal, what does it say about justice, childhood,
and the like? Or if the adolescent is treated as a child, what does it say about society's
views on crime?

Your educational philosophy is your beliefs about why, what and how you teach,
whom you teach, and about the nature of learning. It is a set of principles that guides
professional action through the events and issues teachers face daily. Sources for your
educational philosophy are your life experiences, your values, the environment in which
you live, interactions with others and awareness of philosophical approaches. Learning
about the branches of philosophy, philosophical world views, and different educational
philosophies and theories will help you to determine and shape your own educational
philosophy, combined with these other aspects.

When you examine a philosophy different from your own, it helps you to
"wrestle" with your own thinking. Sometimes this means you may change your mind.
Other times, it may strengthen your viewpoint; or, you may be eclectic, selecting what
seems best from different philosophies. But in eclecticism, there is a danger of sloppy
and inconsistent thinking, especially if you borrow a bit of one philosophy and stir in
some of another. If serious thought has gone into selection of strategies, theories, or
philosophies, this is less problematic. For example, you may determine that you have
to vary your approach depending on the particular learning needs and styles of a given
student. At various time periods, one philosophical framework may become favored
over another. For example, the Progressive movement led to quite different approaches
in education in the 1930s. But there is always danger in one "best or only" philosophy.
In a pluralistic society, a variety of views are needed.

Topic 1: Branches of Philosophy

There are three major branches of philosophy. Each branch focuses

on a different aspect and is central to your teaching. The three
branches and their sub-branches are:

Branch Metaphysics: What is the Epistemology: What is the Axiology: What

nature of reality? nature of knowledge? How do values should one
we come to know? live by?

Educational –Do you think human –How would an anthropologist –Is morality
Examples beings are basically good look at this classroom? A defined by our
or evil? political scientist? A biologist? actions, or by
–What are conservative or –How do we know what a child what is in our
liberal beliefs? knows? hearts? –What
values should be
taught in
character
education?
Subbranches –Ontology Knowing based on: –Ethics
What issues are related to –Scientific Inquiry What is good and
nature, existence, or –Senses and Feelings evil, right and
being? Is a child –From authority or divinity wrong?
inherently evil or good? –Empiricism (experience) Is it ever right to
How might your view –Intuition take something
determine your classroom –Reasoning or Logic that does not
management? What reasoning processes belong to you? –
–Cosmology yield valid conclusions? – Aesthetics
What is the nature and Deductive: reasoning from the What is beautiful?
origin of the cosmos or general to the particular All How do we
universe? Is the world and children can learn. Bret is a recognize a great
universe orderly or is it fifth grader. He has a learning piece of music?
marked by chaos? What disability. Can Bret learn? Art?
would one or the other –Inductive: reasoning Can there be
mean for a classroom?

from the specific to the general. beauty in

After experimenting with plant destruction?
growth under varied conditions,
stu-dents conclude plants need
water and light
Think about it: (Task 1)
 (Put your answers on a separate word document (.doc/.docx) file and send it to_____________. – filename:
Module1-Tasks1to5-YourSurname)

1. Why might the study of philosophy be particularly important to

educators?

2. Which branch or branches of philosophy would you want to emphasize in your

classroom? Why?

3. Do you learn better deductively or inductively? Why do you think?

4. Can you think of other school-based examples for each of the branches and sub
branches? Explain.

Topic 2: Four General or World Philosophies

The term metaphysics literally means

"beyond the physical." This area of philosophy
focuses on the nature of reality. Metaphysics
attempts to find unity across the domains of experience and thought.
At the metaphysical level, there are four* broad philosophical
schools of thought that apply to education today. They are idealism,
realism, pragmatism (sometimes called experientialism), and
existentialism. Each will be explained shortly. These four general frameworks provide
the root
or base from which the various educational philosophies are derived.
* A fifth metaphysical school of thought, called Scholasticism, is largely applied in Roman Catholic schools in the
educational philosophy called "Thomism." It combines idealist and realist philosophies in a framework that
harmonized the ideas of Aristotle, the realist, with idealist notions of truth. Thomas Aquinas, 1255-127, was the
theologian who wrote "Summa Theologica," formalizing church doctrine. The Scholasticism movement encouraged
the logical and philosophical study of the beliefs of the church, legitimizing scientific inquiry within a religious
framework.

Two of these general or world philosophies, idealism and realism, are derived
from the ancient Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle. Two are more contemporary,
pragmatism and existentialism. However, educators who share one of these distinct
sets of beliefs about the nature of reality presently apply each of these world
philosophies in successful classrooms. Let us explore each of these metaphysical
schools of thought.
Idealism
Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its central tenet that ideas are
the only true reality, the only thing worth knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and
justice that is enduring and everlasting, the focus is on conscious reasoning in the mind.
Plato, father of Idealism, espoused this view about 400 years BC, in his famous book,
The Republic. Plato believed that there are two worlds. The first is the spiritual or mental
world, which is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular, and universal. There is also the
world of appearance, the world experienced through sight, touch, smell, taste, and
sound, that is changing, imperfect, and disorderly. This division is often referred to as
the duality of mind and body. Reacting against what he perceived as too much of a
focus on the immediacy of the physical and sensory world, Plato described a utopian
society in which "education to body and soul all the beauty and perfection of which
they are capable" as an ideal. In his allegory of the cave, the shadows of the sensory
world must be overcome with the light of reason or universal truth. To understand truth,
one must pursue knowledge and identify with the Absolute Mind. Plato also believed
that the soul is fully formed prior to birth and is perfect and at one with the Universal
Being. The birth process checks this perfection, so education requires bringing latent
ideas (fully formed concepts) to consciousness.

In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's

abilities and full moral excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular
emphasis is subject matter of mind: literature, history, philosophy, and religion.
Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through lecture, discussion, and Socratic
dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help students discover and
clarify knowledge). Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic are used to
bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. Character is
developed through imitating examples and heroes.

Realism
Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. The
ultimate reality is the world of physical objects. The focus is on the body/objects. Truth
is objective-what can be observed. Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his
mentor's idealist philosophy, is called the father of both Realism and the scientific
method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to understand objective reality through
"the diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all observable data." Aristotle believed that to
understand an object, its ultimate form had to be understood, which does not change.
For example, a rose exists whether or not a person is aware of it. A rose can exist in the
mind without being physically present, but ultimately, the rose shares properties with
all other roses and flowers (its form), although one rose may be red and another peach
colored. Aristotle also was the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order to be
able to reason about physical events and aspects. The exercise of rational thought is
viewed as the ultimate purpose for humankind. The Realist curriculum emphasizes the
subject matter of the physical world, particularly science and mathematics. The teacher
organizes and presents content systematically within a discipline, demonstrating use of
criteria in making decisions. Teaching methods focus on mastery of facts and basic
skills through demonstration and recitation. Students must also demonstrate the ability
to think critically and scientifically, using observation and experimentation. Curriculum
should be scientifically approached, standardized, and distinct-discipline based.
Character is developed through training in the rules of conduct.

Pragmatism (Experientialism)
For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. In
this late 19th century American philosophy, the focus is on the reality of experience.
Unlike the Realists and Rationalists, Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly
changing and that we learn best through applying our experiences and thoughts to
problems, as they arise. The universe is dynamic and evolving, a "becoming" view of
the world. There is no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth is what works.
Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who
believed that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to
indecisiveness.

John Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive

approaches. He believed that learners must adapt to each other and to their environment.
Schools should emphasize the subject matter of social experience. All learning is
dependent on the context of place, time, and circumstance. Different cultural and ethnic
groups learn to work cooperatively and contribute to a democratic society. The ultimate
purpose is the creation of a new social order. Character development is based on making
group decisions in light of consequences.

For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting,

and projects, often having students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the
disciplines together to focus on solving problems in an interdisciplinary way. Rather
than passing down organized bodies of knowledge to new learners, Pragmatists believe
that learners should apply their knowledge to real situations through experimental
inquiry. This prepares students for citizenship, daily living, and future careers.

Existentialism
The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the
individual. The physical world has no inherent meaning outside of human existence.
Individual choice and individual standards rather than external standards are central.
Existence comes before any definition of what we are. We define ourselves in
relationship to that existence by the choices we make. We should not accept anyone
else's predetermined philosophical system; rather, we must take responsibility for
deciding who we are. The focus is on freedom, the development of authentic
individuals, as we make meaning of our lives.

There are several different orientations within the existentialist philosophy.

Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a Danish minister and philosopher, is considered to be
the founder of existentialism. His was a Christian orientation. Another group of
existentialists, largely European, believes that we must recognize the finiteness of our
lives on this small and fragile planet, rather than believing in salvation through God.
Our existence is not guaranteed in an after life, so there is tension about life and the
certainty of death, of hope or despair. Unlike the more austere European approaches
where the universe is seen as meaningless when faced with the certainty of the end of
existence, American existentialists have focused more on human potential and the quest
for personal meaning. Values clarification is an outgrowth of this movement. Following
the bleak period of World War II, the French philosopher, Jean Paul Sartre, suggested
that for youth, the existential moment arises when young persons realize for the first
time that choice is theirs, that they are responsible for themselves. Their question
becomes "Who am I and what should I do?

Related to education, the subject matter of existentialist classrooms should be a

matter of personal choice. Teachers view the individual as an entity within a social
context in which the learner must confront others' views to clarify his or her own.
Character development emphasizes individual responsibility for decisions. Real
answers come from within the individual, not from outside authority. Examining life
through authentic thinking involves students in genuine learning experiences.
Existentialists are opposed to thinking about students as objects to be measured, tracked,
or standardized. Such educators want the educational experience to focus on creating
opportunities for self-direction and self actualization. They start with the student, rather
than on curriculum content.

Think about it: (Task 2)

(Put your answers on a separate word document (.doc/.docx) file and send it to _____________. – filename:
Module1-Tasks1to5-YourSurname)

1. Which general or world view philosophy best fits with your own views of
reality? Why?
 2. What have you learned from the history of education that is related to these
metaphysical philosophies? Discuss.

3. It is said that an image is worth a thousand words. What might be your image
metaphor for each of these world or metaphysical philosophies? Explain.

Topic 3: Educational Philosophies

Within the epistemological frame that focuses on the nature of knowledge

and how we come to know, there are four major educational philosophies, each
related to one or more of the general or world philosophies just discussed. These
educational philosophical approaches are currently used in classrooms the world
over. They are Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, and
Reconstructionism. These educational philosophies focus heavily on WHAT we
should teach, the curriculum aspect.

Perennialism
For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire
understandings about the great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have
the potential for solving problems in any era. The focus is to teach ideas that are
everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not changing, as the
natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change. Teaching
these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational beings, and their
minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest
priority in a worthwhile education. The demanding curriculum focuses on
attaining cultural literacy, stressing students' growth in enduring disciplines. The
loftiest accomplishments of humankind are emphasized– the great works of
literature and art, the laws or principles of science. Advocates of this educational
philosophy are Robert Maynard Hutchins who developed a Great Books program
in 1963 and Mortimer Adler, who further developed this curriculum based on
100 great books of western civilization.

Essentialism
Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs
to be transmitted to students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in
this conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that schools
should teach. The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and
academic rigor. Although this educational philosophy is similar in some ways to
Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core curriculum may change.
Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable members
of society. It should focus on facts-the objective reality out there--and "the
basics," training students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and logically.
Schools should not try to set or influence policies. Students should be taught hard
work, respect for authority, and discipline. Teachers are to help students keep
their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness. This
approach was in reaction to progressivist approaches prevalent in the 1920s and
30s. William Bagley, took progressivist approaches to task in the journal he
formed in 1934. Other proponents of Essentialism are: James D. Koerner (1959),
H. G. Rickover (1959), Paul Copperman (1978), and Theodore Sizer (1985).

Progressivism
Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child,
rather than on the content or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses
that students should test ideas by active experimentation. Learning is rooted in
the questions of learners that arise through experiencing the world. It is active,
not passive. The learner is a problem solver and thinker who makes meaning
through his or her individual experience in the physical and cultural context.
Effective teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by doing.
Curriculum content is derived from student interests and questions. The scientific
method is used by progressivist educators so that students can study matter and
events systematically and first hand. The emphasis is on process-how one comes
to know. The Progressive education philosophy was established in America from
the mid 1920s through the mid 1950s. John Dewey was its foremost proponent.
One of his tenets was that the school should improve the way of life of our
citizens through experiencing freedom and democracy in schools. Shared
decision making, planning of teachers with students, student-selected topics are
all aspects. Books are tools, rather than authority.

Reconstructionism/Critical Theory
Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing
of social questions and a quest to create a better society and worldwide
democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that highlights
social reform as the aim of education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) was the
founder of social reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World
War II. He recognized the potential for either human annihilation through
technology and human cruelty or the capacity to create a beneficent society using
technology and human compassion. George Counts (1889-1974) recognized that
education was the means of preparing people for creating this new social order.
 Critical theorists, like social reconstructionists, believe that systems must
be changed to overcome oppression and improve human conditions. Paulo Freire
(1921-1997) was a Brazilian whose experiences living in poverty led him to
champion education and literacy as the vehicle for social change. In his view,
humans must learn to resist oppression and not become its victims, nor oppress
others. To do so requires dialog and critical consciousness, the development of
awareness to overcome domination and oppression. Rather than "teaching as
banking," in which the educator deposits information into students' heads, Freire
saw teaching and learning as a process of inquiry in which the child must invent
and reinvent the world.

For social reconstructionists and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on

student experience and taking social action on real problems, such as violence,
hunger, international terrorism, inflation, and inequality. Strategies for dealing
with controversial issues (particularly in social studies and literature), inquiry,
dialogue, and multiple perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning and
bringing the world into the classroom are also strategies.

• Think about it: (Task 3)

• (Put your answers on a separate word document (.doc/.docx) file and send it to _____________. –
filename: Module1-Tasks1to5-YourSurname)

1. Which of these educational philosophies would you describe as

authoritarian? Which as non-authoritarian? Why?
2. Each of the educational philosophies relates to one or more of the
metaphysical world view philosophies. What connections do you see?
3. Which educational philosophy is most compatible with your beliefs? Why?

topic 4: Related Theories of Learning (Psychological

Orientations)

Related to both the metaphysical worldview philosophies and

the educational philosophies are theories of learning that focus on
how learning occurs, the psychological orientations. They
provide structures for the instructional aspects of teaching, suggesting methods
that are related to their perspective on learning. These theoretical beliefs about
learning are also at the epistemic level of philosophy, as they are concerned with
the nature of learning. Each psychological orientation is most directly related to
a particular educational philosophy, but may have other influences as well. The
first two theoretical approaches can be thought of as transmissive, in that
information is given to learners. The second two approaches are constructivist,
in that the learner has to make meaning from experiences in the world.
Information Processing
Information Processing theorists focus on the mind and how it works to
explain how learning occurs. The focus is on the processing of a relatively
fixed body of knowledge and how it is attended to, received in the mind,
processed, stored, and retrieved from memory. This model is derived from
analogies between how the brain works and computer processing. Information
processing theorists focus on the individual rather than the social aspects of
thinking and learning. The mind is a symbolic processor that stores information
in schemas or hierarchically arranged structures.

Knowledge may be general, applicable to many situations; for example,

knowing how to type or spell. Other knowledge is domain specific, applicable to
a specific subject or task, such as vowel sounds in Spanish. Knowledge is also
declarative (content, or knowing that; for example, schools have students,
teachers, and administrators), procedural (knowing how to do things—the steps
or strategies; for example, to multiply mixed number, change both sides to
improper fractions, then multiply numerators and denominators), or conditional
(knowing when and why to apply the other two types of knowledge; for example,
when taking a standardized multiple choice test, keep track of time, be strategic,
and don't get bogged down on hard problems).

The intake and representation of information is called encoding. It is sent to

the short term or working memory, acted upon, and those pieces determined as
important are sent to long term memory storage, where they must be retrieved
and sent back to the working or short-term memory for use. Short term memory
has very limited capacity, so it must be kept active to be retained. Long term
memory is organized in structures, called schemas, scripts, or propositional or
hierarchical networks. Something learned can be retrieved by relating it to other
aspects, procedures, or episodes. There are many strategies that can help in both
getting information into long term memory and retrieving it from memory. The
teacher's job is to help students to develop strategies for thinking and
remembering.

Behaviorism
Behaviorist theorists believe that behavior is shaped deliberately by
forces in the environment and that the type of person and actions desired can be
the product of design. In other words, behavior is determined by others, rather
than by our own free will. By carefully shaping desirable behavior, morality and
information is learned. Learners will acquire and remember responses that lead
to satisfying aftereffects. Repetition of a meaningful connection results in
learning. If the student is ready for the connection, learning is enhanced; if not,
learning is inhibited. Motivation to learn is the satisfying aftereffect, or
reinforcement.

Behaviorism is linked with empiricism, which stresses scientific

information and observation, rather than subjective or metaphysical realities.
Behaviorists search for laws that govern human behavior, like scientists who look
for pattern sin empirical events. Change in behavior must be observable; internal
thought processes are not considered.

Ivan Pavlov's research on using the reinforcement of a bell sound when

food was presented to a dog and finding the sound alone would make a dog
salivate after several presentations of the conditioned stimulus, was the beginning
of behaviorist approaches. Learning occurs as a result of responses to stimuli in
the environment that are reinforced by adults and others, as well as from feedback
from actions on objects. The teacher can help students learn by conditioning them
through identifying the desired behaviors in measurable, observable terms,
recording these behaviors and their frequencies, identifying appropriate
reinforcers for each desired behavior, and providing the reinforcer as soon as the
student displays the behavior. For example, if children are supposed to raise
hands to get called on, we might reinforce a child who raises his hand by using
praise, "Thank you for raising your hand." Other influential behaviorists include
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) and James B. Watson (1878-1958).

Cognitivism/Constructivism
Cognitivists or Constructivists believe that the learner actively constructs
his or her own understandings of reality through interaction with objects, events,
and people in the environment, and reflecting on these interactions. Early
perceptual psychologists (Gestalt psychology) focused on the making of wholes
from bits and pieces of objects and events in the world, believing that meaning
was the construction in the brain of patterns from these pieces.

For learning to occur, an event, object, or experience must conflict with

what the learner already knows. Therefore, the learner's previous experiences
determine what can be learned. Motivation to learn is experiencing conflict with
what one knows, which causes an imbalance, which triggers a quest to restore
the equilibrium. Piaget described intelligent behavior as adaptation. The learner
organizes his or her understanding in organized structures. At the simplest level,
these are called schemes. When something new is presented, the learner must
modify these structures in order to deal with the new information. This process,
called equilibration, is the balancing between what is assimilated (the new) and
accommodation, the change in structure. The child goes through four distinct
stages or levels in his or her understandings of the world.
 Some constructivists (particularly Vygotsky) emphasize the shared, social
construction of knowledge, believing that the particular social and cultural
context and the interactions of novices with more expert thinkers (usually adult)
facilitate or scaffold the learning process. The teacher mediates between the new
material to be learned and the learner's level of readiness, supporting the child's
growth through his or her "zone of proximal development."

Humanism
The roots of humanism are found in the thinking of Erasmus (1466-1536),
who attacked the religious teaching and thought prevalent in his time to focus on
free inquiry and rediscovery of the classical roots from Greece and Rome.
Erasmus believed in the essential goodness of children, that humans have free
will, moral conscience, the ability to reason, aesthetic sensibility, and religious
instinct. He advocated that the young should be treated kindly and that learning
should not be forced or rushed, as it proceeds in stages. Humanism was
developed as an educational philosophy by Rousseau (1712-1778) and
Pestalozzi, who emphasized nature and the basic goodness of humans,
understanding through the senses, and education as a gradual and unhurried
process in which the development of human character follows the unfolding of
nature. Humanists believe that the learner should be in control of his or her own
destiny. Since the learner should become a fully autonomous person, personal
freedom, choice, and responsibility are the focus. The learner is self-motivated
to achieve towards the highest level possible. Motivation to learn is intrinsic in
humanism.

Recent applications of humanist philosophy focus on the social and

emotional well-being of the child, as well as the cognitive. Development of a
healthy self-concept, awareness of the psychological needs, helping students to
strive to be all that they can are important concepts, espoused in theories of
Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Alfred Adler that are found in classrooms
today. Teachers emphasize freedom from threat, emotional well-being, learning
processes, and self-fulfillment.

*Some theorists call Rousseau's philosophy naturalism and consider this to be a

world or metaphysical level philosophy (e.g. Gutek)

• Think about it: (Task 4)

 • (Put your answers on a separate word document (.doc/.docx) file and send it to _____________. –
filename: Module1-Tasks1to5-YourSurname)

1. Which psychological orientations are most compatible with which

educational philosophies? Explain.
2. Explain the differences in focus of the educational philosophies and
psychological orientations. Are there also similarities?
3. Non-western philosophies have also influenced American education, such
as Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Native American and African
American philosophies. Find out about these and think about their current
influences in education and where they might possibly be of value.

• Think about it: (Task 5)

• (Put your answers on a separate word document (.doc/.docx) file and send it to _____________. –
filename: Module1-Tasks1to5-YourSurname)

Applying Educational Philosophies

A. Complete the chart on Philosophical and Theoretical Orientations to
Teaching filling in the information on the aim of education, key points,
teaching strategies, teacher role, metaphor, and authors/dates. (Hint: a
metaphor provides a picture in mind or way of representing the idea or
concept that will help you understand and remember the philosophy. For
example, a metaphor for Constructivism might be a building under
construction. Likewise, for behaviorism, it might be the teacher as
sculptor, the child as clay). Use the format below:
Philosophy Aim of Education Key Points Teacher Roles
(Proponents/dates)

Perennialism

Essentialism

Progressiveism
Reconstructionism/
Critical Theory

Information
Processing

Behaviorism

Cognitivism/
Constructivism

Humanism
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