Chapter 1 SCIENTIFIC ENGLISH

OBJECTIVE: this section has as objective to give you the basis of scientific English which you are going to
face during your future career when you are transmitting information.

Scientific English refers to the specific style, vocabulary, and conventions used in the communication of
scientific information and research findings. It is designed for students and professionals who need to use
English in scientific and technological fields. It covers a wide range of topics, including technical vocabulary,
grammar, writing skills, and scientific presentations.
1.1 Grammar
Grammar is the set of language rules that we use most of the time to create phrases and sentences that
convey meaning. These include punctuations, parts of speech, types of sentences and more.
Sentences are different from phrases. A sentence is s collection of words with subjects and verbs e.g.
Peter is waiting for the rain to stop. On the contrary phrase are collection of words without subjects and
verbs. They cannot express a complete idea e.g. waiting for the rain to stop.
1. 1.1 Punctuation
Punctuation in English language helps the reader to understand a sentence through vi sual means other
than just the letters of the alphabet. Punctuation is essential to master written English. There are 14
punctuation marks that are used in English language.

What is punctuation?
Punctuations is a system in which marks are used in writing to indicate pauses and division of sentences.
The meaning of written communication is made clear to the readers by using these marks.
Types of punctuation marks.
There are 14 punctuation marks that are used in English language. These are
- Period (.)
- Question mark (?)
- Exclamation mark (!)
- Comma (,)
- Colon (:)
- Semicolon (;)
- Dash (_)
- Hyphen (-)
- Brackets []
- Braces {}
- Parentheses ()
- Apostrophe (‘)
- Quotation mark (“ “)
- Ellipses (….)

Uses of punctuation mark

1. Uses of period (full stop)
- Period is used after abbreviations and initials of names
- After fractions, amount, time, and date
- Used at the end of address
- After complete sentences
 2. Uses of question mark
- Question mark is used after interrogative questions e.g. when did Jane leave the market?
3. Uses of exclamation mark
- It is used after interjections. The words and sentences express emotions such as joy, sorrow ,
surprise, pity, prayer and a curse.
NB: an interjection is a word or phrase that is grammatically independent from the words around it, and
mainly expresses feelings rather than meaning e.g.
Cool: to express approval or admiration
Oh wow: to express admiration
Oh no: to express disappointment
Eh?: to express confusion
Oh gosh: to express surprise
e.g. Oh what a beautiful house!
4. Uses of coma
- Used for a short or slight pause to separate words in a list.
- Used to separate the adverb clause when it is followed by the main clause.
A clause in English is defined as a group of words that include a subject and a verb. Clauses can be
dependent or independent. An independent clause is one that makes sense on its own as a sentence. It does
not depend on anything e.g. “I was a little girl in 1995”
A dependent clause on the other hand is one that does not make sense on its own as a sentence. It
depends on other words to form a complete sentence that makes sense e.g. “Because I was a little girl in
1995”.
Furthermore a clause can be an Adverb clause or a main clause. The main clause is one that can
form a complete sentence standing alone, having a subject and a predicate (verb) e.g. In the sentence “the
angry boy cried seriously,” the word “boy” is the subject and the verb is “cried “ so the main clause of the
sentence would be, “the boy cried”. An adverb clause (adverbial clause) on the other hand is a clause
containing a subject and verb that acts as adverb (adverb is a word that modifies or describes a verb) to
modify the main clause of a sentence. Adverbial clauses are connected to the main clause of a sentence using
subordinating conjunctions e.g. “because,” “since,” “before,” “although,” “so that”.
From the above analysis we can conclude that a verbal clause is a dependent clause that modifies
the main verb in the independent clause. Adverbial clauses always start with a subordinating conjunction and
must connect to an independent clause to make sense. For example: Even if I take the train, I still might be
late to my appointment.
In the example above, the adverbial clause “even if I take train,” connects with the independent
clause “I still might be late to my appointment,” to make sense.

Tips for understanding adverbial clauses

Here are some important tips to help you understand adverbial clauses:
Tip 1. Adverbial clauses always start with a subordinating conjunction. A subordinating conjunction is
one which connects a dependent clause to an independent clause.
For example: although I may never reach the top, I will still attempt to climb Mount Everest.
In the example above, the dependent adverbial clause expresses a condition that the action (verb) of the
sentence (climbing Mount Everest) is dependent on.
Tip 2. Adverbial clauses often describe (modify) verbs.
For example: She stepped confidently across the tight rope as if she had done it many times before.
In the sentence above, the adverbial clause modifies the verb by describing “how” the subject walked the
tightrope.
 Tip 3. Adverbial clauses that come before the subject must be separated from the rest of the sentence
through the use of comma
For example:
Even though I have never tried a funnel cake before, I think I would like it.
I think I would like a funnel cake even though I have never tried one before.
In the two examples above, a similar adverbial clause both begins and ends two different sentences. In
the first example, a comma must be used to separate the adverbial clause from the rest of the sentence. This
is because the adverbial clause comes before the main clause.
Tip 3. Adverbial clauses answer one of four questions: where, when, how, and why.
Adverbial clauses modify or describe the main verb of the independent clause by answering one of Four
questions: where, when, how, and why. Below are examples of specific subordinating conjunctions being
used to answer each question within an adverbial Clause.
Where
The subordinating conjunctions where or wherever can both be used at the beginning of dependent
adverbial clauses to answer the question, where.
For example
Wherever Mary went, the lamb was sure to go.
in this example, the adverbial clause gives us the location of Mary’s lamb
When
Subordinating conjunction such as after, as soon as, before, now that, once, till, until, and while begin the
adverbial clause and modify the verb by showing when the action of the independent clause occurred.
For example
You may leave as soon as you finish your dinner.
In the sentence above, the adverbial clause let us know the time frame for leave.
How
Adverbial clauses can also begin with subordinate conjunctions that answer the question, how?, and
some of these conjunctions are as, as far as, as if, as long as, as though, insofar as, in that, lest, no matter
how, provided that, and unless. Often these types of conjunctions imply some sort of condition on the verb,
as if the action of the sentence depends on what is outlined in the dependent clause.
For example
I will watch that movie with you as long as you promised that I will not get bored.
In this sentence, the speaker agrees to a verb “watching movie” on the condition that it is not a boring
movie.
Why
Lastly, adverbial clauses can also express why the action of the sentence happens, and these clauses do so
by using one of the following subordinating conjunctions: because, even if, even though, in case that, since,
so that, and why.
For example
Since I trust you to take care of it, we will adopt a dog today.
The adverbial clause in the sentence above explains why the speaker has chosen to adopt a dog.
- Used to mark off non-restrictive adjective clauses. Non -restrictive clauses are different from
restrictive clauses. Non –restrictive clauses are removable from a sentence, and commas mark the
removable part of the sentence. Restrictive clauses, on the other hand are essential part of a sentence and
without commas.
Example 1
Those girls, who have been friends for years, are all going to the same college.
 Without the clause “who have been friends for years,” we still know that those girls are going to the
same college. Therefore the above clause is a non restrictive clause.
The main difference between a restrictive and a non-restrictive clause is that a clause is restrictive if it is
essential to the principal meaning of the sentence; it is non-restrictive if the principal meaning of the
sentence is clear without it.
Example two
My coworker Patrick, whom I told you about, will be joining us for dinner tonight.
The non-restrictive clause is “whom I told you about”.
- Used to write nouns in appositions.
Nouns in apposition is a grammatical construction in which a noun is followed by another noun that
explains it e.g in “My friend the doctor”,the word doctor is an apposition with friend.
Similarly an appositive can be found as a phrase at the end of a sentence
Example 1: Martha ate launch at Hilton, her favorite hotel on the weekends.
Example 2: My uncle was staying at the holiday inn, the most affordable hotel in the neighborhood
- Used to separate initials and titles: a comma separates initials or titles from a name and from
the rest of the sentence
Example: Robert yeager, professor of English, is chair of the department of English and
foreign languages
- Used while writing the address: when writing an address use a comma before the following
elements: the apartment, the city, and the state. It’s not necessary to use a coma before
the zip code.
e.g 123 main street, Anytown, USA 12345.
Or P.O. box 100, New York.
- Used while writing dates: when writing a date, a comma is used to separate the day from
the month, and the date from the year.
e.g. I was borne on Sunday, May 12, 1970.
However when you are using the date in day-month- year format, you don’t need a comma.

5. Uses of colon: colons are punctuation marks used to signal when what comes next is
directly related to the previous sentence. Colons are used in sentences to show that
something is following, like a quotation, example, or a list. They are used after an
independent clause (complete sentence) and not after a dependent clause (incomplete
sentence). However the words after a colon can be a complete thought (independent
clause), an incomplete thought (dependent clause), a list of words or even a single word. We
only capitalize after a colon if the first word is a proper noun if not we start with a small
letter.They are used in the following situations
- To introduce a serial list: In this case, use the colon at the end of a complete statement
(independent clause) to introduce a list. What’s about to come after the colon is meant to
further illustrate whatever was mentioned before the colon.
Examples:
I have a few favorite lessons at IAI: literature, psychology, and art.
There are two choices at this time: run away or fight.
We knew who will win the game: the Eagles.
We need the following items: eggs, milk, and, fabric softener
We can notice that all the sentences start with an independent clause before the colon. A
colon cannot be used if it is preceded by a dependent clause e.g. We need: eggs, milk, and,
fabric softener. This is incorrect.
- Before a quotation: use a colon when introducing a quotation about someone else’s words,
after an independent clause (one that can stand on its own)
Examples:
In 2014, Joshua wrote about the issue of food: “The poets have been mysteriously silent on
the subject of cheese.”
In this sentence, In 2014, Joshua wrote about the issue of food is an independent clause. A
colon must be used to separate this clause from the upcoming quotation.
This was first said by shakespear: “To thine own self be true.”
The main character in the movie said: “Play hard. Work harder.”

After placing the colon, follow a few simple rules to punctuate the quote.
Rule 1: the colon should be followed immediately by quotation marks.
Rule 2: the first letter in the quotation must be capitalized.
Rule 3: any punctuation at the end of the quotation should be inside the quotation marks.
- To separate two independent clauses. These are clauses that can stand alone as two
complete thoughts (sentences). The first word in the second clause should not be capitalized
Examples:
I just want you to remember: two can play at that game.
You can come pick me up now: I am feeling much better.
Never forget this point: think before you speak.
- After a formal introduction: colons are used after a salutation in a formal letter, such as “To
whom it may concern, when addressing someone by their name in a formal way.
Examples:
To whom it may concern:
Dear Mr. Wilson:
Dear professor Jason Smith:
- Colons are used to introduce a bulleted list. If items appear in bullet or numbers rather than
in a sentence, you can use a colon to introduce them as well. Just be sure that the sentence
before the colon is an independent clause.
Example:
There are three things every dog needs:
Food
Water
Healthcare
- Colons are used to clarify information: we use colons between two sentences if the second
sentence explains more about the first sentence. Note that both sides of the colon are
complete sentences.
Examples:
Life is like a road: Every path takes you somewhere
The results are in: He is the president
- A colon can be used to point to words: a colon can also function like an arrow, telling readers
“Look at this word!” Typically only one word or phrase follows a colon in these sentences.
Example:
There’s one more thing we need: a plane ticket
I’ve met the love of my life: Patricia
NB:
 A clause that ends in a speaking verb such as said, stated, asked, told, explained, whispered,
shouted etc, is not an independent clause and should not be followed by a colon. These
words should be followed by a comma
Example:
Incorrect:
Oscar Wild said:”I have nothing to declare except my genius.”
Correct:
Oscar Wild said, “I have nothing to declare except my genius.”
Secondly, semi colons and colons should never end a quote. However if a sentence requires
colon or semicolon immediately after a quote, put it outside of the quotation marks.
- it is used to explain the words such as, namely, as follows, for example etc.

6. Uses of semicolon
- Semi colons are similar to colons, but they don’t provide as much of a pause or emphasis.
Semicolons typically join independent clauses together _ just one of the many functions of
colon. Like colons, semicolons shouldn’t be used to connect more than two clauses and you
do not capitalize the first word of the second clause.
The only time when you may want to use a semicolon instead of a colon is if your
independent clauses are only loosely related (merely related), not directly related (follow a
sequence). If the two clauses are merely related, not necessarily sequential in thought, use a
semicolon. However, if the two related clauses follow a sequence of thought, use a colon.
Examples:
I hate ironing: I never do it right. (The clauses are directly related_ use a colon)
I hate ironing; I also can’t stand sweeping. (The clauses are loosely related_ use a
semicolon)
- Semicolons stand in for commas when commas would be confusing. Take a look at the
examples below. Each item in the list contains commas itself, so using commas to separate
the items will lead to ambiguity.
As such the semicolon comes to the rescue to divide the lists, acting as a comma.
Example:
Please pack my anthologies on short stories, poetry, and Shakespearean plays; my
biographies on Jackie Kennedy, Charles Stuart, and Queen Elizabeth; and my historical
romance novels by Nora Roberts, Jude, and Diana.
You can order a sandwich with bacon, egg, and cheese; ham, egg, tomatoes, and cheese; or
tomatoes, lettuce, and avocado.
7. Uses of Dash.
Dashes function in two ways: to signal interruptions in a sentence (basically like
parentheses), and to connect independent clauses (basically like semicolon). But if the first
function can be substituted with parentheses and the second with a semi -colon, then why
use dashes instead? Dashes show a more abrupt pause or shift in a sentence. Dashes add
more emphasis to the materials they set off. However in formal writing brackets should be
used rather than dash as dash is considered less formal.
Examples:
There is always a second chance_ even for someone like you
I know you are still there_ somewhere in the sky
The house rule is simple_ clean up after you.
 8. Uses of hyphen
The hyphen is a mark that joins words or parts of words and is placed directly between
letters and with no spaces. As indicated below, the hyphen is used in several ways.
- Use the hyphen at the end of a line to divide a word where there is not enough space for the
whole word. Follow the rules for dividing words correctly.
Divide a word between syllables. Never divide a one-syllable word.
Correct
For effective proofreading, certain strategies are recom-
mended.
Incorrect
After taking the workshop of proofreading, it really se-
ems that I am better at editing my own paper.

Do not divide a word between syllables if only one letter remains alone or if only two letters
begin a line.
Incorrect
It was difficult to decide whether she was totally a-
fraid of the dark or just trying to gain sympathy.

We realized she was trying to get attention, so we simp-

ly ignored her.
NB in this case, simply move the entire word (afraid or simply) to the next line.
Always divide a hyphenated compound word at the hyphen.
Incorrect:
She was relieved to have the title of pres-
ident- elect rather than to have real responsibility

Correct:
She was relieved to have the title of president-
elect rather than to have real responsibility.
Divide compound words between the words that form the compound.
Incorrect
For Steve’s birthday, Annie bought him an electric cof-
feemaker.
Correct
For Steve’s birthday, Annie bought him a coffee-
maker.
- Use hyphen to join two or more words to form compound adjectives that precede a noun.
The purpose of joining words to form a compound adjective is to differentiate the meaning
from the adjectives used separately, such as up – to – date merchandise, copper – coated
wine, fire – tested material, lump – sum payment etc.
Examples:
He was proud of his well-stocked cupboards.
(the adverb well describes stock rather than cupboard)

Cathy drove her seven-year-old son to school yesterday.

 (if the adjectives were written separately, they would describe her son as seven, year and
old. It is only when the words are joined together with a hyphen that they make sense as a
single adjective).
- Use a hyphen to avoid awkward doubling of vowels.
Semi-independence without a hyphen will be written as semiindependence
Re-elect without a hyphen will be written as reelect
- Use a hyphen to prevent misleading of certain words.
Re-collect means to collect again but without the hyphen it will be recollect which has a
different meaning.
- Use a hyphen to join a prefix to a capitalized word.
Un- American, Pre-Christmas
- Always use a hyphen with the prefixes all-, ex-, and self-, and with the surfix –elect.
All-inclusive, ex-president, self-righteous, governor-elect.
- Use a hyphen with all compound numbers between twenty-one through ninety-nine, and
when writing fractions as words
Fifty-six, two-thirds

9. Quotation marks, also known as inverted commas or quotes, are punctuation marks used
to indicate direct speech or to enclose a quotation or a piece of text that is being referenced.
They are typically represented by a pair of symbols, either double quotation marks (“like
this”) or single quotation marks (‘like this’). The Americans mostly used double quotation
marks but use single quotation within a quotation. However the British mostly use single
quotation and instead use double quotation for quotations withi n a quotation.
Here are some common uses of quotation marks:
- Direct speech: They are used to indicate the exact words spoken by someone. For example:
John said, ‘I’ll be there in five minutes’.
- Quoting someone or referencing a source: Quotation marks are used to indicate that a
specific text is being quoted or cited from another source. For example:
The article states, ‘According to recent studies, sleep deprivation can have serious health
consequences’.
- Titles of shorter works: quotation marks are used to enclose the titles of shorter works such
as articles, poems, short stories, or songs. For example:
I read an interesting article called ‘The benefits of exercise’.
- Quotation marks can also be used to indicate skepticism, irony, or to indicate that a word or
phrase is being used in a non-literal sense. For example:
The so -called ‘experts’ couldn’t provide a satisfactory explanation
The above phrase indicates that the speaker is skeptical if the people are really experts. It
suggests that the term is being used ironically.

Nora said, ‘Peter contributes money for his “Njangi” every Sunday’.
NB
Punctuation placement: In British English, most punctuation marks (commas, periods,
exclamation marks, and question marks) are placed outside the closing quotation mark if
they are not part of the quote but if they are part of the quote they should be placed inside.
For example:
She said, ‘I’ll be there in a minute.’
He asked, ‘where are you going?’
 He said, ‘Please bring me the following:’
He said he was visiting a ‘friend’. Although the period is part of what he said, we are
quoting a single word, not the end of the sentence, so the punctuation goes outside the
quote.
10. Braces: In British English, braces refer to the punctuation marks ‘,-’ that are commonly
used in various contexts. Here are a few common uses of braces:
- In Mathematics: Braces are commonly used in Mathematics to denote set. For example:
{1, 2, 3} represents a set containing the numbers 1, 2, and 3.
- Citations and references: Braces are used to indicate additional information or explanation
within a reference. They are often used when the original text contains clarifications or
explanations inserted by the author. For example:
‘According to smith, the original quote stated, “The results were inconclusive {due to
technical errors}”’.
11. Brackets: Brackets refer to the punctuation marks ‘*+’ that are used for various purposes.
Here are some common uses of brackets in British English.
- Parentheses: Brackets are often used interchangeably with parentheses to enclose
additional information within the sentence. This additional information is usually less
essential to the main point. For example:
‘The conference (held in London) was attended by over 500 delegates’.
‘John smith (the CEO of the company) announced the new initiative’.
- Citations and references: Braces are used to indicate additional information or explanation
within a reference. They are often used when the original text contains clarifications or
explanations inserted by the author. For example:
‘According to smith, the original quote stated, “The results were inconclusive [due to
technical errors]”’.
- Mathematical notation: They are used to indicate grouping or to clarify the order of
operations. They are used to ensure proper calculation and understanding of Mathematical
expressions. For example:
‘(2 + 3) X 4 = 20’
‘X = *3 x (2 + 4)+ / 2’

12. Apostrophe: In British English, apostrophes (‘), like in other forms of English, serve
several purposes. Here are the common uses of apostrophes in British English:
- Contractions: apostrophes are used in contractions to indicate omitted letters or
sounds. For example:
‘Can’t’ (cannot )
‘Won’t’ (will not)
‘I’m’ ( I am)
‘He’l’ (he will)
- Possessive case: They indicate possessions or ownership. The placement of the apostrophe
varies depending on whether the possessor is singular or plural. Here are the general rules:
Singular possession: The apostrophe is placed before the ‘S’ to indicate ownership. For
example:
‘The dog’s tail’ (the tail belonging to one dog)
‘John’s car’ (the car belonging to John)
Plural possession: If the possessor is plural, the apostrophe is placed after the ‘S’. for
example:
 ‘The dogs’ toys’ (the toys belonging to multiple dogs)
‘The students’ books’ (the books belonging to the students)
- For singular nouns ending in ‘S’: In this case you can choose to either add an apostrophe
followed by an ‘S’ or just an apostrophe. Both are acceptable in British English. For example:
‘James’s bike’ or ‘James’ bike’ (the bike belonging to James).
- Contractions in verb forms: They are used in contracted verb forms, such as in the past tense
or with the auxiliary verb ‘is’. For example:
‘he’d’ (he had or he would)
‘she’s’ (she is or she has)
‘they’re (they are)

13. Ellipses: They are a series of 3 dots (…) used to indicate the omission of words, to
create suspense, or to indicate unfinished thought:
- Omission of words: Ellipses are used to indicate the omission of words from a quotation
or sentence. This is often done to remove irrelevant information while preserving the
intended meaning. For example:
Original quote: ‘The researchers found that, at the announcement time, the results
were inconclusive.’
Ellipses: ‘The researchers found that…the results were inconclusive.’
- Pause or suspension: They can be used to create a pause or suspension in a sentence, often
to create a sense of mystery. For example:
‘He looked out of the window and saw…nothing but darkness.’
- Trailing or unfinished thought: This suggests that there is more to be said. For example:
‘I was going to say…but never mind.’

1.1..2 Countable and Uncountable Nouns

A noun is a word that refers to person, place, thing, event,substance or quality;
can be either countable or uncountable.Countable nouns have singular and plural forms
while uncountable nouns can be used only in the singular form.

- In English grammar, words that refer to people, places or things are called nouns.
There are several ways to classify nouns. One way is whether they are countable (also
known as count) or uncountable (also known as non-count) nouns. Countable nouns,
as the term suggests, are things that can be counted. They have singular and plural
forms.
E.g. table, tables; month, months; pen, pens.
- A countable noun becomes plural by adding s at the end of the word.Of
course, there are nouns that form plurals in other ways.
E.g. man, men; child, children; goose, geese.
- In contrast, uncountable nouns cannot be counted. They have a singular
form and do not have a plural form.
- you can‟t add an s to it, e.g. dirt, rice, information and hair. Some
uncountable nouns are abstract nouns such as advice and knowledge.
E.g. Her jewellery is designed by a well-known designer.
I needed some advice, so I went to see the counsellor.

Some nouns can be countable or uncountable depending on the context or situation.

E.g. We‟ll have two coffees (countable).
I don‟t like coffee (uncountable).

1.1.3 Articles
You cannot refer to a singular countable noun on its own. It is usually
preceded by an article, either the indefinite article - a, an - or the
definite article the.
1.1. Indefinite Article
When the countable noun is mentioned for the first time, you use an indefinite
article a for words beginning with a consonant sound or an if the noun
begins with a vowel sound. However, when a countable noun is mentioned
for the second time, it is usually preceded by the definite article the.
E.g. I saw a (indefinite article) cat yesterday.
The (definite article) cat was grey with black stripes.
Sometimes when uncountable nouns are treated as countable nouns,
you can use the indefinite article.
E.g. Please select a wine that you like

1.1.4 Definite Article

You can use „the‟ with countable nouns when you want to refer to a specific person or
thing.
E.g. The baby stared at the moon in fascination.
Please take me to the clinic near the coffee shop. I‟m not feeling well.
The indefinite article is not used with uncountable nouns. However, the
definite article „the‟ can be used with uncountable nouns when referring
to specific items.
E.g. I found the luggage that I had lost.
I appreciated the honesty of the salesman.

1.1.5 Tricky Uncountable Nouns

The noun fruit is usually considered as an uncountable noun.
E.g. Fruit is good for your health.
When referring to a single piece of fruit, you
would say, She had only a piece of fruit for
lunch!
However, when referring to different kinds of fruit, you may use fruit as a
countable noun.
E.g. I love to shop at that supermarke- they have a wide
variety of tropical fruits.
Similarly, you may use an indefinite article for uncountable nouns when you
are referring to a single item.
 E.g. a piece of furniture, a bottle of water, a grain of rice.

1.1.6 Quantifiers

Countable and uncountable nouns may also be used with quantifiers. These
are words that
express amount or quantity. Common examples are some, any, more,
few, little, several.
However, there are some quantifiers that can be used with only countable
nouns: many, few, a few, fewer, several.
E.g. The citizens came to the meeting with many suggestions on how to
improve their
neighbourhood.
Fewer tourists visited that area as it was known to be unsafe.
Some other quantifiers can be used with only uncountable nouns: much, little, a bit of.
E.g. Would you like a bit of pepper in your soup?
There‟s very little dessert left.
Some quantifiers may be used with both countable and uncountable nouns:
all, some, any, lots of, plenty of, enough.
E.g. He has enough courage to face the bullies.
We have some plates for the party tonight. Tracy will bring more.

1.1.7 Subject-Verb Agreement

Countable nouns may take singular or plural verbs.
E.g. Our neighbour is singing at the
competition tonight.
Our neighbours are singing at
the competition tonight.
However, uncountable nouns are considered singular and may take only singular verbs.
Nouns such as luggage, furniture and jewellery are uncountable nouns and
take singular
verbs.
E.g. The furniture in this house needs to be replaced.
The apparatus for the next experiment has been
set up. My luggage has been checked in.

Uncountable nouns ending with s may pose a problem to

users of English. These nouns have the plural ending s,
but they take a singular verb.
E.g. The news is not good.
Mathematics is a very important subject.
All uncountable nouns associated with clothes, such as shorts, jeans and briefs, are plural
uncountables. They cannot be used in the singular form or with numbers. We
cannot say for example a shorts or two shorts. Instead we say:
E.g. Can you lend me a pair of shorts? I didn‟t bring mine.
 1.2 Pronouns

A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun or noun

phrase that has already been mentioned in a text or conversation.
There are several types of pronouns. Among them are
personal, possessive, demonstrative, indefinite, reflexive and relative
pronouns.

Personal pronouns stand in for nouns and noun phrases, and

usually refer back in a text or conversation to them.

E.g. Jane is going to watch the parade tomorrow. She plans to leave at
4 pm.
We are collecting old photographs for our project.They sho uld still be
in good
condition.
Personal pronouns may be categorised as follows:

PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL

Subjec O Subject Obje

t b c
First (person speaking) I m j we us t
e
Second (person spoken to) you yo c you you
ut
Third (person spoken of) He, Hi they the
sh m m
e, ,
it
h
1.21 Ositions of Pronouns in
e Sentences
r
A pronoun can be the subject of a verb:
,
it
E.g. I can‟t catch the mouse. It moves too quickly.
A pronoun can be the object of a verb:
E.g. The flowers look beautiful. Sally arranged them just now.

A pronoun can be the object of a preposition:

E.g. I‟m going to buy some snacks. Make sure you keep a place for
me.

1.2.2Reflexive pronouns
These refer to the person or anima l that is the subject
of the verb. The following are reflexive pronouns.
 PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL

First myself ourselves

Second yourself yourselves

Third himself, herself, themselves

itself

1.2.3 Positions of Reflexive Pronouns in Sentences

Reflexive pronouns may be used :

As the object of a verb.

E.g. Meera blames herself for the mistake.

As the object of a preposition.

E.g. Stop looking at yourself in the mirror.

As the indirect object of a verb.

E.g. Tara gave herself a treat.

To emphasise a noun or
personal pronoun.
E.g. Jane herself baked
this delicious cake.

1.2.4 Possessive pronouns

Examples of possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, its.
Unlike personal pronouns, these usually stand alone and do not have to
precede a noun. E.g. Karen told me that she had lost her phone. That
must be hers.
They have found their seats. Have you spotted ours?
The cat is looking for its master.

Note: The possessive pronoun its is

different from it‟s. It‟s is a contracted
form of it is.

1.2.5 Indefinite pronouns

 The indefinite pronoun is used when referring to no particular
person or thing. Some indefinite pronouns refer to people,
E.g. someone, anyone, everybody, no one, everyone, nobody.

Some indefinite pronouns refer to things, e.g. something, anything,

everything, nothing. E.g. Someone is at the door.
Where is everyone?
Has anyone seen the television remote control?

1.2.6. Demonstrative pronouns

A demonstrative pronoun points to a specific thing or things to indicate
whether they are close or far, in space and/or time. Like possessive
pronouns, demonstrative pronouns stand alone and do not have to precede
a noun.

NEAR IN FAR IN
DISTANCE DISTANCE
OR TIME OR TIME
Singular this that

Plural these those

E.g. Jane stopped eating rice for dinner. This has helped her lose
weight quickly.
That was the last time I saw my colleague Matthew.

1.2.7. Relative pronouns

Who, whom, whose, which and that function as relative pronouns when they
add further information to the things or people mentioned in the sentence.

RELATIVE
PRONOUN REFERS TO

who a person or people

whom a person or people
which a thing or things
whose a person, people, a thing or things
that animal(s) or thing(s)
 The difference between who and whom is that who may be the subject of a verb; it
is also often used as an object although this is frowned upon.
E.g. Isn‟t that Shyla who objected to the proposal?
These are candidates whom we interviewed last week.

Whom is used only as the object of a verb. Both who and whom can be the object of a
preposition but if the preposition comes before the pronoun, you must use whom.
This is illustrated in the examples below.
E.g. Whom/who did you speak to about this matter?
To whom did you speak about this matter?

The relative pronoun that can often be used instead of who, whom and which. E.g. The
shirt that Matthew bought has some stains on it.

Note: American English favours the use of that over which while British English still
uses
both that and which.

1.3 Adjectives

An adjective is a word that describes people, objects, events,

substances and ideas.
1. Adjectives
Do you want to add colour to your speech or writing? Try using appropriate,
vivid adjectives to express your thoughts and feelings. Adjectives describe
nouns by telling us more about them, e.g. their size, colour or shape.
Using adjectives to describe the things, people or ideas we are talking
about helps our readers and listeners form a more vivid picture of them.
E.g. Please bring that beautiful leather bag to me. (expresses a positive opinion)
She was a timid, nondescript girl whe n she was at school. (expresses a
negative
opinion)

1.3.1 Formation of Adjectives

Many adjectives do not have prefixes or suffixes. E.g. good, tall, fat, wide, simple,
gaunt.
However, adjectives may be formed by adding prefixes (before a word) or suffixes
(after a
word).
E.g. illegal, insensitive, rusty, childish, merciless, enjoyable.
Usually adjectives are formed by adding suffixes to nouns.
E.g. baggy, hairy, hairless, burdensome, quarrelsome, beautiful.
Sometimes, adjectives may be formed by adding suffixes to verbs.
E.g. attractive, washable, expectant, complimentary, boring, disappointed.
When a negative prefix such as un, il, dis, in, im or ir is added to an adjective,
it creates an opposite or negative meaning.
E.g. unnatural, illogical, dishonest, infamous, immoral, irreverent.

1.3.2 Positions of Adjectives in Sentences

Adjectives may be found in three positions in a sentence:
Before a noun:
E.g. exciting lesson, empty room.
As a complement, after a linking verb: E.g. The shop is open.
John is sick.
After a noun or an indefinite pronoun:
E.g. I wrote to the person concerned.
Is there anyone important at the meeting?
How do you use Adjectives?
You can use adjectives in the ways suggested below.
Use two or more adjectives to describe a noun in greater detail. E.g. small grey cat,
desperate, brazen thief
Show comparison and contrast using parallel phrases such as „not o nly … but also‟, „as …
as‟.
E.g. Beatrice is not only intelligent, but also hardworking.
Tom is as strong as his father.
Use adjectives to express opinions:
E.g. What a boring play! The director was unimaginative.
Adjectives describe many different things, such as size, shape, colour,
quality, origin or nationality, material, and the speaker‟s or writer‟s
opinion.
It is common to find two or more adjectives before a noun. However, they
cannot be strung together randomly; rather, they follow a fairly strict
order, from top to bottom:

1.3.3 Comparison of Adjectives

Adjectives are useful when you want to compare things. Adjectives have
three degrees: positive, comparative, superlative.
The positive merely describes a noun, e.g. a tall child.
The comparative compares one person, animal or object
with another. E.g. She is taller than her mother.
The superlative compares a person, animal or object with more
than one other. E.g. She is the tallest in her class.
How do you use adjectives to show comparison?
Words containing one or two syllables take the suffix -er in the comparative
form and -est in the superlative.
Many adjectives containing two syllables and all adjectives containing three or more
syllables have the word more or most before the adjective to convey the
comparative and superlative respectively.
E.g. more intelligent, most comfortable.

Positi Comp Super

ve ara lati
fast faster
tive fastest
ve
small smaller smalle
st
careful more most
care car
genero moreful mostefu
us gen ge
l
ero
Here are some examples where the comparative ner do not have the -er or -est
and superlative
suffix: us ou
s
Positi Comp Super
ve ara lati
bad tive
worse ve
worst
good better best
many more most
much more most
 1.4 Tenses

Tenses show when something happens.

Present tense - I eat.

Past tense - I ate.

Future tense - I will eat.

Verbs are one of the most important classes of words. They tell us what is
happening in terms of actions or the state of affairs in a particular situation.
E.g. The children talk (verb) very loudly.
My daughter is (verb) a talented artist.
All sentences require a verb. The tenses are parts of verbs that tell you the time when
the action referred to in the sentence took place.
The base form is the basic verb form. It is so called as it has no inflections (i.e., no
endings such as -s, - ing or -ed).
This is the form of the verb that is listed in dictionary entries. The base form of any verb
can be changed into a singular or plural, present or past tense.
E.g. smile (base form)
smiles (third person singular, present tense)
smiled (past tense)
In the English Language there are two tenses: the present and past. As the terms
imply, the
present tense refers to actions and states in the present while the past tense talks
about
actions and states in the past. To refer to the future, we often use the present tense
and modal
verbs.
E.g. We leave for London tonight. (using the present tense)
We will attend the dinner on Friday. (using the modal verb will)
The present tense is the most basic tense in the English Language. Generally we use it to
refer to present activities or to talk about routines or habits. We also use the present
tense to refer to facts and beliefs. It is also used to make general statements about
people and things. E.g. She leaves for work at 7.30 every morning. (routine)
The sun rises in the east. (fact)
Harry usually drinks a glass of wine with his meal. (generalisation)
Regular verbs are made past tense by adding -ed.
E.g. The audience laughed (past tense) loudly at his joke. [laugh (base form) + ed ]
Irregular verbs differ from the base form as they have a different spelling to indicate the
past
tense.
E.g. swim (base form) - swam (past tense).
Unlike the present tense, the form of a verb in the past tense is the same whether the
subject is singular or plural.
E.g. The girl (singular subject) drank the water. The girls (plural subject) drank the water.
Other parts of the verb are the present participle and past participle. The present
participle and the auxiliary verb be form the continuous tenses.
The present continuous indicates ongoing or future
activity. E.g. The workers are repairing the burst
pipe.
I am taking my dog for a walk in an
hour‟s time.
The past continuous is used for an activity that was ongoing at a certain point in the
past. E.g. She was working very hard last month.
It is also used to indicate an ongoing situation that was interrupted by a single past action.
E.g. The audience was enjoying the concert when the police arrived.
The present perfect tense is used when an action or situation in the present is linked to a
moment in the past. It is often used to show actions that have happened up to the present
but aren‟t completed yet.
The present perfect tense is formed by have/has + past participle; the past perfect is
formed by had + past participle.
Exa Examples of the use of the present perfect tense.
We can go out now - my car has been
repaired.
I have worked in the city for the past five years.
Often, speakers of English make mistakes with the use of the present perfect and simple
past. E.g. I have watched that movie on Friday.
The use of the simple past tense would be correct in this
instance: E.g. I watched that movie on Friday.
Usually the present perfect should not be linked to a specific time (in this case, Friday)
but to a duration of time such as recently, before, and since last year.
 Most people have a problem with the past perfect tense. A rule to remember is: when a
sentence refers to two past actions, you use the past perfect to indicate the action
that took place first.
E.g. By the time I arrived (simple past), the train had left (past perfect).
To my horror, I realised (simple past) at the airport that I had forgotten (past
perfect) to bring my passport!

1.4.1 Subject-Verb Agreement

Singular subjects go with singular verbs while plural subjects go
with plural verbs.
Match your subject with the correct verb form.

Have you ever wondered why we say She looks very pretty and not She look very
pretty? The answer lies in grammar rules on concord, or subject- verb agreement.
The basic rule is that singular verbs must agree with singular nouns, while plural
verbs must agree with plural nouns. What is a noun? It is a word to name people,
places, events, things or ideas.
E.g. teacher, Orchard Road, party, basket, beauty.
How do you recognise a singular or plural verb?
A singular verb is one that has an s added to it in the present tense, such as writes,
plays, runs, and uses forms such as is, was, has, does. A plural verb does not have
an s added to it, such as write, play, run, and uses forms such as are, were, have and
do.
E.g. Jack (singular noun) enjoys (singular verb) playing golf every Sunday.
The men (plural noun) enjoy (plural verb) playing golf every Sunday.

In the case of pronouns, he, she and it take a singular verb while you, we and they
take a plural verb.
We (plural pronoun) think (plural verb) that she (singular pronoun) is (singular
verb)
innocent.
However, there are exceptions to the rules mentioned earlier.
If the two nouns are conjoined and represent a single idea, then the verb is singular.
E.g. Bread and butter is available on request.
Fish and chips is my favourite meal.
Law and order is the new government‟s priority.

Problems also arise when the speaker or writer is faced with more than one noun or
pronoun in the sentence.
E.g. The quality of our students‟ essays has fallen drastically.
In this case, the verb has fallen agrees with the subject (first noun mentioned) or head
noun of the noun phrase, quality.
E.g. The spokes of that wheel are broken.
In this case, the subject of the sentence is spokes (plural head noun), hence the plural
verb
are.
When a singular and a plural noun or pronoun (subjects) are joined by or or nor, the
verb should agree with the subject nearer the verb.
E.g. The girls or their father collects the newspapers every morning.
In this example, the singular verb, collects, agrees with the noun closer to it, the
singular noun, father.
People often get confused when deciding whether a singular or plural verb should agree
with some collective nouns.

E.g. Should we say

The football team is (singular verb) ready to be
photographed.
Or
The football team are (plural verb) ready to be photographed.
Well, it all depends on whether we are thinking of the team as a single collective unit
or as individuals. If it is the former, then the verb should be singular. However, if
we are
considering the team as comprising individual members who are not acting as a
single unit, then we use the plural verb.
A point to note is that American English almost always trea ts collective nouns as
singular, hence a singular verb is used with it.
Nouns which have two parts such as spectacles, scissors or pants require plural
verbs. E.g. My spectacles are missing.
These scissors need sharpening.
However, when regarded as a pair, a singular verb is
used. E.g. My pair of spectacles is missing.
This pair of scissors needs sharpening.
There are some occasions when we should use singular verbs.
Expressions such as each of, one of, anybody, each, every and nobody must be followed
by a singular verb.
E.g. Each of the ladies has a designer handbag.
Anybody is allowed to enter this hall.
Nobody is disappointed with the results.

A singular subject with attached phrases introduced by with or like or as well as is

followed by a singular verb.
E.g. The boy, with several others, was late for
school.
Meiling, like Johan, is tall for her age.
Tom, as well as Fred, is on the first shift.

Two singular nouns or pronouns separated by either ... or or neither ... nor take a
singular verb.
E.g. Either he or she has eaten the cake.
Neither Meera nor Gopal knows anything about the accident.
Amounts, even if plural, have a singular verb.
E.g. Sixty dollars is too much to pay for that dress.
Ten kilometres is too long a distance for me to walk.
Five kilogrammes of flour is all that I need for my baking.
There are some occasions when we should use plural verbs. When two or more
plural subjects are connected by and, the verb is plural.
E.g. The officers and their men were patrolling the area.
Domestic cats and dogs need adequate care and attention.
Plural subjects separated by either ... or or neither ... nor, both ... and, and all but take a
plural verb.
 Prepositions
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between
an
object - a noun or pronoun - and other words in a
sentence.
Memorise how prepositions are to be used. There is no easy way
out. Our notes here may help too!
The preposition is placed before a noun or pronoun. It shows the relationship between
nouns
and pronouns in the same sentence. It may be used to indicate position, place,
direction or
time.

1. Prepositions of Position
With regard to place, in tends to be used with larger or enclosed areas such as cities,
countries and tunnels, whereas at tends to be used for smaller places, points on a
journey, or for activities typically associated with a place.
E.g. The couple will spend their money in London. (large area)
Their train stops at London Paddington. (point on a journey)
The boys are running around in the library. (enclosed area)
They boys are at the library, reading. (reading is associated with libraries)

When talking about heights or levels, you use below, over or under.
E.g. The dog is sleeping under the bed.
The plane flew over the hills.

2. Prepositions of Direction
These prepositions indicate a movement towards a goal.
E.g. Let‟s go to the market.
The swimmers walked into the sea.
The students eagerly ran towards the campsite.

3. Prepositions of Time
On is used for days and dates.
E.g. The wedding will be on Saturday. At is used to indicate a specific time.
E.g. I‟ll see you at six o‟clock.
 From ... to and during are used to indicate a period
of time. E.g. The tulip festival is from March to May.
During the school holidays, students engage in community projects.
Other prepositions indicating time are before, until, after, since and by.
E.g. My wife exercises before breakfast.
You can visit her after office hours.
You must submit the forms by 1st July.
Until now, I‟ve always thought that she was a meticulous officer.
She has been making a lot of progress since she started her exercise programme.

4. Troublesome Prepositions
There are times when we are unsure which preposition we should use. These are
some troublesome prepositions.
Beside and Besides

Beside means “next to”.

E.g. She sits beside me in the office. Besides means “other than” or “apart
from”. E.g. Besides enjoying cooking, I like reading a book when I‟m
free.
Between and Among
Between is used when referring to two people, places or things.
Among is used for three or more people, places or
things. E.g. Divide the cake among the five of
you.
The twins shared the sweets between
themselves.

„Differ with‟ and „Differ from‟

When you differ with someone, you disagree with that person‟s opinion or
idea. When you differ from someone, it means that you are unlike that
person.
E.g. The form teacher differed with the English teacher on the boy‟s
abilities.
Mr Chan differed from his predecessor in terms of management style.
Sometimes you may find it hard to decide which preposition you should use with a word.
While adjectives tell you more about a noun or pronoun, adverbs do the
same for verbs. Adverbs tell you, among other things, how (manner),
when (time) or where (place) an action took place.
E.g. She sang beautifully. (manner)
She came early for the interview. (time)
I stayed here when I visited Hanoi. (place)
 Some adverbs also moderate or intensify adjectives or
adverbs. E.g. That was an extremely entertaining
performance.
I wouldn‟t recommend it. It was a very bad show.
I went to the market rather early on Saturday.
She danced remarkably well.

1. Possible Positions of Adverbs in a Sentence

At the beginning of a sentence (usually to emphasise a point).
• Finally, we found our way back to the camp.
In the middle of a sentence.
• The philanthropist rarely reveals his identity when he makes his
donations.
At the end of a sentence, after a verb.
• She screamed loudly.
Adverbs may be categorised into the following classes:

Manner: gracefully, sadly, slowly, well

Time : before, now, since, eventually
Place : here, there, everywhere, nowhere
Degree: almost, quite, very, rather
Number: once, twice

Interrogative :where, when, how

2. Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of manner tell you the way an action is performed. They answer
the question how? Usually, the adverb follows the verb.
E.g. The students cheered enthusiastically when they were told that they
were getting a holiday.

Sometimes, the adverb is placed before the verb to emphasise the

manner of the action.
E.g. He deliberately tripped the rude boy.
She suddenly appeared out of nowhere.

Although many adverbs of manner end in -ly,

not all do. E.g. She‟s trying hard to impress the
judges.
3. Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of time answer the questions when? ho w long? and how
often? E.g. Lunch will be ready soon.
Jenny visited us twice last year but we haven‟t seen her since.
Harold rarely visits his grandparents.

Possible Positions of Adverbs of Time in a Sentence

At the beginning of the sentence, usually for emphasis.

E.g. Frankly, the job is not worth doing for the money alone.

After the verb or at the end of a sentence.

E.g. The school looked very different then.

Before the verb.

E.g. The neighbours now realise what had happened.

4. Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs of degree answer the question how much? or to what extent?
They increase or reduce the force of the word they describe.

They are usually used with adjectives and are placed before the adjective
that they describe.
E.g. The students put up a totally entertaining performance.

They are used with other adverbs and are placed before the adverb
they
describe.
E.g. The young man walked incredibly slowly.

When used with verbs, they come before the

verb.
E.g. The audience absolutely hated the
show.

Adverbs are used to indicate comparison in the same way as adjectives. They generally
form the comparative or superlative by adding more and most to the positive adverb.
Adverbs are used to indicate comparison in the same way as adjectives. They generally
form the comparative or superlative by adding more and most to the positive adverb.

Positiv Compa Superl

e rati ati
early earlier
ve earlies
ve
t
long longer longes
t
 bravel more most
y bra bra
careful morevel mostvel
ly care
y car
greedil morefull mostyefu
y gre
y gre
lly
edil edi
Exceptions: y ly

Positi Comp Super

ve ara lati
badly worse
tive worst
ve
well better best

5. Confusion between Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. Using adjectives to modify verbs, adverbs or
other adjectives is not Standard English.
E.g. He behaves strange. (not Standard
English)
He behaves strangely.
(Standard English)
After a few lessons Tom sang real well. (not Standard English)
After a few lessons Tom sang really well. (Standard English)
 Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that connects similar words or group of words
such as phrases, clauses and sentences.
1. Conjunctions
Conjunctions are connectors that link words, phrases, clauses o r sentences. There
are two main types of conjunctions: coordinating and subordinating
conjunctions.
Coordinating conjunctions join equivalent word classes, phrases or clauses.
Joined words
and phrases should be of the same class or type, and joined clauses should be
main clauses.
Coordination can take place between two or more main clauses.
E.g. Emily went to see a doctor and was given two days‟ medical leave but
went to work
anyway.
The main coordinating conjunctions are and, but and or.
Conjunctions are useful as they help avoid unnecessary repetition of words
or phrases.
E.g. It is a small kitchen. It is a practical kitchen→ It is a small but
practical kitchen.
John will inform you of the results. John‟s assistant will inform you
of the results.→John or his assistant will inform you of the results.
They gave their opinions. I gave my opinions.→They gave their opinions and I
gave
mine.
Coordinating conjunctions may be used in several ways.
1.1. Addition
The conjunction and connects words and phrases that are linked in
some way. E.g. Sam and I will not be attending the meeting.
The conjunctions both … and are used as a pair for emphasis.
E.g. Both the girls and I were eager to participate in the competition.
1.2. Contrast
The conjunctions but, though and so link words, phrases or clauses that have
contrasting
 meanings. In the case of clauses containing a contrasting idea, whereas and
while are used.
E.g. Slowly but surely the ancient temple was painstakingly rebuilt.
Jane, though looking better, is still feeling weak after the
operation. Alex ate too much at the buffet lunch, so he
skipped dinner.
Mrs Gopal is firm with her students whereas Mrs Chan tends to be more
lenient. While Stanley tended the garden, his wife baked a cake.

1.3. A Choice or Alternative

You use the conjunction or to link words, phrases or clauses that present a
choice or alternative.
E.g. Would you like to have dinner
now or later?
I‟ll contact you by
phone or email.
The pairs either … or and neither … nor are used to lend greater emphasis
to the alternatives.
E.g. Neither the boys nor Sally believes her story.

Either Meiling or Sharon is going to the airport today.

1.4. Cause and Effect
The coordinating conjunctions so and therefore link a cause to
its effect. E.g. He had worked hard, so his success was
not unexpected.
They heard the announcement on the radio and therefore took another route to
avoid the traffic jam.
Unlike coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions join an independent
clause to a dependent clause.
The dependent clause cannot stand on its own and often does not make sense
without the main clause.
Most subordinating conjunctions are single words, e.g. although, as, because, since,
when.
Although the journey to the disaster site was difficult, the vo lunteers want to
continue to support the project.
Since they refused to obey the school rules, the boys were suspended from school
for a
week.
Sarah was waiting for the bus to arrive when she fell.
However, some subordinating conjunctions consist more tha n one word, e.g.
except that, as long as, even if.
 E.g. Even if he gives me a lift, I am not going to
the funfair.
Except for Jane, all are expected at
the lunch.
She will be allowed to keep her pet as long as she looks after it
well. Even if he gives me a lift, I am not going to the
funfair.

These are some subordinating conjunctions that convey the following ideas:

Cause: since, because, so that

Concession and Comparison : although, as though,
even though Condition : even if, unless
Place : where, wherever
Time : after, as soon as, whenever

1.5. Correlative Conjunctions

Some conjunctions combine with other words to form correlative conjunctions.
They appear
together, joining various sentence elements that should be treated as
grammatically equal.
Some examples are both…and; not only, but also; either … or/neither … nor; whether … or.
Whether you win or lose this competition is not the issue; it‟s how hard
you‟ve tried. Using “like” as a Conjunction.
Although like is often used as a conjunction, this is regarded as rather informal and
should be avoided in formal writing.

E.g. He doesn‟t go out like he used to. (informal)

He doesn‟t go out the way he used to. (formal)
Instead of “Like I told you yesterday, we aren‟t going to the zoo today”, say “As
I told you yesterday, we aren‟t going to the zoo today”.
Instead of “It looks like it‟s going to rain”, say “It looks as if it‟s
going to rain”. Misuse of “either … or”
This construction presents a choice between two alternatives. However, the two
alternatives should belong to the same word class.
E.g. We can go to either Bangkok or Bali for our vacation this year. (Both are nouns.)
They can eat either now or after the show. (Both are adverbs.)
Sometimes either is placed in an incorrect position.
E.g. She can take either the exam or ask to be interviewed. (One is a noun - exam
- and the other is a verb - ask.)
The correct phrasing should be: She can either take the exam or ask to be
interviewed. (Both are verbs.)
Misuse of “due to”
Due to is often used in place of because of or as a result of. However, the correct
way to use
it is when it follows a noun or pronoun, i.e., in a sentence structure such as
“something is due
to...”.
Therefore, the sentence below is incorrect:
Our departure was delayed due to bad weather. It should be recast as:
The delay in our departure was due to bad weather.
Scientific presentation (Research report)
Conducting a research study involves a structured process with several key steps. Here is a
general outline of the steps involved in conducting a research:
1. Identify the research topic and question:
- Define the specific problem or question you want to investigate.
- Review the exiting literature to understand the current state of knowledge on the
topic.
2. Develop a research proposal:
- Outline the objectives, scope, and significance of the research
- Determine the appropriate research methodology (e.g. qualitative, quantitative, mixed
methods).
3. Collect data:
- Implement the chosen research methodology to gather relevant data (e.g. Literature
review, surveys, experiments, interviews, observations).
- Ensure the data collection process is systematic, accurate, and well documented
4. Analyse the data:
5. Write the research report:
- Structure the report according to the conventions of the specific discipline (e.g.
introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion).
- Present the research findings, interpretations, and conclusions clearly and logically
- Discuss the limitations of the study and future directions for future research
6. Disseminate the research findings.
- Present the research at conferences, workshops, or seminars.
- Publish the research in journals or any other appropriate outlets
- Share the findings with relevant stakeholders, such as policymakers, industry,
professionals, or the broader public.
 Chapter 2: Communication techniques in an Enterprise
Objective: This lesson has as objective to give you the fundamentals of
communication in an enterprise.
Content:
2.1 Management of crises between a manager and personnel
2.2 Launching of a new product
2.3 Job interview
2.4 Advertisement in an enterprise

2.1 Managing crises between a manager and personnel

Conflict resolution refers to the method of solving conflict between two or more individuals,
group of association, or organisation that was aroused as a consequence of some action through
some specified measures.
Managing crises between a manager and personnel requires careful communication
technique, conflict resolution skills and a focus on finding mutually beneficial solutions. Here are
some steps to help you.
- Recognise and acknowledge the crises: identify that there is a crises between the manager and
the personnel and do not under look the issue for it might escalate further.
- Encourage honest and open communication: create a save and non-threatening environment for
both parties to express their concerns. Active listening is crucial during this stage to ensure that
both sides feel heard and understood.
- Identify the underlying issues: Encourage the manager and the personnel to bring out the
specific issue they have with each other. This stage may help to reveal any issue that may be
contributing to the crises.
- Seek common ground: look for areas of agreement between the manager and the personnel.
Emphasise on the importance of collaboration and find solutions that benefit both parties and
the organisation as a whole. Encourage them to focus on the bigger picture rather than personal
differences.
- Mediation: In more complex situation it may be necessary to involve a neutral third party.
- Brainstorm and explore solutions: encourage the manager and personnel to generate potential
solutions together. This collaborative approach helps to foster a sense of commitment to the
resolution, encourage creativity and open-mindedness.
- Evaluate and choose the best solution: Review the proposed solutions and assess their
feasibility, impact, and alignment with organisational policies and values. Select the option that
provides the most equitable and sustainable resolution to the crises.
- Implement the solution: once the solution is selected, create an action plan. Ensure that both
the manager and personnel understand their responsibilities and are committed to
implementing the agreed-upon solution.
- Monitor progress and provide support: Regularly check in on the progress of the implemented
solution. Offer support, guidance and resources as needed to help both parties to adjust to any
changes or challenges that arise.
However, remember that managing crises requires patience and flexibility. It may take time to
rebuild trust and resolve deep-rooted conflicts. However, by actively addressing the issues and
 walking towards a mutually beneficial solution, you can help restore harmony and productivity
between the marginal and personnel.
It should be noted that conflict management techniques may not only solve conflict but can also
stimulate conflict if they are not used properly.

Difficulties encountered with conflict management

Managing conflicts can be challenging for a variety of reasons. Here are some of the
key difficulties that can arise when trying to manage conflict effectively:
1. Emotions and Biases: Conflicts often involve strong emotions like anger, frustration, and
resentment. These emotions can cloud judgement, lead to irrational thinking, and make it
difficult for parties to approach the conflict objectively.
2. Communication breakdowns: Miscommunication, misunderstandings, and the inability to listen
actively can exacerbate conflicts. Parties may talk past each other or make faulty assumptions.
3. Entrenched position: When people feel their core values, interests, or identities are being
threatened, they can become rigid in their positions, making it hard to find common ground.
4. Power imbalances: Conflict often involved parties with unequal power, which can make it
difficult for the weaker party to advocate for their needs.
5. Lack of trust: If there is a history of broken promises, betrayals, or resentment, it can be very
difficult for the parties to trust each other enough to engage in constructive dialogue.

2.2 Launching of a new product

Presenting a new product in the market effectively requires careful communication planning and
execution. Product launch can begin with a pilot program, also called a feasibility study. This is a
small –scale, short- term experiment that helps an organisation learn how a large -scale project
might work in practice (design to gather feedback). Here are some steps to help you prepare for
effective product presentation:
- Define your target audience: identify who your product is designed for. This will help you tailor
your presentation to suit your intended audience.
- Identify key benefits: determine the unique benefits of your product. What problem does it
solve? How does it improve the lives of your customers? Highlight the se key benefits and make
the focal point of your presentation.
- Craft a compelling story: develop a narrative around your product that engages and captivates
your audience. Tell a story that communicates the value and purpose of your product, and how
it addresses the needs of consumers.
- Create a visually appealing presentation: design a visually engaging presentation that showcases
your product effectively. Use high-quality images, videos, and other visual aids to demonstrate
the features and benefits of your product.
- Keep it concise and clear: keep your presentation concise and easy to understand. Avoid jargons
and technical terms that may confuse your audience. Clearly explain how your product stands
out from competitors.
- Provide demonstrations: whenever possible, provide live demonstrations of your product. This
allows your audience to see how it works in action and experiences its benefits firsthand.
- Participate and address questions: Prepare for any potential questions or concerns which your
audience may have. Be ready to provide clear and concise answers that alleviate any doubt or
objections. This demonstrates your knowledge and builds trust in your product.
- Highlight customer testimonials: if available, share testimonials from satisfied customers who
have already used your products. This adds credibility on your product as customers will
understand the real-world impact of your product.
- Emphasise your marketing and distribution strategy: Explain how you plan to market and
distribute your product.
- Engage with your audience: encourage interaction and engagement with your audience during
presentation. Asks questions, seek feedback, and address any concerns raised by your audience.
- Follow up: After the presentation, follow up with your audience to answer any additional
questions and provide further information. This demonstrates your commitment to customer
support and can help convert leads (potential customers) into actual customers.

Communication channels for product launch

Once you have defined your goal and audience, you need to choose the most effective channels to
communicate your product launch. There are many options available such as email, social
media, newsletter, press release, website etc.

2.3 Job interview

Interviews are conversations with purpose. For the employer the purpose is to determine the
most suitable person for the job. Interviews can take the following forms:
- Personal interview: It is also known as individual interview. In this kind of interview, there is a
face-to-face meeting between recruiter and the candidate. The aim of such an interview type is
to carefully scrutinise the candidate and ensure that he/she is suitable for the job. Questions
like, “Tell me about yourself” or “What your professional achievements are?” are often asked in
personal interview.
- Panel interview: In this type of interview there are many interviewers who assess the candidate.
All types of questions from the different experts are directed to the candidate. The decision in
such interviews is collective. In such interviews, the candidate is keenly observed based on their
skill set and body language.
- Structured interview: in such interviews the interviewers ask the same set of questions to all
candidates. These can be open-ended or closed-ended questions. If it is an open-ended
question, then there can be multiple answers for a single question but if it is a closed-ended
question, there will only be a single answer. In this case the interviewer compares candidates
based on their response to these questions.
- Unstructured interview: here, interviewers change questions based on the candidate’s response
to previous questions. There is no set format and there may be all type of interview questions
that you may not predict. The interviewer may already have questions or they might base them
on the interview process.
- Testing interview or task oriented interview: This type of interview is structured in a manner to
demonstrate your creative and analytical abilities of problem solving via several tasks and
exercises. This may include a short test for evaluating your technical skills and knowledge.

Things to avoid by a candidate at an interview

When you sit in an interview, do remember to avoid doing the following:
1. Avoid blaming your previous managers, colleagues and companies. This will leave a bad
impression on the interviewer.
2. Do not go unprepared without knowing about the company’s background if not the
interviewers will feel that you do not have any interest in knowing about the company.
3. Do not fidget with things, as it indicates a lack of self -confidence and concentration.
4. Stop checking time since it shows that you have somewhere to go, and you do not give
the interview much importance.
5. If asked about your weakness, do not say something bad about yourself. Discuss a
weakness and how you have worked to improve it.

Conducting a job interview involves several important steps to ensure that you gather the
necessary information about the candidate and make an informed hiring decision. Here is a
step-by-step guide on how an interviewer can conduct an interview.
Prepare in advance: Review the candidate’s resume, cover letter, and any other application
materials they have submitted. Familiarise yourself with the job description and the specific

- requirement of the role the candidate is applying for. Prepare a list of questions you want to ask
the candidate based on their qualification and the information you need to assess.
- Create a welcoming atmosphere: begin the interview by greeting the candidates warmly and
making the comfortable. Introduce yourself and explain the interview process.
- Start the interview with some general questions, then move on to more specific questions
related to the candidate’s skills, experience, and qualification. Open-ended questions are meant
to give you a deeper understanding on the abilities of the candidate.
- Listen actively. Pay close attention to the candidate’s responses and listen actively. Maintain eye
contact and node your head occasionally to show that you are engaged.
- Allow the candidate to ask questions.
- Inform the candidates about the next steps in the hiring process. Let them know when they can
expect to hear back from you and what the subsequent stages may involve.
- Thank the candidates for their time and participation in the interview
- Evaluate the candidate later. After the interview, review your notes and assess the candidate’s
responses against the job requirements and the qualities you are seeking.
- Contact the candidate to inform them of your decision if they have been

Some challenging questions asked during interview and how to handle them
1. Tell me about yourself.
Because this is often the opening question, be careful not to respond in haste. Keep your answer to
a minute or two and consider four topics:
Early years of working
Education
Work history
Recent career Experience
2. What can you do for us that someone else can’t?
Talk about your records of getting things done
Mention specifics from your resume
Say that your skills and interest, combined with history of getting things done, makes you
valuable
Mention your abilities to set priorities, identify problems, and use your experience and ability to
solve them.
3. Why should we hire you?
 Create your answers by thinking in terms of your ability, your experience, and your energy.
4. What do you know about our organisation?
You should be able to discuss the following:
Production services
Revenues
Reputation
Image
Goals
Management style
History and philosophy
However don’t act as if you know everything about the place. Make it clear that you wish to know
more.
5. Tell us why you want to work for us?
You might say your research has shown that the company is doing things you woul d like to be
involved with, and that it’s been doing them in ways that interest you.
If the company is known for strong management, your answer should be you would like to be
part of the team.
If the company puts a great deal of emphases on research and development, emphasise the fact
that you want to create new things and you know this is the place where inventiveness is.

3.4 Advertisement in an enterprise

Advertising is the practice of promoting products, services, or ideas through various media
channels in order to influence the behaviour and decision of target audiences. The main goals of
advertising are:
1. Informing – providing information about a product, service, or idea to potential customers.
2. Persuading – convincing people to take a desired action, such as making a message or changing
behaviour.
3. Reminding – keeping a brand with existing and potential customers.
Advertising utilises a wide range of media including television, radio, print (news papers, magazines),
outdoor (billboards, posters), digital (websites, social media, mobile), and direct- to – consumer
channels. The choice of media depends on factors such as the target audience, advertising
budget, and campaign objectives.

3.4.1 Key aspects to consider when it comes to advertising in business

Advertising is a crucial component of business marketing strategies. It involves promoting products,
services, or brands to a target audience with the aim of generating awareness, attracting
customers, and driving sales. Effective advertising can help business reach their target market,
differentiate themselves from competitors, and build a positive brand image. Here are some key
aspects to consider when it comes to advertising in business:
1. Define your target audience:
Before creating an advertising campaign, it’s important to identify and understand your target
audience. Determine who your ideal customers are based on factors such as demographics,
interests, behaviours, and needs. This will help you tailor your advertising messages and
channels to effectively reach your target audience.
 2. Set clear objectives: establish specific goals for your advertising efforts. These goals could
include increasing brand awareness, generating leads, boosting sales, or promoting a new
product or service. Defining clear objectives will guide your advertising strategy and enable you
to measure the success of your campaign.
3. Develop a compelling message: craft a compelling and persuasive message that communicates a
unique value of your product or service. Your message should highlight the benefits, solve
customer’s problems or address their needs. Use clear and concise language, and consider
incorporating emotional appeals or story telling techniques to engage your audience.
4. Choose the right advertising channels: There are numerous advertising channels available,
including traditional media such as television, radio, print, and outdoor billboards, as well as
digital channels like social media, search engine advertising, email marketing etc. Select the
channels that align with your target audience’s preferences and behaviours, as well as your
budget and advertising objectives.
5. Create visually appealing and impactful ads: irrespective of the channel you are using, your
advertising should be visually appealing and attention-grabbing. Use high quality images that
align with your brand identity. Consider placement of your logo and key message to ensure that
they are easily seen and remembered.
6. Monitor and measure results: regularly monitor and measure the performance of your
advertising campaign.
7. Adapt and optimise: advertising is an ongoing process that requires continuous evaluation and
adaptation. Stay informed about industry trends, consumer preferences, and changes in the
market place. Test different ad formats and channels to optimise your campaigns and maximise
their impact.
8. Consider legal and ethical considerations: ensure that your advertising complies with relevant
laws and regulations, including advertising standards, intellectual property rights, and privacy
regulations. Be transparent and honest in your communications and avoid making false or
misleading claims about your products or services.
Remember, effective advertising requires a deep understanding of your target audience, a
compelling message, strategic channel selection, and ongoing evaluation and optimisation. By
investing time and resources into advertising, businesses can effectively reach their audience,
build brand awareness, and drive business growth.

3.4.2 Ways to measure the effectiveness of advertising campaign

Advertisers use a variety of metrics and methods to measure the effectiveness of their
advertising campaigns. Some common ways to measure ad performance include:
1. Reach and impressions:
Reach - The total number of unique individuals or households exposed to the ad.
Impressions – The total number of times the ad is displayed or viewed.
These metrics indicate the scale and visibility of the advertising.
2. Conversion rate:
The percentage of ad viewers who take a desired action, such as making a purchase or signing up for
a service. This metric directly ties the ad to business outcomes.
3. Brand Awareness and Recall:
Surveys and brad studies can measure how well the ad increases awareness, recognition, and recall
of the advertised brand.
4. Sales lift:
The increase in sales or revenue directly attributable to the advertising campaign. This is a key
indicator of the ad’s impact on driving business results.
5. Return on investment:
Calculating the revenue generated against the cost of the advertising campaign. This helps to
determine the profitability and efficiency of advertising.
6. Click – Through rate (CTR):
For digital ads, the CTR measures the ratio of ads click to add impression. CTR can be used to gauge
how well your ads are performing. CRT is the number of clicks that your ad receives divided by
the number of times your ad is shown. A higher CTR suggests the ad is resonating with the
target audience.

Advertisers often use a combination of these metrics to evaluate the overall effectiveness of their
campaigns. They also use these to optimise future advertising strategies.

END