k .

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;ln ,.,- ' . , I<eys •¾

),. !3-
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=

If you did any ecology investigations in Unit 2, you had to try to identify the
organisms that you found. One way of doing this is to look for a picture of an
organism that looks like yours, in books or on the internet. Another way is to use
a key.

A key is a set of questions about the organism you want to identify. The answer to
each question takes you to another question. You work through all the questions
until you arrive at the name of the organism.
Here is a simple key to help someone to identify an invertebrate. (You will have to
imagine you have the whole animal to look at, not just these pictures.)

. .

t Does it have legs? ] 't

Yes
No
Does it have more than six legs? Is its body made up of rings?
r=
f 1-
Yes No Yes No
I I I
crab Does it have four earthworm slug
wings?

Yes
No
I I
dragonfly
housefly
To use the key:
• Choose one organism that you want to identify.
• Starting at the top of the key, answer the first question - yes or no?
• Follow the line to the next question, and keep going until you have the name
of the organism.

e 3 Variation and inheritance

 3.1 Keys if'@
Some keys are arranged differently. The idea is the same, but in this kind of key
you are given two statements, a and b. You choose which statement describes the
organism. Once you have made the choice, this leads you to another pair of choices.
I a has legs
go to 2
b does not have legs
... go to
2 a has six legs 3
b has more than six legs go to 4
crab
3 a body is made up of rings...........earthworm
b body is not made up of rings.....slug
4 a has four wings........................... dragonfly
b has two wings............................ housefly
For example, to identify the dragonfly, you would
work through these statements: 1a, 2a, 4a.

Constructing keys
Imagine you are going to write a key to identify these
four students.
Step 1: Think of a way that you can split the Deidre
Ben
students into two groups. For example, you
could split them into male and female students.
So your first question could be:
Is the student male?
Step 2: Now take just one of these groups - say
both of the female students. Think of another
way to split them into two. For example, you
could use the colour of their hair. Anna Ari

-
1 Copy and complete this key. Your key should enable
Is the student male?
(permit) someone else to identify the four students.
2 Write another key to identify the four students, but
this time use the style of key that has two statements, No
Yes
a and b, to choose from.

II
1
You could use the same features as in the key you
wrote for Question 1, or you could set yourself a
challenge and use different pairs of features.

.
(
-- ·-- ·-- -
! Summary
' • A key is a method of id ntifying an unknown . (.
organism.
• A key has a . ries of questions 9rstatements. which,yoµ yvork thro,µgb.; ...
se _equ nceito ffn he-nam'e ti°e•organfsrri\--.. :! --- "' " , •• • • -
. Jn,:.s
 -
3Variation and nher tc?nLE"
 ,r, 3• ,jVariation
--:

.
--

·
-
..

�
'

"
In Stage 7, you learnt that living organisms are classified into
species. A species is a group of organisms that share the same
features, and that can breed together to produce fertile
offspring.
Although all the members of a species share the same features,
no two individuals are ever exactly alike. The differences
between the individuals within a species are called variation.
All of these snails are the same species.

The Latin name of the species of snail shown in the photograph is

-
1
Cepaea nemoralis.
a VVhy do scientists give species Latin names?
b Snails are eaten by birds. Snails with plain yellow or cream shells are
generally found in dry grass, while snails with stripes are often found
\.._ in woodland. Suggest why.
(

•
\'

Inthis activity, you are going to measure and record the variation in wrist
circumference in your class. If you have forgotten about tally charts and
frequency diagrams, you may need to look back at the work you did in Stage 7.
1 Measure the circumference of the right wrist of every person in your class.
Write down your measurements in a list. Remember to write down the
units you have used for your measurements.
2 Use your measurements to calculate the mean (average) wrist circumference
of the people in your class.
3 Draw a results table like this. You may need to change the numbers in the
first column a little, to fit the range of measurements you have found. (Have
a look at the smallest and largest measurements you have made.)

Wrist circumference/ cm Tally Number of people

8.0-8.9
9.0-9.9
10.0-10.9
11.0-11.9

12.0-12.9
13.0-13.9
14.0-14.9
15.0-15.9
16.0-16.9

C:, 3
1

Variation and
inheritance
continued ...
 3.2 Variation r@
... crmtinued
4 Put a mark in the appropriate 'Tally'
column for each wrist circumference
you have measured. Add up all the
tally marks for each row, and write
the number in the 'Numbers' column.
5 Now you are ready to draw a frequency number
diagram of your results. The wrist of
people
circumference should go on the
horizontal axis, and the number of
people on the vertical axis.
6 Draw bars to show the number of
people in each size range. The
bars should touch each other. wrist circumference / cm

A1 What is the overall range of wrist circumference in your class (that is, the
smallest and the largest measurements)?
A2 Which wrist circumference is the most common in your class·?
A3 Describe any patterns that you can see in your results.

What causes variation?

Why do the people in your class have different sizes of wrist?
Part of the reason is that you have different genes. Your genes determine many
different things about you - such as whether you are male or female, or what
colour hair you have.
Another reason is your environment. This means anything around you that affects
you or the kind of lifestyle that you live. For example, a person who uses their hands
and arms to do heavy work may have very large wrists. Someone who did not get
enough to eat when they were growing up may have very small wrists.

-
••
2S u g g e s t two features of humans that are caused by their genes, and are not
affected by their environment.
3 Suggest two features of humans - other than wrist circumference - that
are affected by both genes and environment.

Summary
• The differences between the individuals in a species are
calledvariation.
• Variation is caused !by genes and ;by -environment.
- ;,...,. ,._ - • . : ..:;:._._,t._. '
,t _
"l,;.;.,:,r:: · . ·-.·.. :.. . . .
.....

3 Variation a11d inheritance

...:A.•- ':? .3· Inheritance
·i -

Everyone knows that offspring tend to be like their parents.

But why is this? And why are they not ever exactly thesame?
Each of the animals in the photographs has inherited many
of its features from its parents. Inheritance is the passing of
features from parents to their offspring.

A family of cats. A family of elephants. Giraffes always give birth to

giraffes, not to horses or tigers.

1 List three features that the young giraffe has inherited from its parents.
2 List three features that the kittens have inherited from their parents.

Genes
You are human because you inherited human G 3 Variation and inheritance
features from your parents. An animal that
belongs to one species always gives birth to
young that belong to the same species.
This happens because each animal has a set
of instructions in its cells. These instructions
are called genes. The genes determine the
characterist-ics of the animal. They provide
a set of instructions for building an animal
belonging to a particular species.
All organisms have genes. Plants, bacteria and
fungi all have genes.
Genes are passed on (transferred) to offspring
from parents. Half of your genes came from
your father, and half from your mother. This
is why children tend to have some
characteristics like their father, and some like
their mother.
In each generation, children inherit genes from both of
their parents.
 )\
3.3 Inheritance (

Genes and environment

As we have seen, your genes are not the only reason for why you are you. Your
environment also has a big effect.
For example, a child might inherit the genes to grow tall from his parents. But if he
does not get enough to eat while he is a small child, then he may not grow tall.
Some of your characteristics are to do with your behaviour, not what you look like.

Hola! Me
llamo Rafaela. Hi! My name's Brad.

The gorilla cannot speak words. She does not have genes to build a brain and vocal
chords that can produce speech. Rafaela and Brad do have these genes, so they can
both talk. But they speak in different ways because they have grown up in different
environments. Rafaela's family speak Spanish. Brad has grown up in an English
speaking family.

3 The twins in the photograph have identical genes.

1 \
Describe three features of the twins in the photograph that are caused by
their genes.
4 Describe three of their features that are caused by their environment.

3 Vanatio'l and 1nl-ienta1•cf> @

 ----=- ...
f1 /3:-·4 More about inheritance _,

Genes and chromosomes

Your genes are found inside the nucleus
of every cell in your body. The genes
are found on long threads called
( 1111111 lID1JI[]][[]l 111111111[
.1
chromosomes. Genes and chromosomes
Each chromosome is a long chain of hundreds of
are made of a chemical called DNA.
different genes.

Each gene is a sel of instructions for the

cell. The gene tells the cell how to make a
particular substance. All the cells in your
body have the same genes, so they all have
the same sets of instructions.
For example, one of your genes has
instructions for making the pigment (colour)
of your hair. Another one has instructions
for making the shape of your nose.
Most genes have two or more different forms.
#-;"•
For example, the gene with the instructions
for making hair pigment in humans has
many different forms. There are forms that The gene that gives instructions for growing hair in
produce blonde hair brown hair, red hair guinea pigs has two forms. One form produces smooth
and black hair. hair, and the other produces rough hair.

1 In which part of a cell is DNA found? l

2 Explain the difference between a gene and a chromosome.
3 Which form of the hair colour gene do you have?

(t;-r.?mfflrn

You are going to design and make a model of a cell containing chromosomes.
Here are some decisions to make before you begin.
• Will you make a 2D model (for example, sticking things onto a sheet of paper)
or a 3D model?
• How will you show the outside of the cell- the cell surface membrane?
• How will you model the nucleus of the cell?
• What will you use to model the chromosomes?
• How many chromosomes will you put into your cell?
• How will you show the different genes on the chromosomes?

e 3 Variation and inheritance

 )\
3.4 More about inheritance if

P;1s:-;ins on genes
chromosome
As you grow, your cells divide to make more and
more cells. Each time a cell divides, a complete
set of chromosomes and genes is passed on to
genes
each daughter (new) cell.
But where did your very first cell come from?
You began your life as a zygote. This is a
cell that was made when the nucleus of your
father's sperm cell and your mother's egg

i\
cell fused together. The sperm cell contained
chromosomes and genes from your father. The
egg cell contained chromosomes and genes from
your mother. Exactly half of your chromosomes
and genes came from each of your parents.

When a cell divides, the daughter cells

inherit exactly the same genes as the
I • \ parent cell.

"&r-
At fertilisation, the chromosomes of
the male parent combine with the
chromosomes of the female parent.
•
So your genes are a mixture of ones that came
from your father, and ones that came from \l "A
your mother. They can mix up in almost any
combination. You might have a gene from your
father that gave you curly hair, and a gene
from your mother that helped to make you
I
good Children inherit half of their genes from each of
at running. their parents.

3
r-
Varlat,on and nhi>ritance
 - ,3· ·1:
(" ' •ca, _.J • .J
Selective breeding i. ill
- _--:==
..
Water buffalo are kept in many parts of the world. They are
used to pull carts and ploughs, to produce milk and to
produce meat.
Originally, water buffalo were wild animals. People began
to domesticate water buffalo about 5000 years ago.
'Domesticating' a type of animal means taming it, so that
you can keep it and use it.
We think that the people who first domesticated water buffalo
Wild water buffalo.
took care about which ones they allowed to breed together.
Wild buffalo are very large and can be aggressive.
People probably chose to breed together buffalo that
were not too big, and that were docile (calm) animals.
They carried on doing this, generation after generation.
These features of the water buffalo were affected by the
forms of genes that they had. The chosen parent buffalo
passed on their genes to their offspring.
Of course, the early farmers did not know anything
about genes. They just knew that small, calm water
buffalo tended to have small, calm offspring. Over time,
and many
A domesticated water buffalo in
generations, the water buffalo became gradually smaller and
the Philippines.
more docile.

Breeding sheep C, 3 Variation and inheritance

Let's say that you have a flock of sheep. You
want to improve the length of the wool that
your sheep produce. This is what you would
do.
• Choose the rams (male sheep) and ewes
(female sheep) that have the longest wool.
• Breed these rams and ewes together. You
would not let any of the other sheep breed
together.
• When the offspring of your chosen rams and
ewes have grown up, choose the ones with the
longest wool. Allow them to breed together.
• You would keep doing this for many
generations.
This process is called selective breeding.
Eventually - with much patience, and after
many years - you should end up with a flock
of sheep with longer wool than the ones you
began with.
 We think that the mouflon was the wild
sheep from which all today's breeds of
sheep have been produced.

The Merino breed has been

produced by selective breeding for
sheep that
•;n,··- , ,....,... produce thick, fine wool.

The Assaf breed has been produced

by selective breeding for sheep that
produce lots of milk and good quality
meat.
 f)
3.5 Selective breeding if

0 1 Wheat is a crop that is grown in many different countries. The seed heads of
wheat plants are called ears. The seeds are called grain. Wheat grain is used to
make flour.
The first photograph shows one of the ancestors of modern wheat. The second
photograph shows a modern variety (breed) of wheat.

a What differences can you see between the old type of wheat and

•
the modern wheat?
b Explain how the modern variety of wheat could have been produced.
2 Imagine you are a farmer with a herd of goats, which you keep to produce
milk. You want to build up a herd of goats that produce more milk.
Describe what you would do. (Take care - remember that only females
will produce milk! Males do not produce milk.)

This scientist is trying to produce better varieties

of wheat. She is rubbing pollen from the flowers
of one plant onto the stigmas of another plant.
Can you suggest why she is keeping the plants
in a laboratory, rather than outside?

3 Variation ard inheritance (G

(t;1·
-
J.6
,• Natural selection L..._:::J...... I ...J ■

We have seen how selective breeding can, over time, produce new varieties of animals
and plants. Can a similar process happen in the wild, without any involvement of
humans?
Let's think about how this might work. We will use an imaginary example.

Long ago, in a population of giraffes, some had long necks and some had short
necks. This was because they had different forms of a gene. The giraffes ate leaves
on trees.

0
� 1
'
0

w
J

One year, there was a severe drought. Food was in short supply. When all the lower
leaves had been eaten, only the long-necked giraffes could get food.

Most of the short-necked giraffes died. Only the long-necked giraffes survived.

The long-necked giraffes reproduced. Their offspring inherited the genes for long necks.

1 From the giraffe story, give an example of each of the following:

a variation
b adaptation
a a factor affecting the size of a population.
e) 3 Variation and inheritance
 3.6 Natural selection ( !@
ro, 1pi-irg electivP breeding and ,atural selection
The way in which the length of giraffes' necks may have changed is called natural selection.
Natural selection is similar to the process of selective breeding. The table shows some ways
in which they are similar - but not quite the same.

Selective breeding Natural selection

To begin with, there is a population of organisms To begin with, there is a population of organisms that
that show variation. The variation is partly caused show variation. The variation is partly caused by their
by their genes. genes.
People choose individuals that have characteristics Individuals that have characteristics that provide the
that they want. best adaptations to their habitat are more likely to
survive.
Only the individuals with the characteristics Only individuals with the best adaptations survive long
that people want are allowed to breed. enough to breed.
These individuals pass on their genes, and there- These individuals pass on their genes, and therefore
fore their characteristics,to their offspring. their characteristics, to their offspring.

2 Use the table to find two differences between selective breeding and natural selection.

Mountain hares live in places that get very cold

in winter. Most mountain hares have coats that
are brown in summer and turn white in winter.
This camouflages them from foxes and other
predators.
Some mountain hares have coats that do not turn
white in winter. They stay brown. A mountain A mountain hare
hare in winter. in summer.
In your group, use the theory of natural selection to
discuss what might happen to mountain hare coats if
global warming happens.
Make a presentation, or construct a poster, to
explain your ideas.
-- . -- - - --- - -- -

: uffimary ( (. ..
• olTle ofthe variationbetween organisms is caused by their genes.
• lndivid ualsthathave variations that best adapt them to their
e yJ 2!!rne-rtt1 ir ,:mq_s,!..likely to,s_urvi_veand
• .!ifhese individualsreproduce.
pass o_ jr1 gene to3t ir offsp in . The
m yh _r.i!t e-nes for these offspring
ada tation·s j:.' . _ . _
• itilsP.rocess.1s named natur.al s.elect1on. ,..:.-...,;. --

3 Variation and inheritance l9

I.:
P- ;'.]! 7' Natural selection in action Er:'-1:
·--=- ----- ---

Theexamples of how giraffes might have got their long necks, and how the coats
of mountain hares might change, are just theories. We don't have any evidence that
this is actually what happens.
However, scientists have now found many examples of natural selection happening.
Here are two of them.

Bacteria and antibiotics

In Stage 7, you learnt that antibiotics are drugs that we can take to kill bacteria that
are causing disease in our bodies.
There are many different antibiotics. But doctors are finding that many antibiotics do
not work any more. Bacteria have become resistant to them.
This is what has happened.
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In a population of bacteria, not every one Antibiotic is added, The resistant one can now
is alike. By chance, one may have a which kills the bacteria multiply and form a population of

•
gene that makes it resistant to an that are not resistant. resistant bacteria just like itself.
antibiotic.

1 Explain what is meant when we say that bacteria have become 'resistant'
to an antibiotic.
2 Scientists say that we should try not to use antibiotics for mild illnesses.
We should save them for when people have serious illnesses. Suggest an

l explanation for this advice.

Peppered moths
Peppered moths live in England. Most peppered G 3 Variation and inheritance
moths have pale wings, but some have dark wings.
Peppered moths rest on tree trunks. They are hunted
and eaten by birds. The pale colour of peppered
moths camouflages them perfectly against tree trunks
that have lichens growing on them. (Lichen is an
organism that grows on rocks and trees, especially
where the air is unpolluted.)
The dark and pale varieties of the peppered
moth.
 3.7 Natural selection in action ( ®
Until the year 1849, almost all peppered moths
were pale. Then more and more dark ones began to
appear. By 1900, almost all of the peppered moths
near some English cities were dark ones.
During this time, industry was developing rapidly in
England. Many factories burnt coal, which produced
smoke. The smoke polluted the air. It killed lichens,
and made tree trunks dark.
Scientists have done experiments which show that Can you spot the moth?
birds can see light moths more easily than dark moths,
when they are resting on dark tree trunks.
Now we can explain why the dark variety of the
moths became more common. As the tree trunks got
darker, the pale moths were not well camouflaged.
Many of them were killed and eaten by birds.
But the birds could not see the dark moths. The dark
moths were more likely to survive than the light ones.
The dark moths reproduced, and passed on the gene
for their dark colour to their offspring. This illustration was drawn in the middle
of the nineteenth century. It shows steel
Each generation, more dark moths were born and factories in the town of Sheffield, England.
fewer pale moths.
Today, pollution has greatly decreased in England.
J·.
.
Factories arc not allowed to pollute the air. Tree
trunks are covered by pale-coloured lichens again. , .:·:. .:r-, .•

Almost all peppered moths found today are pale.

···•, /)t.
-- \-:i ·
f,

Dark and pale varieties of the

peppered moth on a dark tree trunk.

- 3 Use the ideas of natural selection to explain why most peppered moths
in England today are pale, not dark.

Summary
- -- --- ---. --- --
(·
• When antibiotics are used, any bacteria that have a gene.that • •
makes them resistantto,the antibiotic survive and reproduce: Natural
sel!!Ction · -i i\PO.p!Jla!lQ_ _ilof1J i 'l!£ J) -J£'.p..r d: ,.,
• •: at selec ark vanet1es of the pepl'.!eredlmoth to· •
llecome]morekornmonlinlEDgland during the nineteentli century.

r-
3 Variation and inheritance
- -
Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, in England, in

1809. Although he trained to be a doctor, he always had G) 3 Variation and
a great interest in the natural world around him. He was inheritance
very observant, and made records of many of the plants
and animals that he saw in his garden and on his travels.
Darwin corresponded with many other scientists, with
whom he remained friends for much of his life. One
of
these was Charles Lyell. In 1830, Lyell published a book
called Principles ef Geology. In this book, Lyell
suggested that the mountains and valleys that we see
today have
not always been there, and they will change in the future.
Lyell also thought that the fossils which people found in
rocks were remains of different kinds of organisms that
had lived millions of years ago. These were both new
ideas. Most people thought that rocks and species were
unchanging.
In 1831, Charles Darwin began a five-year voyage as the
naturalist on board the ship The Beagle. He visited many
countries in South America, as well as the Galapagos
Islands in the Pacific Ocean. He took Lyell's book
with him. He began to think that, if mountains and
rocks could change over time, then perhaps species of
organisms could change, too.
Darwin was particularly interested in the species of birds
that he saw in the Galapagos Islands. Each island seemed
to have its own set of species, and most of the species
were slightly different on each island. Each finch was
adapted for a slightly different lifestyle. For example, some
had thick, strong beaks for eating large seeds, while others
had thinner beaks, better for eating small seeds or insects.
,,Vhen he eventually arrived home, Darwin began to
develop an idea. Perhaps all of the different species of
finches on the different islands in the Galapagos had
developed from one original species. But at first he could
not work out how this could have happened.
In 1855, Darwin took up pigeon breeding. This was a
popular hobby in England. Many different varieties of
pigeons had been produced, but no-one had kept records
of where they all came from. Darwin had the idea that
they had all been developed from a species of wild
pigeon, the rock dove. He began to see a way in which
the different species of finches on the Galapagos Islands
migbt have developed.
A portrait of Charles Darwin made in
1840, when he was 31 years old.

An engraving of The Beagle, sailing through the Straits of Magellan.

J
Darwin thought that all of these different species of finches might all have
come from the same ancestor.
 Ji
3.8 Charles Darwin f

In 1859, another book containing new ideas was published. The

author was Thomas Malthus. Malthus suggested that the population

r
of humans on Earth could not grow for ever. Eventually, he wrote,
there would not be enough food for us all.
This was another important piece in the puzzle. Now Darwin
thought that he could see the steps that could lead to the evolution of ;f,,

a new species. In 1859, he published his most famous book, The

Origi,n
ef Species.
These were the main points in his theory:

-
• The organisms in a species are not all exactly the same as - " .........ii
each other. They show variation. . J ·""' j'.j.\,.•
·+
• Many organisms will not survive until adulthood. They may be - -1-\:
killed by predators, die of disease, or not be able to get enough . .....
, , . . ... , ..
, .... . .. . .. .. . •-, .. , --
.,... ........... . ........... ,-- .,_ ..,.. . ......,......
--·•-···- .... ,
....
• . ·, .. ;, .1 1,
' •--••
,; :: _;-.-. t' ·.:::--:;, ;:::..::-.._, :; _:,.,•: "',. -:.-.:._,:." ::":',.,¥,;,_--:.
to cat. . .
.

• The individuals that have variations that make them best adapted This poster, printed in 1891,
to their habitat are the ones that have the best chance of surviving. shows some of the many pigeon
• The best-adapted organisms are therefore the ones that are most breeds that existed in Darwin's
likely to breed and have offspring. time.
• The offspring will inherit some of the features of their parents.
• If this continues, generation after generation, then there could
be a change in the species over time. Eventually, it could
change so much that it would be a different species.
Darwin called his theory natural selection. This is the term
that we still use today.

• In your group, look at each of the steps in Darwin's theory. For each step, discuss
what you think helped him to think out his theory.
Some people in the group could research some more information about this,
using the library or the internet.
Now plan how you can present your ideas to the rest of the class. For example,
you could draw a big mind map, or write your ideas down in words.

E
(J
Summary
• Darwin was the first person to suggest a way in which one
species
could change into another species.
• Darwin put forward {proposed) the theory of natural _.
selection _ best 1

•• The theory
_-•_ .,
of natural.selection
:_,_ -- ._"' --
states
.,.n,.·
thatthe
•
individuals that are
- ..--:_·_•.... i--- -;_- •-....
.-->.._;,;,_·;;::,
.,-._,J!:...,

;adaP.ted]2,..their,environ_ment are.the_on !tJa e!mostUikely.to 1>"ass;

feafu1ksJo thnext geneia_tion.

r-
3 Variation and inherita:ice
-{T
"( -.- ,, -;:,- = ~- --- -

3.1 Choose the word that matches each of these descriptions. You can use each word
once, more than once or not at all.
cytoplasm
DNA environment fertilisation gene
inheritance
nucleus protein unit variation
a The chemical from which chromosomes are made.
b The part of a cell in which chromosomes are found.
c Part of a chromosome that determines one particular characteristic of an organism.
d The passing on of genes from parents to their offspring.
e Differences between organisms belonging to the same species. [5]

3.2 The photograph shows six flowers A-F

Complete the key, to allow someone to identify each of the flowers. The Latin names
of the flowers are:
A Limnanthes B Viola C Potentilla D Lunaria
E Erodium F Silene
1 a flower has four petals........................Lunari.a
b flower has more than four petals......go to 2
2 a
b [5]
C) 3 Variation and inheritance
 if I @
) l
3 End of unit questions

3.3 Pedro wants to breed strawberry plants that have larger fruits.
He chooses five of his strongest strawberry plants and plants them in the same
part of his garden. When they produce fruits, he collects the fruits and finds the
mean mass of the fruit from each plant.
These are his results.
Plant A Plant B Plant C Plant D Plant E
Mean mass 23.8 24.2 21.3 26.2 25.9
of one fruit/ g

a Explain why it was important for Pedro to plant all five plants in the
same part of his garden. [2]
b Describe how Pedro could find the mean mass of one fruit on Plant A. [2]
C Which two plants should Pedro breed together? [l]
d Pedro breeds the two plants together by taking pollen from one of them
and brushing it onto the stigma of the other one. Explain why he does [3]
this. [3]
e Suggest what Pedro should do nexl.

3.4 A bacterium called Staphyloccus pneumoniae is a major cause of a serious

infection of the lungs, called pneumonia. The graph shows the percentage of
cases of pneumonia in which the bacteria were resistant to penicillin (an
antibiotic).

20

18

16

percentage 14

of cases of 12
penicillin-
resistant
10

pneumonia 8

0,
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
year

a What is an antibiotic? PJ
b Describe the trend shown in the graph. [l]
C Suggest how natural selection has caused this trend. [3]
3 Variation dnd inheritance
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·1
,