上海交通大学继续教育学院 A Level 国际课程中心

Edexcel As Chemistry
Unit 1 The core principles of chemistry
Practice book
 目 录

Chapter 1 Atomic structure and the periodic table ............................................................. 2

1.1 Atomic structure ............................................................................................................ 2
1.2 Isotopes ........................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Mass spectrum ............................................................................................................... 8
1.4 Electronic configuration ............................................................................................ 15
1.5 The periodic table and electronic configuration ................................................. 20
1.6 Ionisation energy ......................................................................................................... 23
Chapter 2 Formulae, equations and amounts of substances ........................................ 31
2.1 Formulae and equations ............................................................................................ 31
2.2 The moles ...................................................................................................................... 32
2.3 Concentration ............................................................................................................... 39
2.4 Empirical and molecular formulae .......................................................................... 45
2.5 Yield, purity and atom economy .............................................................................. 48
Chapter 3 Bonding ..................................................................................................................... 54
3.1 Ionic bond ...................................................................................................................... 54
3.2 Covalent bond .............................................................................................................. 57
3.3 Metallic bond ................................................................................................................ 61
Chapter 4 Enthalpy changes ................................................................................................... 66
4.1 Exothermic and endothermic ................................................................................... 66
4.2 standard enthalpy change......................................................................................... 67
4.3 Measuring enthalpy changes ................................................................................... 69
4.4. Hess’s law .................................................................................................................... 78
4.5 bond enthalpy............................................................................................................... 88
4.6 Lattice energy ............................................................................................................... 92
Chapter 5-7 Organic chemistry............................................................................................. 102
5.1 Hazard and risk .......................................................................................................... 102
5.2 Types of formulae ...................................................................................................... 102
5.3 IUPAC nomenclature................................................................................................. 104
5.4 Isomerism .................................................................................................................... 106
5.5 alkanes ......................................................................................................................... 109
5.6 Alkenes ......................................................................................................................... 116

1
Chapter 1 Atomic structure and the periodic table

1.1 Atomic structure

1. Which of the following is not a subatomic particle?

A proton B isotope
C neutron D electron

2. Why are atoms neutral?

A The number of protons equals the number of electrons.
B All the particles in atoms are neutral.
C The number of protons equals the number of neutrons
D Electrons and protons neutralize each other to become neutrons.

3. Which one of the following always gives the number of neutrons present in an atom.
A Number of protons plus number of electrons.
B Mass number minus atomic number.
C Relative atomic mass minus number of protons.
D Number of charged particles minus the number of electrons.

4. Compared to an electron, a neutron has

A the same charge and about the same mass B no charge and a much greater mass
C the opposite charge and much less mass D no charge and much less mass
E the opposite charge and a much greater mass

5. In the periodic table, the elements are arranged in order of increasing

A Number of neutrons B Number of protons
C Ionization energy D Density

6. The nucleus of a 2311Na atom contains

A 11 protons and 12 neutrons.
B 11 protons and 12 electrons.
C 23 protons and 11 neutrons.
D 23 protons and 11 electrons.

7. An isotope of an element, atomic number z, has mass number 2z + 4. How many

neutrons are in the nucleus of the element?
Az+4
Bz+2
Cz
D4

2
8. Which of the following does not have exactly 10 electrons?
A An ion of fluorine, F–
B A molecule of methane, CH4
C A molecule of nitrogen, N2
D An ion of sodium, Na+

9. Which pair of ions is isoelectronic?

A Ca2+ and O2–
B Na+ and O2–
C Li+ and Cl–
D Mg2+ and Cl–

10. Which of the following species contains the same number of electrons as neutrons?
A 511B
B 1123Na+
C 1224Mg2+
D 919F–

2014.5.23
This question concerns the Periodic Table.
(a) An atom of argon has mass number 40. Complete the table below showing the
numbers of sub-atomic particles in this atom of argon. Use the Periodic Table as a source
of data. (1)

(b) An atom of potassium has mass number 39. Explain why argon is placed before
potassium in the modern Periodic Table. (1)

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

3
1.2 Isotopes

1. One isotope of iron has the symbol 56Fe. How many protons, neutrons and electrons
are there in one atom of this isotope?
protons neutrons electrons
A 26 26 26
B 26 30 30
C 26 30 26
D 30 26 30

2. Isotopes differ in
A atomic number B number of neutrons
C number of electrons D number of protons

3. The isotopes of magnesium, 2412Mg and 2512Mg, both form ions with charge 2+. Which
of the following statements about these ions is true?
A Both ions have electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2.
B 2512Mg 2+ has more protons than 2412Mg 2+.
C The ions have the same number of electrons but different numbers of neutrons.
D The ions have the same number of neutrons but different numbers of protons.

4. The relative atomic mass is defined as

A the mass of an atom of an element relative to 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
B the mass of an atom of an element relative to the mass of a hydrogen atom.
C the average mass of an element relative to 1/12 the mass of a carbon atom.
D the average mass of an atom of an element relative to 1/12 the mass of a carbon12
atom.

5. Which of the following represents a pair of isotopes?

A 146C and 147N
B 3216S and 3216S2–
C O2 and O3
D 20682Pb and 20882Pb

6. The new element canadium has only two stable isotopes, 290124Cn and 300124Cn, with
relative abundances of 25% and 75%, respectively. The relative atomic mass of
canadium is
A 292.0 B 292.5 C 295.0 D 297.5 E 298.0

10 11
7. The relative atomic mass of boron, which consists of the isotopes 5 B and 5 B is 10.8.

11
What is the percentage of 5 B atoms in the isotopic mixture?

A. 0.8% B. 8.0% C. 20% D. 80% E. 92%

4
8. The relative molecular mass of a molecule of chlorine is 72.
Which properties of the atoms in this molecule are the same?
1 radius
2 nucleon number
3 relative isotopic mass
A 1, 2 and 3 are correct B 1and 2 only are correct
C 2 and 3 only are correct D 1only is correct

32 32
9. Which of the following statements about the two isotopes 15 P and 16 S are correct?

1. The phosphorus atom has more neutrons than the sulphur atom.
32 32
2. If a neutron is added to the nucleus of 15 P, 16 S is produced.

3. Both contain 32 electrons.

A 1, 2 and 3 are correct B 1and 2 only are correct
C 2 and 3 only are correct D 1only is correct E 3 only is correct

60
10. The isotope cobalt-60 ( 27 Co ) is used to destroy cancer cells in the human body.

Which statements about an atom of cobalt-60 are correct?

1. It contains 33 neutrons.
2. Its nucleus has a relative charge of 27+.
3. It has a different number of neutrons from the atoms of other isotopes of cobalt.
A 1, 2 and 3 are correct B 1and 2 only are correct
C 2 and 3 only are correct D 1only is correct E 3 only is correct

2012.5.21
(a) Define the term relative isotopic mass. (2)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(b) Naturally occurring chlorine contains 75.53% of 35Cl and 24.47% of 37Cl.
(i) Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine to four significant figures. (2)

5
2013.1.19
Hydrogen has three isotopes, 1H, known as protium, 2H, deuterium, and 3H, tritium.
(a) In terms of sub-atomic particles, give the similarities and differences between atoms of
these three isotopes of hydrogen. (3)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(b) When a nitrogen atom collides with a high energy neutron, one atom of tritium and one
atom of another element are formed. Complete the equation below. (1)

(d) Tritium is not usually included in calculations of the relative atomic mass of hydrogen,
because it is radioactive and has a relatively short half-life.
Calculate the relative atomic mass of hydrogen with the following isotopic composition.
Give your answer to four decimal places. (2)

2013.5.18
The radioactive isotope iodine-131, 13153I, is formed in nuclear reactors providing nuclear
power. Naturally occurring iodine contains only the isotope, 12753I.
(a) Complete the table to show the number of protons and neutrons in these two isotopes. (2)

(b) When iodine-131 decays, one of its neutrons emits an electron and forms a proton.
Identify the new element formed by name or symbol. (1)

..........................................................................................................................................
(c) The problem with radioactive iodine is that it accumulates in humans in the thyroid
gland. Its absorption can be reduced by taking an appropriate daily dose of a soluble
iodine compound.
Suggest a suitable iodine compound which could be used. (1)
..........................................................................................................................................

6
(d) Nuclear power stations are often proposed as suitable alternatives to those burning
coal, gas or oil.
Suggest a country where, because of its location, the dangers of nuclear power may
outweigh the advantages. Justify your answer. (1)

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................
2014.5R.19
(ii) A sample of potassium has the following composition.

Calculate the relative atomic mass of this sample of potassium, giving your answer to two
decimal places. (2)

(iii) Complete the table below to show the numbers of sub-atomic particles in an atom of
each of the isotopes 39K and 41K. (1)

7
1.3 Mass spectrum

1. In a mass spectrometer, positive ions are accelerated by

A bombarding them with fast-moving electrons.
B bombarding them with fast-moving protons.
C passing them between charged plates.
D passing them through a magnetic field.

2. The correct sequence for the processes that occur in a mass spectrometer is
A vaporization, ionization, acceleration, deflection and detection.
B vaporization, acceleration, ionization, deflection and detection.
C ionization, vaporization, acceleration, deflection and detection.
D ionization, vaporization, deflection, acceleration and detection.

3. The mass spectrum for a sample of a metal is shown below.

The relative atomic mass of the metal is

A 63.2
B 63.4
C 63.6
D 64.0

8
4. The mass spectrum of an element is shown below.

The relative atomic mass of the element is

A 69.4
B 69.8
C 70.0
D 70.2

5. An element X consists of four isotopes. The mass spectrum of X is shown in the

diagram

What is the relative atomic mass of X?

A 91.00 B 91.30 C 91.75 D 92.00

9
6. Which of the following ions would undergo the greatest deflection in a mass
spectrometer?
A 35Cl2+
B 35Cl+
C 37Cl+
D 35Cl37Cl+

7. Which of the following ions would be deflected least in a mass spectrometer?

A 35Cl+
B 35Cl2+
C 37Cl+
D 37Cl2+

8. Chlorine has two isotopes with relative isotopic mass 35 and 37. Four m/z values are
given below. Which will occur in a mass spectrum of chlorine gas, Cl2, from an ion
with a single positive charge?
A 35.5
B 36
C 71
D 72

9. Bromine has two isotopes with relative isotopic masses 79 and 81. Which of the
following values for mass/charge ratio could correspond to a peak in the mass
spectrum of bromine, Br2? You should assume the ions detected have a single
positive charge.
A 79.9
B 80
C 159
D 160

10. The relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5. Which one of the following is the mass
spectrogram of chlorine?

10
Which of the following sets of m/e values is most likely to correspond to the mass
spectrum of chlorine gas?
A. 35 35.5 37 70 71 74
B. 35 37 70 72 74
C. 35 37 70 74
D. 35 37 71
E. 35.5 71

2009.1.20
(a) A gaseous sample of an element can be analysed using a mass spectrometer.
(i) Describe briefly how positive ions are formed from gaseous atoms in a mass
spectrometer. (2)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

(ii) What is used to accelerate the positive ions in a mass spectrometer? (1)

..............................................................................................................................................
(iii) What is used to deflect the positive ions in a mass spectrometer? (1)

..............................................................................................................................................
(b) The following data were obtained from the mass spectrum of a sample of chromium.

Calculate the relative atomic mass of chromium in this sample. Give your answer to three
significant figures. (2)

11
(c) Explain why the four isotopes of chromium behave identically in chemical reactions. (1)

....................................................................................................................................... .

........................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................
(d) In which block of the Periodic Table is chromium found? (1)

........................................................................................................................................

2010.5.16
The diagram below shows a mass spectrometer, which can be used to determine the
percentage abundances of isotopes in an element.

(a) Explain, in terms of sub-atomic particles, what is meant by the term isotopes. (2)

........................................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................................
(b) Describe the role of the following parts of the mass spectrometer.
(i) Electric field (1)

..............................................................................................................................................
(ii) Magnetic field (1)

..............................................................................................................................................
(c) A sample of the element barium is made up of four isotopes. The data below were
taken from a mass spectrum of this sample.

12
Calculate the relative atomic mass of the sample, giving your answer to one decimal
place. (2)

(d) The element bromine has two stable isotopes, 79Br and 81Br. How many peaks
corresponding to Br2+ ions would be seen in the mass spectrum of bromine?
Justify your answer. (2)

............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(e) Suggest another application of mass spectrometry, other than to determine the relative
atomic mass of an element. (1)

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2011.1.15
The relative atomic mass of an element is determined using a mass spectrometer.
(a) Define the term relative atomic mass. (2)

(b) The mass spectrum of rubidium is shown below.

13
(i) Explain why there are two peaks in the spectrum. (1)

Use the spectrum to calculate the relative atomic mass of rubidium. (2)

2012.1.22
(a) State how the following processes are achieved in a mass spectrometer.
(i) Ionization of the sample. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(ii)Acceleration of the ions. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................
(iii)Deflection of the ions.(1)

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(b) State how you could find the molecular mass of a substance from its mass spectrum. (1)

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14
..............................................................................................................................................
Living things take up the radioactive isotope carbon – 14 from the atmosphere.
In recent years a particular linen cloth was shown, using mass spectrometry, to have been
made from flax grown in the early 14th century. Suggest how mass spectrometry can be
used to estimate the age of the cloth. (2)

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..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

2012.5.21
(ii) Two of the peaks in the mass spectrum of chlorine, Cl2, are at m/e 70 and 74.
Identify the species giving rise to these peaks. (2)

70 .........................................................................................................................................

74 .........................................................................................................................................

(iii) What is the m/e value of the other peak that you would expect to see in this region of
the mass spectrum and the identity of the species giving rise to it? (2)

Value ....................................................................................................................................
Species ................................................................................................................................

15
1.4 Electronic configuration

1. The electronic structure of an atom of an element in Group 6 of the Periodic Table

could be
A 1s2 2s2 2p2
B 1s2 2s2 2p4
C 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
D 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6

2. Which of the following represents the electronic structure of a nitrogen atom?

3. When an Al4+ ion is formed from an Al atom, the fourth electron is lost from the
A 1s sub-shell.
B 2s sub-shell.
C 2p sub-shell.
D 3s sub-shell.

4. The number of unpaired electrons in a nitrogen atom in its ground state is

A0
B1
C2
D3

5. A particle with a single positive charge and with the electronic configuration 1s22s2
2p6 is
A a sodium ion.
B a fluoride ion.
C an oxide ion.
D a potassium ion.

6. In which of the following electronic configurations are only two of the electrons
unpaired?
A 1s2 2s2
B 1s2 2s2 2p3
C 1s2 2s2 2p4
D 1s2 2s2 2p5

16
7. Which of the following diagrams represents the electrons in the ground state of a
boron atom?

8. What could be the proton number of an element that has three unpaired electrons in
each of its atoms?
A5 B 13 C 15 D 21

9. An atom has eight electrons. Which diagram shows the electronic configuration of this
atom in its lowest energy state?

10. Which graph represents the number of unpaired p orbital electrons for atoms with
proton numbers 13 to 18?

17
2009.1.19
(a) (i) Complete the electronic configuration of the magnesium atom. (1)

1s2 ........................................................................................................................................
(ii) Complete the electronic configuration of the chlorine atom. (1)

1s2 ........................................................................................................................................
(b) (i) Write the equation, including state symbols, for the reaction of magnesium with
chlorine. (2)

18
2013.5R.21
In atoms, electrons fill up the sub-shells in order of increasing energy.
(a) Fill in the last two boxes in the table below to show the order in which the next two
sub-shells are filled.

(b) Electrons in atoms occupy orbitals.

(i) Explain the term orbital. (1)

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................
(ii) Draw diagrams below to show the shape of an s-orbital and of a p -orbital. (2)

(c) State the total number of electrons occupying all the p-orbitals in one atom of chlorine. (1)

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................
(d) State the number of electrons present in an ion of calcium, Ca2+. (1)

..........................................................................................................................................

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19
1.5 The periodic table and electronic configuration

1. Which pair of atomic numbers represents elements which are both in the p-block of
the Periodic Table?
A 4, 8
B 6, 12
C 8, 16
D 10, 20

2. Which of the following formulae for compounds of germanium, Ge, is unlikely to be

correct, given the position of germanium in the Periodic Table?
A GeF3
B GeS2
C GeO2
D GeH4

3. The elements in Group 1 of the Periodic Table have very similar chemical properties.
This is because
A they have the same number of outer electrons.
B they have the same number of filled shells of electrons.
C their outer electrons are in the s sub-shell.
D their outer electrons have very similar shielding.

4. In the following outline of the Periodic Table, the letters A to D are not the symbols of
the elements.

Select from A to D the element which

(a) is a non-metal with a high melting temperature and boiling temperature.

(b) is in the d block of the Periodic Table.

(c) has a very stable electronic structure.

(d) is a metal with a high melting temperature and boiling temperature.

20
5. Element R is in Group 1 of the Periodic Table and element T is in Group 6. R and T
are not the symbols for the elements.
(a) The compound of R and T will have the formula
A RT
B RT6
C RT2
D R2T

(b) The compound of R and T will have bonding which is predominantly

A ionic.
B covalent.
C dative covalent.
D metallic.

(c) In terms of its electrical conductivity, the compound of R and T will

A conduct when solid and liquid.
B conduct when solid but not when liquid.
C conduct when liquid but not when solid.
D not conduct when solid or liquid.

6. Which of the following graphs shows the variation in the ionic radius of the Group 2
elements?

7. Which of the following has the smallest ionic radius?

A F–
B Na+
C Mg2+
D O2–

21
8. Which of the graphs shows (from left to right) the trend in the ionic radius of the
isoelectronic ions N3–, O2–, F–, Na+, Mg2+, Al3+?

9. Which of the following has the largest ionic radius?

A S2–
B Cl–
C K+
D Ca2+

2010.5.15
(ii) Complete the electronic configuration for a calcium ion. (1)

1s2 .......................................................................................................................................
(iii) Would you expect a calcium ion to be bigger, smaller or the same size as a calcium
atom? Give TWO reasons to explain your answer. (2)

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22
1.6 Ionisation energy

1. Which of these equations represents the second ionization of magnesium?

A Mg+(g) → Mg2+(g) + e−
B Mg(g) → Mg2+(g) + 2e−
C Mg+(g) + e− → Mg2+(g)
D Mg(g) + 2e− → Mg2+(g)

2. Which of the following equations represents the second ionization energy of chlorine?
A Cl+(g)  Cl2+(g) + e–
B Cl(g)  Cl2+(g) + 2e–
C Cl(g)  Cl2–(g) − 2e–
D Cl–(g)  Cl2–(g) − e–

3. The electronic structures of four elements are given below. Which of these elements
has the highest first ionization energy?

4. For which of the following pairs of elements does the second have a higher 1st
ionization energy than the first?

5. The first five ionization energies of an element, Z, are: 790, 1600, 3200, 4400, 16100
kJ mol–1 In which group of the Periodic Table is Z found?
A2 B 3 C 4 D5

23
6. The first five successive ionization energies of an element, X, are shown in the table
below.

Which ion is X most likely to form when it reacts with chlorine?

A X+
B X2+
C X3+
D X4+

7. The first five ionization energies of an element, X, are shown in the table.

What is the mostly likely formula of the oxide that forms when X burns in oxygen?
A X2O
B XO
C X2O3
D XO2

8. The graph below represents the successive ionization energies of an element X

plotted against the number of the electron removed. X is not the symbol for the
element.

24
(a) From this graph it is possible to deduce the group in the Periodic Table to which X
belongs. X is in
A Group 1
B Group 3
C Group 5
D Group 7

(b) From the graph it is possible to deduce that the most stable ion of X will be
A X3+
B X+
C X–
D X3–

9. The electronic configurations of the atoms of four different elements are given below.
For which element would you expect the value of the first ionization energy to be the
largest?
A 1s1
B 1s2
C 1s2 2s1
D 1s2 2s2

10. The sketch graph below shows the trend in first ionization energies for some elements
in Periods two and three.

Select, from the elements A to D, the one that

(a) has atoms with five p electrons.

(b) is a member of Group 3.

(c) is likely to be very unreactive.

(d) normally forms four covalent bonds per atom.

25
11. The first ionization energies, in kJ mol–1, of four elements with consecutive atomic
numbers are shown below.
A 1680
B 2080
C 496
D 738

(a) Which element could be an inert gas?

(b) Which element could be X in a covalent compound with formula HX?

(c) Which element could be Y in an ionic compound with formula YH2?

12. The graph below shows the second ionization energy of a series of elements with
consecutive atomic numbers.

Which element could be lithium?

A
B
C
D

13. The first five ionization energies, in kJ mol–1, of aluminium are

578 1817 2745 11 578 14 831
The orbitals from which the first five electrons are removed during ionization, starting with
the first electron, are
A 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
B 1s 1s 2s 2s 2p
C 3p 3s 2p 2s 1s
D 3p 3s 3s 2p 2p

26
14. The first five ionization energies of an element, X, are
578, 1817, 2745, 11578 and 14831 kJ mol–1, respectively.
In which group of the Periodic Table is X found?
A1
B2
C3
D4

15. Four sequences of ionization energies of elements, in kJ mol–1, are shown below.
A 590 1145 4912 6474 8144
B 520 496 419 403 376
C 1000 1251 1521 419 590
D 631 658 650 653 717
(a) The sequence giving the first ionization energies of elements going down a Group in
the Periodic Table is

(b) The sequence showing the first five ionization energies of calcium is

(c) The sequence showing the first ionization energy of successive elements, in which
atomic number increases by one each time, starting with an element in Group 6 is

2009.1.21
(a) Define the term first ionization energy. (3)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(b) Write an equation, with state symbols, to illustrate the process occurring when the
second ionization energy of sodium is measured. (2)

27
(c) The graph below shows the variation in the first ionization energies of some of the
elements in Period 3.

(i) On the graph, use crosses to show the approximate values of the first ionization
energies for the elements Na, P and S. Join the crosses to complete your graph. (3)

* (ii) Explain why the first ionization energies generally increase across the period sodium
to argon (Na to Ar). (3)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

28
* (iii) Explain why the first ionization energy of aluminium is less than that of magnesium. (2)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

(d) Place the following species

S+ S S–
in order of increasing first ionization energy, starting with the lowest. (1)
Lowest first Highest first
ionization energy ionization energy

............................ ................................. ..........................

2012.5.22
*(b) Explain why the first ionization energy of the elements down Group 1 decreases even
though the atomic number increases. (2)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(c) The eleven successive ionization energies for sodium are given below.

(i) Explain why the successive ionization energies increase. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
*(ii) Explain how these ionization energies give evidence for the electronic structure of
sodium. You may use a sketch graph if you wish. (2)

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29
2013.5.19
This question is about the elements arsenic to rubidium which have atomic numbers 33 to
37.
The first ionization energies, Em1, of these elements are given in the table.

(a) Write the equation, with state symbols, which represents the first ionization energy of
arsenic. (2)

(b) Suggest the formulae of the hydrides of arsenic and selenium. (2)

(c) (i) Complete the electronic configuration for an arsenic and a selenium atom using the
electrons-in-boxes notation. (2)

*(ii) Explain why the first ionization energy of selenium is lower than that of arsenic. (2)

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

*(d) Explain why the first ionization energy of krypton is higher than that of selenium. (2)

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................
*(e) Explain why the first ionization energy of rubidium is lower than that of krypton. (2)

..........................................................................................................................................

(f ) Which of the elements, arsenic to rubidium, is likely to have atoms with the smallest
atomic radius? (1)

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30
Chapter 2 Formulae, equations and amounts of substances

2.1 Formulae and equations

1 The equations below show some reactions of magnesium and its compounds.

(a) Which equation is not balanced?

(b) Which equation can be classified as a displacement reaction?

2 For the oxidation of ammonia

a NH3 + b O2 → c NO + d H2O
the values of the coefficients in the balanced equation are
A a = 2, b = 3, c = 2 and d = 3 B a = 4, b = 7, c = 4 and d = 4
C a = 4, b = 5, c = 4 and d = 6 D a = 6, b = 7, c = 6 and d = 9

3 When a solution of barium chloride is added to sulfuric acid, a white precipitate is

formed. The ionic equation (including state symbols) for this reaction is

4 The equation representing the reaction between copper(II) oxide and dilute sulfuric
acid is
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
The ionic equation for the reaction is

5 When aqueous solutions of barium chloride and potassium sulfate are mixed, a white
precipitate forms. The ionic equation for the reaction is

31
2009.6.23
(e) The data in the table below will be useful when answering this question.

Magnesium carbonate reacts with dilute sulfuric acid.

MgCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(i) Explain why the reaction between strontium carbonate and dilute sulfuric acid stops
after a few seconds. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(ii) Strontium sulfate is produced when aqueous sodium sulfate is added to aqueous
strontium chloride. Give the ionic equation for the reaction, including state symbols. (2)

2.2 The moles

1. Which of the following contains the greatest number of hydrogen atoms?

2. Hydrogen peroxide decomposes on heating as follows:

2H2O2→ 2H2O + O2
What mass of hydrogen peroxide is required to give 16 g of oxygen gas?

32
3. 17.1 g of aluminium sulfate, Al2(SO4)3, was dissolved in water.
Calculate the number of sulfate ions, SO4 2–, present in the solution formed.
[Assume the molar mass of Al2(SO4)3 is 342 g mol–1 and the Avogadro Constant is 6 ×
1023 mol–1.]

4. The human body contains around 0.025 g of iodine molecules, I2. Which of the following
shows the number of iodine atoms in 0.025 g of I2?
The Avogadro constant is 6.02 × 1023 mol–1.

5. A sample of gas was prepared for use in helium-neon lasers. It contained 4 g of helium
and 4 g of neon. What is the ratio of helium atoms to neon atoms in the sample?
A 1:1 B 2.5 : 1 C 1:5 D 5:1

6. The Avogadro constant is 6.0 × 1023 mol–1. Therefore the number of atoms in 1 mol of
carbon dioxide is
A 2.0 × 1023 B 6.0 × 1023 C 1.2 × 1024 D 1.8 × 1024

7. The definition of the mole is

A the amount of any substance which occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at room temperature
and pressure.
B the amount of any substance containing the same number of identical entities as there
are in exactly 12 g of the carbon-12 isotope.
C the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of the carbon-12 isotope.
D the number of molecules in exactly 2 g of hydrogen at room temperature and pressure.

33
8. Which of the following statements is true? The Avogadro constant is the number of
A grams of any element which contains 6.02 × 1023 atoms of that element.
B atoms contained in one mole of any element.
C atoms contained in one mole of any monatomic element.
D particles (atoms, molecules or ions) required to make one gram of a substance.

9. How many molecules are present in 16 g of oxygen gas, O2(g)?

[Avogadro constant = 6 × 1023 mol-1]
A 96 × 1023 B 12 × 1023 C 6 × 1023 D 3 × 1023

10. When 0.635 g of copper (relative atomic mass, RAM = 63.5) is added to an excess of
silver nitrate solution, 2.158 g of silver (RAM = 107.9) form. The ionic equation for the
reaction is

11. The Avogadro constant is 6.0 x 1023 mol–1. The number of atoms in 1 mol of
dinitrogen tetroxide, N2O4, is
A 3.6 × 1024 B 1.8 × 1024 C 6.0 × 1023 D 1.0 × 1023

12. What is the total number of atoms in 1.8 g of water, H2O?

DATA
·The molar mass of H2O is 18 g mol–1
·The Avogadro Constant is 6.0 × 1023 mol–1
A 6.0 × 1022 B 6.0 × 1023 C 1.8 × 1023 D 1.8 × 1024

13. Calculate the number of atoms in one mole of hydrogen peroxide, H2O2.
[The Avogadro constant, L = 6.0 × 1023 mol–1]
A 1.5 × 1023 B 6.0 × 1023 C 1.2 × 1024 D 2.4 × 1024

14 When 0.1 mol of atoms of an element reacts with chlorine, there is an increase in
mass of 7.1 g. The element could be
A carbon. B sodium. C magnesium. D aluminium.

15. Calculate the total number of atoms present in 1.8 g of water, H2O.
DATA
·The molar mass of H2O is 18 g mol–1
·The Avogadro constant is 6.0 × 1023 mol–1
A 6.0 × 1022 B 6.0 × 1023 C 1.8 × 1023 D 1.8 × 1024

34
16. The Avogadro constant is equal to the number of
A grams of any element which contains 6.0 × 1023 atoms of that element.
B atoms contained in one mole of any element in its standard state.
C particles (atoms, ions or molecules) required to make one gram of a substance.
D atoms contained in one mole of any monatomic element.

17. Hydrogen and oxygen react according to the following equation.

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
If all volumes are measured at 110 °C and one atmosphere pressure, the volume of steam
produced after 50 cm3 of hydrogen react completely with 25 cm3 of oxygen is

18. Which of the following gas samples occupies the greatest volume at the same
temperature and pressure?
[Relative atomic masses: H = 1; C = 12; O = 16; F = 19; Ne = 20]

19. The overall equation for the reaction between sulfur and oxygen to form sulfur trioxide
is shown below.
2S(s) + 3O2(g) → 2SO3(g)
0.9 mol of O2(g) reacted completely with excess sulfur. What volume, in dm3, of sulfur
trioxide would form?
[Assume the molar gas volume = 24 dm3 mol-1]
A (0.9 × 3/2) × 24 B (0.9 × 3/2) ÷ 24 C (0.9 × 2/3) × 24 D (0.9 × 2/3) ÷ 24

20. The equation for the complete combustion of octane is

2C8H18 + 25O2 → 16CO2 + 18H2O
(a) The mass of 10 mol of octane is
A 0.66 kg B 1.14 kg C 2.10 kg D 2.28 kg

(b) The volume of 1 mol of any gas (measured at room temperature and pressure) is 24
dm3. Hence the volume of oxygen (measured at room temperature and pressure) required
for the complete combustion of 10 mol of octane is
A 240 dm3 B 300 dm3 C 3000 dm3 D 6000 dm3

35
21. An important reaction which occurs in the catalytic converter of a car is
2CO(g) + 2NO(g) → 2CO2(g) + N2(g)
In this reaction, when 500 cm3 of CO reacts with 500 cm3 of NO at 650 °C (the operating
temperature of the catalyst) and at 1 atm, the total volume of gases produced at the same
temperature and pressure is
A 500 cm3 B 750 cm3 C 1000 cm3
D impossible to calculate without knowing the molar volume of gases under these
conditions.

22. Complete combustion of 50 cm3 of a hydrocarbon vapour gave 350 cm3 of carbon
dioxide, both gas volumes being measured at the same temperature and pressure. The
formula of the hydrocarbon could be
A C8H18 B C7H16 C C6H14 D C5H12
23. The equation for the complete combustion of ethane is
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
What volume of oxygen, measured at room temperature and pressure, is needed to
completely burn 0.1 mol of ethane?
[The volume of 1 mol of any gas measured at room temperature and pressure is 24 dm3]
A 2.4 dm3 B 4.8 dm3 C 8.4 dm3 D 16.8 dm3
24. A sample of sodium chlorate(V), NaClO3, was heated and 120 cm3 of oxygen gas was
collected.
2NaClO3(s) → 2NaCl(s) + 3O2(g)
Calculate the number of moles of sodium chlorate(V) that were decomposed in the above
reaction.
[Molar volume of a gas under the conditions of the experiment = 24000 cm3 mol–1]
A 2.50 × 10–3 B 3.33 × 10–3 C 5.00 × 10–3 D 7.50 × 10–3

25. 3.0 dm3 of sulfur dioxide reacts with 1.5 dm3 of oxygen, under suitable conditions,
according to the equation below.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)
What is the maximum volume of sulfur trioxide that can be formed in the above reaction?
[The volumes of the gases are measured at the same temperature and pressure.]
A 6.0 dm3 B 4.5 dm3 C 3.0 dm3 D 1.5 dm3

26. Magnesium nitrate is decomposed by heat in the following reaction.

2Mg(NO3)2(s) → 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
In an experiment, 0.10 mol of magnesium nitrate was heated. What is the maximum
volume of gas, measured in dm3 at room temperature and pressure, which could be
obtained?
[Molar volume of a gas = 24 dm3 mol–1 at room temperature and pressure]
A 0.24 B 2.4 C 4.8 D 6.0

36
27. Ammonia gas decomposes when heated.
2NH3(g) → N2(g) + 3H2(g)
In an experiment, a sample of 500 cm3 of ammonia was heated and 20% decomposed.
The total volume of gas present at the end of the experiment, in cm3, was
A 200 B 400 C 600 D 1000

28. Oxygen gas, O2, can be converted into ozone, O3, by passing it through an electric
discharge.
3O2(g) → 2O3(g)
In an experiment, a volume of 300 cm3 of oxygen was used but only 10% of the oxygen
was converted into ozone. All volumes were measured at the same temperature and
pressure.
The total volume of gas present at the end of the experiment, in cm3, was
A 200 B 210 C 290 D 300

2011.1.16
(a) Coral reefs are produced by living organisms and predominantly made up of calcium
carbonate. It has been suggested that coral reefs will be damaged by global warming
because of the increased acidity of the oceans due to higher concentrations of carbon
dioxide.
(i) Write a chemical equation to show how the presence of carbon dioxide in water results
in the formation of carbonic acid. State symbols are not required. (1)

(ii) Write the ionic equation to show how acids react with carbonates.
State symbols are not required. (2)

(b) One method of determining the proportion of calcium carbonate in a coral is to dissolve
a known mass of the coral in excess acid and measure the volume of carbon dioxide
formed.
In such an experiment, 1.13 g of coral was dissolved in 25 cm 3 of hydrochloric acid (an
excess) in a conical flask. When the reaction was complete, 224 cm 3 of carbon dioxide
had been collected over water using a 250 cm3 measuring cylinder.
(i) Draw a labelled diagram of the apparatus that could be used to carry out this
experiment. (2)

(ii) Suggest how you would mix the acid and the coral to ensure that no carbon dioxide
escaped from the apparatus. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................

37
(iii) Calculate the number of moles of carbon dioxide collected in the experiment.
[The molar volume of any gas is 24 000 cm3 mol–1 at room temperature and pressure.] (1)

(iv) Complete the equation below for the reaction between calcium carbonate and
hydrochloric acid by inserting the missing state symbols. (1)

(v) Calculate the mass of 1 mol of calcium carbonate.

[Assume relative atomic masses: Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16.] (1)

(vi) Use your data and the equation in (iv) to calculate the mass of calcium carbonate in
the sample and the percentage by mass of calcium carbonate in the coral.
Give your final answer to three significant figures. (2)

(vii) When this experiment is repeated, the results are inconsistent. Suggest a reason for
this other than errors in the procedure, measurements or calculations. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................

38
2.3 Concentration
1. Magnesium oxide reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid according to the following
equation.
MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
How many moles of magnesium oxide, MgO, are required to neutralize 20 cm3 of 0.50
mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, HCl?

2. Calculate the mass of calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, present in 100 cm3 of a 0.100 mol
dm–3 solution.
[Assume the molar mass of Ca(OH)2 is 74.0 g mol–1.]

3. Sodium hydrogensulfate, NaHSO4, reacts with sodium hydroxide, NaOH, as shown

below.
NaHSO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
0.0100 mol of sodium hydrogensulfate is neutralized with dilute sodium hydroxide,
concentration 0.200 mol dm–3.
Calculate the volume of sodium hydroxide required.

4. Which of these solutions does not contain the same total number of ions as the
others?
A 10.00 cm3 of 0.100 mol dm-3 NaCl(aq) B 20.00 cm3 of 0.050 mol dm-3 NaCl(aq)
C 20.00 cm3 of 0.050 mol dm-3 MgCl2(aq) D 13.33 cm3 of 0.050 mol dm-3 MgCl2(aq)

5. In 2006, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was 382 ppm. This is
equivalent to
A 0.00382% B 0.0382% C 0.382% D 3.82%

39
6. The European Union has set a limit (with effect from January 2010) of 3.13 ppm for
the proportion of the toxic gas carbon monoxide in the air that we breathe. This is
equivalent to
A 3.13% B 0.0313% C 0.000313% D 0.00000313%

7. For drivers in the UK, the legal limit of the concentration of ethanol (molar mass 46 g
mol–1) in the blood is 80 mg per 100 cm3. This is equivalent to a concentration of
A 17.4 mol dm–3 B 1.74 mol dm–3 C 0.0174 mol dm–3 D 0.00174 mol dm–3

8. The concentration of blood glucose is usually given in millimoles per dm3 or mmol dm–
3. A reading of 5.0 mmol dm–3 is within the normal range. Glucose has a molar mass of

180 g mol–1. What mass of glucose dissolved in 1 dm3 of blood would give this normal
reading?
A 0.090 g B 0.18 g C 0.90 g D 9.0 g

9. A solution contains 66 ppm of a solute. The mass of the solute dissolved in 1 kg of this
solution is
A 66 g B 0.66 g C 0.066 g D 0.000066 g

10. How many moles of ions are present in 20 cm3 of 0.050 mol dm–3 calcium chloride
solution, CaCl2(aq)?
A 0.0050 B 0.0030 C 0.0020 D 0.0010

11. A sample of swimming pool water contains 0.482 parts per million (ppm) of chlorine.
This is equal to a percentage of
A 0.000482 B 0.0000482 C 0.00000482 D 0.000000482

12. Phosphorus(V) chloride, PCl5, reacts with water according to the equation
PCl5(s) + 4H2O(l) → H3PO4(aq) + 5HCl(aq)
If 1.04 g of phosphorus pentachloride (molar mass = 208 g mol–1) is reacted completely
with water and the solution made up to 1 dm3, the concentration of the hydrochloric acid in
mol dm–3 is
A 0.001 B 0.005 C 0.025 D 0.250

13. Calculate the mass of hydrated sodium thiosulfate, Na2S2O3.5H2O, required to

prepare 200 cm3 of a 0.100 mol dm–3 solution.
[Assume that the molar mass of Na2S2O3.5H2O is 248 g mol–1]
A 0.124 g B 4.96 g C 24.8 g D 4960 g

14. Calculate the mass, in grams, of silver chloride, AgCl, formed when excess silver
nitrate solution is added to 55.0 cm3 of a 0.200 mol dm-3 solution of potassium chloride.
[The molar mass of AgCl = 143.4 g mol–1]
AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq)
A 1.10 g B 1.58 g C 7.89 g D 11.0 g

40
2009.1.24
(f) Another halogenoalkane, bromomethane, CH3Br, is a toxic gas used to protect plants
against insects.
Health and Safety advice states that concentrations above 5 parts per million (ppm) by
volume of this gas are harmful.
A research laboratory contains 2.5 × 105 dm3 of air. Calculate the maximum volume of
bromomethane, in dm3, allowed in the laboratory to comply with the advice given. (1)

2010.1.16
(e) Blood plasma typically contains 20 parts per million (ppm) of magnesium, by mass.
(i) Calculate the mass of magnesium, in grams, present in 100 g of plasma. (1)

(ii) Magnesium chloride can be used as a supplement in the diet to treat patients with low
amounts of magnesium in the blood. Suggest ONE property which makes it more suitable
for this purpose than magnesium carbonate. (1)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

2010.6.15
1 kg of a solution contains 0.100 mol of calcium ions, Ca2+.
What is the concentration of the calcium ions by mass in parts per million (ppm)?
[Assume the relative atomic mass of calcium is 40.] (2)

2014.1.19
(a) Methanol starts to have toxic effects when it is present in blood at levels of above 200
mg in 1000 g.
Express this concentration in parts per million. (1)

41
2011.6.17
0.400 g of magnesium ribbon reacted with exactly 22.2 cm3 of hydrochloric acid of
concentration 1.50 mol dm–3.
400 cm3 of hydrogen gas was formed, the volume being measured at room temperature and
pressure.
In the calculations that follow, use the following molar masses:
－
Mg = 24.0 g mol 1
－
Cl = 35.5 g mol 1
(a) Calculate the amount (in moles) of magnesium used. (1)

(b) Calculate the amount (in moles) of hydrochloric acid used. (1)

(c) Calculate the amount (in moles) of hydrogen produced.

－
[Molar volume of any gas at room temperature and pressure = 24 000 cm3 mol 1] (1)

(d) Show that the calculated amounts of magnesium, hydrochloric acid and hydrogen are
consistent with the following equation for the reaction
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2 (1)

(e) Calculate the maximum mass of magnesium chloride that would be formed in this
reaction. Give your answer to three significant figures. (3)

2013.1.17
This question is about the preparation of the alum, potassium aluminium sulfate,
KAl(SO 4)2·12H2O. It is a double salt consisting of potassium ions, aluminium ions and
sulfate ions, and water of crystallization.
(a) The first step of the preparation involves adding an excess of aluminium foil to 10 cm 3
of 2 mol dm-3 potassium hydroxide to form potassium aluminate.
The equation for this reaction is
2Al(s) + 2KOH(aq) + 2H2O(l) → 2KAlO2(aq) + 3H2(g)
(i) Write a balanced ionic equation for this reaction. (1)

42
(ii) Calculate the number of moles of potassium hydroxide used. (1)

(iii) Hence state the number of moles of aluminium that react with the potassium hydroxide.(1)

(iv) Use your answer to (iii) to calculate the mass of aluminium that reacts with the
potassium hydroxide. Use the Periodic Table as a source of data. (1)

(v) Calculate the total mass of aluminium added to the potassium hydroxide if a 10%
excess of aluminium is required. (1)

(b) The second step of the reaction is the addition of a slight excess of 1 mol dm -3 sulfuric
acid.
(i) Balance the following equation for the reaction (1)
KAlO2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → KAl(SO4)2(aq) + H2O(l)
(ii) Calculate the volume of the 1 mol dm-3 sulfuric acid that reacts with the potassium
aluminate. (1)

(iii) State how you would show that the acid had been added in excess. (2)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

*(iv) State and explain the steps necessary to obtain pure, dry crystals from the mixture. (4)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(v) Suggest the colour of the crystals. (1)
..............................................................................................................................................
(vi) Suggest the formula of another metal ion which could form an alum, in combination
with potassium and sulfate ions. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................

43
2014.5.22
Nickel reacts with carbon monoxide, CO, to give the compound nickel carbonyl, Ni(CO)4.
Ni(s) + 4CO(g) → Ni(CO)4(g)
(i) Calculate the volume of carbon monoxide, in dm3, measured at room temperature and
pressure, that is required to react completely with 5.87 g of nickel.
[Relative atomic mass: Ni = 58.7
Molar volume of a gas = 24 dm3 mol–1 at room temperature and pressure.] (3)

(ii) Calculate the number of carbon monoxide molecules present in the volume of gas you
have calculated in (c)(i).
[The Avogadro constant, L = 6.02 × 1023 mol–1] (1)

(d) Nickel(II) nitrate, Ni(NO3)2, can be made by several different methods.

Method 1
Nickel(II) oxide, NiO, was reacted with dilute nitric acid according to the equation
NiO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Ni(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
(i) Calculate the volume of 2.00 mol dm–3 dilute nitric acid, in cm3, that was required to
exactly neutralize 1.494 g of nickel(II) oxide.
Use the relative atomic masses: Ni = 58.7, O = 16.0 (3)

Method 2
A volume of 25.0 cm3 of 2.00 mol dm–3 nitric acid, HNO3, was transferred to a beaker.
Solid nickel(II) carbonate, NiCO3, was added until it was in excess.
(ii) Why was excess nickel(II) carbonate used? (1)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(iii) Why must the beaker be much larger than the volume of acid used? (1)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(iv) Write a balanced equation for the reaction between nickel(II) carbonate and dilute
nitric acid, including state symbols. (2)

44
*(v) For Method 2, describe the practical steps that you would take to obtain pure dry
crystals of hydrated nickel(II) nitrate, Ni(NO3)2.6H2O, from a mixture of nickel(II) nitrate
solution and unreacted solid nickel(II) carbonate. (4)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

2.4 Empirical and molecular formulae

1. An organic compound contains 38.4 % carbon, 4.80 % hydrogen and 56.8 % chlorine
by mass. What is the empirical formula of the compound?

2. A compound was analysed and found to contain

1.45 g carbon 0.482 g hydrogen 1.69 g nitrogen
[Relative atomic masses: C = 12; H = 1; N = 14]
The empirical formula of the compound is

3. A compound Z contains, by mass, 26.7% carbon, 2.2% hydrogen, and 71.1% oxygen.
The empirical formula of Z is
A CHO2 B C2H2O4 C CHO D C2H2O2

4. A compound was found to contain 2.8 g of nitrogen and 8.0 g of oxygen.

What is the empirical formula of the compound? Use the Periodic Table as a source of
data.
A NO B NO2 C N2O3 D N2O5

5. 1.12 g of iron reacts with oxygen to form 1.60 g of an oxide of iron.

Use relative atomic masses: Fe = 56, O = 16.
What is the formula of this oxide of iron?
A FeO5 B Fe2O10 C Fe3O2 D Fe2O3

45
6. An oxide of nitrogen contains 2.8 g of nitrogen and 8.0 g of oxygen. What is the
empirical formula of this oxide?
A NO B NO3 C N2O3 D N2O5

7. A 27.0 g sample of an unknown hydrocarbon, CxHy, was burned completely in excess

oxygen to form 88.0 g of carbon dioxide and 27.0 g of water.
[Molar masses / g mol–1: CO2 = 44; H2O = 18]
Which of the following is a possible formula of the unknown hydrocarbon?
A CH4 B C2H6 C C4H6 D C6H6

2010.1.17
Sulfamic acid is a white solid used by plumbers as a limescale remover.
(a) Sulfamic acid contains 14.42% by mass of nitrogen, 3.09% hydrogen and 33.06%
sulfur. The remainder is oxygen.
(i) Calculate the empirical formula of sulfamic acid. (3)

(ii) The molar mass of sulfamic acid is 97.1 g mol–1. Use this information to deduce the
molecular formula of sulfamic acid. (1)

(b) A solution of sulfamic acid contains hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions react with
magnesium to produce hydrogen gas. In an experiment, a solution containing 5.5 × 10 –3
moles of sulfamic acid was reacted with excess magnesium. The volume of hydrogen
produced was 66 cm3, measured at room temperature and pressure.
(i) Draw a labelled diagram of the apparatus you would use to carry out this experiment,
showing how you would collect the hydrogen produced and measure its volume. (2)

(ii) Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen, H2, produced in this reaction.
[The molar volume of a gas is 24 dm3 mol–1 at room temperature and pressure] (1)

(iii) Show that the data confirms that each mole of sulfamic acid produces one mole of
hydrogen ions in solution. (2)

46
(c) Plumbers use sulfamic acid powder for descaling large items such as boilers.
Sulfamic acid acts as a descaler because the hydrogen ions react with carbonate ions in
limescale.
(i) Write an ionic equation for the reaction of hydrogen ions with carbonate ions.
State symbols are not required. (1)

(ii) Suggest ONE reason why sulfamic acid is considered less hazardous than
hydrochloric acid as a descaler. (1)
..............................................................................................................................................

2012.5.25
Sodium burns in oxygen to give a pale yellow solid X.
(a) (i) 1.73 g of sodium reacts with 1.20 g of oxygen. Calculate the empirical formula of X. (2)

(ii) The molar mass of X is 78 g mol–1. Give the molecular formula of X. (1)
..............................................................................................................................................
(iii) Write the equation, including state symbols, for the reaction of sodium with oxygen to
produce X. (2)

(iv) Calculate the volume of oxygen in dm3 (at room temperature and pressure) which
reacts with 1.73 g of sodium.
(The molar volume of any gas at room temperature and pressure is 24 dm3 mol–1) (2)

(v) Calculate the number of oxygen molecules that react with 1.73 g of sodium.
(The Avogadro constant = 6.02 × 1023 mol–1.) (1)

b) If sodium is burnt in air, compound X is not the only product. Suggest why this is so. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................

47
2.5 Yield, purity and atom economy
1. The equation for the dehydration of cyclohexanol, C6H11OH, to cyclohexene, C6H10 is:
C6H11OH → C6H10 + H2O
50.0 g of cyclohexanol produced 32.8 g of cyclohexene.
[Molar masses / g mol–1: cyclohexanol = 100; cyclohexene = 82]
Calculate the percentage yield of cyclohexene.

2. Ethanol (molar mass 46 g mol–1) is manufactured by the hydration of ethane (molar

mass 28 g mol–1):
C2H4 + H2O → C2H5OH
In a typical process 28 tonnes of ethene produces 43.7 tonnes of ethanol. The percentage
yield of ethanol in this process is
A 64% B 95% C 100% D 156%

3. Oxygen can be prepared using several different reactions. Which of those given below
has the highest atom economy by mass?

4. Nickel(II) sulfate is prepared by adding an excess of nickel(II) carbonate to 0.010 mol of

dilute sulfuric acid.
NiCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → NiSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Solid nickel(II) sulfate crystals are produced with a 20% yield. How many moles of nickel(II)
sulfate crystals are obtained?
A 0.001 B 0.002 C 0.010 D 0.050

5. In an experiment, 1.226 g of potassium chlorate(V), KClO3, was heated. A mass of

0.320 g of oxygen gas, O2, was collected.
2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
Use the molar mass of KClO3 = 122.6 g mol-1 and relative atomic mass O = 16.
The percentage yield of oxygen in this experiment is
A 17.4% B 26.1% C 66.7% D 100%

6. Nitrogen monoxide, NO, can be made by the catalytic oxidation of ammonia, NH3.
4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O
In an experiment, 8.5 g of ammonia reacted to form 15.0 g of nitrogen monoxide.

48
The percentage yield of nitrogen monoxide in this experiment is
A 50% B 57% C 100% D 176%

2011.1.17
(c) Magnesium chloride may be prepared from magnesium by reaction with chlorine or
with hydrochloric acid. Compare these two preparations in terms of the atom economies
of the reactions. No calculation is required. (2)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
2013.5R.24
(c) Ethene, C2H4, was prepared from ethanol, C2H5OH, by the following reaction
C2H5OH → C2H4 + H2O
A chemist reacted 9.2 g of ethanol, C2H5OH, and obtained 4.2 g of ethene.
Calculate the percentage yield of ethene in the reaction. (2)

2014.5.20
(e) Butane can react with bromine, in the presence of ultraviolet radiation, according to the
following equation.
C4H10 + Br2 → C4H9Br + HBr
(i) Calculate the atom economy by mass for the formation of C4H9Br.
Use the expression

Use the Periodic Table as a source of data. (2)

2010.1.16
Magnesium chloride can be made by reacting solid magnesium carbonate, MgCO3, with
dilute hydrochloric acid.
(a) Write an equation for the reaction, including state symbols. (2)

(b) Give TWO observations you would make when the reaction is taking place. (2)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

49
(c) In an experiment to make crystals of hydrated magnesium chloride, MgCl2.6H2O,
magnesium carbonate was added to 25 cm3 of hydrochloric acid with concentration 2.0
mol dm–3. The molar mass of magnesium carbonate is 84.3 g mol–1.
(i) How many moles of acid are used in the reaction? (1)

(ii) What mass of magnesium carbonate, in grams, reacts with this amount of acid? (1)

(iii) Suggest why slightly more than this mass of magnesium carbonate is used in practice. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................
(iv) How would you separate the magnesium chloride solution from the reaction mixture in
(iii)? (1)
..............................................................................................................................................
(v) The magnesium chloride solution was left to crystallise. The crystals were separated and
dried carefully. A sample of 3.75g of hydrated crystals, MgCl2.6H2O, which have molar mass
203.3 g mol–1, was obtained.
Calculate the percentage yield of this reaction. (2)

(vi) Give ONE reason why the yield of crystals is less than 100%, even when pure
compounds are used in the preparation. (1)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
2012.1.20
(a) An impure sample of sodium hydrogencarbonate, NaHCO3, of mass 0.227 g, was
reacted with an excess of hydrochloric acid. The volume of carbon dioxide evolved was
measured at room temperature and pressure and found to be 58.4 cm3.
NaHCO3 + HCl→NaCl + H2O + CO2
The molar volume of any gas at the temperature and pressure of the experiment is 24 dm3
mol–1. The molar mass of sodium hydrogencarbonate is 84 g mol–1.
(i) Calculate the number of moles of carbon dioxide given off. (1)

(ii) Calculate the mass of sodium hydrogencarbonate present in the impure sample. (2)

50
(iii) Calculate the percentage purity of the sodium hydrogencarbonate. Give your answer
to two significant figures. (2)

(b) (i) The total error in reading the gas syringe is ±0.4 cm3. Calculate the percentage error
in measuring the gas volume of 58.4 cm3. (1)

(ii) Suggest why the carbon dioxide should not be collected over water in this experiment. (1)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
2011.5.20
Copper(II) sulfate solution, CuSO4(aq), can be made by adding an excess of solid
copper(II) oxide, CuO, to boiling dilute sulfuric acid. This is an exothermic reaction.
The balanced equation for this reaction is
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
(a) (i) Complete the ionic equation for this reaction, including state symbols. (2)
CuO(s) +

(ii) Calculate the mass of copper(II) oxide needed, if a 10% excess is required, when
0.020 mol of sulfuric acid is completely reacted.
[Relative atomic masses: Cu = 63.5 and O = 16.0] (2)

b) (i) Suggest, with a reason, how the copper(II) oxide should be added to the boiling
sulfuric acid. (2)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(ii) When the reaction is complete, the excess copper(II) oxide is removed by filtration.
To prepare crystals of copper(II) sulfate-5-water, CuSO4.5H2O, the resulting solution is
boiled to remove excess water.
How would you know when sufficient water had been removed? (1)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(iii) After cooling the solution, crystals form. State the colour of the crystals. (1)
..............................................................................................................................................

51
(c) (i) Calculate the molar mass of copper(II) sulfate-5-water, CuSO4.5H2O.
Remember to include the appropriate units in your answer. You will need to use the
Periodic Table as a source of data. (2)

(ii) Calculate the percentage yield if 2.7 g of copper(II) sulfate-5-water is obtained from
0.020 mol of sulfuric acid. (2)

(iii) What is the most likely reason for the yield being well below 100%? (1)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(d) When the crystals are heated, they turn white. On adding water, they return to their
original colour. Suggest a use for this reaction. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................
2014.1.18
Barium chloride can be made by reacting solid barium carbonate with dilute hydrochloric
acid in the following reaction.
BaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → BaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(a) (i) Write the ionic equation for the reaction of solid barium carbonate with hydrogen
ions from the hydrochloric acid. State symbols are not required. (1)
(ii) State two observations you would make while the reaction is taking place. No change
of colour occurs. (2)
Observation
1 ......................................................................................................................................
Observation
2 ......................................................................................................................................
(b) In an experiment to prepare crystals of hydrated barium chloride, BaCl 2.2H2O, a
volume of 25.0 cm3 of 2.00 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, HCl, was transferred to a beaker
and solid barium carbonate, BaCO3, was added until it was in excess.
(i) How many moles of acid were used in the reaction? (1)

(ii) What mass of barium carbonate, in grams, reacts with this amount of acid?
The molar mass of barium carbonate is 197.3 g mol–1. (1)

(iii) Why was an excess of barium carbonate used in the experiment? (1)
..............................................................................................................................................

52
(iv) How would you separate the barium chloride solution from the reaction mixture in part
(iii)? (1)
..............................................................................................................................................
(v) The barium chloride solution was left to crystallize. The crystals were separated and
dried carefully. A sample of 5.35 g of hydrated crystals, BaCl 2.2H2O, which has molar
mass 244 g mol–1, was obtained. Calculate the percentage yield of this reaction. (2)

(vi) Give one reason why the yield of crystals is less than 100%, even when the reactants
contain no impurities. (1)
..............................................................................................................................................

53
Chapter 3 Bonding

3.1 Ionic bond

1. Which compound has ionic bonds?

A hydrogen chloride B methane
C sodium chloride D water

2. Which of the following is not an ionic compound?

A ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3 B potassium fluoride, KF
C hydrogen fluoride, HF D magnesium oxide, MgO
E lithium hydride, LiH

3. Which statement about gaseous hydrogen chloride and solid potassium chloride is
correct?
A Hydrogen chloride is covalent but potassium chloride is ionic.
B Hydrogen chloride is ionic but potassium chloride is covalent.
C They are both covalent compounds.
D They are both ionic compounds.

4. The diagram shows the positions of some elements in the Periodic Table. Which
elements form ionic bonds with oxygen?
A W only B W and X only C Y only D Y and Z only

5. A drop of concentrated nickel(II) sulfate solution, which is green, is placed on moist filter
paper on a microscope slide and the ends of the slide are connected to a 24 V DC power
supply. After ten minutes,
A a blue colour has moved towards the negative terminal and a yellow colour towards the
positive terminal.
B a blue colour has moved towards the positive terminal and a yellow colour towards the
negative terminal.
C a green colour has moved towards the negative terminal but there is no other visible
change.
D a green colour has moved towards the positive terminal but there is no other visible
change.

6. Which of the following statements is evidence for the existence of ions in ionic
compounds?
A Ionic compounds, in the solid state, conduct electricity.
B When any ionic compound in solution is electrolysed, the migration of ions can be seen.
C In electron density maps for ionic compounds, there is no single line representing
54
electron density that surrounds both cations and anions.
D In electron density maps for ionic compounds, there are some single lines representing
electron density that surround both cations and anions.

7. A drop of sodium manganate(VII) solution is placed at the centre of a piece of moist

filter paper on a microscope slide. The ends of the paper are clipped to a 30 V DC power
supply. After a few minutes,
A a purple colour has moved towards the positive terminal.
B a purple colour has moved towards the negative terminal.
C an orange colour has moved towards the positive terminal.
D an orange colour has moved towards the negative terminal.

8. Which of the following observations provides the best evidence for the presence of ionic
bonding in an unknown substance? The substance conducts electricity
A in the solid state.
B in the solid state and in aqueous solution.
C in the solid state and when molten.
D when molten but not in the solid state.

2009.1.19
(b) (i) Write the equation, including state symbols, for the reaction of magnesium with
chlorine.
(2)
(ii) Name the type of bonding present in magnesium chloride. (1)

..............................................................................................
(iii) Draw a diagram (using dots or crosses) to show the bonding in magnesium chloride.
Include ALL the electrons in each species and the charges present. (3)

2011.1.17
(i) Draw a dot and cross diagram to show the electronic structure of the compound
magnesium chloride (only the outer electrons need be shown).
Include the charges present. (2)

55
*(iii) Suggest why the melting temperature of magnesium oxide is higher than that of
magnesium chloride, even though both are almost 100% ionic. (3)

2012.1.24
(a) Briefly describe an experiment, with a diagram of the apparatus you would use, which
shows that there are oppositely charged ions in copper(II) chromate(VI), CuCrO4.
Describe what you would expect to see.

Diagram (4)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(b) The ions in an ionic lattice are held together by an overall force of attraction.
(i) Describe the forces of attraction in an ionic lattice. (1)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(ii) Suggest two forces of repulsion which exist in an ionic lattice. (2)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
2013.1.18
(a) Draw dot and cross diagrams for the lithium and iodide ions. Show all the electrons in
the lithium ion but only outer shell electrons in the iodide ion. (2)

56
3.2 Covalent bond

1. Which of the following covalent bonds is the shortest?

2. Covalent bonding results from the strong electrostatic attractions between

A instantaneous dipoles. B electron clouds.
C electrons in the bonding pair. D bonding pairs of electrons and nuclei.

3. If X represents the element of atomic number 9 and Y the element of atomic number 20,
the compound formed between these two elements is
A covalent, YX2. B ionic, YX2. C covalent, YX. D ionic, YX.

4. White phosphorus consists of

A a giant structure of atoms. B a giant structure of ions.
C small molecules. D single atoms.

5. Which of the following contains a dative covalent bond?

A N2 B NH3 C NH2– D NH4+

6. The diagram shows an outline of part of the Periodic Table. Which two elements could
form a covalent compound?
A W and X B W and Y C X and Y D X and Z

7. Which pair of elements, when combined together, do not form a covalent compound?
A caesium and fluorine
B nitrogen and chlorine
C phosphorus and fluorine
D sulfur and chlorine

8. A covalent bond is formed by

A electron sharing between metals and non-metals.
B electron sharing between non-metals.
C electron transfer between non-metals.
D electron transfer from metals to non-metals.
57
9. How many of the molecules shown contain only one covalent bond?
Cl 2 , H2 , HCl ,N2 , O2
A2 B3 C4 D5

10. Which of the following molecules has the longest bond?

A I2 B IBr C ICl D Cl2 E Br2

2009.1.22
(a) Define the term covalent bond. (2)
..............................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................. ...........................................
(b) Nitrogen forms an oxide called nitrous oxide, N2O. The bonding in nitrous oxide can be
represented as:
N≡N → O
Complete the diagram below for the N2O molecule using dots or crosses to represent
electrons. Just show all of the outer shell electrons. (3)

2010.6.17
(a) Complete the diagram (using dots and crosses) to show the bonding in methanol,
CH3OH. You should show outer electrons only. (2)

2011.1.17
(ii) Draw a dot and cross diagram to show the electronic structure of the compound
tetrachloromethane (only the outer electrons need be shown). (2)

58
2014.1.17
(d) At room temperature, silicon tetrachloride, SiCl4, is a liquid that does not conduct
electricity.
Draw a dot and cross diagram illustrating the bonding in silicon chloride. Show only the
outer electron shells of the atoms. Use crosses to represent the electrons from silicon and
dots to represent the electrons from chlorine. (2)

2012.5.26
(a) Explain how the atoms are held together by the covalent bond in a molecule of
hydrogen. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(b) Draw the dot and cross diagrams for
(i) methane, CH4 (1)

(ii) ethene, CH2＝CH2 (1)

(iii) nitrogen, N2 (1)

(iv) the ammonium ion, NH4+ (1)

(c) Silicon exists in a giant covalent lattice.

(i) The electrical conductivity of pure silicon is very low. Explain why this is so in terms of
the bonding. (2)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

59
(ii) Explain the high melting temperature of silicon in terms of the bonding. (2)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
2013.5R.23
(c) ‘Low-sulfur fuel’ is now supplied to petrol stations. The removal of sulfur from diesel
and petrol reduces the emission of toxic oxides of sulfur from vehicle exhausts. One such
oxide is sulfur dioxide, SO2.
The bonding in sulfur dioxide may be represented as shown below.
O=S→O
Complete the dot and cross diagram below for the SO2 molecule, showing only outer shell
electrons. Use dots to represent the oxygen electrons and crosses to represent the sulfur
electrons.
(3)

60
3.3 Metallic bond

1. The bonding in magnesium oxide, MgO, is

A ionic.
B metallic and ionic.
C ionic and covalent.
D metallic and covalent.

2. Metals usually have high melting temperatures and boiling temperatures because
there are
A strong attractions between the ions.
B strong attractions between the delocalised electrons.
C strong attractions between the ions and the delocalised electrons.
D strong intermolecular forces.

3. In which of the following series does the melting temperature of the element increase
from left to right?
A Li, Na, K B Al, Si, P C Si, P, S D Na, Mg, Al

4. Metals are good conductors of electricity because

A metal atoms are arranged in a regular lattice.
B metal ions are very close to each other.
C metal ions are free to move through the lattice.
D electrons are free to move through the lattice.

5. For Period 3 of the Periodic Table, from sodium to argon, what is the trend in the
melting temperatures of the elements?
A A steady decrease
B A steady increase
C A decrease to silicon then an increase
D An increase to silicon then a decrease

6. A liquid, which conducts electricity, continues to conduct when it is cooled and solidified.
Which of the following could it be?
A Mercury B Bromine C Molten sodium chloride D Tetrachloromethane

7. Metallic bonding is best described as the electrostatic attraction between

A positive ions and delocalized electrons.
B protons and electrons.
C positive and negative ions.
D nuclei and shared pairs of electrons.

8. Which of the following systems contain delocalized electrons?

1 cyclohexene

61
2 graphite
3 sodium
A 1, 2 and 3 are correct B 1 and 2 only are correct
C 2 and 3 only are correct D 1 only is correct

9. The Group II metals have higher melting points than the Group I metals.
Which factors could contribute towards the higher melting points?
1. There are smaller interatomic distances in the metallic lattices of the Group II metals.
2. Two valency electrons are available from each Group II metal atom for bonding the
atom into metallic lattice.
3. Group II metals have the higher first ionization energies.
A 1, 2 and 3 are correct B 1 and 2 only are correct
C 2 and 3 only are correct D 1 only is correct

10. Which of the following are features of the structure of metallic copper?
1 ionic bonds 2 delocalised electrons 3 lattice of ions
A 1, 2 and 3 are correct B 1 and 2 only are correct
C 2 and 3 only are correct D 1 only is correct

2009.1.19
(c) State the type of bonding that exists in solid magnesium. (1)
Type ..............................................................
*(d) Explain fully why the melting temperature of magnesium is higher than that of sodium. (3)
..............................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................. ...........................................

..............................................................................................................................................

2011.6.20
Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity and usually have high melting
temperatures and boiling temperatures.
(a) (i) Describe the structure of a metal. (2)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(ii) Describe the bonding in a metal. (2)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(b) Explain why the melting temperature of magnesium (650 °C) is much higher than that
of sodium (98 °C). (3)
..............................................................................................................................................

62
(c) Explain how metals conduct electricity. (2)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

2009.6.23
The graph shows the variation in melting temperatures of the elements across Period 3
(Na to Ar) of the Periodic Table.

(a) Complete the table below to show the type of structure and bonding for the elements
shown. (3)

(b) Explain why silicon has a much higher melting temperature than sulfur. (2)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
*(c) Explain why the melting temperature increases from sodium to aluminium. (2)
..............................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................. ............................................

..............................................................................................................................................

63
2012.1.23
The melting temperatures of the elements of Period 3 are given in the table below. Use
these values to answer the questions that follow.

(a) Explain why the melting temperature of sodium is very much less than that of
magnesium. (3)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(b) Explain why the melting temperature of silicon is very much greater than that of white
phosphorus. (3)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(c) Explain why the melting temperature of argon is the lowest of all the elements of
Period 3. (1)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(d) Explain why magnesium is a good conductor of electricity whereas sulfur is a
non-conductor. (2)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
2013.5R.22
(d) Most solids exist as lattice structures.
(i) Complete the table, using a tick (√) if the substance conducts electricity or a cross (×) if
the substance does not conduct electricity. (2)

*(ii) Explain the electrical conductivities of sodium and of sodium oxide in the solid and
liquid states. (3)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

64
2014.5.23
(d) The graph shows the variation in melting temperatures of the elements across Period
3 (Na to Ar) of the Periodic Table.

(i) Name one of the elements above that is composed of simple molecules at room
temperature and pressure. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................
(ii) Silicon has a giant atomic structure. Explain how this structure results in the high
melting temperature shown on the graph. (2)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(iii) Explain why the melting temperature of magnesium is higher than that of sodium. (3)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

65
Chapter 4 Enthalpy changes

4.1 Exothermic and endothermic

1. Which of these diagrams correctly represents an endothermic reaction?

2. The enthalpy change for the reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide
is –56 kJ mol–1. Therefore
A the reaction is exothermic and the temperature rises.
B the reaction is exothermic and the temperature falls.
C the reaction is endothermic and the temperature rises.
D the reaction is endothermic and the temperature falls.

3. The enthalpy change of combustion is usually exothermic. Therefore

A it releases the heat, the temperature falls.
B it releases the heat, the temperature rises.
C it absorbs the heat, the temperature rises.
D it absorbs the heat, the temperature falls.

4. In an endothermic reaction in aqueous solution, which of the following is correct?

66
4.2 standard enthalpy change

1. Which equation represents the reaction for which the enthalpy change is the standard
enthalpy change of formation, ∆HfΘ, of sodium nitrate, NaNO3?
A 2Na(s) + N2 (g) + 3O2 (g) → 2NaNO3 (s)
B Na(s) + ½N2 (g) + 1½O2 (g) → NaNO3 (s)
C Na(s) + N(g) + 3O(g) → NaNO3 (s)
D Na(g) + ½N2 (g) + 1½O2 (g) → NaNO3 (g)

2. Which of the following equations represents a reaction for which the enthalpy change is
the standard enthalpy change of formation of water, ΔHf,298Θ?
A H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)
B H2 (g)+ 1/2O2(g) → H2O(l)
C H2O(g) → H2O(l)
D H2O(s) → H2O(l)

3. Which of the following equations represents a reaction for which the enthalpy change is
the standard enthalpy change of combustion of C2H6(g), ΔHc,298Θ?
A C2H6(g) + 7/2O2(g)→ 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
B C2H6(g) + 7/2O2(g)→ 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)
C 2C(s) + 3H2(g) → C2H6(g)
D C2H6(g) + 5/2O2(g)→ 2CO(g) + 3H2O(g)

4. The standard enthalpy change of neutralization when an acid reacts with an alkali is the
number of kilojoules released by the
A formation of one mole of salt
B formation of one mole of water
C neutralization of one mole of acid
D neutralization of one mole of alkali

5. In an experiment to measure the enthalpy change of a reaction involving gases, which

of the following conditions must always be kept constant?
A Pressure
B Temperature
C Volume
D Temperature and pressure

6. Which one of the following equations correctly defines the enthalpy change of formation
of carbon monoxide?
A. C(s)+½O2(g)→CO(g)
B. C(s)+O2(g)→CO(g)
C. C(s)+CO2(g)→2CO(g)
D. C(g)+½O2(g)→CO(g)

67
7. Which equation represents the change corresponding to the enthalpy change of
atomisation of iodine?
A ½I2(s) → I(g)
B. I2(s) → I2(g)
C. I2(l) → 2I(g)
D. I2(g) → 2I(g)

8. 50 cm3 of 2.50 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid was placed in a polystyrene beaker of
negligible heat capacity. Its temperature was recorded and then 50 cm3 of 2.50 mol dm–3
NaOH at the same temperature was quickly added, with stirring. The temperature rose by
17 °C.
The resulting solution may be considered to have a specific heat capacity of 4.2 J g–1 K–1.
What is an approximate value for the molar enthalpy change of neutralisation of
hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide from this experiment?
A –(50×4.2×17)/(0.050×2.5) J mol-1
B –(50×4.2×17)/(0.10×2.5) J mol-1
C –(100×4.2×17)/(0.050×2.5) J mol-1
D –(100×4.2×17)/( 50×2.5) J mol-1

9. Which of the following would need the smallest quantity of heat to change the
temperature of 5 g by 10°C?

A I2(s) B H2O(l) *C Au(s) D He(g) E Cu(s)

2009.06.24
(a) Standard enthalpy changes of combustion can be used to calculate the standard
enthalpy change of formation of a compound.
Define the term standard enthalpy change of formation, making clear the meaning of
standard in this context.

(b) Standard enthalpy changes of combustion can be used to calculate the standard
enthalpy change of formation of a compound.
(i) Define the term standard enthalpy change of combustion, making clear the meaning
of standard in this context.

68
(ii) write down the equation of the combustion of C2H5OH (l), state symbols are needed.

(iii) write down the equation of the formation of C2H5OH (l), state symbols are needed.

(iii) write down the equation of the combustion of CH3OH (l), state symbols are needed.

2014.05R.25
*(a) Define the term enthalpy change of neutralization. (2)

4.3 Measuring enthalpy changes

1. In an experiment performed to measure the enthalpy change for the reaction

Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s) → Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq)
3.0 g of zinc powder (an excess) was added to 30.0 cm3 of copper(II) sulfate solution of
concentration 1.00 mol dm–3. The temperature rise of the mixture was 47.6 K.
Assuming that the heat capacity of the solution is 4.2 J K–1 g–1, the enthalpy change for the
reaction is given by
A ΔH = -(30 × 4.2 × 47.6) ÷ 0.03
B ΔH = -(33 × 4.2 × 47.6) ÷ 0.03
C ΔH = -(30 × 4.2 × 47.6) × 0.03、
D ΔH = -(33 × 4.2 × 47.6) × 0.03

2. In an experiment to determine the enthalpy change of combustion of an alcohol, a spirit

burner containing the alcohol was weighed, lit and placed under a copper can containing a
known volume of water. The temperature rise of the water was measured and the burner
re-weighed. The enthalpy change calculated from the results was much less exothermic
than the value reported in the literature.
Which of the following factors is most likely to be the cause of this error?
A Heat loss around the side of the copper can.
B The use of a thermometer with a range of 0 – 110 °C rather than 0 – 50 °C.
C The use of a measuring cylinder for measuring the water rather than a pipette.
D Evaporation of the alcohol during the weighing

69
3. When 10 cm3 of 2 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid is reacted with 10 cm3 of 2 mol dm–3
sodium hydroxide solution, the temperature change is ΔT.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
When the reaction is repeated with 50 cm 3 of each solution, the temperature change is
A ΔT
B 5 ×ΔT
C 1/5×ΔT
D 10 × 2 ×ΔT

2009.06.24
Propanone, C3H6O, undergoes complete combustion to form carbon dioxide and water.
C3H6O(l) + 4O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 3H2O(l)
(a) In an experiment to calculate the enthalpy change of combustion for propanone, 2.90 g
of propanone was burned completely in oxygen.
The heat energy from this combustion raised the temperature of 200g of water from
20.2 °C to 78.4 °C.
The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 Jg–1°C–1

(i) Calculate the number of moles of propanone present in 2.90 g.

[The molar mass of propanone is 58g mol–1.] (1)

(ii) Use the expression

energy transferred (J) = mass × specific heat capacity× temperature change to calculate
the heat energy transferred to raise the temperature of 200 g of water from 20.2°C to
78.4°C. (2)

(iii) Use your answers to (a)(i) and (ii) to calculate a value for the enthalpy change of
combustion of propanone. Give your answer to three significant figures and include a sign
and units. (3)

70
(b) In another experiment, the enthalpy change of combustion for butanone, C4H8O, was
found to be –1300 kJmol–1.
A Data Book value for the standard enthalpy change of combustion for butanone is–2440
kJmol–1.
(i) Suggest a reason why the value obtained in the experiment is so different from the
Data Book value. (1)

(ii) This Data Book value (–2440kJmol –1 ) refers to the following equation.
C4H8O(l) + 1½O2 (g) → 4CO2 (g) + 4H2O(l)
How would the value be different if it referred to the formation of water in the gaseous
state? Justify your answer. (2)

Difference:
Justification:

2010.01.18
The enthalpy change of combustion of hexane was measured using a spirit burner to heat
a known mass of water in a calorimeter. The temperature rise of the water was measured.
The results of the experiment are shown below.

The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18Jg–1°C–1.

(i) Calculate the energy in joules produced by burning the hexane. Use the expression.
energy transferred = mass × specific heat capacity × temperature change. (1)
(ii) Calculate the enthalpy change of combustion of hexane. The mass of 1 mole of
hexane is 86g.
Give your answer to TWO significant figures. Include a sign and units in your answer.
(3)

71
(iii) The value for the enthalpy change of combustion in this experiment is different from
the value given in data books. Suggest TWO reasons for this difference. (2)

(iv) A student suggested that the results would be more accurate if a thermometer which
read to 0.1°C was used. Explain why this would not improve the accuracy of the result. A
calculation is not required. (1)
2011.01.19
The enthalpy change of combustion of ethanol was determined using the apparatus
shown in the diagram below. In the experiment, the temperature increase of the water in
the beaker is measured when a known mass of the ethanol is burned.

(a) The results of the experiment are summarised in the table below.

(i) Calculate the heat energy produced by the combustion of the alcohol using the
equation
heat energy produced (J) = mass of water × 4.18 × temperature change (1)

72
(ii) Calculate the number of moles of ethanol burned in this experiment (the formula of
ethanol is C2H5OH). (3)

(iii) Use the equation below to calculate the enthalpy change of combustion of ethanol in
kJmol –1. Give the value an appropriate sign.
ΔH = heat energy produced ÷ number of moles (2)

(b) The data book value for the enthalpy change of combustion of ethanol is –1370 kJ
mol-1.
(i) Calculate the percentage error in the value calculated in (a)(iii) in comparison with the
data book value. (1)

(ii) List three ways in which the design of the experiment causes the results to be so
different from the data book value. (You should be specific but detailed explanations are
not required.)
1 ...........................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

2 ...........................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

3 ...........................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

73
2013.05.21
Sodium hydrogencarbonate decomposes on heating to form sodium carbonate. It is
difficult to measure the enthalpy change of this reaction directly.
2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
One method of determining this enthalpy change is to react known amounts of sodium
hydrogencarbonate and sodium carbonate, separately, with excess dilute hydrochloric
acid.
(a) 0.010 mol of solid sodium hydrogencarbonate was added to 25 cm 3 of dilute
hydrochloric acid. A temperature rise of 11 °C was measured using a thermometer
graduated at 1 °C intervals.
(i) Calculate the heat energy produced by this reaction using the equation:
Energy transferred in joules = mass × 4.18 × change in temperature (1)

(ii) Calculate the standard enthalpy change for the reaction when one mole of sodium
hydrogencarbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid. Remember to include a sign and units
with your answer which should be given to three significant figures. (2)

*(b) The standard enthalpy change for the reaction between sodium carbonate and dilute
hydrochloric acid is found by a similar method to be
ΔHΘ= –321.6 kJ mol–1
Complete the Hess energy cycle below by adding the missing arrow and entities.
Use it to calculate the standard enthalpy change for the decomposition of two moles of
sodium hydrogencarbonate as in the equation below.
Remember to show your reasoning clearly. (5)

74
(c) The uncertainty for each thermometer reading is ± 0.5 °C.
Calculate the percentage error in the temperature rise of 11 °C. (1)

(d) Sodium hydrogencarbonate is used in cooking. Suggest what it is used for and
how it works. (2)

2013.05.25
The enthalpy change of the neutralization reaction between hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq),
and sodium hydroxide, NaOH(aq), can be determined by the following procedure.
Procedure:
 50.0 cm3 of 2.00 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid is transferred to a polystyrene cup and its
temperature recorded
 50.0 cm3 of 2.00 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution is placed in another polystyrene
cup and its temperature recorded
 The two solutions are mixed, with stirring, and the maximum temperature is recorded

Results:
。
Initial temperature of both the HCl(aq) and NaOH(aq) = 19.0 C
。
Maximum temperature reached after mixing = 32.5 C
Assumption:
。
 The specific heat capacity of all aqueous solutions is 4.18 J g–1 C –1
 The density of all aqueous solutions is 1.00 g cm–3

(i) Calculate the heat energy released (in joules) on mixing the hydrochloric acid and the
sodium hydroxide solutions.
Use the expression
energy released (J) = mass of solution × 4.18 × temperature change
(2)
(ii) Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid used in the experiment.
(1)

75
(iii) Use your answers to (b)(i), (ii) and (iii) to calculate the enthalpy change of
neutralization for the above reaction.
Include a sign and units in your answer.
(3)

(iv) Explain why the enthalpy change of neutralization for the reaction between dilute nitric
acid, HNO3 (aq), and potassium hydroxide solution, KOH(aq), is predicted to be the same
as the enthalpy change of neutralization for the reaction carried out in part (b).
(1)

2014.01.19
(a) The enthalpy change of combustion of methanol was measured using a spirit burner to
heat a known mass of water in a calorimeter. The temperature increase of the water in the
calorimeter was measured when a known mass of methanol was burned.
(i) Write an equation for the complete combustion of methanol, CH3OH, under standard
conditions. Include state symbols in the equation. (2)

(b) The results of the experiment are summarised in the table below.

(i) Calculate the heat energy produced in this experiment using the equation
Heat energy produced (J) = mass of water × 4.18 × temperature change
(1)

76
(ii) Calculate the number of moles of methanol burned in this experiment.
(1)

(iii) Calculate the enthalpy change of combustion of methanol in kJ mol –1. Give your
answer to three significant figures. (2)

(d) The value of the enthalpy change for the combustion of methanol can be calculated
from the mean bond enthalpies of the substances in the reaction.
Give two reasons why this value differs from the value obtained in the experiment, even
after corrections are made for experimental error.
(2)
Reason1

..............................................................................................................................................
.

Reason2

...........................................................................................................................................

77
4.4. Hess’s law

1 The standard enthalpy changes of combustion of carbon, hydrogen and methane are
shown in the table below.

Which one of the following expressions gives the correct value for the standard enthalpy
change of formation of methane in kJmol–1 ?
C(s) + 2H2 (g) → CH4 (g)
A 394 + (2 × 286) – 891
B –394 – (2 × 286) + 891
C 394 + 286 – 891
D –394 – 286 + 891

2. Given the following data:

ΔHΘf [FeO(s)] = –270kJmol–1
ΔHΘf [Fe2O3(s)] = –820kJmol–1
select the expression which gives the enthalpy change, in kJ mol–1 , for the reaction:
2FeO(s) + ½O2(g) → Fe2O3(s)
A (–820 × ½) + 270 = –140
B (+820 × ½) – 270 = +140
C –820 + (270 × 2) = –280
D +820 – (270 × 2) = +280

3. The equation for the complete combustion of pentane is

C5H12 (g) + 8O2 (g) → 5CO2 (g) + 6H2O(l) ΔHcΘ= –3509 kJ mol–1
The standard enthalpy change of formation of CO2 (g) is –394 kJ mol –1 and that of H2O(l)
is –286 kJ mol–1.
The standard enthalpy change of formation of pentane (in kJ mol–1) is
A 5(–394) + 6(–286) + (–3509)
B 5(–394) + 6(–286) – (–3509)
C –5(–394) – 6(–286) + (–3509)
D –5(–394) – 6(–286) – (–3509)

4. The enthalpy change for the reaction

C(s, graphite) + ½O2 (g) → CO(g)
cannot be measured directly since some carbon dioxide is always formed in the reaction.
It can be calculated using Hess’s Law and the enthalpy changes of combustion of graphite
and of carbon monoxide.

78
The enthalpy change for the reaction of graphite with oxygen to give carbon monoxide is
A -677 kJmol-1
B +111 kJmol-1
C -111 kJmol-1
D +677 kJmol-1

5. The standard enthalpy changes of formation of carbon dioxide and of methanoic acid
are -394 kJmol-1 and –409 kJmol-1 respectively. Calculate the enthalpy change for the
reaction
H2 (g) + CO2 (g) → HCOOH(l)
A -803 kJmol -1

B -15kJmol-1
C +803 kJmol-1
D +15 kJmol-1

6. The enthalpy change for the reaction to form hydrated sodium thiosulfate crystals
cannot be measured directly.
The following Hess cycle can be used.

The enthalpy change for the reaction, ΔHr , is equal to

A ΔH1 + ΔH2
B ΔH1 − ΔH2
C −ΔH1 − ΔH2
D −ΔH1 + ΔH2
7. The standard enthalpy change for the formation of ethene, C2H4, is +52.2 kJ mol–1 and
that of ethane, C2H6 , is –84.7 kJ mol–1.
Calculate the standard enthalpy change for the reaction below, in kJ mol–1.
C2H4 (g) + H2 (g) → C2H6 (g)
A -32.5
B -136.9
C +136.9
D this cannot be calculated using only the data above

79
9. Using the data in the table below, calculate the standard enthalpy change, in kJ mol –1,
for the reaction between carbon disulfide, CS 2 , and oxygen shown in the following
equation.
CS2 (g) + 3O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2SO2 (g)

A –570
B –790
C –860
D –1080

10. The equation for the complete combustion of butanone, C2H5COCH3, is

C2H5COCH3 (l) + 5½O2 (g) → 4CO2 (g) + 4H2O(l) ΔHΘ = –2440 kJ mol–1

From the above data, the standard enthalpy change of formation of butanone, in kJ mol–1,
is
A –280
B +280
C –1760
D +1760

2009.01.23
The standard enthalpy change, ΔHΘ1, for the decomposition of potassium
hydrogencarbonate, KHCO3, is impossible to determine directly.
2KHCO3(s) → K2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Θ
The value of ΔH 1, can be calculated from the standard enthalpy changes which
accompany the reactions below:
KHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) → KCl(aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l) ΔHΘ2
K2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l) ΔHΘ3
Procedure:
• The solids were added to separate 30cm3 portions of dilute hydrochloric acid. The acid
was in excess for both solids.
• The maximum temperature change for each experiment was noted.
Results:
• The following results were obtained with KHCO3(s).

80
 Mass of KHCO3 used = 2.00g
Temperature change = −4.9°C
• The experiment with K2CO3(s) gave a ΔHΘ3 value of −34kJmol–1 .
Assumption:
• The dilute hydrochloric acid solution has a density of 1gcm–3 .
(a) (i) Calculate the heat energy absorbed, in joules, by the reaction of the KHCO3(s) with
the solution of dilute hydrochloric acid.
Use the expression
energy absorbed (J) = mass of solution × 4.18 × temperature change (1)

(ii) Calculate the number of moles of KHCO3 (s) used. Assume that the molar mass of
KHCO3(s) is 100gmol–1 . (1)

(iii) Use your answers to (a)(i) and (ii) to calculate, in kJmol –1 , the enthalpy change when
one mole of KHCO3 (s) reacts completely with the acid (i.e. ΔHΘ2).
Include a sign in your answer. (2)

(a) A Hess Cycle based on these reactions is shown below.

(i) Apply Hess’s Law to obtain an expression for ΔHΘ1 in terms of ΔHΘ2 and ΔHΘ3.
(1)

ΔHΘ1 =

81
(ii) Use your answers to (a)(iii) and (b)(i), and theΔHΘ3 value of –34 kJmol–1, to calculate a
value forΔHΘ1 in kJmol–1. Include a sign in your answer. (2)

2009.06.24
Use the standard enthalpy changes of combustion, ΔHcΘ , given in the table below to find
the standard enthalpy change of formation for ethanoic acid, CH3COOH, in kJ mol–1 .

2C(s, graphite) + 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → CH3COOH(l) (3)

2010.05.17
(a) The Hess cycle below can be used to calculate the standard enthalpy change of
combustion of methanol, using standard enthalpy changes of formation.

(i) Complete the cycle by filling in the empty box.

(2)
*(ii) Define the term standard enthalpy change of formation of a compound, making
clear the meaning of standard in this context. (3)

82
(iii) Use your cycle and the data below to calculate the standard enthalpy change of
combustion of methanol, ∆HcΘ.

(3)

(b) An experiment was carried out, using the apparatus below, to estimate the standard
enthalpy change of combustion of methanol.

After burning the methanol for a few minutes, the temperature of water in the beaker had
risen by 20.7 °C and the mass of methanol burnt was 0.848 g.
(i) Calculate the amount of energy transferred to the water.
Energy transferred (J) = mass of water × 4.18 × temperature change
(1)

(ii) Calculate the number of moles of methanol, CH3OH, burnt during the
experiment. (1)

83
(iii) Use your answers to (c)(i) and (ii) to calculate the experimental value for the
standard enthalpy change of combustion. Include a sign and units in your answer,
which should be given to three significant figures. (1)

(iv) Compare your answers to (b)(iii) and (c)(iii) and give TWO reasons to explain any
differences. (2)

2011.05.18
Copper(II) sulfate exists as blue hydrated crystals and white anhydrous crystals. The
enthalpy changes of solution for these two substances may be represented by the
following simplified equations:

CuSO4.5H2O(s) + aq → CuSO4 (aq) ΔH1 = +11.5 kJ mol–1

Blue
CuSO4(s) + aq → CuSO4 (aq) ΔH2 = –66.1 kJ mol–1
white

(a) (i) Fill in the box and add labelled arrows to complete the Hess cycle to enable you to
calculate ΔH reaction . (3)

CuSO4.5H2O(s) → CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)

84
(ii) Calculate a value for the enthalpy change ΔHreaction. (2)

(b) Suggest why it is not possible to directly measure the enthalpy change for the
conversion of the blue hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals into the white anhydrous
crystals. (1)

*(c) (i) CuSO4.5H2O(s) + aq → CuSO4 (aq) ΔH1 = +11.5 kJ mol–1

Describe briefly the experimental procedure that you would use to obtain the data
necessary to calculate ΔH1 , given a known mass of hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals,
CuSO4.5H2O(s).
You should state the apparatus that you would use and any measurements that you would
make.
You are not required to calculate the amounts of substances or to explain how you would
use the data obtained. (4)

(ii) The value for the enthalpy change from (c)(i) obtained by experiments in a school
laboratory is likely to be significantly different from a data book value.
List three possible reasons for this which do not relate to the quality of the apparatus or
chemicals used or possible mistakes in carrying out the procedure.
(3)
1. ........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
2. ………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. …………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

85
2016.03.17
(a) On strong heating, calcium carbonate decomposes to calcium oxide and carbon
dioxide:
CaCO3 (s) → CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
Owing to the conditions under which the reaction occurs, it is not possible to measure the
enthalpy change directly.
An indirect method employs the enthalpy changes when calcium carbonate and calcium
oxide are neutralized with hydrochloric acid.
(i) Write the equation for the reaction of calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid. State
symbols are not required.
[ΔH1 is the enthalpy change for this reaction] (1)

................................................................................................................................ΔH1
(ii) The reaction of calcium oxide with hydrochloric acid is
CaO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O(l) ΔH2
Use the equations in parts (i) and (ii) to complete the Hess’s Law cycle below to show how
you could calculate the enthalpy change for the decomposition of calcium carbonate
ΔHreaction. Label the arrows in your cycle. (3)

(iii) complete the expression forΔHreaction in terms of ΔH1 and ΔH2 .

(1)
ΔHreaction =

(b) Suggest two reasons why the value obtained by carrying out these two experiments
and using the equation gives a value different to the data booklet value for the
decomposition reaction of calcium carbonate. (2)

1 ........................................................................................................................................

2 ........................................................................................................................................

86
2012.05.23
(a) State Hess’s Law. (1)

(b) Methane burns in a limited supply of oxygen to give carbon monoxide and water.
CH4 (g) + 1½O2(g) → CO(g) + 2H2O(l)
The enthalpy change for this reaction cannot be determined directly, but can be found
using the standard enthalpy changes of combustion of methane and carbon monoxide,
together with Hess’s Law.
The standard enthalpy changes of combustion needed are for CH4, -890 kJmol-1, and for
CO -283 kJmol-1
(i) Draw a Hess’s Law diagram which would enable you to calculate the enthalpy change
for the combustion of methane to carbon monoxide.
CH4 (g) + 1½O2 (g) → CO(g) + 2H2O(l)
(2)

(ii) Calculate the enthalpy change for thje reaction . (2)

(iii) Explain why the enthalpy change for this reaction cannot be determined directly.
(1)

(c) Explain why the calculation in part (b)(ii) would give an incorrect result for the enthalpy
change for the reaction below.
CH4 (g) + 1½O2 (g) → CO(g) + 2H2O(g) (2)

87
4.5 bond enthalpy

1. Some mean bond enthalpy values are given in the table below.

What is the enthalpy change for the reaction shown below in kJ mol–1 ?
H2 (g) + I2 (g) → 2HI(g)
A +436 + 151 – 299 = +288
B –436 – 151 + 299 = –288
C +436 +151 – (2 × 299) = –11
D –436 – 151 + (2 × 299) = +11

2. This question is about some standard enthalpy changes, ΔHΘ

A enthalpy of reaction
B enthalpy of combustion
C mean bond enthalpy
D bond enthalpy
(a) Which enthalpy change is represented by p?
CH4 (g) → CH3 (g) + H(g) ΔHΘ = p
A B C D

(b) Which enthalpy change is represented by q?

CH4 (g) → C(g) + 4H(g) ΔHΘ = 4q

A B C D

(c) Which enthalpy change is represented by r?

ΔHΘ = r
A B C D

3. Which equation represents the reaction for which the enthalpy change, ∆H, is the mean
bond enthalpy of the C–H bond?
A ¼CH4 (g) → ¼C(g) + H(g)
B CH4 (g) → C(s) + 2H2 (g)
C CH4 (g) → C(g) + 4H(g)
D CH4 (g) → C(g) + 2H2 (g)

88
4. The enthalpy change for the reaction
CH4 (g) → C(g) + 4H(g)
is +1648 kJ mol –1 . Hence the mean bond enthalpy for the C–H bond is
A +329.6 kJmol-1
B +412.0 kJmol-1
C +1648 kJmol-1
D +6592 kJmol-1

5. The standard enthalpy changes of formation of some sulfur species are:

The enthalpy of atomization of sulfur is (in kJ mol–1)

A 103 ÷ 8
B 279 ÷ 8
C 279
D (103 ÷ 8) + 279

6. For which of the following reactions is the enthalpy change equal to the bond enthalpy
of H–I?
A HI(g) → ½H2 (g) + ½I2 (s)
B HI(g) → ½H2 (g) + ½I2 (g)
C HI(g) → H(g) + I(g)
D HI(g) → H+ (g) + I– (g)

7. The enthalpy change of atomization of iodine is the value of ΔH for the process
A I2 (s) → I2 (g)
B I2 (s) → 2I(g)
C I 2 (g) → 2I(g)
D ½I2 (s) → I(g)

8. If the mean C H bond enthalpy is +x, which of the following represents a process with
an enthalpy change of +4x?
A C(g) + 4H(g) → CH4 (g)
B CH4 (g) → C(g) + 4H(g)
C CH4(g) → C(s, graphite) + 2H2(g)
D C(s, graphite) + 2H2(g) → CH4(g)

89
9. Which of the following represents the process occurring when the enthalpy change of
atomization of bromine is measured?
A ½Br2(l) → Br(g)
B ½Br2(g) → Br(g)
C Br2(l) → Br+ (g) + Br– (g)
D Br2(g) → Br + (g) + Br– (g)

10. Which equation represents the reaction for which the enthalpy change, ΔH, is the
mean bond energy of the C-F bond?
A CF4(g) → C(g) + 4F(g)
B ¼CF4 (g) → ¼C(g) + F(g)
C C(g) + 4F(g) → CF4 (g)
D ¼C(g) + F(g) → ¼CF4 (g)

11. Consider the following bond enthalpy values.

The enthalpy change for the reaction

CO(g) + ½O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
–1
in units of kJ mol is
A -284
B +35
C +521
D +770

12. Consider the following bond enthalpy values.

For the reaction

H-O-O-H(g) → H-O-H(g) + ½O=O(g)
the enthalpy change, in kJ mol–1, is
A –102
B +102
C +350
D +394

90
13. Which of the following statements is true?
A Breaking covalent bonds requires energy and making ionic bonds requires energy.
B Bond breaking is endothermic whereas bond making is exothermic.
C Bond breaking is exothermic whereas bond making is endothermic.
DBreaking ionic bonds releases energy whereas making covalent bonds requires energy.

2009. 01. 09
An equation for the reaction between methane and chlorine is:
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl
The reaction occurs in the presence of ultraviolet (UV) light via a free-radical chain
mechanism.
The initiation step is Cl2 → 2Cl·
The next step could be
EITHER CH4 + Cl· → ·CH3 + HCl (Step A)
OR CH4 + Cl· → CH3Cl + H· (Step B)
(i) Use the following data to calculate a value for the enthalpy change for each of the
Steps, A and B.
(3)

Enthalpy change for Step A CH4 + Cl· → ·CH3 + HCl

Answer ................................... kJmol–1

Enthalpy change for Step B CH4 + Cl· → CH3Cl + H·

Answer ................................... kJmol–1

(ii) Use your answer to (i) to justify which of the Steps, A or B, is the more likely. (1)

91
4.6 Lattice energy

1. Which equation represents the reaction for which the enthalpy change is the lattice
energy of sodium fluoride, NaF?

2. Theoretical lattice energies can be calculated from electrostatic theory. Which of the
following affects the magnitude of the theoretical lattice energy of an alkali metal halide,
M+ X– ?

3. Which of these ions has the greatest ability to polarize an anion?

4. Which of these electron density maps best represents the bonding in the compound
lithium iodide, LiI?

92
5. In which of the following cases would a cation be most polarizing?
Radius Charge
A small small
B small large
C large small
D large large

6. Magnesium chloride, MgCl2, has two lattice energy values quoted in the data booklet.
The first is the experimental value, obtained from the Born-Haber cycle, -2526 kJ mol-1.
The second is the theoretical value, -2326 kJ mol-1. Why are the two values different?
A The cation polarizes the anion leading to some covalent bonding.
B The anion polarizes the cation leading to some covalent bonding.
C Magnesium chloride is a covalent substance.
D The results from the Born-Haber cycle are too inaccurate to be reliable.

7. Which of the following quantities, used in the calculation of the lattice energy of lithium
oxide, Li2O, has a negative value?

8. Which of the equations below represents the first electron affinity for oxygen?

9. The ionic radii in nm of some ions are given below.

Li+ 0.074 F– 0.133
Ca2+ 0.100 Cl– 0.180
O2– 0.140
S2– 0.185
(a) Which of the following compounds has the most exothermic lattice energy? They all
have the same crystal structure.
A LiF
B LiCl
C CaO
D CaS

93
(b) Which of the following compounds will show the greatest difference between the
experimental (Born-Haber) lattice energy and that calculated from a purely ionic model?
A LiF
B Li2O
C CaO
D CaS

2009.06.22
The Born-Haber cycle for the formation of sodium chloride from sodium and chlorine may
be represented by a series of steps labelled A to F as shown.

(a) (i) Complete the table below by adding the letters A to F next to the corresponding
energy changes.

94
(ii) Calculate the first electron affinity of chlorine, in kJmol –1 , from the data given.
(b) Lattice energies can be calculated from electrostatic theory (theoretical values) as well
as by Born-Haber cycles (experimental values).

(i) Comment on the fact that there is close agreement between the values for sodium
chloride, NaCl. (1)

*(ii) Explain, in terms of chemical bonding, why the experimental value for silver iodide,
AgI, is more exothermic than the value calculated theoretically for the same compound.
(2)

*(c) Suggest why the first ionization energies of the Group 1 elements decrease down the
Group. (2)

95
2010.01.16
Lattice energies can be measured using the Born-Haber cycle, or calculated from
electrostatic theory. Lattice energies of magnesium chloride and magnesium iodide are
shown below.

(i) What does this data indicate about the bonding in magnesium chloride? (1)

*(ii) Explain why there is a greater difference between the experimental (Born-Haber) and
theoretical lattice energies for magnesium iodide, MgI2, compared with magnesium
chloride.
(2)

2012.01.24
Part of the Born-Haber cycle for magnesium oxide, MgO, is shown below.

96
(i) Complete the empty box with the appropriate formulae and state symbols.
(ii) Identify the enthalpy changes represented by the letters A and C.
(2)
A ........................................................................................................................................

C ........................................................................................................................................
(iii) Give the expression for the enthalpy change F in terms of the other enthalpy changes
A to E.
(1)
F=

(d) The lattice composed of the ions Mg2+ and O2– is stronger than a lattice composed of
the ions Mg+ and O–.
(i) Explain, in terms of the charges on the ions and the size of the cations, why this is so.
(2)

(ii) Suggest how the lattice energy of Mg2+O2– would differ from that of Mg+O– .
(1)

97
2013.01.18
This question is about lithium iodide, an ionic salt.
(a) Draw dot and cross diagrams for the lithium and iodide ions. Show all the electrons in
the lithium ion but only outer shell electrons in the iodide ion. (2)

(b) On the Born-Haber cycle below, fill in the missing formulae (including state symbols)
and the missing enthalpy change. (3)

(c) Calculate the electron affinity of iodine, E aff1 [I(g)], using the data below.

(2)

(d) The experimental lattice energy for lithium iodide is −759 kJ mol−1. The theoretical
lattice energy is different from this value.
Will the experimental lattice energy be more negative or less negative than the theoretical
lattice energy? Justify your answer.

98
2014.01.18
The diagram below, which is not drawn to scale, shows how the lattice energy of barium
chloride can be calculated using the Born-Haber cycle.

(i) Using the letters A to F, complete the table below by matching each letter to its
corresponding energy change. (3)
–1
(ii) The energy change X is –697.6 kJ mol .
In the table, add the name of the enthalpy change which is occurring in this stage of the
cycle.
(1)

(iii) Use the data to calculate the lattice energy of barium chloride. (2)

99
*(iv) Lattice energies can be calculated from electrostatic theory (theoretical values) as
well as by Born-Haber cycles (experimental values).
What can you deduce from the fact that the experimental and theoretical values for the
lattice energy of barium chloride are very close? (2)

2014.05.21
Lattice energies can be calculated from experimental data using Born-Haber cycles.
In the table below are the enthalpy changes needed to calculate the lattice energy of
sodium oxide, Na2O.

(a) Define the term lattice energy. (2)

(b) (i) Write the correct letters from the table of data to label the Born-Haber cycle below.

100
(ii) Calculate the lattice energy of sodium oxide, enthalpy change G, in kJ mol–1. (2)

*(c) Predict whether the lattice energy of magnesium oxide, MgO, is more or less
exothermic than the lattice energy of magnesium sulfide, MgS.
Justify your answer in terms of the sizes and the charges of the ions involved.

101
Chapter 5-7 Organic chemistry

5.1 Hazard and risk

1. Many organic compounds have toxic vapours. For this reason

A a naked flame should never be used when carrying out experiments with organic
compounds.
B gloves should usually be worn when carrying out experiments with organic compounds.
C a fume cupboard should be used wherever possible when carrying out experiments with
organic compounds.
D most experiments with organic compounds are banned in schools and colleges.

5.2 Types of formulae

1. The compound butane has

A the empirical formula C4H10 and the molecular formula C2H5.
B the empirical formula C2H5 and the molecular formula C4H10.
C the empirical formula C2H5 and the molecular formula CnH2n+2.
D the empirical formula CnH2n+2 and the molecular formula C4H10.

2. An organic compound is represented by the skeletal formula shown below.

The compound is

A CH3CH2CH2CH(OH)CH2CH3
B (CH3)2CHC(OH)(CH3)2
C (CH3)2CHCH2CH(OH)CH3
D (CH3)2CHCH(OH)CH2CH3

2012.5,24
(a) Give the general formula for the homologous series of alkenes. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................

2011.5,19
This question is about alkanes.
(a) The skeletal formulae of two alkanes (A and B) are shown below.

A B

102
(i) Write the general formula of the alkanes. (1)

(iii) Draw the displayed formula of compound A. (1)

2013.1.20
Ethane can react with chlorine to form chloroethane and hydrogen chloride.
(b) C2H6(g) + Cl2(g) → C2H5Cl(g) + HCl(g)
Rewrite this equation using displayed formulae. (1)

butane ethene ethanol propanoic 1-chloropropane

acid
Functional Alkane
group -C-C-

Empirical C2H5
formula

Molecular C4H10
formula

General CnH2n+2
formula

Structural CH3CH2CH2CH3
formula

Displayed
formula

Skeletal
formula

103
5.3 IUPAC nomenclature

1. This question is about the organic compounds with skeletal formulae as shown:

(a) Which compound is 2-methylpropane?

A
B
C
D
(b) Which compound has the molecular formula C5H12?
A
B
C
D

2. The structural formula of 5-chloro-2,2-dimethylhexane is

3. The correct name for the compound shown below is

A 2-methylbut-3-ene
B 3-methylbut-2-ene
C 3-methylbut-3-ene

104
D 2-methylbut-2-ene

4. What is the IUPAC name of the compound shown below?

A 2-ethyl-2-propylpentane
B 3-methyl-3-propylhexane
C 4-methyl-4-propylhexane
D 4-ethyl-4-methylheptane

5. What is the systematic name for the compound with the following formula?

A 2-methyl-3-ethylbutane
B 1,2,3-trimethylbutane
C 2,3-dimethylpropane
D 2,3-dimethylpentane

Name:

1.

2.

3.

4.

105
5.

5.4 Isomerism

1. How many isomers are there of C5H12?

A Two
B Three
C Four
D Five

2. What is the systematic name for the following compound?

A Z-4-methylhex-2-ene
B E-2-ethylpent-3-ene
C Z-4-ethylpent-2-ene
D E-4-methylhex-2-ene

3. Which of the following alkenes exhibits E-Z isomerism?

A H3CCH=C(CH3)2
B (CH3)2C=CH2
C H2C=CHCH2CH3
D H3CCH=CHCH3

4. What is the correct name for the compound below?

A E-2,3-dibromopent-2-ene
B E-2,3-dibromopent-3-ene
C Z-2,3-dibromopent-3-ene
D Z-2,3-dibromopent-2-ene

106
5. This question concerns the following compounds

A B C D
Which of these compounds will show geometric (E–Z or cis/trans) isomerism?
A
B
C
D

6. Name the alkene shown below.

A Z-4-ethylhex-4-ene
B E-3-ethylhex-2-ene
C Z-3-ethylhex-2-ene
D E-3-propylpent-2-ene

7. How many compounds have the formula C5H12?

A1
B2
C3
D4

8. Isomers have different

A empirical formulae.
B molecular formulae.
C skeletal formulae.
D molar masses.

9. Which of the following compounds shows geometric (E-Z or cis-trans) isomerism?

A but-1-ene
B 2-methylbut-1-ene
C but-2-ene
D 2-methylbut-2-ene

2009.06, 21
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a fuel sold as an alternative to petrol. It is a mixture of
liquefied C3 and C4 alkanes.
(i) Suggest a reason why the alkanes are liquefied. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................

107
(ii) There are two C4 alkanes.
Draw skeletal formulae of each of the C4 alkanes in the spaces provided.
Name each alkane. (4)

(iii) Complete the following sentence. (1)

Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula
are called .......................................................... .

2012.5,24
(c) (i) Name the alkene below using E-Z nomenclature. (2)

..............................................................................................................................................
(ii) Suggest why this alkene cannot be named using the cis-trans naming system. (1)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

108
5.5 alkanes

1. The equations below show some of the processes that occur when methane and
chlorine react.
A Cl2(g) → 2Cl•(g)
B Cl•(g) + CH4(g) → CH3•(g) + HCl(g)
C CH3•(g) + CH3•(g) → C2H6(g)
D Cl2(g) + CH4(g) → CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)
(a) Which equation shows a propagation step?
(1)
A
B
C
D

(b) Which equation shows an initiation step?

(1)
A
B
C
D

(c) Which equation shows a termination step?

(1)
A
B
C
D

2. Ethane reacts with chlorine when the substances are exposed to UV radiation.
(a) The equation for this reaction is
A C2H6 + Cl2 → C2H5Cl + HCl
B C2H6 + Cl2 → C2H4Cl2 + H2
C C2H6 + Cl2 → 2CH3Cl
D C2H4 + Cl2 → C2H4Cl2

(b) The role of the UV radiation in the reaction is to

A break the Cl Cl bond forming Cl• free radicals.
B break the Cl Cl bond forming Cl+ and Cl– ions.
C break the C C bond in ethane forming CH3• free radicals.
D break a C H bond in ethane forming C2H5• free radicals.

109
(c) The overall reaction between ethane and chlorine is best described as
A addition.
B homolytic fission.
C heterolytic fission.
D substitution.

3. This question concerns the reaction of hydrogen bromide with propene.

(a) This reaction requires
A normal laboratory conditions.
B the presence of UV light.
C the presence of a suitable catalyst.
D heating under reflux.

(b) The reaction is best described as

A nucleophilic substitution.
B electrophilic substitution.
C nucleophilic addition.
D electrophilic addition.

(c) The major product of the reaction will be

A 1-bromopropane
B 2-bromopropane
C 1,2-dibromopropane
D 2-bromopropene

4. An organic compound reacts with chlorine in the presence of ultraviolet light. The
relative molecular mass of the product has increased by 34.5 compared with the original
compound. What is the reaction mechanism?
A Free radical substitution
B Electrophilic substitution
C Nucleophilic substitution
D Free radical addition

5. This question is about the reaction of methane with bromine in sunlight.

CH4 + Br2 → CH3Br + HBr
(a) This reaction is best described as
A electrophilic addition.
B electrophilic substitution.
C free radical addition.
D free radical substitution.

(b) One of the steps in the mechanism of this reaction is

•CH3 + Br• → CH3Br
This step is

110
A initiation.
B propagation.
C termination.
D reduction

(c) This reaction produces a mixture of products.

Which of the following is most likely to form, as well as bromomethane?
A ethane
B propane
C butane
D pentane

(d) When human skin is overexposed to sunlight, it is likely to lead to skin cancer.
What is the radiation in sunlight that leads to skin cancer?
A microwaves
B infrared
C visible light
D ultraviolet

2009.01, 24
(a) State the general formula of the alkanes, using the letter n to denote the number of
carbon atoms in each molecule. (1)

(b) Alkanes are used as fuels. In the petrochemical industry, useful hydrocarbons are
often produced from longer chain molecules.
Name the type of reaction shown below.

(i) (1)
Type of reaction ..............................................................

(ii) (1)
Type of reaction ..............................................................
(c) By what type of formula are the organic molecules in (b) represented? (1)

..............................................................................................................................................

(d) Another reaction carried out in industry can be represented as shown below.

111
(i) Give the molecular formula of compound 2. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................
(ii) Give the name of compound 2. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................

2009.06,21
(b) Propane, C3H8, reacts with chlorine, Cl2, in a substitution reaction.
C3H8 + Cl2 → C3H7Cl + HCl
The mechanism for this reaction is described in three stages.
(i) Give the initiation step for this reaction and state the condition necessary for this step
to occur. (2)
Initiation step

Condition ............................................................................................................................
(ii) Give the TWO propagation steps for this reaction. (2)

(iii) Give a possible termination step for this reaction. (1)

112
2011.5,19
This question is about alkanes.
(a) The skeletal formulae of two alkanes (A and B) are shown below.

A B

(ii) Compounds A and B are ....................................................................of each other. (1)

(iv) Give the systematic name of compound B. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................
(b) The largest use for alkanes is as fuels. However, there are problems associated with
the combustion of alkanes, whether complete or incomplete.
(i) An incomplete combustion of methane, CH4, results in the formation of carbon
monoxide and water only.
Write the equation for this reaction. State symbols are not required. (2)

(ii) When does incomplete combustion occur? (1)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(iii) State two problems that result from the incomplete combustion of alkane fuels. (2)
1 ...........................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
2 ...........................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
*(iv) State and explain the main environmental problem arising from the complete
combustion of alkane fuels. (3)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(c) The reactions of organic compounds, including alkanes, may be broken down into a
series of steps; this is the mechanism for the reaction. The reaction between methane and

113
chlorine may be represented by a mechanism involving three stages – initiation,
propagation and termination.
(i) Reaction mechanisms often involve the use of ‘curly arrows’. Explain the meaning of
the curly arrows shown below. (2)

Arrow I

..............................................................................................................................................
Arrow II

...............................................................................................................................................
(ii) Using the curly arrow notation, show the initiation step of the reaction between
methane and chlorine. (2)
(iii)Give the two propagation steps of the reaction between methane and chlorine. Curly
arrows are not required. (2)

(iv) Suggest why a small amount of UV light can result in the formation of a large amount
of product. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(v) Ethane is a trace product of this reaction. By means of an equation, show how the
ethane is formed. (1)
(d) Scientists never detect molecular hydrogen, H2, amongst the products of the
chlorination of methane.
Use the data below to suggest why this is so.
The frequency of UV light used corresponds to an energy of about 400 kJ mol-1.
Bond Bond enthalpy/ kJ mol-1 (2)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

114
2012.1,25
Chloroethane can be made from ethane and chlorine in the gas phase in the presence of
ultraviolet light. The equation for the reaction is
CH3CH3 + Cl2 → CH3CH2Cl + HCl
(a) Complete the mechanism for the reaction. Two of the steps have been given for you.
(4)
Initiation: Cl2 → 2Cl·
Propagation (two steps)

(i)

(ii)

Termination (three steps)

2Cl· → Cl2
(iii)

(iv)

(b) This reaction gives a poor yield of chloroethane. Give the structural formula and name
of another organic product, not included in your mechanism for part (a), which could be
produced in the reaction. (2)

115
5.6 Alkenes

1. The mechanism of the reaction represented by the equation

C2H4 + Br2 → CH2BrCH2Br
is an example of
A Free radical substitution
B Free radical addition
C Electrophilic substitution
D Electrophilic addition

2. Propene reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to give mainly

A 1-chloropropane (CH3CH2CH2Cl)
B 2-chloropropane (CH3CHClCH3)
C 3-chloroprop-1-ene (CH2=CHCH2Cl)
D 1,2-dichloropropane (CH3CHClCH2Cl)

3. If propene, CH3CH=CH2, is reacted with aqueous acidified potassium manganate(VII)

the organic product is
A CH3CH(OH)CH2OH
B CH3CH(OH)CH3
C HOCH2CH2CH2OH
D CH3CH2CH2OH

4. The reaction of bromine with propene is an example of

A electrophilic substitution.
B free radical substitution.
C electrophilic addition.
D free radical addition.

2009.06,21
(c) Myrcene, C10H16, is a naturally occurring compound which is used in perfumes.

Myrcene

(i) Name the functional group in myrcene. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................
(ii) What colour change would you observe when bromine, dissolved in an organic solvent,
is added to myrcene? (1)
From............................................To ....................................

116
(iii) Classify the type and mechanism of the reaction that occurs when myrcene reacts with
bromine, Br2. (2)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(iv) In an experiment, 1.36 g of myrcene (molar mass: 136 g mol–1) was found to react with
0.72 dm3 of hydrogen, H2, in the presence of a nickel catalyst.
Use this information to draw the structural formula of the product of the reaction
between myrcene and hydrogen.
[Assume the molar volume of H2 under the conditions of the experiment is 24 dm3mol–1.]
(2)

Calculation

Hence structural formula of the product

(d) Myrcene is one of a group of compounds related to 2-methylbut-2-ene shown below.

2-methylbut-2-ene undergoes addition polymerization in a similar way to ethene. Draw the
structural formula of the repeat unit of the polymer formed. (2)

2010.1
This question is about hexane, C6H14, and hex-1-ene, C6H12.
(a) What test would you use to distinguish between hexane and hex-1-ene? Give the
results of the test for each substance. (2)

Test: .....................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
Result with hexane:

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

117
Result with hex-1-ene:

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(b) Hex-1-ene has a number of isomers, including two stereoisomers of hex-2-ene.
(i) Complete the formula to show the structure of E-hex-2-ene. (1)

* (ii) Explain why stereoisomerism can occur in alkenes, and why hex-2-ene has
stereoisomers but hex-1-ene does not. (2)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

2010.05,18
This question is about ethene and related compounds.
(a) One way to manufacture ethene is by cracking hydrocarbon molecules such as liquid
paraffin.
(i) Name a raw material from which liquid paraffin can be obtained. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................
(ii) Describe what is meant by cracking. (2)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(b) Study the reaction scheme below and then answer the questions that follow.

118
(i) Name the reagent and catalyst needed for Reaction 1. (2)

Reagent ...............................................................................................................................

Catalyst ................................................................................................................................
(ii) Give the name and displayed formula of compound X. (2)

Name ...................................................................................................................................

Displayed formula

(iii) Describe what colour change you would see during Reaction 4 if a small
amount of acidified KMnO4(aq) was shaken with ethene. (1)

From.........................................................to..............................................................
(c) (i) Use displayed formulae to show the mechanism for Reaction 3. (3)

(ii) Explain why the alkene, propene, could form two products when it reacts with
hydrogen bromide in a similar way. (1)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(d) The formula of the alkene phenylethene, often called styrene, is shown below. It can
be used to make the polymer poly(styrene).

Draw a section of the poly(styrene) polymer chain formed from two monomer units.
(2)
(e) The table below shows some data used in a life cycle analysis of polystyrene and
paper drinking cups.

119
(i) Some people argue that using a polystyrene cup has less environmental impact than
using a paper cup.
Choose TWO pieces of data to support this argument, explaining your choices. (2)
..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................
(ii) Suggest TWO further pieces of information, not given in the table, regarding the life
cycle of the cups that would make any assessment of the environmental impact more
reliable. (2)

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

2011.1,18
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons which, because of their reactivity, are important
industrial starting materials. Alkenes for industrial use are obtained by cracking alkanes.
(a) Write the equation for the cracking of decane (C10H22) to form 1 molecule of propene
as the only alkene. (1)

(b) The carbon–carbon double bond in alkenes consists of a σ and a π bond.

(i) Explain, using diagrams, the difference between the σ and the π bond in the
carbon-carbon double bond of an alkene. (4)

120
Diagrams

Explanation

.......................................................................

.......................................................................

.......................................................................
(ii) State the type and mechanism involved in the typical reaction of alkenes.
(1)
.......................................................................

.......................................................................
*(iii) By considering the strength and structure of the 􀊌 bond, explain why alkenes are
more reactive than alkanes. (2)

.......................................................................

.......................................................................

.......................................................................
(c) When propene reacts with hydrogen bromide, there are two possible products.
(i) Draw a displayed formula of each of these products and label the major product.
(2)

(ii) Give the mechanism for the reaction of propene with hydrogen bromide which forms
the major product. (3)

(iii) Explain, by referring to the mechanism, why the major product is formed. (2)

.......................................................................

.......................................................................

.......................................................................

121
(d) The polymer poly(propene) is manufactured from propene.
(i) Write an equation for the polymerization, drawing the displayed formula of the repeat
unit of poly(propene). (3)

(ii) UV radiation causes poly(propene) to degrade. Suggest one advantage and one
disadvantage of this. (2)
Advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.......................................................................

Disadvantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

......................................................................

2012.5,24
Give the structural formula of the organic product of the reaction of ethene,
CH2=CH2, with
(i) hydrogen. (1)

(ii) chlorine. (1)

(iii) acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII). (1)

(iv) bromine water. (1)

(e) Draw the mechanism for the reaction of propene with hydrogen bromide to give the
major product. (4)

122
(f) The structure below shows two repeat units of a polymer.

(i) Give the displayed formulae of two isomeric alkenes, either of which could have given
rise to this polymer. (2)

(ii) State why the empirical formula of a poly(alkene) is the same as that of the monomer
from which it is produced. (1)

123
124