Civil Engineering Materials

Module 2: Lecture 1
Asphalt Introduction

Location Slide 1 of 20
Types of pavement
• Flexible Pavement (Asphaltic Concrete)
• Total pavement structure deflects due to traffic loads
• Composed of several layers of materials that can accommodate the flexing

• Rigid Pavement (Portland Cement Concrete)

• Stiffer than flexible pavements – higher modulus of elasticity
• Distribute load over a relatively wide area of subgrade

http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/pavement ‐types/
Location Slide 2 of 20
Background
Asphalt
– A black, viscoelastic cementitious material that is used
extensively in building roads
– Generally a by-product of petroleum distillation process
– Soluble in lower molecular weight petroleum products
– Can be naturally occurring

Asphalt vs tar
– Asphalt -> petroleum distillation by-product
– Tar -> coal by-product

Location Slide 3 of 20
Historic asphalt

• Original asphalt roads were made

with naturally occurring asphalt

• Most asphalt is produced from

petroleum sources now.
Trinidad Lake asphalt
https://pavementinteractive.org/reference-desk/pavement-types-and-history/pavement-history/

Location Slide 4 of 20
Types

• Asphalt cements (petroleum-based asphalts)

– Generally refinery-produced material
– But can also occur naturally
• Cutback asphalt
– Asphalt cements with petroleum solvents
– Lower viscosity; useful in low temperature placements
• Emulsions
– Mixture of asphalt cement, water, and emulsifying agent
– Lower viscosity; useful in low temperature placements

Location Slide 5 of 20
Petroleum-Based Asphalts

• Asphalt is a “waste” product from

refinery processing of crude oil Propane
– Sometimes called the “bottom of Gasoline
the barrel” Barrel of Kerosene
Lt. Gas Oil
• Properties depend on: Crude Oil Diesel
– Composition crude source- Motor Oils
dependent Asphalt

– Refinery operations

Location Slide 6 of 20
Petroleum-Based Asphalts –Atmospheric Distillation

Increasing Molecular Weight

Vapor Propane & Butane

Increasing Value ($)

Naphtha Feedstock for gasoline

Kerosene Aviation/domestic fuel

Gas Oil Feedstock for diesel

Residuum Lubrication oils

Feedstock for asphalt
binder production

Location Slide 7 of 20
Asphalt

• It is a viscoelastic material
• Behavior depends on:
– Temperature
– Time of loading
– Age

Location Slide 8 of 20
Cutbacks
• Rapid cure (RC) (Naphtha or Gasoline)
– High volatility of solvent
– Tack coats, surface treatments

• Medium cure (MC) (Kerosene)

– Moderate volatility solvent
– Stockpile patching mix

• Slow cure (SC) (Low viscosity oil) • Use is limited due to:
– Low volatility solvent – EPA restrictions (volatiles)
– High value of cutter stocks
– Prime coat, dust control
– Safety
Liquid in room temperature!
Location Slide 9 of 20
Emulsions
• Emulsions are produced by blending asphalt cements, water, and an
emulsifier (e.g., soap) in a high shear colloid mill
• Emulsifier gives surface charge to asphalt droplets so that they do
not coalesce:
– Anionic emulsions
• Negative charge, basic
• Good with limestones (positive charge)
– Cationic emulsions
• Positive charge, acidic
• Good with silica gravels (negative charge)

Liquid in room temperature!

Location Slide 10 of 20
HMA Types

• Dense-Graded

• Open-Graded

• Gap-Graded

Location Slide 11 of 20
Basic Flexible Pavement Structure

Location Slide 12 of 20
Dense graded

• Well-graded HMA
• Relatively impermeable
• Suitable for all pavement
layers and traffic
conditions
• Air voids: 3-8%

Location Slide 13 of 20
Open graded

Location Slide 14 of 20
Location Slide 15 of 20
Location Slide 16 of 20
Gap graded

Location Slide 17 of 20
Stone matrix asphalt (SMA)

• Gap-graded HMA
• Designed to maximize
deformation resistance
and durability
• Stone-on-stone contact
• Used extensively for
surface courses on high
volume interstates and US
roads
• Can be used as a base
course due to its drainage
– but not a cost-effective
option.

Location Slide 18 of 20
 Civil Engineering Materials
Module 2: Lecture 2
Pavement Distress

Location Slide 1 of 37
What Causes Pavement Distress?
Heavy Vehicles
• Traffic Highways – trucks only
Airfield – heaviest wheel loads

• Environment

• Interaction of traffic/environment,
construction quality, materials, design

Location Slide 2 of 37
Environment = Water Exposure, Temperature, RH
• Increase in water content
– decreases soil stiffness
– decreases soil shear strength
– decreases resistance to erosion, pumping
– softens and strips asphalt concrete

• Temperature
– asphalt concrete stiffness/strength high at low temperatures,
low at high temperatures
– temperature changes cause expansion/contraction stresses in
all asphalted and cemented materials
Location Slide 3 of 37
Need for asphalt repairs
1. After 3-5 years, the need for asphalt repairs increases.

2. The surface layers face the first signs of deterioration, intensified by the
weather, traffic load or other environment factors.

3. Timely application of preventive pavement repairs within 3 to 5 years will

extend the life of the surface for 3 more years.

https://www.midatlanticasphalt.com/blog/2017/january/the-true-cost-of-ignoring-your-pavement/

Location Slide 4 of 37
Pavement distresses: Outline
1. Assist in identifying basic HMA pavement damage. HMA pavement damage
that is visible at the surface of the pavement is often called “surface distress”.

2. Provide some insight into why particular surface distresses are problematic.

3. Provide some basic guidance into what kinds of conditions might lead to
certain surface distresses.

4. Suggest some basic repair strategies.

5. Lab 3 activity

https://pavementinteractive.org/reference-desk/pavement-
management/pavement-distresses/
Location Slide 5 of 37
Distress Mechanisms
• Block Cracking
• Transverse Cracking
– Thermal Cracking
– Reflection Cracking
• Fatigue Cracking
• Potholes
• Rutting
• Shoving

Location Slide 6 of 37
Block Cracking
• Thermally-induced cracking that
result in block-shaped cracks.
• HMA shrinkage and daily
temperature cycling.
• Typically caused by an inability of
asphalt binder to expand and
contract with temperature cycles
because of:
•Asphalt binder aging
•Incorrect choice of asphalt binder
in the mix design

Location Slide 7 of 37
Block Cracking

• Blocks typically range in size from

≈ 1 ft2 to 100 ft2 (0.1 m2 to 10 m2).

• Common on low volume roads.

Location Slide 8 of 37
Fatigue Cracking Images from ODOT Pavement Data Collection Manual, 2019

Low Severity Fatigue Cracking Moderate Severity Fatigue Cracking

Picture #2
• Indicator of structural failure
• cracks allow moisture infiltration, roughness increase and may further deteriorate
to a pothole.
Location Slide 9 of 37
Fatigue Cracking
Inadequate structural support, which can be caused by a myriad of
mechanisms. A few of the more common ones are listed here:
• Decrease in pavement load supporting Severe Fatigue Cracking

characteristics
•Loss of base, subbase or subgrade support (e.g., poor
drainage or spring thaw resulting in a less stiff base).
•Stripping on the bottom of the HMA layer (the stripped
portion contributes little to pavement strength so the
effective HMA thickness decreases)

• Increase in loading (e.g., more or

heavier loads than anticipated in design)
• Inadequate structural design
• Poor construction (e.g., inadequate
compaction) Image from ODOT Pavement Data Collection Manual, 2019
Location Slide 10 of 37
Fatigue Cracking

Fatigue Cracking from

Edge Failure

Location Slide 11 of 37
 Potholes

Location Slide 12 of 37
Potholes
• Small, bowl-shaped depressions in the pavement surface that penetrate all the
way through the HMA layer down to the base course.

• sharp edges and vertical sides near the top of the hole.

• Potholes are most likely to occur on roads with thin HMA surfaces (25 to 50
mm (1 to 2 inches)) and seldom occur on roads with 100 mm (4 inch) or deeper
HMA surfaces (Roberts et al., 1996).

• Possible Causes: Generally, potholes are the end result of

Fatigue or alligator cracking - As fatigue/alligator cracking becomes severe, the
interconnected cracks create small chunks of pavement, which can be
dislodged as vehicles drive over them. The remaining hole after the pavement
chunk is dislodged is called a pothole.
Location Slide 13 of 37
Transverse Cracking
• Thermal Cracking
– Damage starts at the top surface of the pavement and works its
way downward

• Reflection Cracking
– Damage starts at the bottom of the pavement and works its way
upward.
– Commonly from an overlay
• Either existing asphalt concrete or portland cement concrete is overlaid
with asphalt

Location Slide 14 of 37
Thermal Cracking

• Develops when thermally-induced

tensile stresses exceed the tensile
strength of the HMA mixture.

• Accumulation of permanent tensile

strain arising from multiple thermal
Thermal Cracking
stress cycles.
(Transverse Cracks)

Location Slide 15 of 37
Thermal Cracking

Primarily affected by:

• Asphalt binder stiffness and
ductility
• Pavement age
• HMA thickness
Thermal Cracking (low severity)
• Base course properties
• Subgrade properties

Impact on functional
performance: Thermal Cracking (high
severity)
• Ride quality
• Noise

Location Slide 16 of 37
Thermal Cracking

Location Slide 17 of 37
Reflection Cracking

Location Slide 18 of 37
Reflection Cracking
• Cracks in an HMA overlay directly above cracks in an underlying HMA or PCC
pavement or directly above joints in a jointed PCC pavement.

• Cracks likely regularly spaced

• Major problem in overlays.

• May be magnified by lack of proper bond to subsurface

• Temperature differentials (differing CTE) can also be an issue

• Movement of the PCC slab beneath the HMA surface because of thermal and
moisture changes.

• Generally not load initiated, however loading can increase deterioration.

Location Slide 19 of 37
Rutting
• Surface depression in the
wheelpath. Pavement uplift (shearing) may
occur along the sides of the rut.

• Safety problems – Hydroplaning

• Mix rutting Wheelpath depressions form as

a result of compaction/mix design
problems.

• Subgrade rutting In this case, the

pavement settles into the subgrade due to
instability, poor compaction, etc. resulting in
surface depressions in the wheelpath.

Rutting
Location Slide 20 of 37
Asphalt Concrete Mix Rutting

Shear Deformation and Densification

Hot Day Temp actual stresses
applied by tires
depend on tire type,
Depth pressure, load, and
mix properties

Asphalt
Concrete
Granular
Layers
Location Slide 21 of 37
 Shoving
• The distortion is perpendicular to the traffic
direction.

• Usually occurs at points where traffic starts

and stops or turns at slow speeds
(corrugation) or areas where HMA abuts a
rigid object (shoving).

• An unstable (i.e. low stiffness) HMA layer

(caused by mix contamination, poor mix
design, poor HMA manufacturing, or lack of
aeration of liquid asphalt emulsions)

Shoving • Excessive moisture in the subgrade

Images: Pavement Guide Interactive
Location Slide 22 of 37
Moisture Damage

• Stripping

• Potholes
– Also exacerbated by water infiltration

Location Slide 23 of 37
Moisture Damage

• Degradation of the structural integrity of the HMA mixture

through:
– Failure of the adhesion (or bond) between the asphalt binder
and the aggregate; or
– Loss of cohesion.

• Reduces the pavement’s ability to support traffic-induced

stresses and strains.

Location Slide 24 of 37
 Moisture Damage, “Stripping”

Separation
of asphalt
from
aggregate

Location Slide 25 of 37
 Moisture Damage

Location Slide 26 of 37
Stripping

Images: Pavement Guide Interactive

Location Slide 27 of 37
Moisture Damage
• Primarily affected by:
– High relative humidity, rain events, improper drainage
– Environment
– Traffic (trucks)
– In-place air void content
– Chemistry
– Additives (solids and liquids)
– Asphalt binder stiffness
• Impact on functional performance:
– Vehicle dynamics
– Skid resistance and safety

Location Slide 28 of 37
Recap
For each pavement distress,
• Block Cracking
• Transverse Cracking 1. What does it look like?
– Thermal Cracking 2. What caused it?
– Reflection Cracking
3. Severity and Extent
• Fatigue Cracking
• Potholes 4. Rehabilitative measures

• Rutting
• Shoving So, what do we do with this information?
• Today’s lab.

Location Slide 29 of 37
Surface Defects

• Bleeding/Flushing

• Raveling

Location Slide 30 of 37
Bleeding/Flushing
• Migration of the asphalt binder to the pavement surface.

• Develops in HMA mixtures with too much asphalt binder or as a result of

stripping of the asphalt binder in the lower portion of the HMA layer.

• Can create a safety hazard.

• Primarily affected by:

– Traffic (trucks)
– Asphalt binder stiffness
– Asphalt binder content
– In-place air void content
– Aggregate gradation and properties

• Impact on functional performance:

– Safety - Skid resistance

Location Slide 31 of 37
 Bleeding/Flushing

Location Slide 32 of 37
Raveling
• Abrasion of the pavement surface (asphalt binder and aggregate particles).

• Fairly common in HMA mixtures prone to stripping.

• Studded tires accelerate raveling.

• Primarily affected by:

– Asphalt binder content
– In-place air voids
– Traffic (trucks) and cars with studded tires
– Environment
• Impact on functional performance:
– Nominal (noise)
– Skid resistance

Location Slide 33 of 37
Raveling

Location Slide 34 of 37
Raveling

Location Slide 35 of 37
 Summary
• Distress Mechanisms • Identifying the type of cracking
– Reflection Cracking visually to make an assessment
– Block Cracking
• Knowing the basics about what
– Thermal Cracking
leads to that distress (is it age,
– Fatigue Cracking loading, binder selection, mixture
– Potholes design issues, construction,
– Rutting structural failure)
– Shoving
– Bleeding
– Raveling

Location Slide 36 of 37
 Civil Engineering Materials
Module 2: Lecture 3
Asphalt concrete behavior

CCE 321 Slide 1 of 34

What’s in a binder?

• asphalt - A dark brown to black cementitious material in which the

predominating constituents are bitumens, which occur in nature or are
obtained in petroleum processing.

• bitumen - A class of black or dark-colored (solid, semi-solid or viscous)

cementitious substances, natural or manufactured, composed principally of
high molecular weight hydrocarbons, of which asphalts, tars, pitches, and
asphaltenes are typical.

• asphalt cement - A fluxed or unfluxed asphalt specially prepared as to quality

and consistency for direct use in the manufacture of bituminous pavements

CCE 321 Slide 2 of 34

Material Behavior

• Elastic

• Plastic

• Viscous

• Viscoelastic

CCE 321 Slide 3 of 34

Elastic materials
Compression Elastic
Load Deformation

Before During After

Load Load Load
CCE 321 Slide 4 of 34
Elastic materials
Tension Load

Elastic
Deformation

Before During After

Load Load Load
CCE 321 Slide 5 of 34
Elastic materials
Axial Load

Shear Platen
Load
Material

Reaction Platen Reaction

(Fixed) (Fixed)

Reaction (Fixed)

CCE 321 Slide 6 of 34

Elastic materials

Shear Stress, 
E = elastic G = shear
1 modulus 1 modulus

Axial Strain,  Shear Strain, 

CCE 321 Slide 7 of 34
Plastic Behavior

•Independent of time
mg P
•Irreversible
friction

CCE 321 Slide 8 of 34

Viscosity Definition

Courtesy: Thermoblanket
CCE 321 Slide 9 of 34
Viscosity Definition
Viscosity: the ratio between the
applied shear stress and
 = tau
the rate of shear strain.
 = eta

=  = gamma

Load

Rate of shear strain is the rate at which the dots separate

CCE 321 Slide 10 of 34

 Viscous Materials

d
 =  dt = 

Shear Stress, 

where:
 = shear stress
  = coefficient of viscosity
1
d/dt = rate of application of
shear strain (or rate of
Shear Strain Rate, d/dt strain)
CCE 321 Slide 11 of 34
Viscoelastic Materials

Viscous Component
(Loss Modulus, G˝)
G* (Shear modulus)
δ = Delta

Elastic Component
(Storage Modulus, G΄)
CCE 321 Slide 12 of 34
 Stress Relaxation – Elastic material

Stress

Time
Strain

Time

CCE 321 Slide 13 of 34

Stress relaxation – a viscoelastic material
 

Stress
Time
Strain

Time
Permanent
deformation
CCE 321 Slide 14 of 34
Creep Test – Asphalt
More prone to rutting at
T = 0C T = 60C high temperatures

Stress
Stress

Time Time

Strain
Strain

Time Time
Permanent
deformation
CCE 321 Slide 15 of 34
CCE 321 Slide 16 of 34
Stiffness of asphalt
A function of time of loading and temperature


S(t,T) =

where:
S = stiffness
t = time of loading
T = temperature
 = stress
 = strain
CCE 321 Slide 17 of 34
 Creep Test (60C)

Stress

Stiffness
Time
Strain

Time
t1 t2 t1 t2
Loading
Time
CCE 321 Slide 18 of 34
 Vertical stress () in
pavement structure

HMA
Base course

Subgrade soil 

Bedrock
CCE 321 Slide 19 of 34
Typical stiffness behavior

AC Stiffness (psi)
1,000,000
crack initiation at about
750,000
50 % stiffness reduction
500,000
250,000
0
0 500,000 1,000,000
Tensile Strain Repetitions

CCE 321 Slide 20 of 34

Typical rutting behavior

Avg Relative Rut Depth (mm)

25

20
Failure criteria:
15 12.5 mm rut

10

5 40C
50C
0
10 100,000 200,000 300,000
Repetitions
CCE 321 Slide 21 of 34
 Civil Engineering Materials
Module 2 Lecture 4
Asphalt Binder Selection

CCE 321 Slide 1

 Superpave Asphalt Binder Specification

https://pavementinteractive.org/referen
ce-desk/design/mix-design/superpave-
mix-design/

CCE 321 Slide 2

 Superpave Procedure
1. Materials selection:
– Aggregates
– Binder
2. Sample preparation
3. Performance testing
4. Volumetric analysis
5. Optimum binder content
6. Moisture susceptibility evaluation

CCE 321 Slide 3

 1. Materials Selection

• Aggregates:
– Gradation and size
– Consensus requirements

• Asphalt binder:
– Based on expected temperature extremes
– Adjusted for traffic speed or high traffic volumes

CCE 321 Slide 4

 Binder Selection
Binder Grade Example
In °C
PG 64 - 22

Minimum
Performance pavement
Grade temperature
Average 7-day max
pavement temperature

Grades are specified in 6C increments

CCE 321 Slide 5
 Example Adjustments

ESAL: equivalent single axle load

CCE 321 Slide 6

 Equivalent Single Axle Load 100 kip truck
ESAL

• The standard ESAL is for an 80kN single

axle load (18,000 lb).
• AASHO establishes Load Equivalency
Factors (LEF) for flexible and rigid
pavements. Shown in the table to the
right.

ESALsingle= (load/80kN)4.2

ESALtandem= 2*([load/2]/80kN)4.2
AASHTO LEFs
– Based on damage observed at
AASHO Road Test (1958-1960)
CCE 321 Slide 8
 Equivalent Single Axle Load 100 kip truck
ESAL

• A general rule of thumb can relate the damage caused by a

particular load to the base load (80 kN in this case) raised to the
power of 4.2.

Assume you have a 133.4 kN load on a single axle. What is the LEF
(Load Equivalency Factor)?

LEF = (133.4 / 80)4.2 = 8.56

Assume you have a 133.4 kN load on a tandem axle. What is the LEF
(Load Equivalency Factor)?

LEF = 2*([133.4/2] / 80)4.2 = 0.93

CCE 321 Slide 9

 ESAL Example for Logging Truck
Logging Truck:
• Steering axle (single axle) = 14,000 lb (62.2 kN)
• Drive axle (tandem axle) = 34,000 lb (151.1 kN)
• Pole trailer axle (tandem axle) = 30,000 lb (133.3 kN)

Steering Axle Drive Axle Pole Axle

CCE 321 Slide 10
 The total equivalent damage by this truck is
• Steering axle @ 62.2 kN= 0.374 ESALs
• Drive axle @151.1 kN = 1.573 ESAL
• Pole axle @ 133.3 kN= 0.929 ESAL
• Total = 2.876 ESALs per truck

ESALsingle= (load/80kN)4.2

ESALtandem= 2*([load/2]/80kN)4.2

CCE 321 Slide 11

 Lifetime ESALs for a pavement
What if 100 of those logging truck drove over the pavement each day
in one direction for 20 years (5 days a week)? What is the total ESAL
for the lifetime of that pavement?

• (100 trucks/day)*(5 days/week)*(52 weeks/year)*20 years* 2.876

ESALs/Truck = 1,495,520 ESALs over the lifetime of the pavement

• Transportation engineers will be able to tell you how many of what

types of trucks should be expected over the lifetime of your
pavement.

CCE 321 Slide 12

 Superpave Asphalt Binder Specification
The grading system is based on Climate

In °C
PG 64 - 22

Minimum
Performance pavement
Grade temperature

Average 7-day maximum

pavement temperature
CCE 321 Slide 13
 U.S. map for performance grades – Lower temps

LTPP Bind software – free to access

CCE 321 Slide 14
 U.S. map for performance grades – Higher temps

CCE 321 Slide 15

 Prediction of Performance Grades
The greater the difference the
higher the cost

CCE 321 Slide 16

 Construction
Rutting

Rutting

Fatigue cracking

Low T cracking

Low T cracking

Low T cracking

CCE 321 Slide 17

CCE 321 Slide 18
CCE 321 Slide 19
 Dynamic Shear Rheometer

3.4.2.8 Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) –

Superpave
Source: Pavement Guide Interactive
CCE 321 Slide 20
 Viscoelastic Materials
By measuring G* and δ (delta) ,
the DSR is able to determine the

Viscous Component
(Loss Modulus, G˝)
total complex shear modulus as
G* well as its elastic and viscous
components

Elastic Component
(Storage Modulus, G΄)
CCE 321 Slide 24
 Viscous Component (Loss Modulus, G’’)
G*

Elastic Component (Storage Modulus, G’)

Viscous Component – G” Elastic Component – G’

G’’ = G* sin δ G’ = G* cos δ
https://www.stevenabbott.co.uk/practical-adhesion/g-
values.php
CCE 321 Slide 25
 G* and δ

G* and δ are used as predictors of the following two HMA

parameters:
•In order to resist rutting, an asphalt binder should be stiff (not
deform too much) and it should be elastic (it should be able to return
to its original shape after load deformation).
•Fatigue. In order to resist fatigue cracking, an asphalt binder should
be elastic (able to dissipate energy by rebounding and not cracking)
but not too stiff (excessively stiff substances will crack rather than
deform-then-rebound).

CCE 321 Slide 26

CCE 321 Slide 27
CCE 321 Slide 28
 Rolling Thin Film Oven

Rolling Thin Film Oven left - after aging in the RTFO,

center - before aging in the RTFO,
right - empty sample jar
AASHTO T 240 and ASTM D 2872: Effects of Heat and Air on a Moving
Film of Asphalt ( Rolling Thin-Film Oven Test)
CCE 321 Slide 29
 Rolling Thin Film Oven

• It achieves the same degree of hardening (aging) in less

time (85 minutes vs. 5 hours) (compared to a thin film
oven)
• It uses a rolling action that:
– Allows continuous exposure of fresh asphalt binder to heat and
air flow
– Allows asphalt binder modifiers, if used, to remain dispersed in
the sample
– Prevents the formation of a surface skin on the sample, which
may inhibit aging
CCE 321 Slide 30
 Permanent Deformation

• Addressed by high temperature stiffness

– G*/sin() on unaged binder > 1.00 kPa
– G*/sin() on RTFO-aged binder > 2.20 kPa
Early part of
pavement
service life
Heavy Trucks

~0-5 years

CCE 321 Slide 31

 Fatigue Cracking
CEC

Avg 7-day Max, oC PG 46 PG 52 PG 58 PG 64 PG 70 PG 76 PG 82

1-day Min, oC -34 -40 -46 -10 -16 -22 -28 -34 -40 -46 -16 -22 -28 -34 -40 -10 -16 -22 -28 -34 -40 -10 -16 -22 -28 -34 -40 -10 -16 -22 -28 -34 -10 -
16 -22 -28 -34

ORIGINAL
> 230 oC (Flash Point) FP
< 3 Pa.s @ 135 oC (Rotational Viscosity) RV
(Dynamic Shear Rheometer) DSR G*/sin 
> 1.00 kPa
46 52 58 64 70 76 82

(ROLLING THIN FILM OVEN) RTFO Mass Loss < 1.00 %

(Dynamic Shear Rheometer) DSR G*/sin 

> 2.20 kPa
46 52 58 64 70 76 82

(PRESSURE AGING VESSEL) PAV

20 Hours, 2.07 MPa 90 90 100 100 100 (110) 100 (110) 110 (110)

(Dynamic Shear Rheometer) DSR G* sin 

< 5000 kPa
10 7 4 25 22 19 16 13 10 7 25 22 19 16 13 31 28 25 22 19 16 34 31 28 25 22 19 37 34 31 282 25 40 37 34 31
8
S < 300 MPa
m > 0.300
PAV Aged ( Bending Beam Rheometer) BBR “S” Stiffness & “m”- value

-24 -30 -36 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 -36 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -24
0 -6 -12 -18 -24

Report Value (Bending Beam Rheometer) BBR Physical Hardening

> 1.00 % (Direct Tension) DT

-24 -30 -36 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 -36 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -
24 0 -6 -12 -18 -24
CCE 321 Slide 32
 PAV – Pressure Aging Vessel
• simulate the effects of long-term asphalt
binder aging
– 5 to 10 years HMA pavement service
• Exposes RTFO aged samples to high air
pressure (300 psi) and temperature (90,
100 or 110C) for 20 hours

• Then the DSR is performed again

• Standard PAV test:

“AASHTO PP1: Practice for Accelerated Aging

of Asphalt Binder Using a Pressurized
Aging Vessel”

CCE 321 Slide 33

 Fatigue Cracking

Addressed by intermediate temperature stiffness

– G*sin() on RTFO- and PAV-aged binder < 5000 kPa

Later part of pavement service life

When fatigue cracking is of greatest

concern (later in pavement life) a maximum
value for the viscous component of the
complex shear modulus is specified

CCE 321 Slide 34

 

CCE 321 Slide 35

 Low Temperature Cracking
CEC

Avg 7-day Max, oC PG 46 PG 52 PG 58 PG 64 PG 70 PG 76 PG 82

1-day Min, oC -34 -40 -46 -10 -16 -22 -28 -34 -40 -46 -16 -22 -28 -34 -40 -10 -16 -22 -28 -34 -40 -10 -16 -22 -28 -34 -40 -10 -16 -22 -28 -34
-10 -16 -22 -28 -34

ORIGINAL
> 230 oC (Flash Point) FP
< 3 Pa.s @ 135 oC (Rotational Viscosity) RV
(Dynamic Shear Rheometer) DSR G*/sin 
> 1.00 kPa
46 52 58 64 70 76 82

(ROLLING THIN FILM OVEN) RTFO Mass Loss < 1.00 %

(Dynamic Shear Rheometer) DSR G*/sin 

> 2.20 kPa
46 52 58 64 70 76 82

(PRESSURE AGING VESSEL) PAV

20 Hours, 2.07 MPa 90 90 100 100 100 (110) 100 (110) 110 (110)

(Dynamic Shear Rheometer) DSR G* sin 

< 5000 kPa
10 7 4 25 22 19 16 13 10 7 25 22 19 16 13 31 28 25 22 19 16 34 31 28 25 22 19 37 34 31 282 25 40 37 34 31
8
S < 300 MPa m > 0.300 ( Bending Beam Rheometer) BBR “S” Stiffness & “m”- value
PAV Aged -24 -30 -36 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 -36 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -24
0 -6 -12 -18 -24

Report Value (Bending Beam Rheometer) BBR Physical Hardening

> 1.00 % (Direct Tension) DT

-24 -30 -36 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 -36 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -
24 0 -6 -12 -18 -24
CCE 321 Slide 36
 Low Temperature Cracking
CEC

Avg 7-day Max, oC PG 46 PG 52 PG 58 PG 64 PG 70 PG 76 PG 82

1-day Min, oC -34 -40 -46 -10 -16 -22 -28 -34 -40 -46 -16 -22 -28 -34 -40 -10 -16 -22 -28 -34 -40 -10 -16 -22 -28 -34 -40 -10 -16 -22 -28 -34
-10 -16 -22 -28 -34

ORIGINAL
> 230 oC (Flash Point) FP
< 3 Pa.s @ 135 oC (Rotational Viscosity) RV
(Dynamic Shear Rheometer) DSR G*/sin 
> 1.00 kPa
46 52 58 64 70 76 82

(ROLLING THIN FILM OVEN) RTFO Mass Loss < 1.00 %

(Dynamic Shear Rheometer) DSR G*/sin 

> 2.20 kPa
46 52 58 64 70 76 82

(PRESSURE AGING VESSEL) PAV

20 Hours, 2.07 MPa 90 90 100 100 100 (110) 100 (110) 110 (110)

(Dynamic Shear Rheometer) DSR G* sin 

< 5000 kPa
10 7 4 25 22 19 16 13 10 7 25 22 19 16 13 31 28 25 22 19 16 34 31 28 25 22 19 37 34 31 282 25 40 37 34 31
8
S < 300 MPa m > 0.300 ( Bending Beam Rheometer) BBR “S” Stiffness & “m”- value

PAV Aged -24 -30 -36 0 -6

0 -6 -12 -18 -24
-12 -18 -24 -30 -36 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -24

Report Value (Bending Beam Rheometer) BBR Physical Hardening

> 1.00 % (Direct Tension) DT

-24 -30 -36 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 -36 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -
24 0 -6 -12 -18 -24
CCE 321 Slide 37
 Bending Beam Rheometer (Module 3, Section 3.4.2.9)

CCE 321 Slide 38

 Bending Beam Rheometer
where S(t) = creep stiffness at time, t = 60 seconds

P = applied constant load (980 ± 20 mN), obtained using a

100 g load. Note that 100 g multiplied by the force
of gravity (9.8 m/s2) = 0.98 N, or 980 mN

L = distance between beam supports, 102 mm

b = beam width, 12.5 mm

h = beam thickness, 6.25 mm
δ (t) = deflection at time, t = 60 seconds

The m-value is simply the rate of change of the stiffness at time, t = 60

seconds and is used to describe how the asphalt binder relaxes under
load.

CCE 321 Slide 39

 Direct Tension (Module 3, Section 3.4.2.10)

CCE 321 Slide 40

 Low Temperature Cracking

• Addressed by low temperature

stiffness and dS/dt
– S(t) ≤ 300 MPa on RTFO- and PAV-
aged binder
– ‘m-value’ ≥ 0.300
– εf ≥ 1.00% in DT test for S(t) > 300
MPa
Later part of
pavement service life
CCE 321 Slide 41
 

CCE 321 Slide 42

 

CCE 321 Slide 43

 Effect of Loading Rate and Traffic
Speed on Binder Selection

55 mph
• Example:
– for highway………………….PG 64-22
– for toll booths………………..PG 70-22 Slow
– for weigh stations…………...PG 76-22

Stopping

CCE 321 Slide 45

 Effect of Traffic Amount (Level)
on Binder Selection
80 kip truck

• 10106 to 30106 ESALs*

– Consider increasing – one high temp grade
• > 30106 ESALs*
– Recommend increasing – one high temp grade

*Equivalent Single Axle Load

CCE 321 Slide 46
 Summary of How to Use PG Specification

• Determine
– 7-day max pavement temperatures
– 1-day minimum pavement temperature
• Use specification tables to select test temperatures
• Run suite of tests (DSR, BBR, DT)
• Determine asphalt cement properties and compare
to specification limits

CCE 321 Slide 47

 How the PG Spec Works

CCE 321 Slide 48

 Example to follow for your own reference

CCE 321 Slide 49

 Example: Superpave design

CCE 321 Slide 50

 v

CCE 321 Slide 51

 Example: Superpave design

CCE 321 Slide 52

 v
PG58-22

CCE 321 Slide 53

 How is reliability taken into account?

From Asphalt Institute

CCE 321 Slide 54

 How is reliability taken into account?

From Asphalt Institute

CCE 321 Slide 55