Aggregates for Concrete

Module 1: Aggregates, cement, and concrete

Lecture 1: Aggregates
 Aggregates
• Aggregate: granular mineral material such as natural sand,
manufactured sand, gravel, crushed stone, air-cooled blast furnace
slag, vermiculite or perlite

• About 2 billion tons produced per year (US)

Aggregates
• Fine and coarse aggregates
• 60-75% of portland cement concrete volume (typical)
• 92-96% of asphalt concrete volume (typical)

• Aggregate production Source: https://www.heidelbergcement.com/en/aggregates

• Mining/excavation/quarrying
• Fractioning and stockpiling

What is the role of aggregates in concrete?

Public Domain, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7096182

What is the role of aggregates in concrete?

ⓘ Start presenting to display the poll results on this slide.

Why aggregates in concrete?
• Cost
• Dimensional stability
• Strength and stiffness
• Abrasion resistance
Aggregates Types
• Natural (> 90% of all aggregates)
• Igneous, Sedimentary, Metamorphic
• Used to produce normal weight concretes
• Manufactured
• Light weight, heavy weight
• Used to produce lightweight or very dense concretes
• Waste Products
• Recycled concrete used as aggregate
• Ground tire rubber
• Fly ash (by-product of coal burning power industry)
• Blast furnace slag (by-product of metallurgical industry)
Natural Aggregates Types
• Igneous (solidification of magma):
• Granite, basalt, gabbro, volcanic glass, pegmatite, felsite

• Sedimentary (mechanical, chemical, or organic sediment):

• Limestone, sandstone, chert, claystone, siltstone, argillite, and shale

• Metamorphic (change affected by heat, pressure, and water):

• Gneiss, schist, slate, quartzite, marble, serpentine, amphibolite
Natural Aggregate
• Gravel and sand
• Mixture of several minerals

• Pits, rivers, lakes, seabeds

• Quality (or soundness) depends on parent bedrock

Manufactured Aggregate
• Crushed rock or air-cooled slag
• Fine and coarse aggregate
• Rough, angular texture
• Cubical or elongated shape
• More uniform in size
• Less likely to be contaminated
Aggregate Characteristics
• Grading
• Fineness modulus
• Particle shape and surface texture
• Density
• Absorption and surface moisture
• Strength and shrinkage
• Abrasion resistance
• Potential harmful materials
• Resistance to freezing and thawing
• Resistance to alkali reactivity
• Sand equivalency test

Source: PCA
Grain Size and Distribution
• Gradation - distribution of particle sizes expressed as a
percent of total mass

• Method depends on particle sizes

• > 0.075 mm (#200) – mechanical sieve analysis
• < 0.075 mm (#200) – hydrometer analysis (Stoke’s law)

• Plot grain size diameter vs. percent of dry weight

Why grading is important?

Source: PCA
Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate

Image source: PCA

Gravel and crushed stone Sand and/or crushed stone

 5 mm (0.2 in.) < 5 mm (0.2 in.)

typically between 9.5 and 37.5 mm (3/8 and 1½ in.) for PCC

Portland Cement Concrete – Aggregates around 60-75% of total volume

C.A. content usually between 55 to 65% of total aggregate content in concrete
F.A. content usually 35% to 45% by mass of total aggregate content in concrete
 Mechanical Sieves

Individual Sieve Stack of Sieves

Each sieve has wire mesh in the bottom. The sieve size (4.75 mm, 2.36, mm etc.) denote the distance between each wire.
Sieves are stacked from largest openings on the top to smallest openings on the bottom. There is always a pan (no openings) at
the bottom of the stack.
Sieve Stacks in Mechanical Shakers

Source: www.gilson.com
#4 #8 #16 #30 #50 #100
#8 #16 #30 #50 #100 #200
catch remaining
material in pan
Passed
Retained
Standard Sieve Sizes used for OPC
Sieve Designation Nominal Sieve Opening Nominal Wire Diameter Suggested
Standard Alternate mm inches mm inches Screen
4.75 mm No. 4 4.75 0.187" 1.54 0.0606 4 Mesh
2.36 mm No. 8 2.36 0.093" 1 0.0393 8 Mesh
1.18 mm No. 16 1.18 0.0464" 0.65 0.0255 14 Mesh
600 µm No. 30 0.6 0.0236" 0.39 0.0153 28 Mesh
300 µm No. 50 0.3 0.0118" 0.215 0.0084 48 Mesh
150 µm No. 100 0.15 0.0059" 0.11 0.0043 100 Mesh
75 µm No. 200 0.075 0.0029" 0.053 0.002 200 Mesh

4 opening per inch

In one inch there are 4 spaces + 3 full wire diameters + 2 half wire diameters or 4 full wire diameters
(4 x 0.187) + (4 x 0.0606) = 0.9904
Sieve Sizes Explained

1 inch

1. 8 openings
2. Each opening is 2.36 mm long

No. 8 sieve (2.36 mm)

Gradations - Computations
Mass Retained on Sieve
% Retained =  100
Total Dry Mass

Cumulative % Retained = ∑(% Retained)

% Passing = 100 - Cumulative % Retained

The cumulative percent passing, commonly referred to as “percent passing”

Why is it preferable to have well-graded
aggregates in concrete whenever possible?

ⓘ Start presenting to display the poll results on this slide.

Answer

Source: PCA
Gradation - Example
Cumul.
Retained Percent Percent Percent
Sieve Size Mass, g Retained Retained Passing
3/4 in. 0

1/2 in. 100

3/8 in. 100

#4 300

Pan 500
Gradation - Example
Cumul.
Retained Percent Percent Percent
Sieve Size Mass, g Retained Retained Passing
3/4 in. 0 0

1/2 in. 100 10

3/8 in. 100 10

#4 300 30

Pan 500 50
Total: 1,000
Gradation - Example
Cumul.
Retained Percent Percent Percent
Sieve Size Mass, g Retained Retained Passing
3/4 in. 0 0 0

1/2 in. 100 10 10

3/8 in. 100 10 20

#4 300 30 50

Pan 500 50 100

Total: 1,000
Gradation - Example
Cumul.
Retained Percent Percent Percent
Sieve Size Mass, g Retained Retained Passing
3/4 in. 0 0 0 100

1/2 in. 100 10 10 90

3/8 in. 100 10 20 80

#4 300 30 50 50

Pan 500 50 100 0

Total: 1,000
Fine Aggregate Sieve Requirements
Percent passing by
Sieve size
mass
Values according to
9.5 mm (3/8 in.) 100 ASTM C 33 -
Standard
4.75 mm (No. 4) 95 to 100 Specification for
Concrete
2.36 mm (No. 8) 80 to 100
Aggregates
1.18 mm (No. 16) 50 to 85

600 µm (No. 30) 25 to 60

(AASHTO
300 µm (No. 50) 5 to 30
10 to 30)

(AASHTO
150 µm (No. 100) 0 to 10
2 to 10)
Aggregate Sizing – OPC Definitions
• Maximum size ― is the smallest sieve that all of a particular
aggregate must pass through.
• Nominal maximum size ― is the standard sieve opening
immediately smaller than the smallest through which all of the
aggregate must pass.
• The nominal maximum-size sieve may retain 5% to 15% (varies
by standard)
• 10% for Superpave asphalt concrete design
Maximum Size vs. Nominal Maximum Size
• Maximum size – 100% passing
• Nominal maximum size – typically 85% to 95% passing

Percent Passing
1" : 100%
3/4" : 100%
• Maximum size: 3/4”
1/2" : 89%
• Nominal maximum size: 1/2”
3/8" : 79%
#4 : 63%
#8 : 39% Top hat
Nominal Maximum Size

The maximum size of aggregate that can be used generally

depends on the size and shape of the concrete member and on
the amount and distribution of reinforcing steel.

According to ACI 318, Dmax shall not exceed:

Dmax = 1⁄5 B; Dmax = 3⁄4 S and 3⁄4 C; and Dmax = 1⁄3 T.

Image source: PCA

Coarse Aggregate Sieve Requirements
Size No. 57- 25 to 4.75 mm [1 in. to No. 4]
Values according to
Sieve size
Percent passing by ASTM C 33 -
mass
Standard
37.5 mm (1½ in.) 100
Specification for
Concrete
95 to 100
Aggregates
25.0 mm (1 in.)

12.5 mm (½ in.) 25 to 60

4.75 mm (No. 4) 0 to 10

2.36 mm (No. 8) 0 to 5
Grading Limits
• Grading and grading limits are usually expressed as
the % of material passing
• Curves indicate the limits specified in ASTM C 33
for fine aggregate and for one commonly used size
number (grading size) of coarse aggregate.
• In general, aggregates that do not have a large
deficiency or excess of any one particular size and
give a smooth grading curve will produce the most
satisfactory results.
• If the grading falls outside the limits but if it is
shown that good quality concrete can be produced,
it is allowed to use that aggregate gradation

Source: PCA
Sieve Analysis Results
• HMA: Commonly plotted on the FHWA 0.45 Power Chart
• PCC: Traditionally has used a logarithmic chart
Sieve Analysis Results

~ 50% ~ 50% Dense or

well-
graded

Refer to: http://www.pavementinteractive.org/

Sieve Analysis Results – HMA

Gap-graded
Reduced
3/8 x #8
material

contains only a small percentage of aggregate particles in the mid-size range

Sieve Analysis Results – HMA

40% 60%
Open-graded
Reduced very
fine material
(< 4.75mm)

contains only a small percentage of aggregate particles in the small range

Fineness Modulus (FM)
The summation of the cumulative percent retained
on the following sieves divided by 100:
• 3/8 in. (9.5 mm)
• #100 (0.150 mm)
• 3/4 in. (19 mm)
• #50 (0.300 mm)
• 1-1/2 in. (37.5 mm)
• #30 (0.600 mm)
• #16 (1.18 mm)
• #8 (2.36 mm)
• #4 (4.75 mm)
∑(cumul. % retained on sieves)
FM = 100
Fineness Size, Size, Retained % Cumul. % Passing
Modulus US SI Mass, g Retained % Ret.
Example 3/8 9.5 0 0 0 100
#4 4.75 100 20 20 80
#8 2.36 125 25 45 55
#10 2.00 25 5 50 50
#16 1.18 50 10 60 40
#30 0.600 25 5 65 35
#40 0.425 50 10 75 25
#50 0.300 50 10 85 15
#100 0.150 30 6 91 9
#200 0.075 35 7 98 2
Pan Pan 10 2 100 0
Total 500
Fineness Modulus (FM)
The summation of the cumulative percent retained on the following
sieves divided by 100:

• #100 (0.150 mm)

• 3/8 in. (9.5 mm)
• #50 (0.300 mm)
• 3/4 in. (19 mm)
• #30 (0.600 mm)
• 1-1/2 in. (37.5 mm)
• #16 (1.18 mm)
• #8 (2.36 mm)
∑(cumul. % retained on sieves)
• #4 (4.75 mm) FM =
100

FM = (91+85+65+60+45+20) / 100 = 3.66

Aggregates that stick closer to the 0.45 power curve are prefered
in asphalt concrete when compared to those that stray from it.

ⓘ Start presenting to display the poll results on this slide.

Density and Relative Density
• Density = Relative density x density of water
• Typically between 2400 and 2900 kg/m3 (150 and 181 lb/ft3)
• Relative density typically between 2.4 and 2.9.
Aggregate Volume

Most aggregates have

texture and porosity.

These features make it

difficult to describe the
volume.
Moisture Content

None Less than

absorption
capacity

Saturated surface dry

Greater
Equal to than
absorption absorption
capacity capacity
Aggregate Moisture
• water absorption, % absorption
• moisture content, %w

m m 

ssd oven dry 
% absorption  


 x 100

m 

 oven dry 


 
 m water 
 
%w  



x 100
 m 

 oven dry 

Specific Gravity - Definition

•G=  , equal temperature, equal volume
HO 2

• Under constant gravity: Ratio of the mass of a unit volume of material (at a specific
temperature) to the mass of the same volume of gas-free distilled water at the same
temperature.
Density of material
• i.e.: =G
Density of water

Mass m
*Density = =
Volume V
Bulk Density of Aggregates (Unit Weight)
Mass or weight of the aggregate required to fill a container of
specified volume.

Also referred to as the dry rodded unit weight for coarse

aggregates
Weight W
Unit Weight = =
Volume V
Volumetric Nomenclature
Specific Gravity (G): Gxy
x: b = binder
s = stone (aggregate)
m = mixture

y: b = bulk
e = effective
a = apparent
m = maximum

Example: Gsb = bulk specific gravity of aggregate

Apparent Bulk Specific Gravity – Oven
Dry Aggs
Apparent Volume =
volume of solid aggregate
particle

Mass, oven dry agg.

Gsa = 1.000 g/cm3
App. vol. of agg.
Bulk Specific Gravity – SSD Aggregates
Volume of water
permeable voids

Surface Voids

Mass, oven dry agg.

Gsb = 1.000 g/cm3
Vol. of agg. + surface voids

Mass, oven dry agg. + mass water

Gsb, ssd = 1.000 g/cm3
Vol. of agg. + surface voids
Specific Gravity Calculations
A A = oven dry mass
Gsa =
A-C B = ssd mass
A C = mass in water
Gsb =
B-C

Gsb, ssd = B
B-C
Gsa > Gsb, ssd > Gsb
Example
What is the bulk specific gravity (SSD) of a
coarse aggregate that weighs 1205.5 g oven
dry, 1265.2 in a saturated surface dry state and
that weighs 780.4 g in water?

A = oven dry mass

Gsb, ssd = B
B = ssd mass
B-C
C = mass in water

1265.2
Gsb, ssd = = 2.6
1265.2-780.4
Summary
• Gradations of aggregates are vital to understand
• If aggregates pass the standard criteria
• Amount of paste (and hence cement) required for your concrete.
• Aggregate moisture content, specific gravity, bulk density must be
taken into account for concrete mixture proportioning
• Aggregates make up a large percentage of concrete (~75% in PCC and
90% in asphalt concrete) and thus will play a large role on the
economy, fresh properties, strength and durability of the concrete.
 Introduction to cement and
concrete

Module 1: Aggregates, cement and

concrete

Lecture 2

Slides courtesy: Dr. Jason H. Ideker, Professor, OSU

CCE 321 Slide 1 of 23
Cement vs. Concrete
Cement – the raw powder that reacts with water to form a
hydrated phase that binds concrete components together

Concrete – a heterogenous mixture of water, air, sand,

gravel/rocks and cement

Cement Truck Concrete Mixer

Source: Holcim and Google Images
Portland cement - definitions
hydraulic cement – a binding material that sets and hardens by chemical reaction with
water and is capable of doing so underwater. For example, portland cement and slag
cement are hydraulic cements.

portland cement - a hydraulic cement produced by pulverizing clinker formed by

heating a mixture, usually of limestone and clay, to 1400 to 1600 °C (2550 to 2900 °F).
Calcium sulfate is usually ground with the clinker to control set.
http://www.concrete.org/Technical/CCT/FlashHelp/ACI_Terminology.htm
 Cement History

2500 BCE – cementing 500 BCE – lime- 300 BCE – early Roman
7000 BCE - oldest known material between stone concrete
based mortar
concrete blocks concrete – from latin
Ancient Greece
Galilee, Israel – lime Great Pyramid at Giza – “concretus”
concrete (quicklime) Ancient Egypt Romans – also credited
lime mortar or burnt with use of pozzolan
gypsum

Images: various, web

Cement History
1300s – burning lime and use of pozzolan reintroduced

1750s– John Smeaton (father of civil engineering in England)

hydraulic lime versus natural cement.
generally seen as the first use of modern concrete in engineering.

1824 – Joseph Aspdin credited with the invention of portland cement

While experimenting in his kitchen, Aspdin found that by heating clay and limestone at a very high
temperature, then cooling, grinding and mixing it with water he had created a particularly strong cement.

name arose from its color closely matching quarried limestone on the Isle of Portland in the English
Channel.
History
1845 – I.C. Johnson, Swanscome, England
burned raw materials under high heat to produce “today’s” portland cement

1871 – first cement produced in the US

Coplay, Pennsylvania

1950s-1970s – High performance concrete

1970s-2000s – emphasis on enhanced properties, chemical admixtures, fibers, internal curing, highly
technical concrete specific to application

2020s – low carbon concrete, carbon capture and storage, alternate cementitious materials.
 Raw Materials for Portland Cement Manufacture
• Calcareous material - calcium carbonate bearing, (CaCO3)
• Limestone, chalk, seashells

• Argillaceous material - silica and alumina bearing (SiO2 and

Al2O3)
• Clay, shale, fly ash or blast-furnace slag

Images - PCA
CCE 321 Slide 7 of 23
 Manufacture of Portland Cement
Dry Process – All US plants
• grinding and blending of materials is done with dry materials

Wet Process – some plants in developing countries

• grinding and blending are done with materials mixed with water to form a slurry
• roughly 30-40% water

• Other steps essentially identical

CCE 321 Slide 8 of 23

Which cement manufacturing process is
the most energy-intensive?

ⓘ Start presenting to display the poll results on this slide.

 Manufacture of Portland Cement
Dry Process
• clinkering energy input: ~800 kcal/kg of clinker

Wet Process
• much more energy intensive as water driven off prior to calcination (1400 kcal/kg)

CCE 321 Slide 10 of 23

Steps in Manufacture
1. Raw material (typ. stone) is first reduced to
125 mm (5 in) size, then to 20 mm (0.8 in)
and stored
2. Raw materials are ground, to powder and
blended

Source: PCA Archives

Steps in Manufacture
3. Blended material introduced into a rotary kiln at upper end

• Rate controlled by slope and rotational

speed of the kiln
• Lower end of kiln temperatures reach
1400 to 1550 C
• Partial melting of raw material at lower
end of kiln
• New products are formed from the raw
materials
• Result is clinker

Source: CHA ENG

Images - PCA
Steps in Manufacture
4. Clinker is ground with gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O)

+
=
Source: PCA Archives
 Ball Mills
critical speed (rpm): nC =
42.29/√d

d is the internal diameter

in metres

Ball mills normally

operated at ~75% of
critical speed,

Ex: mill with diameter 5

metres will turn at ~14
rpm.

Images: Web Various

Sources, Wikipedia

CCE 321 Slide 15 of 23

Portland Cement Chemistry
Cement Chemists’ Notation

C CaO
S SiO2
A Al2O3
F Fe2O3
Ŝ SO3 or S
or $
H H2O
Images: Web Various Sources,
Wikipedia
Clinker Production
www.cement.org

A rotary kiln of 6 x 100 m makes 8,000–10,000 tonnes per day

 Concrete Production

• Concrete - the most widely used construction material on earth (twice

that of all other building materials combined!)
–The second most used material following water
• More than 70% of bridges throughout the U.S. are constructed with
concrete
• 1.6 m3 (4 metric tons) of concrete for each person on the planet each
year*

• ~1.7 tons per person – U.S.

* Kosmatka, S.K. and Wilson, M.L., Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, PCA 2016

CCE 321 Slide 18 of 23

 CO2 emissions
For 1 m3 of concrete about 0.2 t of
CO2 are produced, mostly from the
production of cement*

Responsible for 5-8% of the world’s

CO2 production

U.S. ~1.5% CO2 production from

cement

Source: PCA Archives

*Gartner, E., “Industrially Interesting Approaches to “Low-CO2 ” Cements,” Cement and Concrete Research, 34 [9],
September 2004, pp. 1489-1498

CCE 321 Slide 19 of 23

 Summary

• Two main materials used to C CaO

S SiO2
produce portland cement: A Al2O3
– Limestone (CaCO3) F Fe2O3
Ŝ SO3 or S
– Clay (SiO2 and Al2O3) or $
• Portland cement chemistry: H H2O

CCE 321 Slide 20 of 23

 Questions?

CCE 321 Slide 21 of 23

 CVLE 3310

Module 1: Aggregates,
cement, and concrete

Lecture 3: Cement
Chemistry

Slides courtesy: Dr. Jason H. Ideker, OSU, Professor

A Quick Review
• Lecture 0
• Introduction
• Course structure and learning objectives

• Lecture 1 – Aggregates
• Classifications
• Uses
• Properties
• Gradation and size
• Specific gravity and absorption
• Unit weight
• Moisture content

• Lecture 2
• Introduction to cement/concrete
• History
• Production/Manufacture
Portland Cement Chemistry

C CaO
S SiO2
N Na2O
A Al2O3
M MgO
F Fe2O3
K K2O
Ŝ SO3 (or or $)
H H2O

Cement industry commonly uses shorthand notations for different

chemicals called as oxide notation
Main compounds and Cement Chemistry
Compound Name Approx. Formulation Cement Approx.
Notation %, by mass

Tricalcium silicate 3CaOSiO2 C3 S 50

(Alite)
Dicalcium silicate 2CaOSiO2 C2 S 25
(Belite)
Tricalcium aluminate 3CaOAl2O3 C3 A 12

Tetracalcium 4CaOAl2O3Fe2O3 C4AF 8

aluminoferrite
_
Gypsum CaSO42H2O CSH2 3
CaO (SO3)
Water H2O H -
Cement mill sheet
Quantity of cement phases

Mill Sheet data

Chemical compounds of portland cement

C3S (alite) C2S (belite) PCA 2011

• C3S (Alite) : Rapid strength gain – mainly contributes to early age (e.g., 3–7 days) strength
• C2S (Belite) : Slow strength gain – mainly contributes to long-term strength
 Portland cement consists
of individual angular
particles with a range of
sizes, the result of
pulverizing clinker in the
grinding mill.

Approx. 95% of cement

particles are smaller than
45microns, with avg size
of approx. 15 microns

Image: NIST
Chemical Compounds of Portland Cement
What is the most dominant phase in dry
cement?

ⓘ Start presenting to display the poll results on this slide.

Cement - main unhydrated compounds

• C3S (Alite): Rapid strength gain – mainly contributes to early age (e.g., 3–7
days) strength

• C2S (Belite): Slow strength gain – mainly contributes to long-term strength

• C3A: Rate of reaction is high; gypsum is generally used to slow the hydration
reaction; Responsible for setting (loss of fluidity) and setting (solidification)

• C4AF: Responsible for the grey color of cement.

Degree of reaction: C3A > C3S > C4AF > C2S

Typical Cement Composition

Compound Composition Range Fineness

ASTM Type General Description C3 S C2 S C3A C4AF m2/kg
I General purpose 45-55 20-30 8-12 6-10 369

General pupose with moderate

II sulfate resistance and moderate 40-50 25-35 5-7 6-10 377
heat of hydration

III High early strength 50-65 15-25 8-14 6-10 548

V Sulfate resistance 40-50 25-35 0-4 10-20 373

Interesting Fact • Specific gravity: ~3.15

one pound of cement contains roughly • Specific surface area: 300 – 550 m2 /kg
150 billion grains
Types of portland cement – ASTM C 150
Different types of portland cement are available for specific purposes
• I Normal
• IA Normal, air-entraining
• II Moderate sulfate resistance (C3A < 8%)
• IIA Moderate sulfate resistance, air-entraining
• III High early strength
• IIIA High early strength, air-entraining
• IV Low heat of hydration – typically not produced anymore
• V High sulfate resistance (C3A < 5%)
I/II – more than one designation: cement meets the requirements of both cement types I and II
Hydration Reactions

Calcium silicates react more slowly

- hydration reactions associated with hardening (strength gain)

Calcium aluminates react very initially and quickly

- gypsum used to slow the reaction
- hydration reactions associated with stiffening (loss of fluidity)
and setting (solidification)
Hydration mechanism
Reactions take place through solution – meaning dissolution
and precipitation of hydrates.

Step 3

Water

Courtesy: Chakraborty et al. (2016)

Hydration Reactions - Silicates

• C3S and C2S react to form

– calcium hydroxide (CH); also referred as portlandite
– calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H)
• C-S-H is NOT stoichometric and the composition varies.

• 2C3S + 6H  C3S2H3 + 3CH

• 2C2S + 4H  C3S2H3 + CH
One of many possible forms of C-S-H
Hydration Reactions - Silicates
• Hydrated cement paste (HCP)
– CH: 15-25% by mass
– C-S-H: ~50-60% by mass
• C-S-H responsible for the majority of STRENGTH in HCP and other key properties like
resistance to aggressive chemicals, permeability, etc.
– C/S ratio typically in a range of 1.5 – 2
– High Van der Waals forces leads to high strength of this hydration product

CH – Calcium Hydroxide and C-S-H Images: V. Kocaba, EPFL,

CH – Calcium Hydroxide
– Calcium Silicate Hydrate Thesis 2007
Hydration Reactions - Aluminates

• C3A + 3C$H2 +26H  C6A$3H32

– Responsible for early stiffening of hydrated cement paste,
i.e. in first 0-6 hours of hydration
– Forms Ettringite, (AFt)

• 2C3A + C6A$3H32 + 4H  3(C4A$H12)

– Monosulfate, (AFm)
 Hydration Reactions - Aluminates

Calcium sulfoaluminate phases

 10-20% of the volume of
hydrated cement paste
(HCP)
 AFt (ettringite) forms early,
0-6 hrs
 Ettringite also present in mature concrete…

 Afm (monosulfate) forms Ettringite

Image: Concrete, Mehta and Monteiro
later, 1-90 days and beyond
Calcium
Monosulfoaluminate
Aft: Prismatic needles Afm: Plane hexagonal crystals Images: M. Juenger and
www.materialkemi.lth.se
Hydrated Portland Cement Micrographs

PCA 2011
SEM Micrographs of HCP: 500X (left) and (right) 1000X

Images: PCA
Hydration Products
Main hydrated phases
• CH: Calcium hydroxide
• C-S-H: Calcium silicate hydrate
• C6A$3H32: Ettringite also called AFt phase
• C4A$H12: Calcium monosulfoaluminate also called AFm
phase

Minor hydrated phases

• C4AH13: Tetracalcium aluminate hydrate
• C6AFH12: Calcium aluminoferrite hydrate
Heat Evolution for OPC
Rapid evolution of heat, lasts about 15 minutes.

Stage II: Dormant period, lasts until initial set occurs in 2 to 4 hours

Stage V: Steady state

Slow
Reaction
Period

Stage III: Rapid reaction of C3S during the acceleration period, with the peak being reached at about 8-10 hours, much after
final set at 4-8 hours and hardening has begun
Stage IV: Rate of reaction slows down until steady state is reached in 12-24 hours
Why is the heat evolution significant?

High temperature in the When thermal stresses

interior of concrete. exceed tensile strength
 cracking occurs.
Interior and the surface
of concrete expands at
different rates
This phenomenon is a concern only in mass-concreting projects such
as construction of dams. Source: Lin (2015)
Heat Evolution for OPC

• Initial set: the time until the paste ceases to be fluid and plastic
• Final set: the time required for the paste to acquire a certain degree of hardness
Cement with a high heat of hydration is
preferred in construction of dams

ⓘ Start presenting to display the poll results on this slide.

_________ and _________ are responsible for the strength and
basic nature of concrete, respectively.

ⓘ Start presenting to display the poll results on this slide.

Hydration products over time

Figure : PCA
Summary
Unhydrated phases Main hydrated phases
C3S CH: Calcium hydroxide
C2S C-S-H: Calcium silicate hydrate
C3A C6A$3H32: Ettringite also called AFt phase
C4AF C4A$H12: Calcium monosulfoaluminate also
called AFm phase

• Reaction with water is

Minor phases
exothermic
C4AH13: Tetracalcium aluminate hydrate
C6AFH12: Calcium aluminoferrite hydrate
• Hydrated portland cement
phases and approximate
% of overal compostion
are important.
Reminders/Announcements
• HW 2: due on Friday, 02/07 at 11:59 pm

• Lab 1 report: due on Monday, 02/07 at 11:59 pm

– Guidelines on writing lab report is provided in the lab handout
– Writing tips also availabe in the “Course Resources” folder on ELC.

• Lab 2: Concrete on Feb 12.

 CVLE 3310

Module 1: Aggregates, cement and

concrete

Lecture 4: Concrete mixture

proportioning

Location Slide 1 of 31
Learning outcomes

• How to perform concrete mixture proportioning?

• Estimate the amount of materials to meet a specified
design criterion.

Location Slide 2 of 31
Introduction

• The quality of concrete is governed by the chemical

composition of the portland cement, hydration and
development of the microstructure, admixtures, and
aggregate characteristics.

• The properties of concrete also depend on the mix

proportions and the placing and curing methods.

Location Slide 3 of 31
Mixture design vs Mixture proportioning
• Mixture design includes specifying the characteristics and
properties required for the concrete.

• Mixture proportioning is the selection of materials and

material quantities for a specific mixture design (ACI 211 is
a common reference for proportioning concrete).

• The PCA (Portland Cement Association) specifies three

qualities required of properly proportioned concrete:
• Acceptable workability of freshly mixed concrete
• Durability, strength, and uniform appearance of hardened concrete
• Economy
Slide courtesy: Dr. David Trejo
Location Slide 4 of 31
Designing and Proportioning Concrete Mixtures
PCA, Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, 16th
Edition, Chapter 15

Location Slide 5 of 31
Mixture proportioning
• How much of each material is needed to achieve the
design parameters (e.g., strength, workability)?

Slide courtesy: Dr. David Trejo

Location Slide 6 of 31
Designing and
Proportioning
Concrete Mixtures

Empirical relationships

Location Slide 7 of 31
Mixture proportioning
• Concrete mixture proportions are usually expressed on the
basis of the mass of ingredients per unit volume.
• The unit of volume used is either a cubic yard or a cubic meter
of concrete.

Slide courtesy: Dr. David Trejo

Location Slide 8 of 31
Mixture Proportioning Example

Pg 373 in PCA Book: Concrete is required for a building

foundation. A specified compressive strength, f’c, of 3500
psi is required at 28 days using a Type I cement. The design
calls for a minimum of 3 in. of concrete cover over the
reinforcing steel. The minimum distance between reinforcing
bars is 4 in. The only admixture allowed is for air
entrainment*. No statistical data on previous mixes are
available.
*air entrainment is included in THIS example though nothing is stated about why.

The MAIN purpose of air entrainment is to protect the concrete from freeze-thaw attack.

Location Slide 9 of 31
Materials Available
• Cement: Type I, ASTM C 150, • Fine aggregate: Natural
with a relative density of 3.15 sand (ASTM C 33)
• Coarse aggregate: Well-graded – Oven dry specific gravity:
3/4 in. nominal maximum-size 2.64
gravel containing some – Absorption: 0.7%
crushed particles (ASTM C 33) – Moisture content of
stockpiled fine: 6.0%
– Oven dry specific gravity: 2.68
– Fineness Modulus: 2.8
– Absorption: 0.5%
– Oven dry rodded bulk density:
• Air Entraining Admixture:
100 lb/ft3 Wood-resin type, ASTM C
– Moisture content of stockpiled 260
coarse: 2.0%

Location Slide 10 of 31
Weight/Absolute Volume method steps
1. Evaluate strength requirements.
2. Determine the water-cement (water–cementitious materials) ratio required.
3. Choose coarse aggregate maximum size
4. Determine air entrainment requirements.
5. Evaluate workability requirements of the plastic concrete.
6. Estimate the water content requirements of the mix.
7. Determine cementing materials content and type needed.
8. Determine coarse aggregate content
9. Evaluate the need and application rate of admixtures.
10. Evaluate fine aggregate requirements.
11. Determine moisture corrections.
12. Make and test trial mixes.

Location Slide 11 of 31
Step 1: Determine Required Strength
• In order to compute the strength requirements for concrete mix design, these quantities must be known:

• The specified compressive strength, fc’ (usually 28-day)

• The variability or standard deviation SD of the concrete

If the specified compressive strength is known but standard deviation

(s) is not known/No statistical data available
Use Table 15-10

f’cr = 3500 + 1200 = 4700 psi

Location Slide 12 of 31
Step 2: Determine w/cm ratio

Table 15-1 requires no maximum water/cm ratio

Location Slide 13 of 31
Table to guide w/cm if concrete exposed to sulfates
Table 15-2

Location Slide 14 of 31
 Figure 15-3 and
Table 15-3

w/cm = 0.42

Source: PCA
Location Slide 15 of 31
Step 3: Choose Coarse Aggregate Size
• Workability
– Gradation
– Nature of particles
• NMSA – maximum aggregate size
– Should NOT exceed 3/4 of the narrowest dimension between the
sides of formwork
– Should NOT exceed 3/4 of clear space between reinforcement
– For unreinforced slabs on grade MSA should not exceed 1/3 the
slab thickness

Location Slide 16 of 31
Step 3: Choose Coarse Aggregate Size

• ¾ inch aggregate is acceptable

• Less than ¾ distance between reinforcing bars
– (3/4)*4 = 3 in.
• Less than ¾ distance between reinforcing bars and forms
(cover distance)
– (3/4)*3 = 2.25 in.

Location Slide 17 of 31
Step 4: Select Target Air Content
Concrete exposed to
– Freeze-thaw cycling
– Deicing chemicals
Also for improved workability
If information on exposure is not provided, and if, usage of air-entraining agent is allowed,
assume a reasonable air content value.
• Air content is specified at 6.0% to provide freeze-thaw protection
and to improve workability and reduce bleeding
• Design for 6.0 +/- 1.0%
• Use 7.0% (maximum) for proportioning – be conservative
• Trial batch should be within +/- 0.5% for maximum allowable air
content
Location Slide 18 of 31
Selecting Proper Air Content

Typically select air

content based on
exposure conditions

Adapted from Table 15-5, ACI 211.1, and Hover (1995 and 1998)

Location Slide 19 of 31
Step 5: Determine Slump
• Slump test value is used an indicator for workability
• Measures mixture specific consistency
– No correlation between different mixtures
• Specified as a range or not-to-exceed value
• Examples:
– Mechanical paving: 25-75 mm (1-3 in.)
– Floors: 75-125 mm (3-5 in.)
– Walls/foundations: 100-200 mm (4-8 in.)

Location Slide 20 of 31
Step 5: Determine Slump
• No slump specified
• Slump used to measure concrete consistency

This is from the

previous text
version, not included
in the 2011 edition or
2016 edition

Location Slide 21 of 31
Slump Test

• Fill cone in three lifts of

approx. equal volume
(overfill top lift)
• Rod each lift 25 times
160 mm

• Strike off excess concrete

• Remove cone 70 mm

• Measure the slump

Location Slide 22 of 31
 Slump Test

Location Slide 23 of 31
 Step 6: Adjust for required water content (Table 12-5)

Location Slide 24 of 31
Step 6: Adjust for required water content
• Increased air content • Increased temperature
• Increased aggregate size • Cement content increase
• Use of rounded agg • Silica fume
• Water reducing • Aggregate angularity
admixtures • Decrease in proportion of
• Fly ash coarse to fine aggregate

Water
Demand Water
Demand

Location Slide 25 of 31
Step 6: Adjust for required water content

• Table 15-5 indicates that 305 lb/yd3 water is necessary

• Gravel (rounded aggregate) with some crushed particles should
reduce the water content by about 35 lb/yd3

• 305 lb/yd3 – 35 lb/yd3 = 270 lb/yd3

Location Slide 26 of 31
Step 7: Determine Cement Content

• Based on maximum water-cement ratio and the water content

270 lb/yd3 / 0.42 = 643 lb/yd3 of cement

Location Slide 27 of 31
Step 8: Coarse Aggregate Content

Figure 15-4 and Table 15-4

Coarse Aggregate: 100 lb/ft3 x 27 ft3/yd3 x 0.62 = 1674 lb/yd3

Given: oven dry rodded bulk density: 100 lb/ft3

Location Slide 28 of 31
Step 9: Admixture Content

Use manufacturer recommended dosages for particular

admixtures

7% air content (from step 4)

Dosage rate: 0.9 fl oz per 100 lb of cement
(hundred weight)

0.9 x [643 lb/yd3 /100 lb] = 5.8 fl oz per yd3

Cement content determined in step 7
Location Slide 29 of 31
Step 10: Fine Aggregate Content
All other quantities are known Volume = mass/density

Density of water = 62.4 lb/ft3

Subtract volumes from 27 ft3 (1 yd3)

27 ft3 – 19.5 ft3 = 7.5 ft3 of fine aggregate

7.5 ft3/yd3 x 2.64 x 62.4 lb/ft3 = 1236 lb/yd3 fine aggregate
Location Slide 30 of 31
Estimate Mixture Proportions per cubic yard

Dry batch
weights

Estimated concrete density using aggregates that are SSD (at absorption
capacity)
Abs. capacity of rock: 0.5%
Abs. capacity of sand: 0.7%
Est. Density =
[270 lb/yd3 + 643 lb/yd3 + (1674 lb/yd3 x 1.005) + (1236 lb/yd3 x 1.007)] / 27 ft3
= 142.22 lb/ft3
Location Slide 31 of 31
Step 11: Moisture Corrections

• Corrections should be made for the moisture content of

aggregates.
• Dry batch weights need to be increased to account for
absorption capacity of aggregates
• Mixing water should be REDUCED by the amount of free
moisture contributed by the aggregates

Location Slide 32 of 31
Moisture Content

None Less than

absorption
capacity

Saturated surface dry

Greater
Equal to than
absorption absorption
capacity capacity
Step 12: Trial Batching and Batch Adjustments
Coarse aggregate adjustment Fine aggregate adjustment
at 2.0% moisture content at 6.0% moisture content
1674 * 1.02 = 1707 lb 1236 x 1.06 = 1310 lb

Excess moisture
Coarse aggregate
2.0% - 0.5% (abs) = 1.5% 270 – (1674 x 0.015) – (1236
Fine aggregate x 0.053) =
6.0% - 0.7% (abs) = 5.3% 179 lb/yd3 of water

Location Slide 34 of 31
Estimated Batch Weights

Water (to be added) 179 lb/yd3

Cement 643 lb/yd3
Coarse agg (2% mc, wet) 1707 lb/yd3
Fine agg (6% mc, wet) 1310 lb/yd3
Total 3839 lb/yd3
Air entraining admixture: 5.8 fl oz

Location Slide 35 of 31
Notes on Freeze-Thaw Attack and Air Entrainment
Mechanism of Frost Damage in Non Air-entrained Concrete
Concrete

0oC, 32oF

-10oC, 14oF

This pressure build up may disrupt the

concrete, resulting in cracking through
continued cycling of freeze-thaw
processes
Saturation > 91.7%
Images Courtesy K. Folliard
Location Slide 36 of 31
 Mechanism of freeze-thaw damage
• When water freezes, it expands by ~9%.
• As the water in moist concrete freezes it produces pressure in the pores
of the concrete.
• If the pressure developed exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete,
the cavity will dilate and rupture.
.

Source: PCA
Location Slide 37 of 31
The Answer = AIR-Entrainment!!!!

Air-Entraining Agents (AEAs) stabilize tiny

bubbles generated in concrete to protect
against freezing and thawing cycles.

History
Images Courtesy K. Folliard
Air-entrainment was discovered accidentally in the 1930’s
Several pavements in New York had survived severe freeze-
thaw exposure.

Location Slide 38 of 31
 Mechanism of Protection
by Air Voids Air-entrained concrete

0oC, 32oF

-10oC, 14oF

Air bubbles provide space for water as

Saturation > 91.7%
freezing advances, relieving
hydrostatic pressure in concrete.
Images Courtesy K. Folliard
Location Slide 39 of 31
 CVLE 3310

Module 1: Aggregates, cement and concrete

Lecture 5: Alternate and supplementary cementitious

materials
Outline
• Need
• Global thrust towards carbon neutrality
• Current options
• Alternate cementitious materials
• Supplementary cementitious materials
• Other disruptive technologies

May 4, 2024 2
Location Slide 2 of 38
 Need
• Climate change is the defining issue of our
times.

• The production of portland cement, an

essential ingredient in concrete, leads to
significant emissions of CO2.

• To keep up with the demand for low carbon

infrastructure, newer materials and strategies
are required.

• So, there is a need to identify and use

materials to achieve carbon neutrality of the
cement and concrete industry.

3
Location Slide 3 of 38
Introduction
• Cement is the most energy intensive ingredient in concrete and two
features of cement production contribute to large CO2 emissions.

• Limestone and clay are the two key raw ingredients used to
manufacture cement.

Process emissions Energy emissions

• In the production of cement clinker, CaCO3 • Combustion of fossil fuels to achieve

 CaO + CO2 clinkering temperature (> 1500 °C)
• Contributes to 5% of total anthropogenic • Contributes to 3% of total anthropogenic
CO2 emissions CO2 emissions

May 4, 2024 4
Location Slide 4 of 38
Global thrust towards carbon neutrality

5
Location Slide 5 of 38
Roadmap towards carbon neutrality

No measures

Source: Global cement and

Concrete Association
Implementing
low carbon
options

6
Location Slide 6 of 38
Current Options
This lecture introduces the following two options to improve the sustainability of
cement and concrete.

Alternate cementitious Supplementary

materials cementitious materials
• Offers lower carbon footprint • Commonly used as a partial
replacment
• Calcium aluminate cements and • Need to investigate newer SCMs
Calcium sulfoaluminate cements that were hitherto unused such as
off-spec fly ash.

7
Location Slide 7 of 38
Alternate Cementitious Materials (ACMs)
Calcium aluminate cement (CAC) Calcium sulfoaluminate cement (CSA)
• Bauxite, limestone and clay. • Limestone, gypsum, and bauxite.

• Reduced amounts of limestone in the raw feed  lesser CO2 emissions.

• Change in the relative compositions of oxides lead to different properties when compared to
traditional portland cements  Some beneficial, some detrimental.

Location Slide 8 of 38
Calcium Aluminate Cements (CAC)
Features
• These cements are considerably more expensive than
OPC (4 to 5 times).

• The volume of production is only 1Τ1000th of portland

cement.

• Therefore, not feasible to be used as a direct substitute

for OPC.

• CAC cements are used where their properties are better

Industrial flooring
suited for the application than the OPC cements.

• Advantageously employed in applications that require

resistance to chemical attack, resistant to abrasion, high
early strength, rapid hardening, and resistance to
extreme temperatures.
Location Slide 9 of 38
Calcium Sulfoaluminate Cements (CSA)
Features
• CSA is a cement that originated in China and is
widely referred to as “third series of cement”
therein.

• The clinker is ye’elimite based (C4A3$) and is

made from calcium sulfate, limestone and
bauxite at a temperature of 1250 °C.

• The production of CSA cement is less when

compared to OPC.

• Used in specialty applications where rapid

setting, hardening, and strength development
is required, often without a curing regime.
Tunnel linings

Location Slide 10 of 38
Alternate cementitious materials can be a useful
replacement for cement because

ⓘ Start presenting to display the poll results on this slide.

Supplementary Cementing Materials (SCMs)

From left to right:

•Fly ash (Class C)
•Metakaolin (calcined clay)
•Silica fume
•Fly ash (Class F)
•Slag Figure : PCA
•Calcined shale

Location Slide 12 of 38
Definitions

Supplementary Cementing Material (SCM) – a material that, when

used in conjunction with Portland cement, contributes to the
properties of the hardened concrete through hydraulic or pozzolanic
activity.

Pozzolan – a siliceous or alumino-siliceous material that, in finely

divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically reacts at
ordinary temperatures with calcium hydroxide released by the
hydration of Portland cement to form compounds possessing
cementing properties.

A hydraulic cement reacts chemically with water to form compounds

(hydrates) that have cementing properties – e.g. Portland cement.

Location Slide 13 of 38
Hydraulic & Pozzolanic Reactions
Hydration of Portland cement:

Calcium Calcium
Silicate Hydroxide
Cement + water C-S-H + CH + other phases

“Glue” that holds everything together

Mainly responsible for strength and
impermeability of concrete

Slide: K. Folliard
Location Slide 14 of 38
Hydraulic & Pozzolanic Reactions
Hydration of Portland cement:

Calcium Calcium
Silicate Hydroxide
Cement + water C-S-H + CH + other phases

Little to no cementing value

Easily leached
Participates in sulfate attack & ASR

Slide: K. Folliard

Location Slide 15 of 38
Pozzolanic Reactions
Hydration of Portland cement:

Calcium Calcium
Silicate Hydroxide
Cement + water C-S-H + CH + other phases

Pozzolanic reaction:
Calcium
Silicate
Pozzolan + Calcium Hydroxide C-S-H + other phases
(from PC hydration)

Slide: K. Folliard More “glue”

Location Slide 16 of 38
Chemical Composition of Various SCM’s
SiO2

Silica
Fume
F
Fly
Ash
CH Meta-
kaolin
Slag

OPC

CaO Al2O3
Schematic: K. Folliard
Location Slide 17 of 38
Fly ash

Source: TVA

Source: FHWA Archives

Fly ash is the finely-divided residue produced

in coal-fired electric power generating plants
as an industrial by-product of the combustion
of ground or powdered coal

Source: www.btg.com

Location Slide 18 of 38
 Coal

Precipitators

Burning
Zone

Fly Ash
Used for concrete (& other purposes)
Images: K Folliard
Location Slide 19 of 38
 Fly ash is comprised of spherical particles. Image: G.K. Hoffman
Cenospheres may contain many smaller
spherical particles of fly ash.
Location Slide 20 of 38
Specifications and Classes of Fly Ash

• Class F - (low calcium)- from burning

anthracite or bituminous coal, is pozzolanic
– Low in CaO (calcium)

• Class C - from burning sub-

bituminous or lignite coal, is somewhat
cementitious
ASTM C 618 – High in CaO (calcium)
(AASHTO M 295)

Location Slide 21 of 38
Silica Fume
Silica Fume: finely divided residue resulting from the
production of silicon, ferro-silicon, or other silicon-
containing alloys that is carried from the burning surface
area of an electric-arc furnace by exhaust gases.

Source: PCA
Location Slide 22 of 38
 Fidjestol & Lewis, 1998

4SiO + 2O2  4SiO2

4SiO + 2CO
Silica Fume
1800oC SiO2
SiO2 + C
Si metal
Sketch of Production Process for Silica Fume Slide: K. Folliard
Location Slide 23 of 38
Usage of flyash reduces the water demand in concrete.

[HINT: Fly ash particles are spherical in shape]

ⓘ Start presenting to display the poll results on this slide.

Silica Fume Typical characteristics of silica fume:
• at least 85% SiO2
• almost completely amorphous (glassy)
• specific surface area > 20000 m2/kg
• spherical particle shape
• low carbon content Compare Portland
cement ~ 350 m2/kg

The fine particle size and high surface area together with the amorphous nature of
silica fume make it a highly reactive pozzolan

Can cause plastic shrinkage cracking in concrete – less bleed water

Location Slide 25 of 38
Physical Characteristics of Silica Fume

Silica fume forms as very fine glassy

spherical particles

Most particles are sub-micron with an

average particle size of 0.1 m

Specific gravity ranges

OPCfrom 2.20 toFume
Silica
2.25 but may be as high as 2.5

Generally dark gray to black in color,

but white silica fume is available for
special purposes
Location Slide 26 of 38
Role of Silica Fume
(a) Micro-filler Effect

i) cement only ii) with silica fume

The average particle size of silica fume is 0.1 m (1/100th average size of a cement grain)
In a blend of 85 cement : 15 silica fume there are approximately 2,000,000 silica fume
particles for each grain of cement!
This leads to “dense packing” of the silica fume particles between the cement particles -
minimizing porosity
Location Slide 27 of 38
_________ is the SCM of choice when it
comes to high strength concrete

ⓘ Start presenting to display the poll results on this slide.

Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ)

•Small region adjacent to the coarse •Calcium hydroxide

aggregate particles in concrete crystals preferentially align
next to aggregate particles

•Thin shell, typically 10-50 m and

is generally weaker than the other •Increased zone of weaker
two components, cement paste cement hydrate phase
(bulk) or aggregate decreases strength in this
zone compared to bulk

•Greater influence on concrete

mechanical behavior than its small
size indicates

Location Slide 29 of 38
Interfacial Transition Zone - ITZ

AGGREGATE TRANSITION BULK CEMENT PASTE

ZONE
= C-S-H = CH = C-A-S-H
Location Slide 30 of 38
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) is the glassy material

formed from molten slag produced in blast furnaces as an industrial
by-product from the production of iron used in steel making

Location Slide 31 of 38
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
•Slag has cementitious
properties rather than
pozzolanic properties
•Grade 80
Slags with a low activity index
Slag •Grade 100
Slags with a moderate activity
index
•Grade 120
Slags with a high activity index

•classified by ASTM C 989

SEM Image of Slag Source: PCA

Location Slide 32 of 38
 Iron Ore Fluxing Stone Fuel
Fe2O3 CaCO3 Coke, C
SiO2 MgCO3
Al2O3

Air-cooled slag
Burden
(aggregate)

Slag Expanded slag

(lightweight agg)

Granulated or
Steel making pelletized slag
Pig Iron (Fe)
(cement)

Adapted from Hooton, 1987

Location Slide 33 of 38
Typical Chemical Composition of Slag

MgO
Fe2O3

Al2O3
CaO

SiO2

Location Slide 34 of 38
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
• Slag is not a pozzolan.

• It is a latent hydraulic material.

• Its hydrates are similar to those of portland cement and include C-S-H and
various calcium aluminate and calcium alumino-silicate compounds

• Slag will hydrate when mixed on its own with water, however, the process is very
slow

• Latent hydraulic materials require the addition of an activator (e.g. alkali or lime
compounds) to promote significant hydration

• The alkalis present in Portland cement and the calcium hydroxide released
during its hydration are very effective activators of slag

Location Slide 35 of 38
Metakaolin – Natural Pozzolan

Special type of calcined or

“thermally-activated” clay

Thermally-activated at specific
temperature (650 – 800oC) to
maximize reactivity

Ground to fine particle size (avg.

1 to 2 m)

Typical S.G. = 2.5

High “Hunter L” whiteness value

(> 90)
Location Slide 36 of 38
Metakaolin – Natural Pozzolan
• Mainly SiO2 and Al2O3
• ~40-45% Al2O3
• ~45-50% SiO2

• ground material

• Specific surface:

• ~15,000 m2/kg
Location Slide 37 of 38
Rice Husk Ash – Natural Pozzolan

•The ash formed during open-field burning

or uncontrolled combustion in furnaces

•Generally contains a large proportion of

http://joshkearns.blogspot.com/2008/08/charcoals-
less reactive silica minerals such as
electron-microscopy-study.html
cristobalite and tridymite, and must be
ground to a very fine particle size in order to
develop some pozzolanic activity.

•A highly pozzolanic ash can be produced

by controlled combustion when silica is
retained in noncrystalline form and a cellular
microstructure

Location Slide 38 of 38
Rice Husk Ash

Composition:
• Cellulose (C5H10O5)
• Lignin (C7H10O3)
• Hemicellulose
• SiO2 (~85-90%)
• Holocellulose

• Burning temps around 500-700C

Location Slide 39 of 38
Summary – typical chemical composition
Composition
Type C fly ash Type F fly ash GGBS (slag) Silica fume
(%)

SiO2 25-50 35-60 20-40 >80

Al2O3 5-15 15-35 5-35 0.1-0.5

Fe2O3 5-10 2-25 1 0.1-5

CaO 10-40 0.5-10 30-50 <1

Glass or
amorphous 10-40 10-40 >80 >95
content

Location Slide 40 of 38
Summary – physical characteristics
Rice husk
Material Fly ash GGBS Silica Fume Metakaolin
ash
Mean size
10-15 <45 0.1 1-2 10-20
(microns)
15,000
Fineness
300-500 400-600 20,000 (ground 60,000
(m2/Kg)
material)
Specific
1.9-2.8 2.85-2.95 2.2-2.25 2.5
gravity
Particle
Spherical Angular Spherical Platy Cellular
shape

Location Slide 41 of 38
Summary – pozzolanic reaction
Cement Hydration in the presence of SCMs

• C3S/C2S (from cement) + 6H  C-S-H + CH

• CH + reactive SiO2 (from SCMs)  pozzolanic C-S-H

• CH + reactive Al2O3 (from SCMs)  C-A-H
• Pozzolanic C-S-H has lower C/S ratio compared to normal C-S-H

Location Slide 43 of 38
Nature of the Reaction of Different SCM’s

Pozzolanic Hydraulic

Silica Fume XXXXX

Increasing Low-CaO Fly Ash XXXX

Calcium
Content Moderate-CaO Fly XXXX X
Ash
High-CaO Fly Ash XXX XX

Slag X XXXX

Location Slide 44 of 38
Characteristics of pozzolanic reaction
• CH consumption, more C-S-H formation
• Pore refinement
• ITZ refinement
• Slow rate of reaction  low heat of hydration
• Slow rate of strength development
• Effective time - time to attain same strength as 100% PC – may vary
for different PC+SCM combinations
• Reduced permeability
Alkalis and gypsum can accelerate the pozzolanic reaction

Increased strength over time and better durability

Location Slide 45 of 38
The appropriate use of SCM’s can:
• Improve rheological properties making it easier to pump, place & finish concrete
• Increase the strength of concrete
• Reduce permeability to water (& other fluids)
• Increase the resistance to chloride ions
• Increase the resistance to sulphate attack
• Suppress deleterious expansion due to alkali-silica reaction (ASR)
• Minimize the risk of delayed ettringite formation (DEF)

However, the performance of concrete is

highly sensitive to the type and replacement
level of SCM used.
Location Slide 46 of 38
The performance of concrete is influenced by:
The type of SCM (physical & chemical properties)
The level of replacement used
The nature of the portland cement (e.g. alkali content)
The quality of the concrete
Curing
Curing The slower reaction of some SCM’s increases the
sensitivity of the concrete to curing.
Curing

SCM’s are not a one-stop-solution for all forms of deterioration. They

have to be used properly.

Location Slide 47 of 38
Some Questions
• What are the uses of SCMs?
• Which one of the SCMs use in concrete might cause plastic
shrinkage cracking?
• GGBS (slag) is pozzolanic material. True or False
• How do SCMs affect the ITZ?
• How do SCMs affect the properties of concrete?
– Workability
– Bleeding and segregation
– Setting time
– Heat of hydration

Location Slide 48 of 38
 CVLE 3310 - Civil Engineering Materials

Module 1: Aggregates, cement and concrete

Lecture 6: Chemical Admixtures

Location Slide 1 of 8
Chemical Admixtures
 Usually are water soluble compounds
 added with mixing water (typically to enhance dispersion)
 at dosages of less than 5% of the cement weight
 very common now to use in concrete to get high-quality
 Important to know the effect of chemical admixtures on
concrete properties
 Manufacturer recommends dosages and adding procedure

Location Slide 2 of 8
Chemical Admixtures
• Active: react with cement (e.g. accelerator)
• Interactive: modify interfaces without changing
the chemistry (e.g. air-entrainer)
• Passive: physically present (e.g. pigment)

• Common admixtures
– Air-entrainers
– Water-reducers/plasticizers
– Accelerators
– Retarders
– Corrosion inhibitors, shrinkage reducing admixtures

Location Slide 3 of 8
Chemical Admixtures According to ASTM C 494
• Type A – water reducer (low range)
– reduces water content at least 5%
– may slightly retard setting time

Water reducers
•Reduce water content while
maintaining the same slump
•Reduce w/cm ratio
•Reduce cement content
•Increase slump

Source: PCA

Location Slide 4 of 8
Chemical Admixtures According to ASTM C 494
• Type B – Retarders
– Delay the rate of setting of concrete
– Used to offset the accelerating effect of hot weather
– To delay the initial set – difficult placing conditions, long transport time

• Type C – Accelerators
– Accelerate the rate of hydration and strength development at an early age
– Other methods of acceleration: use high-early-strength cement, lower w/c,
use water reducer, cure at high temperatures
– Ex: Calcium chloride (restricted to max. of 2% by mass of cement)

Source: PCA

Location Slide 5 of 8
Chemical Admixtures According to ASTM C 494

• Type D – Water reducer and retarder

– reduces water content 5% min.
– retards set
• Type E - Water reducer and accelerator
– reduces water content 5% min.
– accelerates set

Location Slide 6 of 8
Chemical Admixtures
• Type F – High range water reducer
– Reduce H2O content 12% -30%
• Type G – High range water reducer and retarder
– Reduce H2O content 12% -30%
– Also retards the mixture
• Superplasticizers are high range water reducers

• Air-entraining admixtures
• Shrinkage reducing admixtures
• Viscosity modifying admixtures (VMAs) - SCC
• Anti-washout admixtures
superplasticizer

Source: PCA
Location Slide 7 of 8
What type of an admixture is a water
reducer?

ⓘ Start presenting to display the poll results on this slide.

Notes on Freeze-Thaw Attack and Air Entrainment
Mechanism of Frost Damage in Non Air-entrained Concrete
Concrete

0oC, 32oF

-10oC, 14oF

This pressure build up may disrupt the

concrete, resulting in cracking through
continued cycling of freeze-thaw
processes
Saturation > 91.7%
Images Courtesy K. Folliard
Location Slide 9 of 8
 Mechanism of freeze-thaw damage
• When water freezes, it expands by ~9%.
• As the water in moist concrete freezes it produces pressure in the pores
of the concrete.
• If the pressure developed exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete,
the cavity will dilate and rupture.
.

Source: PCA
Location Slide 10 of 8
The Answer = AIR-Entrainment!!!!

Air-Entraining Agents (AEAs) stabilize tiny

bubbles generated in concrete to protect
against freezing and thawing cycles.

History
Images Courtesy K. Folliard
Air-entrainment was discovered accidentally in the 1930’s
Several pavements in New York had survived severe freeze-
thaw exposure.

Location Slide 11 of 8
 Mechanism of Protection
by Air Voids Air-entrained concrete

0oC, 32oF

-10oC, 14oF

Air bubbles provide space for water as

Saturation > 91.7%
freezing advances, relieving
hydrostatic pressure in concrete.
Images Courtesy K. Folliard
Location Slide 12 of 8
Chemical Admixtures

Mechanism of an
air entrainer
illustrated.

superplasticizer

Credits: Sciencedirect Source: PCA

Location Slide 13 of 8
Chemical admixtures selection by application
1. Colored concrete 1. Pigments
2. Cold weather concreting 2. Accelerator
3. Congested reinforcement 3. Superplasticizer
4. Hot weather concreting 4. Retarder
5. Marine concrete 5. Corrosion inhibitor,
water-reducers
6. Shotcrete 6. Plasticizer, accelerator
7. High-strength concrete 7. Superplasticizer
8. Fiber reinforced concrete 8. Superplasticizer
9. Underwater and self 9. Viscosity modifying agent
compacting concrete (VMA)

Location Slide 14 of 8
 Concrete – Fresh and Hardened
Properties

Module 1: Lecture 7

Source: Mehta, Monteiro, 2006

Location Slide 1 of 22
Freshly Mixed Concrete
It should be plastic or semifluid and generally capable of being
molded by hand

Tests that are typically done on fresh concrete mixture

• Consistency
– slump
• Air Content
• Density (Unit Weight)
• Temperature

Location Slide 2 of 22
Workability
• Ease of mixing, placing, compacting, and
finishing

• Property determining the effort required to

Source: PCA
manipulate a freshly mixed quantity of
concrete with minimum loss of homogeneity

• Qualitative property incorporating consistency

(ease of flow) and cohesiveness (tendency to
bleed or segregate

www.pikist.com
Location Slide 3 of 22
Segregation
Segregation: separation of components
in fresh concrete so they are no longer
uniformly distributed

May be a result of:

• Too large MSA
• Too little fine aggregate
• Too coarse a fine aggregate
• Height drop to great during placement Segregation
source: K. Kurtis
• Excess water

Location Slide 4 of 22
 Bleeding
• Bleeding: type of segregation where water
appears at the surface after placing and
compaction but before set.
• May form a film under aggregate or
reinforcement
• SOME bleeding is beneficial to aid in
finishing and to prevent plastic shrinkage
cracking
• Bleeding leads to weaker zones in top
surface of concrete, under coarse
aggregates and reinforcement bars
Location Slide 5 of 22
 •Over vibration/
compaction can lead
to bleeding

•Finer cement, higher

C3A content and air
entrainment all
reduce bleeding

•Supplementary
cementing materials
(SCMs) generally Source: PCA
reduce bleeding

Bleeding
Location Slide 6 of 22
Workability - factors
• Water content
– Increase in mix water content increases workability
– Excess water -> segregation
• Cement content
– Higher cement content results in increased workability
– Excess cement -> very sticky/cohesive mixture
• Aggregate shape and texture, gradation
• Chemical admixtures and SCMs
– Depends on the type and dose
• Time
– Loss in workability with time - Cement hydration, water evaporation, aggregate absorption
• Temperature
– Loss in workability with increase in temperature

Location Slide 7 of 22
Slump Test
• The most widely used fresh concrete test
• Used for quick and continuous checking
of uniformity of concrete production
• Measures the difference in height of a PCA
fresh sample molded in a truncated cone
after the cone is removed
• Prone to operator error

Mindess and Young

Location Slide 9 of 22
Slump Test

• Fill cone in three lifts of

approx. equal volume
(overfill top lift)
• Rod each lift 25 times
160 mm
• Strike off excess concrete
• Remove cone 70 mm

• Measure the slump

Location Slide 10 of 22
Slump Test

• Slump types
a) True slump
b) Shear slump (harsh mix, lack
of cohesion)
c) Collapse slump (wet mix)

Excessive water used to produce high slump is a primary cause

of poor concrete performance -> leads to bleeding,
segregation, and increased drying shrinkage

Mindess and Young

Location Slide 11 of 22
Density (Unit Weight)
• Similar to dry rodded
unit weight test for
coarse aggregate
• Also comes from
ASTM C 138
0.25 ft3

Source: PCA
Location Slide 12 of 22
Air Content
• Pressure Method
– ASTM C 231 Pressure Volumetric
– Not suitable for lightweight Meter Air Meter
or porous aggregate
concrete
• Volumetric Method
– ASTM C 173
– Volume of air removed by
agitating fresh concrete in
excess of water
Source: PCA
Location Slide 13 of 22
Density (Unit Weight)
Typical values
– 137-150 lb/ft3 for normal
weight concrete
– As low as 15 lb/ft3
(speciality lightweight
concretes) 0.25 ft3
– as heavy as 375 lb/ft3
(radiation shielding)

Source: PCA
Location Slide 14 of 22
Setting Time
Vicat
Needle
• Cement Paste
– Vicat Needle
– Gillmore Needle
• Concrete Mortar
– Penetrometer Testing Penetrometer
• ASTM C 403
• Measures resistance of mortar to
applied pressure
• Indicates initial and final set

Source: PCA
Location Slide 15 of 22
 Source: Mehta, Monteiro, 2006
Location Slide 16 of 22
Field Specimens
• Specimens of fresh concrete taken at field sites
• Ensures quality control (QC testing)
• May be cylinders, beams or other specialty mold types that
are project specific

Source: PCA
Location Slide 18 of 22
Quality Control - Cylindrical Specimens
6 in.
4 in.
(150 mm)
(100 mm)

 2 in.  3/4 in.

(50 mm) 12 in. (19 mm) 8 in.
Max. Max.
(300 mm) Agg. (200 mm)
Agg.
Size Size

Location Slide 19 of 22
Quality Control - Beam Specimens
6 in.
(150 mm)
 2 in. (50 mm)
Max. Agg. Size
6 in.
20 in. (500 mm) (150 mm)

For larger aggregates:

• Width & depth > 3 times maximum aggregate size
• Length > 3 times depth + 2 in. (50 mm)

Location Slide 20 of 22
Curing Molded Specimens
• Standard test methods
require curing under
controlled conditions
• Typical curing (ASTM C
511):
– Moist curing: 95-100%
relative humidity at 23 ± 2ºC
(73 ± 4 ºF)
– Wet curing: Water must be
saturated with hydrated lime
(CaOH), not agricultural
lime… tanks in the lab
Source: PCA
Location Slide 21 of 22
Strength of phases
•Aggregate and cement behave linearly
up to failure
•Concrete stress/strain relationship is
between aggregate and paste
•Concrete does not behave linearly to
the point of failure

Source: Mehta and Monteiro

Location Slide 22 of 22
Why? Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ)

Location Source: Mehta and MonteiroSlide 23 of 22

Interfacial Transition Zone: ITZ

Source: Mehta and Monteiro

Location Slide 25 of 22
Compressive Strength
An increasing load (stress) is applied at a
constant rate until failure

Stress at failure

Stress, MPa or psi

Rate (psi)

Location Slide 26 of 22
Compressive Strength
• Uniaxial compressive
strength measured
• Standard test procedure to
determine concrete quality
• Notes
– Most materials exhibit cracking
upon failure
– Intrinsic cracks in concrete will
grow and propagate upon loading
– Cracks may NOT be visible at the
surface when concrete fails

Source: PCA

Location Slide 27 of 22
Compressive Strength

• Tested in accordance with ASTM C39

• Cylinders (typ 6x12” or 4x8”) are loaded at 35±7 psi / s
• Tested at 1, 3, 7, 28, 56 and 90 D
• Typical 28-day strengths
– Normal strength: 3000-6000 psi
– High strength: 6000-9000 psi
– Ultra-high strength: 10000 – 18000 + psi

Location Slide 28 of 22
Factors Influencing Strength: w/cm ratio

Compressive strengths increase

as the water-cement ratios
decrease

Source: Mehta and Monteiro

Location Slide 29 of 22
Factors Influencing Strength: Air entrainment

Source: Mehta and Monteiro

Location Slide 30 of 22
Factors Influencing Strength: Casting/curing Temperature

• Concrete cured at lower T cures more

slowly and exhibits lower early strength
– However, more complete curing occurs
allowing for later age higher strength
• Concrete cured at higher T cures more
rapidly and exhibits higher early
strength
– Long-term strength is lower however

Location Source: PCA Slide 31 of 22

Factors Influencing Strength:
Moisture Availability

Source: Mehta and Monteiro

Location Slide 32 of 22
Splitting Tensile Strength

Ft = 2P
pLD

For normal strength

concrete can
estimate (ACI 318)

ft = 6.7 √ f’c

Location Slide 33 of 22
Splitting Tensile Strength

Splitting tensile strength can be estimated according to ACI or PCA as: 6.7 √ f’c

where f’c is generally the average of 3 cylinders tested in compressive strength.

This is true for normal strength and normal weight concrete:

3,000-6,000 psi
137 – 150 lb/ft3

Source: Mehta and Monteiro

Location Slide 35 of 22
Flexural Strength
• An increasing load is applied at a constant strain rate until failure
• 4-point bending test shown

Source: ASTM

Location Slide 36 of 22
Flexural Strength
• MR = (PL) / (bd2)
– MR = modulus of rupture, psi (MPa)
– P = load at failure, lbf (N)
– L = span length, in. (mm)
– b = avg. width of specimen, in. (mm), at fracture
– d = avg. depth of specimen, in. (mm), at fracture

• For normal-weight concrete:

– MR  (0.62 to 0.83)(f′c)0.5; MR & f′c in MPa
– MR  (7.5 to 10)(f′c)0.5; MR & f′c in psi
– ACI 318 uses: 7.5 (f′c)0.5

Location Slide 37 of 22
 Elastic Modulus Test

40% of ultimate load

Location Slide 38 of 22
Elastic Modulus
Can be estimated from concrete compressive strength

Ec = 33 wc1.5 fc0.5 (english units) (ACI 318)

Ec = 0.043 wc1.5 fc0.5 (metric units)

where: Ec = elastic modulus of concrete

w = unit weight in lb/ft3
fc = 28-day compressive strength
valid up to strengths of at least 6,000 psi
Unit weight used to account for presence and density of aggregate
Eagg is rarely known and this can account for its effect

Location Slide 39 of 22
Elastic Modulus

Reduces for normal weight concrete to:

Ec = 57000 f’c0.5 in psi (english)
Ec = 4.73 f’c0.5 in GPa (metric)

Typical values: Ec = 2 – 6 x 106 psi

Location Slide 40 of 22
Factors Influencing Elastic Modulus

• Aggregate Volume
• Eagg
• Aggregate porosity
• MSA
• ITZ
– Aggregate shape
– Aggregate surface texture
– Aggregate mineralogy
• Porosity of the paste
• ITZ modifications
• Testing parameters (moisture state, loading rate)

Location Slide 41 of 22
Lecture 8: Durability of Concrete

Module 1
CVLE 3310
Slide 1 of 62
Background

• Reinforced concrete structures are expected to be maintenance-free during

their lives

• Concrete is an inherently durable material

• Protective nature of concrete
• Low permeability
• High alkalinity (pH>13)
• Ability to bind aggressive agents

Slide 2 of 62
Background
• However, concrete structures can be deteriorated
• Chemical reactions or physical phenomena within the material
• Chemical deterioration: Alkali aggregate reaction, sulfate attack, acid attack, etc.
• Physical deterioration: Abrasion, erosion, freeze-thaw, fire, etc.

• Corrosion of the reinforcement steel

• Water plays a major role in most deterioration mechanisms!
• Conventional wisdom
• Durability is good if the compressive strength is good – not always true!
• RC structure deterioration causes a lot of cost of the economy!

Slide 3 of 62
Limits to Concrete Durability

• Alkali-aggregate reaction
• Corrosion - ~95% of deterioration
• Freeze-thaw damage

Slide 4 of 62
Factors contributing to deterioration of concrete
• Poor material selection and mixture design
• Cement type, SCM and admixture dosage, aggregates, mixture design

• Poor process
• Mixing, transportation, compaction, curing, temperature, workmanship

• Aggressiveness of the environment

• Physical: abrasion, erosion, freeze-thaw, etc.

• Chemical: expansion, leaching, etc.

• Deterioration is often associated with ingress of aggressive agents

– Near surface/concrete cover quality can largely control durability!

Slide 5 of 62
 Alexander, 2008

Slide 6 of 62
Factors Affecting Durability
Porosity Permeability

PCA Design and Control, 2011

Slide 7 of 62
Permeability

PCA Design and Control, 2016

Slide 8 of 62
Cracking and Durability

• Cracks allow ingress of moisture

• Adversely affects durability regardless of concrete quality
• Cracks can be controlled through jointing and
reinforcement

Slide 9 of 62
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction - AAR
The silent killer of concrete!
Alkali-Carbonate
Reaction (ACR)
Alkali-Aggregate - Very rare
Reaction (AAR)
Alkali-Silica
Reaction (ASR)

Slide 10 of 62
Requirements for ASR

Reactive Silica
(aggregate)

Sufficient Sufficient
Alkali Moisture

Slide 11 of 62
Why do we get cracking?

Slide 12 of 62
May 4, 2024
13

Slide 13 of 62
Options for minimizing the risk of damaging
alkali-silica reaction in concrete:

• Use of non-reactive aggregate

• Controlling alkali content of the concrete Reactive Silica
• Use of supplementary cementing materials (SCM)
• Fly ash
• Slag
• Silica fume Sufficient
Sufficient
• Natural pozzolans Moisture
Alkali
• Use of lithium-based compounds Limit one or more of
these three
• Combinations of the above

Slide 14 of 62
Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel

Corrosion need
• Metal
• Oxygen
• Electron transfer
• Water

Slide 15 of 62
Steel starts off in a “passive state” in concrete
The highly-alkaline pore solution in concrete (pH > ~13.2) leads
to the formation of a passive layer on rebar….

Images Courtesy K. Folliard Slide 16 of 62

 Steel starts off in a “passive state” in concrete
The highly-alkaline pore solution in concrete (pH > ~13.2) leads
to the formation of a passive layer on rebar….

-Fe2O3
(~ 10-2 m)

Steel

This passive film can be destroyed by two main reasons:

1) Chloride ions that exceed a threshold level
2) Reduction of pH below 10 (e.g. due to carbonation of concrete)

Images Courtesy K. Folliard Slide 17 of 62

Why can reinforcing steel corrode inside concrete?
Concrete cover
High pH in concrete protects
steel from corrosion forever
(formation of passive
protective layer)…
unless …
Chlorides from deicing salts
or seawater penetrate
through the concrete cover
and reach the steel … CO2
or …
CO2 from the atmosphere
penetrates through the
concrete cover and reaches Images: K. Folliard
the steel… In which case the steel will corrode !!
Slide 18 of 62
Sources of Chlorides in Concrete

External (penetrating)
• Chloride in seawater (marine structures, harbours,
oil platforms, coastal bridges, tunnels)

chlorides
• Chloride in groundwater (buried structures, piles,
tunnels, foundations)
• Chloride from de-icing chemicals ~ e.g. rock salt
(highway structures, bridges, parking structures,
etc.)

Slide 19 of 62
Damage Caused by Corrosion

• Corrosion products (rust)

are bigger (2X–3X) than
the steel from which they
are produced.

• Corroded bars expand and

put stress on the concrete.

• Corrosion initiation →
corrosion → cracking →
spalling and delamination
Neville 1996
Slide 20 of 62
How do we Prevent Steel Corrosion?
Corrosion Protection Strategies

Cl
Non-chloride Cl
de-icers
Membranes or sealers

Low-permeability concrete

Coatings on steel
Non-corrosive metals

Chemical corrosion
inhibitors

Slide 21 of 62
Freeze-Thaw Damage in Concrete

PCA Design and Control, 2011

Slide 22 of 62
Freeze-thaw damage to hardened concrete

scaling

D-cracking

pop-outs
PCA images
Slide 23 of 62
 Mechanism of Frost
Damage in Concrete
Non Air-entrained Concrete

0oC, 32oF

Critical Saturation begins at 91.7%

Saturation > 91.7%
Slide 24 of 62 Images Courtesy K. Folliard
Mechanism of Frost
Damage in Concrete
Non Air-entrained Concrete

0oC, 32oF

-10oC, 14oF

Water expands 9% upon

freezing Saturation > 91.7%
Slide 25 of 62 Images Courtesy K. Folliard
Mechanism of Frost
Damage in Concrete
Non Air-entrained Concrete

0oC, 32oF

-10oC, 14oF

As freezing progresses, liquid water

is forced ahead of the advancing
freezing front, creating internal
hydrostatic pressures Saturation > 91.7%
Slide 26 of 62 Images Courtesy K. Folliard
Mechanism of Frost
Damage in Concrete
Non Air-entrained Concrete

PCA Design and Control, 2011

Slide 27 of 62
 Mechanism of Frost
Damage in Concrete
Non Air-entrained Concrete
0oC, 32oF

-10oC, 14oF

This pressure build up may disrupt the

concrete, resulting in cracking through
continued cycling of freeze-thaw
processes
Saturation > 91.7%
Slide 28 of 62 Images Courtesy K. Folliard
The Answer = AIR-Entrainment!!!!

Air-Entraining Agents (AEAs) stabilize tiny bubbles

generated in concrete to protect against freezing
and thawing cycles.

History
Images Courtesy K. Folliard
Air-entrainment was discovered accidentally in the 1930’s
Several pavements in New York had survived severe freeze-
thaw exposure
Cement manufactured with grinding aids - beef tallow
Slide 29 of 62
The amount of hydraulic pressure generated as a result of
the water in the void (or capillary) being expelled depends
on: • the degree of saturation
• the rate of freezing
• the permeability of the surrounding paste
• the distance to the nearest empty bubble

Bubbles must be spaced sufficiently close together to

provide adequate protection to the concrete
Slide 30 of 62 Images Courtesy K. Folliard
Mechanism of
Protection by Air Voids
Air-entrained concrete

0oC, 32oF

-10oC, 14oF

Air bubbles provide space for water as

freezing advances, relieving
hydrostatic pressure in concrete. Saturation > 91.7%
Slide 31 of 62 Images Courtesy K. Folliard
Mechanism of Protection
by Air Voids
Air-entrained concrete

0oC, 32oF

-10oC, 14oF

As temperature starts to increase, water

recedes from the air bubbles.
Saturation > 91.7%
Slide 32 of 62
Mechanism of
Protection by Air Voids
Air-entrained concrete

0oC, 32oF

-10oC, 14oF

As temperature starts to increase,

water recedes from the air bubbles
leaving them empty to accommodate
Saturation > 91.7%
the next freeze cycle
Slide 33 of 62
Surface Resistivity to Assess Transport Properties

Slide – Image Courtesy E. Nadelman, Georgia Tech

Original: Wittington, McCarter & Forde, Mag. Conc. Res., 1981
Slide 34 of 62
Surface Resistivity to Assess Transport Properties

Slide – Image Courtesy E. Nadelman, Georgia Tech

Slide 35 of 62
Surface Resistivity to Assess Transport Properties

Slide – Image Courtesy E. Nadelman, Georgia Tech

Slide 36 of 62
Questions
1. What three conditions must be present for alkali-silica reaction to occur?
2. List five materials/methods to control reinforcement corrosion.
3. Concrete protects embedded steel from corrosion through its highly alkaline nature. The high PH environment in
concrete (usually greater than 13.0) causes a passive and non-corroding protective oxide film to form around the
steel (true or false)
4. Increasing concrete cover extends the time to corrosion (true or false)
5. How does air entraining help prevent the damage due to freezing and thawing cycles?

Slide 37 of 62