10_131_142_PhyEx8_HP_Ch10 1/11/08 8:03 AM Page 131

E X E R C I S E
10
Acid/Base Balance

O B J E C T I V E S

1. To define pH and identify the normal range of human blood pH levels.

2. To define acid and base, and explain what characterizes each of the fol-
lowing: strong acid, weak acid, strong base, weak base.
3. To explain how chemical and physiological buffering systems help regu-
late the body’s pH levels.
4. To define the conditions of acidosis and alkalosis.
5. To explain the difference between respiratory acidosis and alkalosis and
metabolic acidosis and alkalosis.
6. To understand the causes of respiratory acidosis and alkalosis.
7. To explain how the renal system compensates for respiratory acidosis
and alkalosis.
8. To understand the causes of metabolic acidosis and alkalosis.
9. To explain how the respiratory system compensates for metabolic aci-
dosis and alkalosis.

he term pH is used to denote the hydrogen ion concentration [H⫹] in body

T fluids. pH values are the reciprocal of [H⫹] and follow the formula
pH = log(1/[H⫹])
At a pH of 7.4, [H⫹] is about 40 nanomolars (nM) per liter. Because the relation-
ship is reciprocal, [H⫹] is higher at lower pH values (indicating higher acid lev-
els) and lower at higher pH values (indicating lower acid levels).
The pH of a body’s fluids is also referred to as its acid/base balance. An
acid is a substance that releases H⫹ in solution (such as in body fluids). A base,
often a hydroxyl ion (OH⫺) or bicarbonate ion (HCO3⫺), is a substance that
binds to H⫹. A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in solution, releas-
ing all of its hydrogen ions and thus lowering the solution’s pH level. A weak acid
dissociates incompletely and does not release all of its hydrogen ions in solution.
A strong base has a strong tendency to bind to H⫹, which has the effect of rais-
ing the pH value of the solution. A weak base binds less of the H⫹, having a lesser
effect on solution pH.
The body’s pH levels are very tightly regulated. Blood and tissue fluids nor-
mally have pH values between 7.35 and 7.45. Under pathological conditions,
blood pH values as low as 6.9 or as high as 7.8 have been recorded; however, val-
ues higher or lower than these cannot sustain human life. The narrow range of
7.35–7.45 is remarkable when one considers the vast number of biochemical re-
actions that take place in the body. The human body normally produces a large
amount of H⫹ as the result of metabolic processes, ingested acids, and the prod-
ucts of fat, sugar, and amino acid metabolism. The regulation of a relatively con-
stant internal pH environment is one of the major physiological functions of the
body’s organ systems.
To maintain pH homeostasis, the body utilizes both chemical and physiolog-
ical buffering sytems. Chemical buffers are composed of a mixture of weak acids
and weak bases. They help regulate body pH levels by binding H⫹ and removing
it from solution as its concentration begins to rise, or releasing H⫹ into solution
131
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132 Exercise 10

as its concentration begins to fall. The body’s three major

chemical buffering systems are the bicarbonate, phosphate,
Respiratory Acidosis and
and protein buffer systems. We will not focus on chemical
buffering systems in this lab, but keep in mind that chemical
Alkalosis
buffers are the fastest form of compensation and can return Respiratory acidosis is the result of impaired respiration, or
pH to normal levels within a fraction of a second. hypoventilation, which leads to the accumulation of too much
The body’s two major physiological buffering systems carbon dioxide in the blood. The causes of impaired respira-
are the renal and respiratory systems. The renal system is the tion include airway obstruction, depression of the respiratory
slower of the two, taking hours to days to do its work. The center in the brain stem, lung disease, and drug overdose. Re-
respiratory system usually works within minutes, but cannot call that carbon dioxide acts as an acid by forming carbonic
handle the amount of pH change that the renal system can. acid when it combines with water in the body’s blood. The
These physiological buffer systems help regulate body pH by carbonic acid then forms hydrogen ions plus bicarbonate ions:
controlling the output of acids, bases, or CO2 from the body. ⴙ
For example, if there is too much acid in the body, the renal H2O ⫹ CO2 → H2CO3 → H ⫹ HCO3⫺
system may respond by excreting more H⫹ from the body in carbonic
acid
bicarbonate
ion
urine. Similarly, if there is too much carbon dioxide in the
blood, the respiratory system may respond by breathing Because hypoventilation results in elevated carbon diox-
faster to expel the excess carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide lev- ide levels in the blood, the H⫹ levels increase, and the pH
els have a direct effect on pH levels because the addition of value of the blood decreases.
carbon dioxide to the blood results in the generation of more Respiratory alkalosis is the condition of too little car-
H⫹. The following reaction shows what happens in the respi- bon dioxide in the blood. It is commonly the result of travel-
ratory system when carbon dioxide combines with water in ing to a high altitude (where the air contains less oxygen) or
the blood: hyperventilation, which may be brought on by fever or anxi-
ety. Hyperventilation removes more carbon dioxide from the
H2O ⫹ CO2 →
← H2CO3 →
⫹
← H ⫹ HCO3
⫺
blood, reducing the amount of H⫹ in the blood and thus in-
carbonic bicarbonate
acid ion
creasing the blood’s pH level.
In this first set of activities, we focus on the causes of
This is a reversible reaction and is useful for remember- respiratory acidosis and alkalosis. Follow the instructions in
ing the relationships between CO2 and H⫹. Note that as more the Getting Started section at the beginning of this lab man-
CO2 accumulates in the blood (which frequently is caused by ual. From the drop-down menu, choose Exercise 10:
reduced gas exchange in the lungs), the reaction moves to the Acid/Base Balance and click GO. Then click Respiratory
right and more H⫹ is produced, lowering the pH: Acidosis/Alkalosis. You will see the opening screen (Figure
ⴙ 10.1). If you have already completed PhysioEx Exercise 7 on
H2O ⫹ CO2 → H2CO3 → H ⫹ HCO3⫺ respiratory system mechanics, this screen should look famil-
carbonic bicarbonate iar. At the left is a pair of simulated lungs, which look like bal-
acid ion
loons, connected by a tube that looks like an upside-down Y.
Conversely, as [H⫹] increases, more carbon dioxide will Air flows in and out of this tube, which simulates the trachea
be present in the blood: and other air passageways into the lungs. Beneath the “lungs”
ⴙ is a black platform simulating the diaphragm. The long, U-
H2O ⫹ CO2 ← H2CO3 ← H ⫹ HCO3⫺ shaped tube containing red fluid represents blood flowing
carbonic bicarbonate through the lungs. At the top left of the U-shaped tube is a pH
acid ion
meter that will measure the pH level of the blood once the ex-
Disruptions of acid/base balance occur when the body’s periment is begun (experiments are begun by clicking the
pH levels fall below or above the normal pH range of Start button at the left of the screen). To the right is an oscil-
7.35–7.45. When pH levels fall below 7.35, the body is said loscope monitor, which will graphically display respiratory
to be in a state of acidosis. When pH levels rise above 7.45, volumes. Note that respiratory volumes are measured in liters
the body is said to be in a state of alkalosis. Respiratory aci- (l) along the Y-axis, and time in seconds is measured along the
dosis and respiratory alkalosis are the result of the respira- X-axis. Below the monitor are three buttons: Normal
tory system accumulating too much or too little carbon diox- Breathing, Hyperventilation, and Rebreathing. Clicking
ide in the blood. Metabolic acidosis and metabolic alkalosis any one of these buttons will induce the given pattern of
refer to all other conditions of acidosis and alkalosis (i.e., breathing. Next to these buttons are three data displays for
those not caused by the respiratory system). The experiments PCO2 (partial pressure of carbon dioxide)—these will give us
in this lab will focus on these disruptions of acid/base bal- the levels of carbon dioxide in the blood over the course of an
ance, and on the physiological buffer systems (renal and res- experimental run. At the very bottom of the screen is the data
piratory) that compensate for such imbalances (Figure 10.1b collection grid, where you may record and view your data af-
and c). ter each activity.
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Acid/Base Balance 133

(a)

CO2 Generation of HCO 3- causes Generation of H+ causes a

an increase in plasma pH decrease in plasma pH

Lungs Kidneys

Hyperventilation Secretion of H+ into Hypoventilation Secretion of HCO3- into

causes a decrease urine causes an causes an increase urine causes a decrease
in PCO increase in plasma pH in P CO in plasma pH
2 2

(b) Respiratory and renal response to acidosis (c) Respiratory and renal response to alkalosis

F I G U R E 1 0 . 1 Maintaining acid-base balance. (a) Opening screen of the Respiratory

Acidosis/Alkalosis experiment. (b) Compensatory mechanisms for acidosis. (c) Compensatory mechanisms
for alkalosis.
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134 Exercise 10

A C T I V I T Y 1 At 20 seconds, pH ⫽

Normal Breathing At 40 seconds, pH ⫽

To get familiarized with the equipment, as well as to obtain
At 60 seconds, pH ⫽
baseline data for this experiment, we will first observe what
happens during normal breathing.
Maximum pH ⫽
1. Click Start. Notice that the Normal Breathing button
dims, indicating that the simulated lungs are “breathing” 2. Allow the trace to run all the way across the oscilloscope
normally. Also notice the reading in the pH meter at the top screen and end.
left, the readings in the PCO2 displays, and the shape of the 3. Click Record Data.
trace that starts running across the oscilloscope screen. As
the trace runs, record the readings for pH at each of the fol- 4. If you have printer access, click Tools at the top of the
lowing times: screen and select Print Graph. Otherwise, manually sketch
what you see on the oscilloscope screen on a separate sheet
of paper.
At 20 seconds, pH ⫽
5. Click Clear Tracings to clear the oscilloscope screen.
At 40 seconds, pH ⫽ Did the pH level of the blood change at all during this run? If
so, how?
At 60 seconds, pH ⫽ ________________________________________________

2. Allow the trace to run all the way to the right side of the Was the pH level always within the “normal” range for the
oscilloscope screen. At this point, the run will automati-
cally end. human body?
3. Click Record Data at the bottom left to record your
results. If not, when was the pH value outside of the normal range,
and what acid/base imbalance did this pH value indicate?
4. If you have printer access, click Tools at the top of the
screen and select Print Graph. Otherwise, manually sketch ________________________________________________
what you see on the oscilloscope screen.
5. Click Clear Tracings to clear the oscilloscope screen. Did the PCO2 level change during the course of this run? If so,
how?
Did the pH level of the blood change at all during normal
breathing? If so, how? ________________________________________________

________________________________________________ If you observed an acid/base imbalance during this run, how

would you expect the renal system to compensate for this
Was the pH level always within the “normal” range for the condition?
human body?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
How did the hyperventilation trace differ from the trace for
Did the PCO2 level change during the course of normal breath- normal breathing? Did the tidal volumes change?
ing? If so, how?
________________________________________________
______________________________________________ ■
________________________________________________

What might cause a person to hyperventilate?

A C T I V I T Y 2A
______________________________________________ ■
Hyperventilation—Run 1
Next, we will observe what happens to pH and carbon diox- A C T I V I T Y 2B
ide levels in the blood during hyperventilation.
1. Click Start. Allow the normal breathing trace to run for Hyperventilation—Run 2
10 seconds; then at the 10-second mark, click Hyperventila-
tion. Watch the pH meter display, as well as the readings in This activity is a variation on Activity 2A.
the PCO2 displays and the shape of the trace. As the trace runs, 1. Click Start. Allow the normal breathing trace to run for
record the readings for pH at each of the following times: 10 seconds, then click Hyperventilation at the 10-second
mark. Allow the hyperventilation trace to run for 10 seconds,
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Acid/Base Balance 135

then click Normal Breathing at the 20-second mark. Allow If not, when was the pH value outside of the normal range,
the trace to finish its run across the oscilloscope screen. Ob- and what acid/base imbalance did this pH value indicate?
serve the changes in the pH meter and the PCO2 displays.
________________________________________________
2. Click Record Data.
3. If you have printer access, click Tools at the top of the Did the PCO2 level change during the course of this run? If so,
screen and select Print Graph. Otherwise, manually sketch how?
what you see on the oscilloscope screen.
________________________________________________
4. Click Clear Tracings to clear the oscilloscope screen.
Describe the trace after the 20-second mark when you If you observed an acid/base imbalance during this run, how
stopped the hyperventilation. Did the breathing return to nor- would you expect the renal system to compensate for this
mal immediately? Explain your observation. condition?

________________________________________________ ________________________________________________

________________________________________________ How did the rebreathing trace differ from the trace for normal
breathing? Did the tidal volumes change?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
______________________________________________ ■
________________________________________________

A C T I V I T Y 3 Give examples of respiratory problems that would result in

pH and PCO2 patterns similar to what you observed during
rebreathing.
Rebreathing
________________________________________________
Rebreathing is the action of breathing in air that was just ex-
pelled from the lungs. Breathing into a paper bag is an example ________________________________________________
of rebreathing. In this activity, we will observe what happens to
pH and carbon dioxide levels in the blood during rebreathing.
6. To print out all of the recorded data from this activity,
1. Click Start. Allow the normal breathing trace to run for click Tools and then Print Data. ■
10 seconds; then at the 10 second mark, click Rebreathing.
Watch the pH meter display, as well as the readings in the In the next set of activities, we will focus on the body’s pri-
PCO2 displays and the shape of the trace. As the trace runs, mary mechanism of compensating for respiratory acidosis or
record the readings for pH at each of the following times: alkalosis: renal compensation.

At 20 seconds, pH ⫽ Renal System Compensation

At 40 seconds, pH ⫽ The kidneys play a major role in maintaining fluid and elec-
trolyte balance in the body’s internal environment. By regu-
At 60 seconds, pH ⫽ lating the amount of water lost in the urine, the kidneys de-
2. Allow the trace to run all the way across the oscilloscope fend the body against excessive hydration or dehydration.
screen and end. By regulating the excretion of individual ions, the kidneys
maintain normal electrolyte patterns of body fluids. By reg-
3. Click Record Data. ulating the acidity of urine and the rate of electrolyte excre-
4. If you have printer access, click Tools at the top of the tion, the kidneys maintain plasma pH levels within normal
screen and select Print Graph. Otherwise, manually sketch limits. Renal compensation is the body’s primary method of
what you see on the oscilloscope screen. compensating for conditions of respiratory acidosis or respi-
ratory alkalosis. (Although the renal system also compen-
5. Click Clear Tracings to clear the oscilloscope screen. sates for metabolic acidosis or metabolic alkalosis, a more
Did the pH level of the blood change at all during this run? If immediate mechanism for compensating for metabolic acid/
so, how? base imbalances is the respiratory system, as we will see in a
later experiment.)
________________________________________________ The activities in this section examine how the renal sys-
tem compensates for respiratory acidosis or alkalosis. The
Was the pH level always within the “normal” range for the primary variable we will be working with is PCO2 (the partial
pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood). We will observe
human body? how increases and decreases in PCO2 affect the levels of [H⫹]
and [HCO3⫺] (bicarbonate) that the kidneys excrete in urine.
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136 Exercise 10

FIGURE 10.2 Opening screen of the Renal Compensation experiment.

Click on Experiment at the top of the screen and select A C T I V I T Y 4

Renal System Compensation. You will see the screen
shown in Figure 10.2. If you completed Exercise 9 on renal
physiology, this screen should look familiar. There are two Renal Response to Normal
beakers on the left side of the screen, one of which is filled Acid/Base Balance
with blood, simulating the body’s blood supply to the kid-
neys. Notice that the PCO2 level is currently set to 40, and 1. Increase or decrease PCO2 by clicking the (ⴚ) or (ⴙ) but-
that the corresponding pH value is 7.4—both “normal” val- tons. (Notice that as PCO2 changes, so does the blood pH
ues. By clicking Start, you will initiate the process of deliv- level.)
ering blood to the simulated nephron at the right side of the 2. Click Start and allow the run to finish.
screen. As blood flows through the glomerulus of the
3. At the end of the run, click Record Data.
nephron, you will see the filtration from the plasma of every-
At normal PCO2 and pH levels, was the level of H⫹ present
thing except proteins and cells (note that the moving red dots
in the urine normal?
in the animation do not include red blood cells). Blood will
then drain from the glomerulus to the beaker at the right of
What level of [HCO3⫺] was present in the urine?
the original beaker. At the end of the nephron tube, you will
see the collection of urine in a small beaker. Keep in mind
Why does the blood pH value change as PCO2 changes?
that although only one nephron is depicted here, there are ac-
tually over a million nephrons in each human kidney. Below ________________________________________________
the urine beaker are displays for H⫹ and HCO3⫺, which will
tell us the relative levels of these ions present in the urine. ________________________________________________
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Acid/Base Balance 137

How does the blood pH value change as PCO2 changes? A C T I V I T Y 6

________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Renal Response to Respiratory Acidosis
In this activity, we will simulate respiratory acidosis by set-
4. Click Refill to prepare for the next activity. ■ ting the PCO2 values higher than normal (thus, blood pH will
be lower than normal). We will then observe the renal sys-
tem’s response to these conditions.
A C T I V I T Y 5
1. Make sure the left beaker is filled with blood. If not,
Renal Response to Respiratory Alkalosis click Refill.

In this activity, we will simulate respiratory alkalosis by set- 2. Set PCO2 to 60 by clicking the (ⴙ) button. Notice that the
ting the PCO2 to values lower than normal (thus, blood pH will corresponding blood pH value is 7.3.
be higher than normal). We will then observe the renal sys- 3. Click Start.
tem’s response to these conditions.
4. At the end of the run, click Record Data.
1. Set PCO2 to 35 by clicking the (ⴚ) button. Notice that the 5. Click Refill.
corresponding blood pH value is approximately 7.5.
6. Repeat steps 1–5, setting PCO2 to increasingly higher val-
2. Click Start. ues (i.e., set PCO2 to 75 and then 90, the highest value al-
3. At the end of the run, click Record Data. lowed).
4. Click Refill. What level of [H⫹] was present in the urine at each of these
5. Repeat steps 1–4, setting PCO2 to increasingly lower PCO2 /pH levels?
values (i.e., set PCO2 to 30 and then 20, the lowest value ________________________________________________
allowed).
What level of [H⫹] was present in the urine at each of these What level of [HCO3⫺] was present in the urine at each of
PCO2 /pH levels? these PCO2 /pH levels?

________________________________________________ ________________________________________________

What level of [HCO3⫺] was present in the urine at each of Recall that it may take hours or even days for the renal sys-
these PCO2 /pH levels? tem to respond to disruptions in acid/base balance. Assuming
that enough time has passed for the renal system to fully
________________________________________________ compensate for respiratory acidosis, would you expect PCO2
levels to increase or decrease? Would you expect blood pH
Recall that it may take hours or even days for the renal sys- levels to increase or decrease?
tem to respond to disruptions in acid/base balance. Assuming
that enough time has passed for the renal system to fully ________________________________________________
compensate for respiratory alkalosis, would you expect PCO2 ________________________________________________
levels to increase or decrease? Would you expect blood pH
levels to increase or decrease? Recall your activities in the first experiment on respiratory
________________________________________________ acidosis and alkalosis. Which type of breathing resulted in
PCO2 levels closest to the ones we experimented with in this
________________________________________________ activity—normal breathing, hyperventilation, or rebreathing?

Recall your activities in the first experiment on respiratory ________________________________________________

acidosis and alkalosis. Which type of breathing resulted in
PCO2 levels closest to the ones we experimented with in this Explain why this type of breathing resulted in acidosis.
activity—normal breathing, hyperventilation, or rebreathing? ________________________________________________
________________________________________________ ________________________________________________
Explain why this type of breathing resulted in alkalosis. 7. Before going on to the next activity, select Tools and then
________________________________________________ Print Data in order to save a hard copy of your data results.
■
______________________________________________ ■
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138 Exercise 10

FIGURE 10.3 Opening screen of the Metabolic Acidosis/Alkalosis experiment.

Metabolic alkalosis is characterized by elevated plasma

Metabolic Acidosis HCO3⫺ and pH. The causes of metabolic alkalosis include:
and Alkalosis • Alkali ingestion, such as antacids or bicarbonate
Conditions of acidosis or alkalosis that do not have respiratory • Vomiting, which may result in the loss of too much H⫹
causes are termed metabolic acidosis or metabolic alkalosis.
Metabolic acidosis is characterized by low plasma • Constipation, which may result in reabsorption of ele-
HCO3⫺ and pH. The causes of metabolic acidosis include: vated levels of HCO3⫺
Increases or decreases in the body’s normal metabolic
• Ketoacidosis, a buildup of keto acids that can result from
rate may also result in metabolic acidosis or alkalosis. Recall
diabetes mellitus
that carbon dioxide—a waste product of metabolism—mixes
• Salicylate poisoning, a toxic condition resulting from in- with water in plasma to form carbonic acid, which in turn
gestion of too much aspirin or oil of wintergreen (a substance forms H⫹:
often found in laboratories) ⴙ
H2O ⫹ CO2 → H2CO3 → H ⫹ HCO3⫺
• The ingestion of too much alcohol, which metabolizes to carbonic bicarbonate
acetic acid acid ion
• Diarrhea, which results in the loss of bicarbonate with Therefore, an increase in the normal rate of metabolism
the elimination of intestinal contents would result in more carbon dioxide being formed as a meta-
• Strenuous exercise, which may cause a buildup of lactic bolic waste product, resulting in the formation of more H⫹—
acid from anaerobic muscle metabolism lowering plasma pH and potentially causing acidosis. Other
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Acid/Base Balance 139

acids that are also normal metabolic waste products, such as • PCO2 (shown as PCO2 in the text) tells you the partial
ketone bodies and phosphoric, uric, and lactic acids, would pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood.
likewise accumulate with an increase in metabolic rate. Con- Hⴙ and HCO3ⴚ tell you the levels of each of these ions
versely, a decrease in the normal rate of metabolism would
•
present.
result in less carbon dioxide being formed as a metabolic
waste product, resulting in the formation of less H⫹—raising 4. Click Record Data.
plasma pH and potentially causing alkalosis. Many factors
5. Click Tools and then Print Graph in order to print your
can affect the rate of cell metabolism. For example, fever,
graph.
stress, or the ingestion of food all cause the rate of cell me-
tabolism to increase. Conversely, a fall in body temperature What is the respiratory rate (BMP)?
or a decrease in food intake causes the rate of cell metabolism What is the blood pH?
to decrease.
The respiratory system compensates for metabolic aci- Are the blood pH and PCO2 values within normal ranges?
dosis or alkalosis by expelling or retaining carbon dioxide in
________________________________________________
the blood. During metabolic acidosis, respiration increases
to expel carbon dioxide from the blood and decrease [H⫹] in
order to raise the pH level. During metabolic alkalosis, res- 6. Click Clear Tracings before proceeding to the next
piration decreases to promote the accumulation of carbon activity. ■
dioxide in the blood, thus increasing [H⫹] and decreasing
the pH level. A C T I V I T Y 8
The renal system also compensates for metabolic acido-
sis and alkalosis by conserving or excreting bicarbonate ions.
However, in this set of activities we will focus on respiratory Respiratory Response to
compensation of metabolic acidosis and alkalosis. Increased Metabolism
To begin, click Experiment at the top of the screen and
select Metabolic Acidosis/Alkalosis. The screen shown in 1. Increase the metabolic rate to 60.
Figure 10.3 will appear. This screen is similar to the screen
2. Click Start to begin the experiment.
from the first experiment; the main differences are the addi-
tion of a box representing the heart; tubes showing the double 3. Allow the graph to reach the end of the oscilloscope
circulation of the heart; and a box representing the body’s screen. Note the data in the displays below the oscilloscope
cells. The default “normal” metabolic rate has been set to 50 screen.
kcal/h—an arbitrary value, given that “normal” metabolic 4. Click Record Data.
rates vary widely from individual to individual. The (ⴙ) and
(ⴚ) buttons in the Body Cells box allow you to increase or 5. Click Tools and then Print Graph in order to print your
decrease the body’s metabolic rate. In the following activi- graph.
ties, we will observe the respiratory response to acidosis or 6. Repeat steps 1–5 with the metabolic rate set at 70, and
alkalosis brought on by increases or decreases in the body’s then 80.
metabolic rate.
As the body’s metabolic rate increased:
A C T I V I T Y 7
How did respiration change with respect to BPM and tidal
volume?

Respiratory Response to ________________________________________________

Normal Metabolism How did blood pH change?
We will begin by observing respiratory activity at normal
metabolic conditions. This data will serve as a baseline ________________________________________________
against which we will compare our data in Activities 8 and 9.
How did PCO2 change?
1. Make sure the Metabolic Rate is set to 50, which for
the purposes of this experiment we will consider the “nor- ________________________________________________
mal” value.
2. Click Start to begin the experiment. Notice the arrows How did [H⫹] change?
showing the direction of blood flow. A graph displaying res- ________________________________________________
piratory activity will appear on the oscilloscope screen.
3. After the graph has reached the end of the screen, the ex- How did [HCO3⫺] change?
periment will automatically stop. Note the data in the dis-
plays below the oscilloscope screen: ________________________________________________

• The BPM display gives you the breaths-per-minute—

the rate at which respiration occurred.
• Blood pH tells you the pH value of the blood.
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140 Exercise 10

Explain why these changes took place as metabolic rate As the body’s metabolic rate decreased:
increased. Hint: Start with the formation of excess CO2 waste
and explain the changes. How did respiration change?
________________________________________________ ________________________________________________
________________________________________________
How did blood pH change?
Which metabolic rates caused pH levels to decrease to a con- ________________________________________________
dition of metabolic acidosis?
________________________________________________ How did PCO2 change?
________________________________________________
What were the pH values at each of these rates?
________________________________________________ How did [H⫹] change?
________________________________________________
By the time the respiratory system fully compensated for aci-
dosis, how would you expect the pH values to change? How did [HCO3⫺] change?
________________________________________________ ________________________________________________

7. Click Clear Tracings before proceeding to the next Explain why these changes took place as the metabolic
activity. ■ rate decreased.
________________________________________________
A C T I V I T Y 9
________________________________________________
Respiratory Response to ________________________________________________
Decreased Metabolism
Which metabolic rates caused pH levels to increase to a con-
1. Decrease the metabolic rate to 40. dition of metabolic alkalosis?
2. Click Start to begin the experiment. ________________________________________________
3. Allow the graph to reach the end of the oscilloscope
screen. Note the data in the displays below the oscillo- What were the pH values at each of these rates?
scope screen. ________________________________________________
4. Click Record Data.
By the time the respiratory system fully compensated for alka-
5. Click Tools and then Print Graph in order to print your
losis, how would you expect the pH values to change?
graph.
6. Repeat steps 1–5 with the metabolic rate set at 30, and ________________________________________________
then 20.
7. Click Tools → Print Data to print your recorded data.
■