FLUID FLOW IN

PIPES
PIPE
A pipe may be defined as a closed conduit through which liquids
or gases flow. In hydraulics, pipes are commonly understood to be
conduits of circular cross section which flow full. Conduits flowing
partially full are considered to be open channels.

Fluid flow in pipes may be steady or unsteady. In steady flow,

there are two types of flow that exist; they are called laminar flow and
turbulent flow.
Laminar Flow
The flow is said to be laminar when the path of individual particles do
not cross or intersect. The flow is always laminar when the Reynolds number,
Re, is less than 2000.

Turbulent Flow
Flow is said to be turbulent when its path lines are irregular curves
which continually cross each other and form a complicated network which in
the aggregate represents the forward motion of the entire stream. Turbulent
flow normally occurs when the Reynolds number exceeds 2000.

Critical Velocity The critical velocity in pipes is the velocity below

which all turbulence are damped out by the viscosity of the fluid. This is
represented by a Reynolds number of 2000.
Reynolds Number

Reynolds number, which is dimensionless, is the ratio of the inertia

force to viscous force.

𝑉𝐷𝜌 𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 𝜈

Where V = mean velocity of flow (m/s)

D = pipe diameter (m)
μ = (mu) dynamic viscosity (Pa-s)
ν = (nu) kinematic viscosity (m2 /s)
ρ = density (kg/m3 )
• For non-circular pipes, use D= 4R, where R is the hydraulic radius, R =
A/P For Re < 2000, the flow is laminar.

• Laminar flow in circular pipes can be maintained up to values of RE as

high as 50,000. However, in such cases this type of flow is inherently
unstable, and the least disturbance will transform it instantly into
turbulent flow. On the other hand, it is partially impossible for
turbulent flow in a straight pipe to persist at values of RE much below
2000, because any turbulence that is set up will be damped out by
viscous friction.
HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
Loss of head in feet (or in meter) of fluid meaning loss of energy
expressed in foot-pounds per pound (newton-meter per newton) of
fluid, occurs in any flow of fluid through a pipe. The loss is caused by:
(1) “pipe friction” along the straight sections of the pipe of uniform
diameter and uniform roughness; and (2) changes in velocity or
direction of flow. Losses of these two types are ordinarily referred to
respectively as major losses and minor losses.
Major Loss. This is the continuous loss of head, hf , assumed to occur at a
uniform rate along the pipe as long as the size and quality of pipe remain
constant, and is commonly referred as the loss of head due to friction.

Minor Losses. These consist of:

1. A loss of head, hc, due to contraction of cross section. This loss is caused
by a reduction in the crosssectional area of the stream and the resulting
increase in velocity. The contraction may be sudden or it may be tapered.
The loss of head at the entrance to a pipe from a reservoir is a special
case of loss due to contraction.
2. A loss of head, he, due to enlargement of the cross-section. This loss is
caused by an increase in the cross-sectional area of the stream with
resulting decrease in velocity. The enlargement may be either sudden or
gradual. The loss of head at the outlet end of a pipe where it discharges
into a reservoir is a special case of loss of head due to enlargement.
3. A loss of head, hg, caused by obstructions such as gates or valves
which produce a change in crosssectional area in the pipe or n the
direction of flow. The result is usually a sudden increase or decrease in
the velocity followed by a more gradual return to the original velocity.
4. A loss of head, hb, caused by bends or curves in pipes, I addition to
the loss which occurs in an equal length of straight pipe. Such bends
may be of any total deflection angle as well as any radius of curvature.
Occasionally, as in a reducing elbow, the loss due to bend is
superimposed on a loss due to change in velocity.

• If the symbol HL is used to designate all losses of head in a pipe line in

which there is steady, continuous flow
𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑐 + ℎ𝑒 + ℎ𝑔 + ℎ𝑏
• Shearing Stress in Pipe

The maximum shearing stress, τ, is at the pipe wall and is

computed using the formula

𝛾ℎ𝐿
𝜏= 𝑟
2𝐿

𝛾ℎ𝐿 𝐷
𝜏=
4𝐿
• Shear Velocity or Friction Velocity
𝜏 𝑓
𝜈𝑠 = =𝜈
𝜌 8
• Wetted Perimeter and Hydraulic Radius

The wetted perimeter “P” of any conduit is the line of intersection of

its wetted surface with a cross-sectional plane. Thus for a circular pipe
flowing full, “D” being the diameter, the wetted perimeter is equal to the
circumference.

The hydraulic radius “R” of a conduit is the area of cross section of the
stream which it carries divided by the wetted perimeter of the section. For a
circular conduit flowing either full or half full the hydraulic radius is D/4.
• Darcy-Weisbach Formula

𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷2𝑔

For Laminar flow,

64
𝑓 = 0.25
𝑅𝑒
For Turbulent (smooth pipes, Re between 3,000 and 100,000),
0.316
𝑓 = 0.25
𝑅𝑒
• For circular pipes,
𝑉2 8𝑄 2
= 2 4
2𝑔 𝜋 𝑔𝐷

𝑓𝐿 8𝑄 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷 𝜋 2 𝑔𝐷4

For S.I. Units,

0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷5
• Manning’s Formula (S.I.)
1 2/3 1/2
𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆
2

Where R = hydraulic radius = A/P

S = slope of EGL = hf/L
6.35𝑛2 𝐿𝑣 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷4/3
Use D = 4R for non-circular pipes
For circular pipes (S.I.)
10.29𝑛2 𝐿𝑄 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷16/3
• Hazen-William’s Formula (S.I.)

𝑄 = 0.2785𝐶1 𝐷2.63 𝑆 0.54

Where C1 = Hazen-William’s coefficient

S = slope of EGL = hf/L

10.67𝐿𝑄1.85
ℎ𝑓 = 1.85 4.87
𝐶1 𝐷
• Minor Head Loss
Minor losses are due to changes in direction and velocity of flow,
and is expressed in terms of the velocity head at the smaller section of
the pipe in case of constrictions.

𝑣2
ℎ𝑚 = 𝐾
2𝑔
Where K = coefficient of minor loss
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Mercury flows in the 100 mm diameter pipe at 20 degrees Celsius,
with 𝑣=1.15 x 10-7 m2 /s with a flow of 0.8 liters/second. Determine
the type of flow.
2. What is the Reynolds number for a flow of oil (sp.gr.=0.8, absolute
viscosity μ=0.002 lb.s/ft2 ) in a 6 in. diameter pipe at flow rate of 10 ft3
/s?
3. The head loss in 50 m of 12 cm diameter pipe is known to be 6 m
when liquid specific gravity = 0.9 of absolute viscosity= 0.04 Pa-s flows
at 0.06 m3 /s. Find the shear stress at the wall of the pipe.
4. A 1 m diameter new cast iron pipe is 845 m. long and has a head loss
of 1.11 m. Find the discharge capacity of water for this pipe using
(a.)Manning’s formula with n=0.013, (b.) Darcy- Weisbach formula with
f=0.018, and (c.) Hazen-William’s formula at C=120.
5. Water is pumped through a vertical 5 cm new galvanized iron pipe to
an elevated tank on the roof of building. The pressure on the discharge
side of the pump is 1380 kPa. What pressure can be expected at a point
in the pipe 76 m above the pump when the flow is 9.5 liters/s?
6. A 10 cm new steel pipe carries 16 L/s of heavy fuel oil at a
temperature of 27 degrees Celsius. Determine the pipe friction loss for
1600 m long pipe. Kinematic viscosity of the oil at 27 degrees Celsius is
equal to 1.06 x 10-4 m2/s.
7. Determine the loss of head due to sudden enlargement in a pipe
carrying 57 L/s of water which suddenly changes from a diameter of 15
cm to 20 cm. Also find the pressure difference between points before
and after the change of section. Ke = 0.185
PIPES CONNECTED IN SERIES
AND PARALLEL
 The flow is assumed to be continuous and steady. Two common
problems of this type arise.
1. Sizes and lengths of pipes, and Q, given; to find total loss of head.
The loss of head, hf1, hf2, and hf3 in each successive size of pipe
can be determined by formula or diagram. The total head lost is
then H = hf1 + hf2 + hf3. The minor losses, at entrance,
enlargement, contraction, and discharge, can be computed and
included if appreciable.
2. 2. Allowable loss of head given, lengths and sizes of pipe given; to
find Q.
EQUIVALENT PIPE
• If a pipe system is to be replaced with an equivalent single pipe, the
equivalent pipe must have discharge and head loss as the original
pipe system.

𝑄𝐸 = 𝑄𝑂

𝐻𝐿𝐸 = 𝐻𝐿𝑂
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Pipes 1, 2 and 3 are 300 m., 150 m. and 250 m. long and of 25 cm.,
12 cm. and 20 cm. in diameter with f1, f2 and f3 equal to 0.019, 0.021
and 0.02 respectively and are connected in series. If the total head loss
is 10 m, what is the rate of flow in cu.m./sec.?
2. Two pipes, each 300 m long, are connected in series. The flow of
water through the pipes is 150 L/s with a total friction loss of 15 m. If
one pipe has a diameter of 300 mm, what is the diameter of the other
pipe? Neglect minor losses and assume f = 0.02 for both pipes.
3. Two pipes 1 and 2 having the same length and diameter are in
parallel. If the flow in pipe 1 is 750 L/s, what is the flow in pipe 2 if the
friction factor f of the second pipe is twice that of the first pipe?
4. A pipe network consists of pipeline 1 from A to B, then at B it is
connected to pipelines 2 and 3, where it merges again at joint C to form
a single pipeline 4 up to joint D. Pipelines 1, 2 and 4 are in series
connection whereas pipelines 2 and 3 are parallel to each other. If the
rate of flow from A to B is 10 L/s and assuming f = 0.02 for all pipes,
determine the flow in each pipe and the total head loss from A to D.
5. Three pipes 1, 2 and 3 are connected in parallel. The difference in
head at the ends is 40 m. If a fourth pipe 25 cm. diameter and length
1200 m. with f=0.018 was attached at the end of the three pipes, what
would be the velocity of water at the fourth pipe?
6. A 250-mm diameter pipe (f=0.015), 150 m long, is connected in
series with another 200-mm diameter pipe (f=0.02), 200 m long.
Determine the diameter of an equivalent single pipe of length 350 m
and f=0.025 that could replace the two pipes.
BRANCHING PIPES (Three
Reservoir Problems)
 Consider three reservoirs A, B, and C on the figure below
connected to a common junction J by pipes 1, 2, and 3 with friction
losses hf1, hf2, and hf3, respectively. Assume that the pipes are
sufficiently long so the minor losses may be taken negligible. By reason
of continuity the flows into and out of the junction J are equal. And, as
indicated by the piezometric tube at the junction, the pressure head is
common to all the three pipes.
If the flow direction in each pipe is as indicated in the figure, then
𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝑄3 (Eq. 1)

Under this flow condition, the liquid surface in the piezometer at the junction will
be below the surfaces in the two reservoirs A and B. With the head loss specified,
the following relationships may be written
ℎ𝑓1 − ℎ𝑓2 = 𝐻1 (Eq. 2)
ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓3 = 𝐻2 (Eq. 3)

If H1 and H2 are known, Eqs. (1), (2), and (3) may be satisfied by a trial solution.
One method is to assume hf1 and solve for hf2, hf3, Q1, Q2, and Q3. Then check
the continuity of flow by (Eq.1). There are many possible problem variations into
which this trial solution may be applied. However, in case the pipe element f or n is
given for each pipe in the system, together with the length L and the diameter D, a
direct solution is possible, that is, by simulation of the above-mentioned equations.
• If the flow in the second pipe is directed towards reservoir B the
surface elevation in the piezometer at J rises to a point above that of
reservoir B but below that of reservoir A. The continuity of flow
equation now becomes
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 (1.1)
and the relations between the head losses are
ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 = 𝐻1 (2.1)
ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓3 = 𝐻2 (3.1)

Note that the last equation is unchanged since the change of flow in
pipe 2 will have no effect in the direction of flow in 1 and 3.
• The “three-reservoir problem” is the particular case in which the
direction of flow in pipe 2 of the figure above is unspecified. This
particular case is solved as follows:
a. Assume pipe 2 is closed, or hf2 = 0. This condition makes hf1 = H1
and hf3 = H2, which actually is not true. Under this consideration,
Q1 and Q2 may be obtained from either the Darcy-Weisbach or
Manning equation by assuming trial values of f or n (if these are not
given).
b. If Q1 < Q3, the flow in pipe 2 is directed away from the reservoir B.
Whatever the result may be, the piezometric surface is
correspondingly corrected: above reservoir B if Q1 < Q3, or below
reservoir B if Q1 > Q3.
c. Finally, the continuity of flow equation and the head loss relations
are written based on the result obtained from (a) and (b). The
system of equation thus formed is solved through iteration or by
quadratic equation.
Types of Reservoir Problems
• Given the discharge in one of the pipes, or given the pressure at the
junction, and the required is the elevation one of the reservoirs or the
diameter or length of the pipes, and
• Given all the pipe properties and the elevation of all reservoirs, find
the flow in each pipe, which can be solved by trial and error.

In any of these types, the first thing to do is to locate the position

(elevation) of the energy at the junction. The position represents the
water surface of an imaginary reservoir at the junction. The difference
in elevation between this surface and the surface of another reservoir
is the head loss in the pipe leading to that reservoir.
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM
1. A 1200-mm-diameter concrete pipe 1800 m long carries 1.35 cu.m./s
from reservoir A, whose water surface is at elevation 50 m, and
discharges into two concrete pipes, each 1350 m long and 750 mm in
diameter. One of the 750-mm-diameter pipe discharges into reservoir B
in which the water surface is at elevation 44 m. Determine the
elevation of water surface of reservoir C into which the other 750- mm-
diameter pipe is flowing. Assume f = 0.02 for all pipes.
2. Three reservoirs A, B, and C are connected respectively with pipes 1,
2, and 3 joining at a common junction P whose elevation is 366 m.
Reservoir A is at elevation 933 m and reservoir B is at elevation 844 m.
The properties of each pipe are as follows: L1 = 1500 m, D1 = 600 mm,
f1 = 0.02; L2 = 1000 m, D2 = 450 mm, f2 = 0.025; L3 = 900 m, D3 = 500
mm, f3 = 0.018. A pressure gage at the junction P reads 4950 kPa. What
is the flow in pipe 3 in cu.m/s and the elevation of reservoir C?
3. Three reservoirs have pipes that meet at a point. Their characteristics
are as follows: Determine the flow in each pipe.

RESERVOIR PIPE PIPE LENGTH ELEVATION (m) f

DIAMETER (m)
(mm)
A 400 1,800 80 0.02
B 500 2,000 50 0.025
C 800 4,000 10 0.03