1 Basic concepts and resistor circuits

1.1 Basics

We start our study of electronics with definitions and the basic laws that apply to
all circuits. This is followed by an introduction to our first circuit element – the
resistor.
In electronics, we are interested in keeping track of two basic quantities: the
currents and voltages in a circuit. If you can make these quantities behave like you
want, you have succeeded.
Current measures the flow of charge past a point in the circuit. The units of
current are thus coulombs per second or amperes, abbreviated as A. In this text we
will use the symbol I or i for current.
As charges move in circuits, they undergo collisions with atoms and lose some of
their energy. It thus takes some work to move charges around a circuit. The work
per unit charge required to move some charge between two points is called the
voltage between those points. (In physics, this work per unit charge is equivalent to
the difference in electrostatic potential between the two points, so the term potential
difference is sometimes used for voltage.) The units of voltage are thus joules per
coulomb or volts, abbreviated V. In this text we will use the symbol V or v for
voltage.
In a circuit, there are sources and sinks of energy. Some sources of energy (or
voltage) include batteries (which convert chemical energy to electrical energy), gen-
erators (mechanical to electrical energy), solar cells (radiant to electrical energy),
and power supplies and signal generators (electrical to electrical energy). All other
electrical components are sinks of energy.
Let’s see how this works. The simplest circuit will involve one voltage source
and one sink, with connecting wires as shown in Fig. 1.1. By convention, we denote
the two sides of the voltage source as + and −. A positive charge moving from the
− side to the + side of the source gains energy. Thus we say that the voltage across
the source is positive. When the circuit is complete, current flows out of the + side
of the source, as shown. The voltage across the component is negative when we
2 Basic concepts and resistor circuits

I
+

Voltage Source Component

–
Figure 1.1 A simple generic
circuit.

I2

I1
Node

I3 Figure 1.2 Example of Kirchoff’s Current Law.

cross it in the direction of the current. We say there is a voltage drop across the
component. Note that while we can speak of the current at any point in the circuit,
the voltage is always between two points. It makes no sense to speak of the voltage
at a point (remember, the voltage is a potential difference).
We can now write down some general rules about voltage and current.
1. The sum of the currents into a node (i.e. any point on the circuit) equals the sum
of the currents flowing out of the node. This is Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)
and expresses conservation of charge. For example, in Fig. 1.2, I1 = I2 + I3 . If
we use the sign convention that currents into a node are positive and currents
out of a node are negative, then we can express this law in the compact form


node
Ik = 0 (1.1)
k

where the sum is over all currents into or out of the node.
2. The sum of the voltages around any closed circuit is zero. This is Kirchoff’s
Voltage Law (KVL) and expresses conservation of energy. In equation form,


loop
Vk = 0. (1.2)
k

Here we must use the convention that the voltage across a source is positive
when we move across the source in the direction of the current and the voltage
 1.1 Basics 3

V2

V1 Loop 1 V3 Loop 2 V4

Figure 1.3 Example of Kirchoff’s

Voltage Law.

across a sink is negative when we move across the component in the direction
of the current. If we traverse a source or sink in the direction opposite to the
direction of the current, the signs are reversed. Figure 1.3 gives an example.
Here we introduce the circuit symbol for an ideal battery, labeled with voltage
V1 . The top of this symbol represents the positive side of the battery. The current
(not shown) flows up out of the battery, through the component labeled V2 and
down through the components labeled V3 and V4 . Looping around the left side
of the circuit in the direction shown gives V1 − V2 − V3 = 0 or V1 = V2 + V3 .
Here we take V2 and V3 to be positive numbers and include the sign explicitly.
Going around the right portion of the circuit as shown gives −V3 + V4 = 0
or V3 = V4 . This last equality expresses the important result that components
connected in parallel have the same voltage across them.
3. The power P provided or consumed by a circuit device is given by

P = VI (1.3)

where V is the voltage across the device and I is the current through the device.
This follows from the definitions:
  
work charge work
VI = = = power. (1.4)
charge time time

The units of power are thus joules per second or watts, abbreviated W. This law
is of considerable practical importance since a key part of designing a circuit
is to employ components with the proper power rating. A component with
an insufficient power rating will quickly overheat and fail when the circuit is
operated.

Finally, a word about prefixes and nomenclature. Some common prefixes and
their meanings are shown in Table 1.1. As an example, recall that the unit volts is
abbreviated as V, and amperes or amps is abbreviated as A. Thus 106 volts = 1 MV
and 10−3 amps = 1 mA. Notice that case matters: 1 MA  = 1 mA.
4 Basic concepts and resistor circuits

Table 1.1 Some common prefixes used in

electronics

Multiple Prefix Symbol

1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
10−3 milli m
10−6 micro μ
10−9 nano n
10−12 pico p
10−15 femto f

Slope = 1
R

V
Figure 1.4 I −V curve for a resistor.

1.2 Resistors

A common way to represent the behavior of a circuit device is the I–V characteristic.
This is a plot of the current I through the device as a function of applied voltage
V across the device. Our first device, the resistor, has the simple linear I–V
characteristic shown in Fig. 1.4. This linear relationship is expressed by Ohm’s
Law:
V = IR. (1.5)

The constant of proportionality, R, is called the resistance of the device and is equal
to one over the slope of the I–V characteristic. The units of resistance are ohms,
abbreviated as . Any device with a linear I–V characteristic is called a resistor.
The resistance of the device depends only on its physical properties – its size
and composition. More specifically:

L
R=ρ (1.6)
A
 1.2 Resistors 5

Table 1.2 The resistivity of some

common electronic materials

Material ρ (10-8 m)

Silver 1.6
Copper 1.7
Nichrome 100
Carbon 3500

Figure 1.5 Value and tolerance bands on a

resistor.

where ρ is the resistivity, L is the length, and A is the cross-sectional area of the
material. The resistivity of some representative materials is given in Table 1.2.
The interconnecting wires or circuit board paths are typically made of copper
or some other low resistivity material, so for most cases their resistance can be
ignored. If we want resistance in a circuit we will use a discrete device made of
some high resistivity material (e.g., carbon). Such resistors are widely used and
can be obtained in a variety of values and power ratings. The low power rating
resistors typically used in circuits are marked with color coded bands that give the
resistance and the tolerance (i.e., the uncertainty in the resistance value) as shown
schematically in Fig. 1.5.
As shown in the figure, the bands are usually grouped toward one end of the
resistor. The band closest to the end is read as the first digit of the value. The
next band is the second digit, the next band is the multiplier, and the last band is
the tolerance value. The values associated with the various colors are shown in
Table 1.3. For example, a resistor code having colors red, violet, orange, and gold
corresponds to a value of 27 × 103  ± 5%.
Resistors also come in variable forms. If the variable device has two leads,
it is called a rheostat. The more common and versatile type with three leads is
called a potentiometer or a “pot.” Schematic symbols for resistors are shown in
Fig. 1.6.
One must also select the proper power rating for a resistor. The power rating of
common carbon resistors is indicated by the size of the device. Typical values are
1 1 1
8 , 4 , 2 , 1, and 2 watts.
6 Basic concepts and resistor circuits

Table 1.3 Standard color scheme for resistors

Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance (%)

none 20
silver 0.01 10
gold 0.1 5
black 0 1
brown 1 10
red 2 100 2
orange 3 103
yellow 4 104
green 5 105
blue 6 106
violet 7 107
gray 8
white 9

Resistor Rheostat Potentiometer

Figure 1.6 Schematic symbols for a fixed resistor and two types of variable resistors.

As noted in Eq. (1.3), the power consumed by a device is given by P = VI, but
for resistors we also have the relation V = IR. Combining these we obtain two
power relations specific to resistors:

P = I 2R (1.7)

and
P = V 2 /R. (1.8)

1.2.1 Equivalent circuit laws for resistors

It is common practice in electronics to replace a portion of a circuit with its
functional equivalent. This often simplifies the circuit analysis for the remaining
portion of the circuit. The following are some equivalent circuit laws for resistors.

1.2.1.1 Resistors in series

Components connected in series are connected in a head-to-tail fashion, thus
forming a line or series of components. When forming equivalent circuits, any
 1.2 Resistors 7

I R1 I
V R2 V Req

R3
Figure 1.7 Equivalent circuit for resistors in series.

number of resistors in series may be replaced by a single equivalent resistor

given by:

Req = Ri (1.9)
i
where the sum is over all the resistors in series. To see this, consider the circuit
shown in Fig. 1.7. We would like to replace the circuit on the left by the equivalent
circuit on the right. The circuit on the right will be equivalent if the current supplied
by the battery is the same.
By KCL, the current in each resistor is the same. Applying KVL around the
circuit loop and Ohm’s Law for the drop across the resistors, we obtain

V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

= I(R1 + R2 + R3 )
= IReq (1.10)

where
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 . (1.11)
This derivation can be extended to any number of resistors in series, hence
Eq. (1.9).

1.2.1.2 Resistors in parallel

Components connected in parallel are connected in a head-to-head and tail-to-tail
fashion. The components are often drawn in parallel lines, hence the name. When
forming equivalent circuits, any number of resistors in parallel may be replaced by
a single equivalent resistor given by:
1  1
= (1.12)
Req i
Ri

where the sum is over all the resistors in parallel. To see this, consider the circuit
shown in Fig. 1.8. Again, we would like to replace the circuit on the left by the
equivalent circuit on the right.
8 Basic concepts and resistor circuits

I I1 I2 I3 I
V R1 R2 R3 V Req

Figure 1.8 Equivalent circuit for resistors in parallel.

First, note that KCL requires

I = I1 + I2 + I3 . (1.13)

Since the resistors are connected in parallel, the voltage across each one is the
same, and, by KVL is equal to the battery voltage: V = I1 R1 , V = I2 R2 , V = I3 R3 .
Solving these for the three currents and substituting in Eq. (1.13) gives
 
V V V 1 1 1 V
I= + + =V + + = (1.14)
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 Req

where
1 1 1 1
= + + . (1.15)
Req R1 R2 R3
Again, this derivation can be extended to any number of resistors in parallel, hence
Eq. (1.12).
A frequent task is to analyze two resistors in parallel. Of course, for this special
case of Eq. (1.12) we get R1eq = R11 + R12 . It is often more illuminating to write this
1
as an equation for Req rather than Req . After some algebra, we get

R1 R2
Req = . (1.16)
R1 + R2
This special case is worth memorizing.
Example For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.9, how much current flows through the
20 k resistor? What must its power rating be?

Solution As we will see, there is more than one way to solve this problem. Here we
use a method that relies on basic electronics reasoning and our resistor equivalent
circuit laws. We want the current through the 20 k resistor. If we knew the
voltage across this resistor (call this voltage V20k ), we could then get the current
from Ohm’s Law. In order to get the voltage across the 20 k resistor, we need
the voltage across the 10 k resistor since, by KVL, V20k = 130 − V10k . In order
to get the voltage across the 10 k resistor, we need to know the current through
 1.2 Resistors 9

10 k
R1
R2 5 k
V0 130 V R4 20 k
R3 5 k

Figure 1.9 Example resistor circuit.

it, which is the same as the current supplied by the battery. Thus, if we can get the
current supplied by the battery we can solve the problem. To get the battery current,
we combine all our resistors into one equivalent resistor. The implementation of
this strategy goes as follows.

1. Combine the two 5 k series resistors into a 10 k resistor.

2. This 10 k resistor is then in parallel with the 20 k resistor. Combining these
we get (using Eq. (1.16))

R1 R2 (10 k)(20 k)

Req = = = 6.67 k. (1.17)
R1 + R2 10 k + 20 k

3. This 6.67 k resistor is then in series with a 10 k resistor, giving a total

equivalent circuit resistance Req = 16.67 k.
4. The current supplied by the battery is then

V0 130 V
I= = = 7.8 × 10−3 A = 7.8 mA. (1.18)
Req 16.67 × 103 

5. KVL then gives 130 V − (7.8 mA)(10 k) − V20k = 0. Solving this gives
V20k = 52 V.
6. Ohm’s Law then gives I20k = 20 k = 2.6 mA, which is the solution to the first
52 V

part of our problem. As a check, it is comforting to note that this current is less
than the total battery current, as it must be. The remainder goes through the two
5 k resistors.
7. The power consumed by the 20 k resistor is P = I 2 R = (2.6 × 10−3 A)2 (2 ×
104 ) = 0.135 W. This is too much for a 18 W resistor, so we must use at least
a 14 W resistor.