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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1.1 COVID-19 AND VIRTUAL LEARNING

The World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 a global public

health emergency on January 30, 2020 (Mahase, 2020). The novel

coronavirus was initially known as 2019-nCoV before being formally named

severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARSCo V-2). As of

February 26, 2020, COVID-19 had been identified in 34 countries, with a total

of 80,239 laboratory-confirmed cases and 2,700 deaths. Coronaviruses are

abundant in certain animal species, including cattle, camels, and bats, and

can be transferred to people. Some health professionals suspect the new

coronavirus strain originated in bats or pangolins (Anthony et al. 2017). The

virus has spread primarily through person-to-person contact. The most typical

way this virus spreads is through close contact with an infected individual.

When people with COVID-19 breathe out or cough, they exhale tiny droplets

containing the virus. These droplets can enter someone's mouth or nose and
transmit the virus (Parry, 2020).On March 11, 2020, the World Health

Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 a pandemic.

A pandemic is a disease that has spread throughout a vast region, such as

multiple continents or the entire world (Cucinotta & Vanelli, 2020). Since its

outbreak in Wuhan, China in December 2019, the COVID-19 pandemic has

gone through three waves, killing thousands of people and infecting

thousands more around the world (WHO, 2021). There is currently no

recognized cure for the deadly sickness. The COVID-19 pandemic has had a

profound impact on the world, affecting various aspects of society, including

education. The pandemic has disrupted traditional learning methods, causing

widespread school closures and forcing educators to adopt alternative

approaches to teaching and learning.

One of the most significant effects of the pandemic on education has been the

shift to remote learning. Many educational institutions have adopted online

classes, virtual lectures, and digital assignments to mitigate the spread of the

virus. While remote learning has provided a sense of continuity in education, it

has also highlighted the digital divide, with many students lacking access to

computers, the internet, and other digital resources. This has resulted in

unequal access to education, with some students being left behind due to a

lack of access to remote learning opportunities.


The pandemic has also had a significant impact on academic performance.

Studies have shown that remote learning can lead to decreased academic

achievement, especially for students from low-income backgrounds. The lack

of face-to-face interaction, hands-on learning, and social interaction has

resulted in decreased student engagement, motivation, and interest in

learning. Furthermore, the pandemic has also affected students' mental

health, with increased reports of anxiety, depression, and trauma.

The pandemic has also placed significant stress on teachers, leading to

burnout, decreased morale, and high turnover rates. Teachers have had to

adapt to new teaching methods, including remote learning, which has added

to their workload and stress levels. COVID-19, also known as the coronavirus,

is a viral respiratory disease that was first identified in Wuhan, China, in

December 2019. It has since spread globally, causing a pandemic with

significant impacts on public health, economies, and education systems

worldwide (World Health Organization, 2020).

Virtual learning, also known as online learning or e-learning, refers to the use

of technology to facilitate learning outside of the traditional classroom setting

(Rovai, 2002). Virtual learning can take various forms, including synchronous
and asynchronous learning. Synchronous learning involves real-time

interaction between instructors and students, while asynchronous learning

allows students to learn at their own pace and convenience (Bailenson &

Blascovich, 2011).

The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the traditional learning process,

necessitating the adoption of virtual learning as a means of ensuring

continuity in education (World Health Organization, 2020). The pandemic has

resulted in widespread school closures, affecting over 1.5 billion students

worldwide (UNESCO, 2020). In response, educational institutions have turned

to virtual learning as a means of maintaining academic continuity and

minimizing the disruption caused by the pandemic.

Virtual learning has provided students with greater flexibility and autonomy in

their learning, allowing them to continue their education despite the pandemic

(Rovai, 2002). However, virtual learning has also presented several

challenges, including the lack of social interaction and human connection,

technological issues, and concerns about the quality of online learning

(Dziuban et al., 2020).


As schools have been closed to cope with the global pandemic, students,

parents, and educators around the globe have felt the unexpected ripple effect

of the COVID-19 pandemic. While governments, frontline workers, and health

officials are doing their best to slow down the outbreak, education systems are

trying to continue imparting quality education for all during these difficult times.

Many students at home/living space have undergone psychological and

emotional distress and have been unable to engage productively. The best

practices for online homeschooling are yet to be explored (petrie.2020).

2.1.2 .Electronic Learning (e-learning)

Electronic learning, sometimes known as e-learning, is a type of remote

learning in which students can access course materials, study guides, texts,

assignments, and other resources via computers, CD ROMs, DVDs,

computer-based programs, and so on (Oxbridge Academy, 2015). In general ,


e-Learning can be characterized as the formal transmission of instructional

material that is not time or place dependent through the use of various

delivery choices such as audio, video, and media communications, as well as

computer technology (Levy and Murnane, 2004).

E-learning consists of both online and mobile learning. E-learning can take

place inside or outside of the classroom, and it can be self-paced

asynchronous learning or instructor-led synchronous learning. It is best suited

for distance learning and flexible learning, but it can also be used in

conjunction with face-to-face teaching, in which case the term blended

learning is more appropriate.

The first instances of e-learning around the globe occurred in 1960 at the

University of Illinois in the United States, when the first intranet system was

built, allowing students to access course materials and recorded lectures

(Sarka, 2020). Globally, virtual learning is widely regarded as one of the most

potent instruments for meeting educational demands (Ramon-Yusuf, 2001).

The widespread adoption of e-learning tools is a positive development in

terms of increasing access to education for persons who might otherwise

have been denied it due to the distance between colleges. For these

individuals, the prospect of "virtual connections" to educational institutions

opens up new avenues and opportunities for self-actualization. E-learning is

becoming increasingly popular as an alternative to traditional classroom


education. E-learning typically uses two basic strategies. As previously

mentioned, these strategies are synchronous and asynchronous (Lucey,

2015).

2.1.3. E-Learning Secondary Education

Most institutions of higher education offer online courses to students

on and off campus. This is true for education providers in Malaysia,

where the government invests heavily in higher education.

According to a news source, Malaysian institutions, colleges, and

polytechnics are using Massive Open MOOCs are online courses that

help with online learning and teaching. The online education sector

is expected to grow at a 16.4% annual pace between 2016 and

2023, according to Radha et al. (2020). They predicted that within

the next ten to fifteen years, academic teaching and learning

paradigms would change due to the internet's exponential rise. Even

though the topic of virtual education is frequently discussed, every


educational institution, whether established or developing, in any

nation faces challenges when it comes to its users' adoption and

usage of e-learning. As the necessary progressive steps have

already been accomplished, industrialized nations are probably less

concerned about their learners' motivation to adopt and use the

E-learning system, according to Almaiah et al. (2020). The

problems associated with implementing E-learning systems in

underdeveloped nations remain a reality owing to the developing

countries’ digital divide (Almaiah et al, 2020).

2.1.4. The Benefits and Challenges of E-Learning to

Educators and Learners

With the help of e-learning, educators may reach a wider audience

and effectively communicate with them (Ab Wahab & Mohamad,

2022). This ensures that when employing this mode of training,

every student receives instruction of the same caliber. However, due

to difficulties in putting it into practice, e-learning has not yet


attained equal prominence in all locations. Even though online

learning is widely used, several demographic groups purposefully

shun it, mostly due to a false perception (Doucet et al., 2020).

Despite the increasing popularity of online courses, the majority of

students prefer traditional classroom instruction, according to

Krishnan et al. (2020). Physical classroom instruction is more

natural than online learning, and students can debate, reflect, and

have discussions with their peers and professors. Their findings led

them to the conclusion that in-person education is essential for

practical learning because online learning can run into unforeseen

technical problems at any time. Furthermore, e-learning

necessitates a high-bandwidth internet connection that is

consistently dependable. Due to extreme energy constraints and a

lack of connection, it is not always successful. Due to a lack of

infrastructure necessary for online courses, e-learning is less

developed in rural areas than in metropolitan ones, making it

impossible for students to participate in virtual classrooms

(Mohammad Izzamil et al., 2021). E-learning, however, is more

prevalent these days due to the pandemic, and many countries are

trying to adopt it to ensure continuity of learning.


Throughout this pandemic, e-learning technologies played a crucial

role in helping colleges and institutions facilitate student learning

even in the event that they had to close (Subedi et al., 2020).

Evaluating and supporting staff and student readiness is essential

when making adjustments to new changes. Learners that possess a

fixed perspective find it challenging to modify and adjust, but

learners with a growth mindset easily transition to a new learning

environment. Because of the multiplicity of fields and the needs that

go along with them, there isn't a single, universally applicable

methodology for online learning. Different approaches to online

education are required for different age groups and fields (Doucet et

al., 2020). Furthermore, individuals with physical disabilities can

learn more independently in a virtual environment requiring less

mobility thanks to online education (Basilaia & Kvavadze, )

2.1.5 Challenges in E-Learning

1) Lack of ICT Infrastructure and Support


Numerous obstacles to putting in place an e-learning system were

brought to light by the most recent literature review. The challenges

can be divided into four groups, per Almaiah et al. (2020): a)

technological challenges, b) personal challenges, c) cultural

challenges, and d) course challenges. It is found that because of the

differences in cultures, environments, and levels of readiness, these

issues differ greatly between nations. For instance, poor network

infrastructure, a lack of content production, and a lack of ICT

proficiency were the main obstacles to the adoption of e-learning

systems in developing countries (Aung & Khaing, 2015). According

to another study, the main barriers to the successful adoption of

e-learning systems in Pakistan include system characteristics,

internet experience, and computer self-efficacy (Kanwal and

Rehman, 2017). Three major obstacles to e-learning were found in

a comparable study conducted in Kenya: a lack of technical skills,

an inadequate ICT infrastructure, and financial constraints (Tadesse

& Muluye, 2020). Poor interface design, a lack of IT skills, and

inadequate technical assistance are the main obstacles to the


successful adoption of existing virtual learning programs, according

to research by Rahim & Chandran (2021).

2) Lack of Budget and Funding in some Secondary schools

Furthermore, the challenges that are frequently addressed in

E-learning are accessibility, cost, flexibility, pedagogy, lifelong

learning, and educational policy (Alkhezzi & Ahmed, 2020). The

availability of digital devices and internet connectivity presents

serious issues for many countries. Online education exposes pupils

to more screen time, even while financially disadvantaged students

in many poor countries cannot buy online learning devices (Hove &

Dube, 2021). For this reason, students now need to engage in

offline activities and self-exploratory learning. They also mentioned

that another problem, especially when both parents work, is a lack

of parental guidance, especially for young students. Physical

workplaces that support different learning modalities raise practical

issues since they could find it challenging to integrate online

learning resources (Bibi Noraini & Jihan, 2020). Organizations using

online learning as opposed to more traditional forms of education

will need to budget for both overall and per-learner costs. If courses
are spread among a bigger student body, the cost can become more

affordable (Ab Wahab & Mohamad, 2022). Furthermore, a school

may force parents and students to buy any necessary multimedia

devices for online learning, including computers, laptops, printers,

or scanners, shifting some costs to them (Bozkurt et al., 2020).

Nevertheless, more issues arise from the fact that internet access is

restricted in some regions.

2.1.6. Challenges among Educators

Due to a lack of computers, internet access, mobile network access,

and ICT-trained teachers in developing nations, educators and

students may encounter a number of difficulties. These difficulties

include being familiar with online tools, being able to maximize the

benefits of the medium, having teachers available when needed,

and being able to provide feedback and prompt responses from

students. (Morgan, 2022).


Teachers encounter many difficulties when it comes to e-learning,

such as limited experience with platform setup (Zoom meetings,

Google Hangout Meet, Telegram, and Google Classroom, to name a

few), worries regarding student engagement, a lack of assessment

tools to determine course learning objectives (Zhu et al., 2018), and

insufficient knowledge of creating e-content (Bozkurt et al., 2020).

Teachers are also worried about students' gadgets and Internet

connectivity so they can take part in online learning. Another source

of anxiety for educators is when students experience technical

difficulties while engaging in activities. Examples of these difficulties

include not having an email address to create a new account, not

being able to explore the platform's tools, and not knowing how to

search for uploaded assessments (Bozkurt et al.,

2020)..Furthermore, Abdul Rahman et al. (2021) observed in their

study carried out during Malaysia's Movement Control Orders that

one issue with e-learning is teachers' incapacity to increase and

maintain student participation. They also emphasized that the

hardest part of the online learning process was getting students to

participate. Ab Wahab & Mohamad (2022), who addressed the lack

of engagement from the teacher's perspective, have also previously


mentioned this. They asserted that when teachers cannot see the

faces of their students, they are unable to recognize signs of

attentiveness or inattention and, as a result, cannot act quickly to

address the situation.

2.1.7. Challenges among Learners

Numerous earlier studies have looked at a range of challenges faced

by teachers and students. Many challenges faced by learners were

time restraints, limited access to resources, administrative worries,

social interaction, academic and technical aptitudes, motivation, and

technological challenges (Barrot et al., 2021). Students faced

challenges with online learning, such as poor student behavior

management, reluctance from teachers, and the high costs

associated with online production and delivery (Shahzad et al.,

2021). These challenges, which include ambiguous roles and

responsibilities, a lag in getting feedback from teachers, a lack of

technical support, an excessive reliance on technology, and subpar

student performance and satisfaction, are similar to those noted in


other studies (Chung et al., 2020). Furthermore, as learners

perceive themselves as an online component, challenges may arise

from a lack of motivation as well as a sense of alienation and

isolation (Sahu, 2020). Students said it was less engaging than

other teaching methods, inhospitable to them, and not engaging

enough to encourage them to communicate with classmates and

teachers via email and social networking sites like Facebook,

WhatsApp, WeChat, and others (Haleem et al., 2020). Meanwhile, a

number of problems have been noted, such as the attitudes of the

students, the availability of staff, the time constraints, the

self-efficacy of the lecturers, and technical concerns (Zhu et al.,

2018).
2.2 EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK

The advantages and difficulties of switching from e-learning to

traditional learning have been covered in a number of studies. The

inadequacy of preparation for virtual learning efforts is a primary

cause of their failure.

An investigation into students' difficulties adjusting to online

learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and their readiness for online

learning is provided in (Aboagye et al. 2020). According to the study's

findings, students need to have access to a blended learning strategy

that blends traditional and online instruction. Another study that tries

to improve students' self-study skills by investigating the virtual

learning process among web-based technology-savvy students is

detailed in (Radha et al. 2020). According to the study's findings,


e-learning has grown in popularity among students during the

COVID-19 pandemic lockdown at all educational institutions.

A study that looked into the traits, advantages, disadvantages, and

qualities that affect visual learning has been published in (Ms. & Toro,

2013). A few demographic characteristics, such as habits and cultural

background, had an effect on how students learn in the e-learning

space. Therefore, lecturers need to be aware of these characteristics in

order to create instructional activities that improve learning. To help

teachers understand what students want from learning management

systems, the study is applied to students in Lebanon and England.

(Ali et al. (2018) introduced the analysis of virtual learning's efficacy

for university-level students. A sample of 700 students was given a

questionnaire, and 94.9 percent of them reported using various

e-learning resources and strategies. The Cronbach's alpha test is used

to assess the components' dependability and internal consistency.

The exploratory feature analysis is used to eliminate the variables and

determine the factors loading in the investigation. The findings


showed that students agree that online learning is inexpensive,

time-efficient, and simple to utilize. .

Several predictions regarding virtual-learning for educational

purposes are illustrated in (Samir et al. 2014). The goal of the study

was to provide examples of how to keep students motivated when they

are learning online. Due to the absence of in-person interactions

between students and teachers, evaluating the reasons behind

students' motivations for online learning can be difficult. According

to the study, giving students the opportunity to complete an online

motivation assessment form is one approach to boosting their

motivation. In order to determine which research hypotheses should

be accepted and which should not, the study proposes examining five

of them.

The study reported in (Oludare Jethro et al. 2012) demonstrated that

virtual-learning is a novel environment for academics, as it

demonstrates the benefits of e-learning as well as how to increase its

effectiveness in the classroom. The study's findings demonstrated


that students were willing to learn more while interacting with

lecturers and other students less socially.

(Selim, 2007) describes a study that attempts to identify and quantify

the four Critical Success Factors based on student perspectives. These

include the traits of the instructor and students, the organization of

technology, and the support of the university. The study's conclusions

demonstrated that, for virtual-learning to be successful, instructor

qualities are the most important aspect, followed by IT infrastructure

and institutional support. Student traits were shown to be the least

important component in the success of virtual-learning.

The work discussed in (GOYAL & S., 2012) aims to highlight the value

of e-learning in contemporary education and provides examples of

both its benefits and drawbacks. Furthermore mentioned were the

similarities to Instructor Led Training (ILT) and the likelihood of

using e-learning in place of traditional classroom instruction. The

study also demonstrated the main shortcomings of ILT in educational

settings and how e-learning might help to solve these issues.


The purpose of the study in (Gaebel et al. 2014) is to conduct a survey

on the varieties of virtual learning organizations, skills, and their

anticipations for the forthcoming. Blended and online learning are

taken into account. Some of the questions related to

intra-institutional management, arrangements and services, and

quality assurance. The outcomes of the survey showed that from 38

diverse countries and systems, there are 249 organizations broadly

conceived of the same causes for the increasing use of e-learning.

According to the study published in (Oludare Jethro et al. 2012),

virtual learning is a fresh environment for academics because it shows

both how to boost e-learning's efficacy in the classroom and its

advantages. The results of the study showed that although students

engaged with instructors and other students less socially, they were

nonetheless willing to learn more.

Model for Instructors’ Satisfactions” that is related to the public,

logical, and technical communications of instructors in the entire

virtual learning system, the features associated with teachers’

satisfaction in e-learning systems have been examined.


The comparison between different virtual-learning tools in terms of

their goals, benefits, and drawbacks is presented in (Aljawarneh et al.

2010). The comparison assists in providing when to use each tool. The

outcomes show that instructors and students prefer to use MOODLE

over Blackboard in the e-learning environment. One of the major

challenges that face the virtual-learning environment is security

issues since security is not combined into the active learning

development process.

Assessing the learning effectiveness of e-learning was studied in

(Somayeh et al. 2016). This analysis study was conducted using the

databases of Medline and CINAHL and the search engine of Google.

The research used covered review articles and English language

meta-analysis. 38 papers, including journals, books, and websites, are

investigated and categorized from the results obtained. The general

advantages of virtual learning, such as the promotion of learning ,the

speed and process of learning due to individual needs, were discussed.

The study results indicated positive effects of virtual learning on


learning, so it is proposed that more use be made of this education

method, which needs the requisite grounds to be established.

It is important to focus on analyzing the learner and student

characteristics and motivating students to ensure their involvement

in virtual learning. Also, it is necessary to focus on the impact and

extent of teacher acceptance of e-learning. The age difference

between the teachers and the students indicates that the teachers

received most of their studies and teaching skills through traditional

teaching and learning methods, which may make their acceptance of

e-learning different from the student’s acceptance of modern

methods of e-learning and education in general.

2.3 GAP IDENTIFICATION

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on global education,

unveiling several significant challenges and gaps. These challenges need to

be addressed to enhance the efficacy and resilience of educational systems

worldwide.
Firstly, there was a pervasive lack of awareness about the pandemic's impact

on education. The sudden shift to online learning caught many institutions off

guard, resulting in a delayed response to the new educational needs .

Secondly, limited access to education became a critical issue, especially in

areas with inadequate internet connectivity and technology. Students in

remote or underprivileged areas struggled to participate in online classes,

widening the educational divide .

Another major challenge was the insufficient training and support for

educators. Many teachers were unprepared for the rapid transition to

e-learning, lacking the necessary skills to effectively deliver online education .

Moreover, the pandemic exposed the inadequacy of infrastructure and

resources for e-learning. The lack of proper hardware, software, and reliable

internet connectivity hindered the smooth implementation of online education .

The availability of digital educational resources and content was also limited.

Certain subjects and languages had fewer resources available, making it

difficult to provide a comprehensive online curriculum .

Additionally, ensuring student engagement and motivation in an online

learning environment proved challenging. The lack of physical interaction and


the distractions of home environments made it hard for students to stay

focused and motivated .

Concerns about the quality and effectiveness of e-learning were also

prevalent. There was skepticism regarding whether online education could

match the quality of traditional in-person learning, especially in practical or

hands-on subjects .

Finally, there is a pressing need for further research and evaluation on the

impact and effectiveness of e-learning. Understanding what worked and what

did not during the pandemic can provide valuable insights for future

educational strategies and policies .

In conclusion, the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted numerous challenges

and gaps in the education system. Addressing these issues is crucial for

building a more resilient and inclusive educational framework that can

withstand future disruptions.

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