DNA and RNA Structure

Type of macromolecule
DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid that stores and transmits
Nucleotides
RNA - Ribonucleic acid hereditary or genetic
information

Phosphate group
Nitrogenous base

Deoxyribose has a Ribose has a hydroxyl

hydrogen atom at group at carbon 2
Pentose sugar carbon 2
Nitrogenous bases and base pair rules
There are different types of nitrogenous bases. In DNA, these are adenine ,
thymine , guanine , and cytosine . In RNA, thymine is replaced with uracil . Bases
with a single ring are called pyrimidines . Bases with two rings are called
purines . A pyrimidine always pairs with a purine to give equal length “rungs” on
the DNA ladder.
3 hydrogen bonds
Base Pair Rule:
Cytosine
Guanine G C
A=T
Thymine Adenine C=G
T A
2 hydrogen bonds
● Double helix (2 strands)
● Sugar-phosphate backbone
● Antiparallel
● Base pairs

● Instructions to build proteins

● Passed onto offspring

A T

G C

T A

Antiparallel strands
 ● Single strand
● Sugar-phosphate backbone
● Uracil instead of thymine

● Required for protein synthesis

amino transfer RNA (tRNA) -

acid carries amino acids

messenger RNA
(mRNA) - carries code

ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

- makes up ribosome
 Discovery of DNA Structure
Edwin Chargaff (1950)
● Analyzed DNA samples from different species
● He found the following rule held true for all
species:
○ The amount of adenine equals the amount of
thymine
○ The amount of cytosine equals the amount of
guanine

A DNA sample is analyzed and you find that 22% is cytosine, how much thymine
would you expect in the sample? Justify your answer.
Discovery of DNA Structure
Rosalind Franklin (1952)
● Performed X-Ray Crystallography of DNA
● Her work revealed a pattern that was
regular and repetitive

James Watson and Francis Crick (1953)

● Using information from Chargaff and Franklin
determined the 3D, double helix structure of DNA
Summarize the differences between DNA and RNA
DNA RNA
Gene Expression
How is information for specifying the traits of an organism carried
in DNA?
● Nitrogenous base sequence (ATCGTA…) makes up the genetic code,
which determines traits
● A gene codes for one polypeptide which is processed, folded, and
sometimes linked together with other polypeptides to form a protein
● A complete set of genes is called a genome which is a set of
instructions to build an entire organism
● Every species’ genome has the same genes arranged in the same
order. Small differences in the sequence of the bases in the genes
make each organism unique
● Protein presence, absence, and interactions determine an organism’s
traits (growth, development, cellular functions, structure, etc.)
Protein Synthesis
● The process of reading the
instructions in the DNA to make a
protein. Proteins are made of
amino acids that are joined
together by peptide bonds to form
a polypeptide chain. These are
folded to give the protein a specific
structure that allows it to carry out
its function.
● Where does protein synthesis
happen?
Central Dogma of Genetics
● DNA = instructions and is in the nucleus and can’t leave
● But proteins are made in ribosomes
● So protein synthesis takes 2 steps :
Transcription
Purpose: Carry the code/instructions out of the nucleus.
DNA is copied into a complementary strand of mRNA.
Synthesizes mRNA
(Remember: DNA never leaves the nucleus, and proteins
are made in the cytoplasm by ribosomes.)
Location: Nucleus
Starts with: DNA
Ends with: mRNA
Transcription
Process:
● Unzip the gene that needs to be copied
● RNA polymerase attaches to a promoter sequence of one strand of DNA, the
template , and begins to add complementary RNA nucleotides one at a time.
● RNA base pairing follows the same rules as DNA, except that uracil , and not
thymine, pairs with adenine. U pairs with A.
● Once complete, the mRNA molecule (mRNA = messenger RNA) is released
and the DNA zips back.
● In eukaryotes, the mRNA has non-coding regions called introns that interrupt
the sequence and must be removed in a process called splicing.
● The coding regions, called exons , are reconnected and mRNA exits the
nucleus and enters the cytoplasm
Transcription
Translation
● Purpose: Read/follow the instructions carried on the
mRNA to make a protein. Synthesizes protein
● Location: Ribosome in cytoplasm or on Rough ER
● Starts with: mRNA
● Ends with: polypeptide chain that can fold into a
protein
Translation
Process:
● mRNA attaches to a ribosome .
● Ribosome reads the mRNA codons (3 RNA nucleotides)
● tRNA (transfer RNA) molecules act like taxis to pick up and
drop off the amino acids that match with the current codon.
● tRNA’s continue to drop off amino acids, and the ribosome
binds the amino acids together with peptide bonds.
● When the “stop codon” is reached, the ribosome releases the
completed polypeptide chain.
Translation
Transcription and Translation Interactive
Genetic Code : virtually universal
Transcription and Translation - Try it!
Mutation
What is a mutation ?
Mutation = any change of the structure of a gene or
chromosomes.
● Can occur in any cell in the body.
● Caused by:
○ Mistakes made during DNA replication, mitosis, meiosis, or
protein synthesis
○ Mutagens = chemicals that can cause DNA mutations
■ Ex. radiation, UV light, cigarette smoke
○ Viruses
Cell types and Mutations:
● Somatic cells
○ Body cells that contain the DNA that make up the
organism, but it is not the DNA that is passed to offspring.
○ In humans, somatic cells contain 46 chromosomes (23
pairs).
○ Mutations that occur only affect organism, NOT offspring
● Gametic cells
○ Also known as gametes (egg and sperm) and the germline
○ Contain DNA that can be passed to offspring.
○ In humans, gametes contain 23 chromosomes
○ Mutations that occur affect offspring
There are 2 main types of mutations:
● Gene mutations —happen during DNA replication =
A change to the original DNA sequence
○ Cystic Fibrosis, Dwarfism, and Sickle Cell Anemia
● Chromosome mutations —happen during meiosis =
Changes the number or location of genes
○ Ex. Down Syndrome, Klinefelter’s Syndrome,
Turner’s Syndrome
○ We will look at chromosomal mutations in a later
unit
 Gene mutations
Three types of gene mutations
● Substitution

● Insertion

● Deletion
These mutations will then cause one of the following changes
to the amino acid sequence:
Result of Gene Mutations
● Neutral mutation = have no effect; the protein does
not change
● Beneficial mutation = lead to a new version of the
protein that helps the organism
● Harmful mutation = results in a protein that does not
function normally or may not function at all
Molecular Technologies
Molecular technologies used to analyze DNA, RNA, or proteins
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

● Amplifies segments of DNA

using an automated instrument
called a thermocycler
● Useful because a single DNA
molecule can be copied
numerous times to be used for
DNA analysis, including
sequencing
Gel electrophoresis
● Technique used to separate
DNA, RNA, or protein molecules
based on their size and
electrical charge
● Uses restriction enzymes to
recognize specific DNA
sequences and cleave, or cut,
DNA into fragments
○ EcoRI is a restriction enzyme
the cuts DNA containing the
sequence GAATTC
● DNA is loaded into wells on one
end of a gel and an electric
current is used to separate the
fragments according to their
size
DNA Sequencing

● Method used to determine the

nucleotide sequence of a DNA
fragment
● Uses chemically modified and
color tagged nucleotides
● Tagged fragments of the DNA
sequence separated by gel
electrophoresis
● Gel then analyzed by a DNA
sequencing machine that
detects the color of each
tagged nucleotide
Genetic engineering

● A technology that involves manipulating, or altering, an organism’s DNA,

often by inserting exogenous DNA (the DNA of another organism)
● Steps involve using various molecular technologies to isolate, cut, and join
pieces of DNA
Gene cloning
Genetically modified organisms
● An organism whose DNA has been altered
using genetic engineering techniques