COMBINED SCI Topic 2 Organisation v1

AQA GCSE Combined Science Biology
Topic 2
Organisation
Model answer notes by @biologywitholivia
Topic Sub-topic Understand Memorise Practise
2.1 Principles of 2.1 Principles of organisation

organisation
2.2 2.2.1 The human digestive system

Animal tissues,
organs and Required practical 3
organ systems
Required practical 4
2.2.2 The heart and blood vessels
2.2.3 Blood
2.2.4 Coronary heart disease
2.2.5 Health issues
2.2.6 Effect of lifestyle on some

non-communicable diseases
2.2.7 Cancer
2.3 2.3.1 Plant tissues

Plant tissues,
organs and 2.3.2 Plant organ system
systems
AQA GCSE Biology Topic 2 Organisation biologywitholivia.co.uk
2.1 Principles of organisation

Describe the levels of organisation in organisms, using examples
1. Cell - smallest structural and functional unit of an organism, eg. muscle cell
2. Tissue - group of cells with a similar structure and function, eg. muscle tissue
3. Organ - aggregation (group) of tissues performing specific functions, eg. stomach
4. Organ system - group of organs performing specific functions, eg. digestive system
Name and label the organs in the digestive system
Exam insight: common misconception ❌

Misconception Why is this wrong?
“The nucleus of a cell is an organ.” The nucleus is a sub-cellular structure (an organelle), not an organ.
“Food passes through the liver and These organs can be thought of as ‘accessory organs’. Food does not
pancreas in the digestive system.” pass through them, but they make substances (eg. bile and enzymes)
that are released into the small intestine.
Example application question 📈

Rewrite these in the correct order, from smallest to Neurone (cell) → nerve (tissue) → brain (organ) →
largest: brain, neurone, dog, nervous system, nerve. (1) nervous system (organ system) → dog (organism)
2
2.2 Animal tissues, organs & systems

2.2.1 Human digestive system
What is digestion?
● Breaking down large, insoluble molecules in food

● Into smaller, soluble molecules that can be absorbed into blood
What is an enzyme?
● A type of protein molecule

● Biological catalyst → speeds up reactions in organisms without being used up / changed
● Each type catalyses a specific reaction
How do enzymes work?

The ‘lock and key theory’ is a simplified model to explain enzyme action:
1. Substrate (substance on which an enzyme acts) fits into / binds to enzyme active site
● Because shapes of active site and substrate are complementary
2. This causes a chemical reaction (eg. bonds in substrate broken to produce smaller molecules)
3. Products released from the unchanged enzyme
Why can each enzyme only catalyse a specific reaction?

Eg. Why can amylase (enzyme) only break down starch (substrate)?
● Each enzyme has an active site with a specific (3D) shape

● Only a substrate molecule with a complementary shape to this active site can bind / fit
How are enzymes related to metabolism?
● Metabolism is the sum of all the reactions in a cell or the body

● Different enzymes catalyse specific metabolic reactions (see 4.2.3 Metabolism), eg. respiration
● Reactions may join smaller molecules to form larger molecules, or break down molecules
3
Describe the role of lipase, carbohydrase and protease in digestion

Enzyme What does it break down? Where is it produced? Where does it act?
Lipase Lipids (fats) into Pancreas Small intestine

fatty acids + glycerol & small intestine
Carbohydrase Carbohydrates into simple sugars Salivary glands, pancreas Mouth &
eg. amylase eg. starch into glucose & small intestine small intestine
Protease Proteins into amino acids Stomach, pancreas Stomach &

& small intestine small intestine
How are the products of digestion used

in the body once absorbed?
Fatty acids & ● To build new lipids (fats)

glycerol
Simple sugars ● To build new carbohydrates

eg. glucose ● Some glucose used for
respiration to release energy
Amino acids ● To build new proteins
Where is bile produced, stored and released into?
Produced - liver Stored - gall bladder Released into - small intestine
What is the role of bile in digestion?
1. Alkaline so neutralises hydrochloric acid from stomach

● To create optimum conditions for small intestine enzymes
2. Emulsifies lipids (fat) by converting larger lipid droplets into smaller droplets
● To increase surface area for lipase enzyme to work on
● To break down / digest fat faster
4
What does it mean when an enzyme denatures?
● Active site changes shape (eg. due to too

high temp. or too high / low pH)
● So substrate no longer binds / fits and
reaction can no longer be catalysed
Describe & explain how temperature affects enzyme activity
● Describe - as temperature increases up to an optimum, rate of

reaction increases
○ Explain - molecules gain kinetic energy so more frequent
enzyme-substrate collisions
● Describe - as temperature increases above optimum, rate of
reaction decreases to 0
○ Explain - enzymes denature so substrate no longer fits
Describe & explain how pH affects enzyme activity
● Describe - enzyme activity is at a maximum at an optimum pH

● Describe - as pH is increased above or decreased below this,
enzyme activity decreases
○ Explain - above / below optimum pH enzymes denature
so substrate no longer fits
Different types of enzymes can have different optimum pH or temperature values.
Exam insight: common misconceptions ❌

“Enzymes are cells.” Enzymes are protein molecules, not cells.
“All enzymes break molecules down.” Some enzymes also join molecules together to make larger molecules.
“Bile is an enzyme.” Bile is not an enzyme. It is a substance produced by the liver that helps
the enzyme lipase by emulsifying fats and neutralising acid.
“Enzymes die at high temperatures.” Enzymes are not living, so they cannot die. At high temperatures they
can denature, meaning their active site changes shape.
Example application questions 📈

The enzyme amylase can only digest ● Amylase has an active site
starch. Explain why amylase cannot digest ● (With a specific / unique shape) which will only fit / bind
other substances. (2) to starch / the substrate
5
Amylase is an enzyme that breaks down ● Starch / substrate binds to active site (of enzyme)
starch. Explain how amylase breaks down ● Shape of active site and substrate are complementary
starch. Answer in terms of the ‘lock and key ● A chemical reaction occurs to produce smaller
theory’. (3) molecules OR bonds between the (starch) molecules are
broken to produce smaller molecules
A person has a tumour blocking the tube ● No / less bile reaches the small intestine
leading from the gall bladder to the small ● So less / no emulsification of fat
intestine. Explain why this person would ● So smaller surface area for lipase to break down fat
have difficulty digesting fat. (4) ● pH of small intestine not neutralised
● So lipase is not at its optimum pH to break down fat
One symptom of pancreatic cancer is ● Reduced / no enzyme production from pancreas

weight loss. Explain how pancreatic cancer ● Food is not broken down / digested fully
may cause a person to lose weight. Do not ● Eg. less glucose absorbed
refer to hormones in your answer. (4) ● So less glucose available for respiration so more fat used
up in metabolism / respiration
● Eg. fewer fatty acids absorbed
● So fewer fatty acids available so less fat is stored
Required practical activity 4

Use qualitative reagents to test for a range of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.
To include: Benedict’s test for sugars; iodine test for starch; and Biuret reagent for protein.
Describe the test for sugars (a type of carbohydrate)
1. Grind up food and add Benedict’s reagent

2. Boil / heat (above 65oC) in a water bath
3. Sugar turns solution (from blue to) green / yellow / orange / brick red
Describe the test for starch (a type of carbohydrate)
1. Grind up food and add iodine solution

2. Starch turns solution (from orange / brown to) blue-black
Describe the test for lipids (fats)
1. Grind up food and add ethanol, then add water

2. Fat turns solution milky / cloudy white
Describe the test for proteins
● Grind up food and add Biuret reagent

● Protein turns solution (from blue to) purple / lilac
6
📈
Example application questions
Describe any safety precautions ● Wear goggles to protect eyes

you would take and why you ● Clean up spills immediately as Biuret is an irritant / corrosive /
would take them. (2) poisonous
A student investigated the sugar ● Grind up each sausage and add to test tubes with water
content of mycoprotein ● Add same mass of each sausage
sausages and meat sausages. ● Add same volume of Benedict’s solution to each test tube
Describe a method to compare ● Place test tubes in a heated water bath
the amount of sugar in the two ● For same length of time
types of sausage. (6) ● Repeat test for each sample
● Record colour change - green / yellow / orange / brown / red if
sugar present (or blue if no sugar present)
● The closer the colour to red, the more sugar present
Required practical activity 5

Investigate the effect of pH on the rate of reaction of amylase enzyme.
Students should use a continuous sampling technique to determine the time taken to completely digest a
starch solution at a range of pH values. Iodine reagent is to be used to test for starch every 30 seconds.
Temperature must be controlled by use of a water bath or electric heater.
What are the independent, dependent and control variables?
● Independent - pH of buffer solution

● Dependent - time for no starch to be detected (so time taken for amylase to break down starch)
● Control - volume & concentration of amylase and starch solution, temperature of water bath etc.
Describe a method to investigate the effect of pH on the rate of reaction of

amylase enzyme
1. Set up test tubes with different pH solutions and

a set volume of starch solution
2. Put in water bath at 30oC, leave for 10 mins
3. Set up spotting tiles with 1 drop of iodine
solution in each well
4. Add a set volume & concentration of amylase
to one of test tubes, start stopwatch / timer
5. Remove a drop of amylase-starch mixture every
30 seconds and place into a spotting tile to test
for starch (blue-black)
6. Record time when no starch is detected (no
longer turns blue-black)
7. Repeat steps 4 - 6 for each pH buffer solution
7
📈
How could a more accurate value for the ● Use smaller pH intervals
optimum pH be obtained? (1)
How could a more accurate time be ● Remove a drop of mixture every 10 seconds
obtained? (1)
Describe how the student could extend the ● Keep pH constant

investigation to determine the effect of a ● But change named factor eg. temperature / starch
different factor on amylase activity. (2) concentration AND test a range of values of named factor
Why is measuring the concentration of ● More accurate

starch every 30 secs a better method? (2) ● Because it is a quantitative measure OR is not subjective
Why were the starch / amylase solutions ● To allow solutions to reach same temp. as water bath
left in the water-bath for 10 minutes before ● Otherwise temperature wouldn’t be controlled
the amylase was added to the starch? (2)
A student suggested that they could have ● Enzyme denatured /active site changed shape
completed their experiment more quickly ● Unable to fit (starch molecule)
if the temperature of the water-bath had ● Starch can’t be digested
been set at 80 °C. This wouldn’t have been
the case. Explain why. (2)
2.2.2 The heart and blood vessels

What is the function of the human heart?
Pump blood around the body in a double circulatory system
What is a double circulatory system?

Blood passes through heart 2 x for every circuit around body:
1. Right ventricle pumps blood to lungs

2. Left ventricle pumps blood to rest of the body
Describe the structure of the lungs
8
Describe the journey of blood

through the heart
1. Deoxygenated blood enters right atrium

via vena cava (vein)
2. Blood flows into right ventricle which
pumps blood to lungs via pulmonary
artery
3. Oxygenated blood returns to heart,
entering left atrium via pulmonary vein
4. Blood flows into left ventricle which
pumps blood to rest of body via aorta
Describe the functions of blood vessels

entering and leaving the heart
● Vena cava - returns deoxygenated blood to ● Pulmonary vein - returns oxygenated blood to
heart from body heart from lungs
● Pulmonary artery - transports deoxygenated ● Aorta - transports oxygenated blood away
blood away from heart to lungs from heart to body
How is natural resting heart rate controlled and how are irregularities in
heart rate treated?
● A group of cells located in the right atrium

● That act as a pacemaker (by sending regular electrical impulses)
Artificial pacemakers - electrical devices (send out regular electrical impulses)
Explain how the structure of arteries relates to their function
Carry blood away from heart at high pressure
● Thick muscle tissue → withstand high pressure

● Thick elastic tissue → can stretch & recoil, to
maintain / withstand high pressure
● Narrow lumen → maintain high pressure
Explain how the structure of veins

relates to their function
Carry blood back to heart at low pressure
● Valves → prevent backflow of blood

● Large lumen → less resistance to blood flow
9
Explain how the structure of capillaries relates to their function
Enable diffusion of substances eg. O2 / glucose between blood and cells
● One cell thick / thin walls → short diffusion distance

● Narrow lumen → blood moves slowly, more time for diffusion

“Arteries have thick cell walls and lots of muscle Arteries have thick walls, but the cells don’t have cell walls.
in cells.” There are many muscle cells - the muscle isn’t ‘in cells’.
“Blood from the left side of the heart goes to the The left side pumps blood to the body, while the right side
left side of the body; blood from the right side.” pumps blood to the lungs.

A ‘hole in the heart’ is a small hole between the ● Some blood will go directly to the body without
right ventricle and the left ventricle. Some blood going to the lungs
flows from the right ventricle to the left ventricle. ● So blood going to body cells will have less oxygen
Explain why a ‘hole in the heart’ causes a person OR oxygenated and deoxygenated blood will mix
to feel tired. (4) ● So lower / reduced rate of respiration
● So less energy transferred / released
Axolotls have a double circulatory system but ● Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood mixes
only one ventricle. Explain why this makes the ● So less oxygen reaches the body / tissues / cells
circulatory system less efficient than having 2
ventricles. (2)
A heart attack is caused when the heart muscle ● Heart (muscle) cannot contract / pump as
cells do not get enough oxygen, causing the cells effectively / powerfully
to die. Many people who survive a heart attack ● So less blood pumped out of heart / to body
get out of breath easily when they exercise ● So less oxygen (reaches cells / body) for (aerobic)
gently. Explain why heart attack survivors get out respiration
of breath easily. (4) ● So breathing rate increases to supply more oxygen
The wall of the left ventricle is much thicker than ● Has to pump blood further / with a greater force /
the wall of the right ventricle. Suggest why. (1) at a higher pressure (than right ventricle)
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2.2.3 Blood
Why is the blood a tissue?
It is a group of cells with a similar structure and function.
List the components of the blood & their functions
● Plasma (liquid) - transports dissolved substances eg. glucose,

urea, CO2, hormones, suspends cells
● Red blood cells - transports oxygen from lungs to body cells
● White blood cells - part of immune system, destroys pathogens
● Platelets (small fragments of cells) - help clot blood at wounds
How are red blood cells adapted to their function?
● Contain haemoglobin → binds to oxygen

● Biconcave discs → large surface area for rapid diffusion of oxygen
● No nucleus → more space for haemoglobin
How are white blood cells adapted to their function?

Can produce antibodies and engulf pathogens (phagocytosis)

“White blood cells fight disease.” Too vague - WBCs help destroy microorganisms that cause disease.

Some types of cancer can cause Tiredness
the numbers of blood components ● Fewer red blood cells so less haemoglobin
in a person’s body to fall to a ● So less oxygen transported around the body
dangerously low level. A person ● So less aerobic respiration can take place and more anaerobic
with one of these types of cancer respiration takes place
may experience symptoms such as ● So less energy released for metabolic processes
tiredness, frequent infections and ● Lactic acid produced causes muscle fatigue
bleeding that will not stop after the
Frequent infections
skin is cut.
● Fewer white blood cells
Explain how a very low number of ● So fewer antibodies produced and fewer pathogens killed
blood components in the body can
Bleeding
cause these symptoms. (6)
● Fewer platelets so blood does not clot as easily
11
2.2.4 Coronary heart disease

Explain the cause of coronary heart disease (CHD)
1. Layers of fatty material build up inside coronary

arteries (vessels supplying blood to heart muscle)
2. This narrows coronary arteries, reducing blood flow
3. Resulting a lack of oxygen / glucose for heart muscle
Explain how CHD can cause a heart attack

1. Restricted blood flow through coronary arteries so not enough oxygen reaches heart muscle
2. So not enough aerobic respiration / energy released
Describe how coronary heart disease can be treated
1. Stent (metal mesh tube) inserted into coronary artery to keep it open so blood continues to flow
✘ Risk of surgery / infection / blood clots
2. Statins (drugs) - reduce blood cholesterol, slowing deposit of fatty material in arteries
✘ Effects take time, may be side effects
Explain the consequences of faulty heart valves

Healthy heart valves prevent backflow of blood in the heart
1. Valve doesn't open fully → restricts blood flow

OR valve develops a leak → back flow of blood occurs
2. So less blood containing oxygen pumped around body
3. So less aerobic respiration and less energy released
4. So more anaerobic respiration which produces lactic acid
5. Causing tiredness / muscle fatigue / increased breathing rate
Describe how faulty heart valves can be treated
1. Biological valve replacement - from animals or human donors

✘ Wear out / stiffen over time so may need to be replaced, ethical issues
2. Mechanical valve replacement - artificial, longer lasting
✘ May cause clots so anti-clotting drugs required
Describe how heart failure (failure to pump enough blood) can be treated
● Transplant of a donor heart, or donor heart and lungs

✘ Takes time to find a donor, risk of rejection by immune system so take immunosuppressant drugs
● Artificial heart occasionally used to keep patients alive while waiting for a transplant, or to allow heart
to rest as an aid to recovery
✘ Expensive, does not last long, can cause blood clots so take blood thinning drugs
12
❌
Exam insight: common misconceptions
“When coronary arteries are blocked, The aorta carries blood away from the heart to the body. Coronary
less blood flows to the body.” arteries branch off this to supply the heart muscle with blood. If
blocked, the heart muscle receives less blood.
“Biological valves can be rejected.” Biological valves are treated with chemicals to prevent this.

A heart attack is caused Advantages of statins
when heart muscle cells ● Decrease blood cholesterol; slows down build-up of fatty material in arteries
do not get enough ● Maintain blood flow to heart muscle cells
oxygen, causing cells to ● Not invasive / easy to take
die. Statins and stents ● Low cost (compared to stent operation)
are two treatments used
Disadvantages of statins
to reduce the risk of
● Might be side effects of drug eg. muscle pain
someone having a heart
● Effects take time to happen
attack.
● Drug will need to be taken long term
Evaluate the use of ● Might forget to take drug
statins compared with
Advantages of stents
the use of a stent to
● Blocked artery held open so blood flow to heart muscle cells increased
reduce the risk of a heart
● Remains in place for a long time
attack. (6)
● Effect is immediate / rapid recovery from operation
Disadvantages of stents
● Risk of infection from operation
● Risk of surgery eg. heart attack / bleeding
● Risk of blood clot
Suggest two advantages Advantages

and disadvantages of ● Prolongs patients life when waiting for heart transplant
treating patients with an ● Heart not rejected by body's immune system / no need for
artificial heart. (4) immunosuppressant drugs
Disadvantages
● Do not work as well as natural hearts / parts can wear out
● Blood clots can occur so blood thinning drugs need to be administered
● Battery needs regular charging
● Surgery can cause complications / infection
13
2.2.5 Health issues

Define ‘health’
The state of physical and mental well-being
Describe factors that can cause ill health
● Communicable diseases - caused by pathogens so can be passed between organisms (infectious)

● Non-communicable diseases - not caused by a pathogen so cannot pass between organisms
● Poor diet, stress and life situations (eg. financial status, location)
Give examples of how types of disease may interact
● Defects of the immune system → more likely to suffer from infectious disease
● Viruses living in cells → trigger cancers
● Immune reactions initially caused by a pathogen → trigger allergies eg. skin rashes / asthma
● Severe physical ill health → depression and other mental illness

“Health is the state of physical well-being.” Health also includes the state of mental well-being.

Arthritis is a condition that damages joints. ● Movement issues
Suggest how arthritis could affect a person’s ● Loss of job / income
lifestyle. (1) ● Mental health impact of lack of movement / pain
2.2.6 The effect of lifestyle on some non-

communicable diseases
What are risk factors?
● An aspect of a person’s lifestyle or substances in a person’s body / environment

● That have been shown to be linked to an increased rate of disease
Many diseases are caused by the interaction of a number of factors. A causal mechanism has been proven for
some risk factors (below), but not in others.
What is the main risk factor for Type 2 diabetes?

Obesity
14
Explain the effects of diet, smoking and exercise on cardiovascular disease
1. Diet eg. high saturated fat increases cholesterol so increases rate of fatty material build-up in arteries
2. Smoking → damages artery lining and raises blood pressure
3. Lack of exercise → raises blood pressure
Explain the effect of alcohol on the liver and brain function
● Breakdown of alcohol by liver cells produces toxic substances → cirrhosis (scarring) → liver failure
○ So no bile made / lactic acid not broken down etc.
● Neurones in brain damaged
● Increases risk of liver cancer
Explain the effect of smoking on lung disease and lung cancer
● Damages alveoli → reduces surface area of alveoli → reduces gas exchange (lung disease)
● Chemicals inflame bronchi which damages cilia → can’t remove mucus → higher risk of lung infections
● Carcinogens in smoke (tar) → increase risk of lung cancer
Explain the effects of smoking and alcohol on unborn babies
● Smoke contains carbon monoxide (toxic) → binds to haemoglobin so blood carries less oxygen →
foetus receives less oxygen → risk of premature birth / stillbirth / reduced birth mass
● Alcohol → increased risk of miscarriage / premature birth / foetal alcohol syndrome
Explain how carcinogens are risk factors in cancer
● Carcinogen = a substance or form of radiation that can cause cancer

● Ionising radiation eg. X rays, UV light can cause DNA mutations → leading to uncontrolled cell division
Describe the difference between a risk factor that shows a correlation with
the incidence of a disease and one that shows causation of a disease
● Correlation - link between factor and incidence disease - as one changes, the other does
● Causation - an increase in the risk factor results in the incidence of disease
● Correlation does not prove causation - there could be another factor

“Having a [named risk factor] means Risk factors increase the likelihood of getting a disease, but don’t
you will definitely get [a named guarantee it. Many diseases are caused by an interaction of risk
disease].” factors.
15
📈
The number of people who are obese in the ● Costs NHS / government / hospitals more money
UK is increasing. Explain the financial ● As need to pay for additional surgery / medication /
impact on the UK economy of an increasing hospital stay to treat stroke / diabetes
number of people who are obese. (2)
Other than stopping smoking, suggest two ● Reduce fat / cholesterol / sugary foods in diet
lifestyle changes a person can make to ● Take regular exercise
reduce the risk of CHD. (2) ● Reduce alcohol intake
In a scientific investigation over 44000 men For

were monitored for 12 years. The men were ● As hours of activity increase, number of cases of heart
divided into four groups based on their disease decrease
number of hours of physical activity they did ● Increasing hours of exercise from low numbers to
per week. The results are shown in the table. slightly higher (groups W-X) reduces cases more than
increasing activity from groups Y-Z
● Cholesterol and family history do not correlate with
heart disease
Against
● Other factors also increase / decrease / correlate with
changing hours of exercise
● Smoking correlates with changing hours of exercise
● Smoking correlates with heart disease
● % fat in diet also correlates with lack of exercise and
Evaluate whether the data shows that
heart disease
increased hours of physical activity reduces
● Limitations such as only studied men, not women
the risk of heart disease. (6)
● Unknown how many people are in each category or
what percentage (of each group) had heart disease
16
2.2.7 Cancer
Describe how tumours (and cancers) form
● Growth of abnormal cells

● Due to changes in cells that lead to uncontrolled growth and division
Describe the differences between benign

and malignant tumours
● Malignant tumours are cancerous; benign tumours are not

● Malignant tumours invade neighbouring tissues; benign tumours do not
● Malignant tumours spread to different parts of the body in the blood so
can form secondary tumours; benign tumours stay in one place, usually
contained within a membrane
● Malignant usually grow faster than benign tumours
Describe how a tumour can spread to different parts of the body

● Cells break off and travel in the blood
● Forming secondary tumours
What are the two types of risk factors for cancer?

● Lifestyle risk factors eg. smoking, carcinogens, ionising radiation, some viruses
● Genetic risk factors

“All tumours are cancerous.” Only malignant tumours are cancerous, so can spread.
“Cancer is caused by cells growing too Cancer cells often do grow faster, but the key point is that their
fast.” growth and division is uncontrolled.

Suggest two reasons ● Improved treatment / drugs
why the survival rates ● Earlier diagnosis
for all cancers have ● More / improved cancer screening
increased. (2) ● Improved patient knowledge of risk factors
17
2.3 Plant tissues, organs & systems

2.3.1 Plant tissues
Describe the structure of a leaf
Leaf tissues - epidermis, palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll, xylem & phloem
How does the structure of epidermal tissue relate to its function?
● Secretes a waxy cuticle → waterproofs leafs surface, reducing water loss (by evaporation)
● Single layer of transparent cells → allow light to pass through
How does the structure of palisade mesophyll tissue relate to its function?
Many chloroplasts → lots of chlorophyll to maximise light absorption for rapid photosynthesis
How does the structure of spongy mesophyll tissue relate to its function?
Many large air spaces → large surface area for rapid diffusion of gases eg. CO2, O2
How does the structure of meristem tissue relate to its function?
● Found in growing tips of shoots and roots

● Made up of stem cells → can differentiate into any type of plant cell → allowing plant growth
18
How does the structure of xylem tissue relate to its function?

Function: transports water and dissolved mineral ions from roots to leaves
● Lignin → strength to withstand pressure of water moving

● Hollow tubes / no cytoplasm → water / mineral ions move easily
● End walls between cells broken down → cells form a long tube so
water / mineral ions flow easily
How does the structure of phloem tissue relate to its function?

Function: transports dissolved sugars (eg. sucrose) from leaves to rest of
plant for immediate use or storage
● No nucleus / few sub-cellular structures → maximise space for

movement of dissolved sugars
● Pores in end walls → dissolved sugars can move from cell to cell

“The waxy cuticle is a tissue / made of cells.” It is not made of cells, so is not a tissue. It is made of lipids.
“Respiration does not happen in plant cells.” It happens in cells of all living organisms, to release energy.
“Xylem only transports water. Ions travel Xylem transports water and mineral ions eg. magnesium,
through phloem.” nitrate. Phloem transports dissolved sugars.

Describe why it’s important ● Sugars are made in leaves by photosynthesis
that dissolved sugars are ● All cells need sugar for respiration
moved both upwards and ● Sugars transported to meristems for growth / cell division / mitosis
downwards in a plant. (3) OR sugars transported for storage as starch / fat / oil
Compare the structure and Structure

function of xylem tissue ● Xylem is made of dead cells and phloem is made of living cells
and phloem tissue. (6) ● Phloem cells have pores in their end walls, xylem cells do not
● Xylem is hollow / does not contain cytoplasm, phloem does
● Xylem contains lignin, phloem does not
● Both tubular and made of cells
Function
● Xylem transports water / mineral ions, phloem transports sugars
● Xylem is involved in transpiration, phloem is involved in translocation
● Xylem transports unidirectionally, phloem transports bidirectionally
● Both transport liquids / substances throughout the stem / leaves / roots
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2.3.2 Plant organ system

Which organs form the system that transports substances around a plant?
Roots, stem and leaves.
Describe the process of transpiration
1. Evaporation of water from cells inside leaves

2. Diffusion of water vapour out of leaves through stomata
Describe the transport of water and mineral ions through a plant from the
soil to the atmosphere, in the transpiration stream
1. Water evaporates from cells inside leaves and water vapour diffuses out of leaves through stomata
2. This drives pull of water with dissolved mineral ions up xylem vessels
3. Water enters through root hair cells by osmosis and mineral ions enter by active transport
How root hair cells are adapted for the efficient uptake of water by osmosis,
and mineral ions by active transport, is covered in topic 1.1.3 Cell specialisation.
Describe the role of stomata and guard cells
● Guard cells control size of stomata (pores in epidermis)

● To control gas exchange (CO2 in / O2 out) and water loss from leaves
○ High light intensity → guard cells open stomata (as water enters
guard cells by osmosis so they swell) → allow CO2 in for photosynthesis
○ Hot / dry / low light intensity→ guard cells close stomata (as water
leaves guard cells by osmosis so they shrink) → prevent water loss
20
Explain the effect of changing temperature, humidity, air movement and

light intensity on the rate of transpiration
Factor Increasing it… Because…
Light Increases ● More stomata open to allow CO2 to enter plant for photosynthesis
intensity transpiration rate ● So more water vapour can diffuse out of leaves
Temp. Increases ● Increases evaporation of water (due to increased energy)

transpiration rate
Air flow Increases ● Water vapour is moved away faster

transpiration rate ● Maintaining a steeper concentration gradient (of water vapour)
● So diffusion (of water vapour out of leaf) is faster
Humidity Decreases ● Increased water vapour in air

transpiration rate ● Reduces concentration gradient (of water vapour) between air and leaf
● So diffusion (of water vapour out of leaf) is slower
How can the rate of transpiration be estimated?
● Use a potometer to measure uptake of water by a plant

○ Assume water uptake is directly related to water
loss by leaves through transpiration
● Set up according to the diagram
● Measure distance travelled by air bubble in fixed period
of time → calculate rate of water uptake
Describe the process of translocation
● Movement of dissolved sugars (eg. sucrose) through phloem (up and down)
● From leaves (made in photosynthesis) to rest of plant for immediate use (eg. respiration) or storage

“Transpiration is the same as Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from leaves. The transpiration
the transpiration stream.” stream is the constant movement of water through the plant.
“Leaves lose water by osmosis.” Leaves lose water by transpiration.
“Water vapour enters leaves Water vapour is lost through stomata during transpiration. Water enters
through stomata.” plants through roots and is pulled up to leaves through the xylem.
“Sugar is taken up from the soil Plants make their own sugar by photosynthesis in leaves. This travels to the
via roots.” rest of the plant through phloem in translocation.
21
📈
Adult horney moths lay eggs that hatch into Less absorption of water
larvae. These live inside roots of trees, using tree ● Lower rate of photosynthesis so less glucose
roots as a source of food and causing damage to ● So less respiration / cellulose made for cell walls /
the tree roots. amino acids made for making new proteins
Explain why a tree might die if the roots of the Less absorption of ions
tree are damaged. (6) ● Fewer nitrates so fewer proteins made for growth
● Fewer magnesium ions so less chlorophyll
produced so lower rate of photosynthesis
Damage to phloem
● Less transport of sugars to root cells
● For respiration
Damage to xylem
● Less water transported
● Fewer nitrates reach cells so fewer proteins made
● Less anchorage
Describe two differences between the ● Transpiration stream involves xylem, translocation
transpiration stream and translocation. (2) involves phloem
● Transpiration stream transports water (& mineral
ions), translocation transports dissolved sugars
● Transpiration stream moves substances upwards,
translocation moves substances up and down
A teacher used celery to show water uptake in ● Water / dye moves up plant / stem / celery
plants. Celery was left in water with red dye for 3 ● In the xylem
hours. After, the leaves of the celery were dark ● To the leaf / stomata
red. Explain how. (3)
Having a large number of stomata per mm2 of ● More water loss (plant more likely to wilt)
leaf surface can be a disadvantage to a plant. (1)
Rate of water loss from leaves at midnight is ● Stomata are (almost completely) closed (at night)
much lower than at midday. Explain why. (2) ● Because it’s cooler / no light
Most plants have more stomata on the lower ● Cooler around lower surface
surface of a leaf than on the upper surface. ● More humid around lower surface
Explain why. (3) ● So less water evaporated
A student used a potometer to investigate the ● No photosynthesis

rate of water uptake in a plant shoot. Explain why ● So stomata closed (as no CO2 needed)
the air bubble would not move if the ● So no transpiration
investigations were done in the dark. (3)
22

COMBINED SCI Topic 2 Organisation v1

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AQA GCSE Combined Science Biology

Topic Sub-topic Understand Memorise Practise

2.1 Principles of 2.1 Principles of organisation

2.2 2.2.1 The human digestive system

2.2.2 The heart and blood vessels

2.2.4 Coronary heart disease

2.2.5 Health issues

2.2.6 Effect of lifestyle on some

2.3 2.3.1 Plant tissues

2.1 Principles of organisation

Name and label the organs in the digestive system

Exam insight: common misconception ❌

Example application question 📈

2.2 Animal tissues, organs & systems

● Breaking down large, insoluble molecules in food

● A type of protein molecule

How do enzymes work?

Why can each enzyme only catalyse a specific reaction?

● Each enzyme has an active site with a specific (3D) shape

How are enzymes related to metabolism?

● Metabolism is the sum of all the reactions in a cell or the body

Describe the role of lipase, carbohydrase and protease in digestion

Lipase Lipids (fats) into Pancreas Small intestine

Protease Proteins into amino acids Stomach, pancreas Stomach &

How are the products of digestion used

Fatty acids & ● To build new lipids (fats)

Simple sugars ● To build new carbohydrates

Amino acids ● To build new proteins

Where is bile produced, stored and released into?

Produced - liver Stored - gall bladder Released into - small intestine

What is the role of bile in digestion?

1. Alkaline so neutralises hydrochloric acid from stomach

What does it mean when an enzyme denatures?

● Active site changes shape (eg. due to too

Describe & explain how temperature affects enzyme activity

● Describe - as temperature increases up to an optimum, rate of

Describe & explain how pH affects enzyme activity

● Describe - enzyme activity is at a maximum at an optimum pH

Different types of enzymes can have different optimum pH or temperature values.

Exam insight: common misconceptions ❌

“Enzymes are cells.” Enzymes are protein molecules, not cells.

Example application questions 📈

One symptom of pancreatic cancer is ● Reduced / no enzyme production from pancreas

Required practical activity 4

Describe the test for sugars (a type of carbohydrate)

1. Grind up food and add Benedict’s reagent

Describe the test for starch (a type of carbohydrate)

1. Grind up food and add iodine solution

Describe the test for lipids (fats)

1. Grind up food and add ethanol, then add water

Describe the test for proteins

● Grind up food and add Biuret reagent

Example application questions

Describe any safety precautions ● Wear goggles to protect eyes

Required practical activity 5

What are the independent, dependent and control variables?

● Independent - pH of buffer solution

Describe a method to investigate the effect of pH on the rate of reaction of

1. Set up test tubes with different pH solutions and