Calculus SR 1
Calculus SR 1
Calculus
Assistant Professor
VIT, Chennai
Syllabus
2
Contents
Syllabus 4
2 Multivariable Calculus 26
2.1 Functions of Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.1 Difference between limits of single variable function and two variables
function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.2 Iterated limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.4 Partial derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.5 Total Differential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.6 The chain rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.6.1 The chain rule with one independent variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.6.2 The chain rule with more than one independent variable . . . . . . . . . 41
2.7 Jacobians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.7.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3
4 CONTENTS
4 Multiple integrals 67
4.1 Double Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2 Change of order of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5 Special Functions 73
5.1 Gamma Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.2 Beta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6 Vector Differentiation 74
6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7 Vector Integration 75
7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Syllabus 75
Module 1
• Differentiation- Extrema on an Interval Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean value theorem-
Increasing and decreasing functions.-First derivative test-Second derivative test-Maxima
and Minima-Concavity. Integration-Average function value - Area between curves - Vol-
umes of solids of revolution.
5
6 MODULE 1. SINGLE VARIABLE CALCULUS
1.1 Function
1.1.1 One-One function
A function f : X → Y is defined to be one-one (injective), if the images of distinct elements of
x under f are distinct, i.e. for every x1 , x2 ∈ X , f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) ⇔ x1 = x2 . Otherwise, f is called
many-one.
1.1.2 Range
Range of a function f : X → Y is a subset of the codomain i.e. Y which consists of the images
of the elements of the domain i.e. X . So, Range of f = { f ( x) : x ∈ X } ⊆ Y .
lim f ( x) = L,
x→ c
means that given any ϵ > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that for all x ̸= c, if | x − c| < δ, then
| f ( x ) − L | < ϵ.
Mathematicians often enjoy writing ideas without using any words. Here is the wordless
definition of the limit:
1. lim x→ c f ( x) exists,
2. f ( c) is defined, and
3. lim x→ c f ( x) = f ( c).
Example 1.3.1. Find the relationship between a & b so that the function f defined by,
(
ax + 1; if x ≤ 3
f ( x) =
bx + 3; if x > 3
is continuous at x = 3
Solution: As f ( x) is continuous at x = 3.
Now,
lim f ( x) = lim+ ( bx + 3) = 3 b + 3
x→3+ x→3
Again,
lim f ( x) = lim− (ax + 1) = 3a + 1
x→3− x→3
Also, f (3) = 3a + 1
Hence, 3 b + 3 = 3a + 1 =⇒ a − b = 32 .
•Try these:
kx + 1; x ≤ π
½
Example 1.3.3. f ( x) = at x = π is continuous. Find k.
cos x ,x >π
Theorem Let f be a continuous function defined on a closed interval I . Then f has both
a maximum and minimum value on I .
Local or Relative Extrema The terms local minimum and local maximum are often syn-
onyms for relative minimum and relative maximum. We briefly practice using these defini-
tions.
Theorem:Relative Extrema and Critical Points Let a function f have a relative extrema
at the point ( c, f ( c)). Then c is a critical number of f .
Solution: A closed interval is not given, so we find the extreme values of f on its domain. f
is defined whenever 1 − x2 ≥ 0; thus the domain of f is [−1, 1]. Evaluating f at either endpoint
returns 0 . Hence we find f ′ ( x) = p − x 2 . The critical points of f are found when f ′ ( x) = 0 or
1− x
when f ′ is undefined. It is straightforward to find that f ′ ( x) = 0 when x = 0, and f ′ is unde-
fined when x = ±1, the endpoints of the interval. The table of important values is given in the
following table:
x f ( x)
-1 0
0 1
1 0
Example 1.6.1. Verify Rolle’s theorem for the function f ( x) = x2 + x − 6 in [−3, 2].
Solution: Given f ( x) = x2 + x − 6
(1) As f ( x) is a polynomial, it is continuous on [−3, 2].
(2) As a polynomial function, f ( x) is also derivable on (−3, 2).
(3) f (−3) = 0 = f (2).
Thus all the three conditions of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied and therefore, there may exist at
least one point c in (−3, 2) such that f ′ ( c) = 0.
Now, f ′ ( x) = 2 x + 1 =⇒ f ′ ( c) = 2 c + 1
∴ f ′ ( c) = 0
⇒ 2c + 1 = 0
⇒ c = −1/2 ∈ (−3, 2)
Try these:
Remarks: Lagrange’s mean value theorem fails for the function that does not satisfy even
one of the two conditions.
Example 1.7.1. Verify Lagrange’s mean value theorem for the function f ( x) = x2 + 2 x + 3 in
[4, 6].
Solution: Given f ( x) = x2 + 2 x + 3.
(I) f ( x) is contimous in [4, 6] as it is a polynomial function.
(II) f ( x) as a polynomial function, is also derivable in (4, 6).
Thus both the conditions of Lagrange’s mean value theorem are satisfied & hence there may
exist at least one real number C in (4, 6) such that,
f (6) − f (4)
f ′ ( c) =
6−4
Now, f ′ ( x) = 2 x + 2
∴ f ′ ( c) = 2 c + 2
(36 + 12 + 3) − (16 + 8 + 3)
∴ 2c + 2 =
2
⇒ 2 c + 2 = 12
⇒ c = 5 ∈ [4, 6]
Therefore the Lagrange’s M.V.T is satisfied by f ( x).
Try these:
Example 1.7.2. Verify Lagrange’s mean value theorem for the following functions:
(a) px2 + qx + r in [a, b], p ̸= 0.
(b) 2 sinx − sin2 x in [0, π].