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Calculus SR 1

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Calculus SR 1

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serenitysounds54
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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BMAT101L

Calculus

Dr. Soumendu Roy

Assistant Professor
VIT, Chennai
Syllabus

• Module 1 : Single Variable Calculus


Differentiation- Extrema on an Interval Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean value theorem-
Increasing and decreasing functions.-First derivative test-Second derivative test-Maxima
and Minima-Concavity. Integration-Average function value - Area between curves - Vol-
umes of solids of revolution.

• Module 2 : Multivariable Calculus


Functions of two variables-limits and continuity-partial derivatives –total differential-
Jacobian and its properties.

• Module 3 : Application of Multivariable Calculus


Taylor’s expansion for two variables–maxima and minima–constrained maxima and
minima-Lagrange’s multiplier method.

• Module 4 : Multiple integrals


Evaluation of double integrals–change of order of integration–change of variables be-
tween Cartesian and polar co-ordinates - evaluation of triple integrals-change of vari-
ables between Cartesian and cylindrical and spherical co-ordinates.

• Module 5 : Special Functions


Beta and Gamma functions–interrelation between beta and gamma functions-evaluation
of multiple integrals using gamma and beta functions. Dirichlet’s integral -Error func-
tions complementary error functions.

• Module 6 : Vector Differentiation


Scalar and vector valued functions – gradient, tangent plane–directional derivative di-
vergence and curl–scalar and vector potentials. Statement of vector identities-simple
problems.

• Module 7 : Vector Integration


Line, surface and volume integrals - Statement of Green’s, Stoke’s and Gauss divergence
theorems -verification and evaluation of vector integrals using them.

2
Contents

Syllabus 4

1 Single Variable Calculus 5


1.1 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.1 One-One function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.2 Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.3 Onto function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.4 Bijective function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Limit of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Continuous Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Differentiability at a point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Extreme values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.1 Critical Numbers and Critical Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.2 Finding Extrema on a Closed Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Rolle’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Langrange’s Mean value theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.8 Volume of Solid Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.8.1 Cartesian Coordinate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.8.2 Polar Co-ordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.8.3 Parametric Co-ordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2 Multivariable Calculus 26
2.1 Functions of Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.1 Difference between limits of single variable function and two variables
function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.2 Iterated limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.4 Partial derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.5 Total Differential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.6 The chain rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.6.1 The chain rule with one independent variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.6.2 The chain rule with more than one independent variable . . . . . . . . . 41
2.7 Jacobians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.7.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3
4 CONTENTS

3 Application of Multivariable Calculus 48


3.1 The Taylor’s Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.1.1 Taylor’s series of functions of a single variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.1.2 Taylor’s Infinite Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.1.3 Maclaurin’s Theorem with Lagrange’s Form of Remainder . . . . . . . . 49
3.1.4 Maclaurin’s Infinite Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1.5 Taylor’s series for functions of two variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2 Maxima-Minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2.1 Local Maxima and Local Minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2.2 Necessary conditions for f ( x, y) to be Maximum or Minimum . . . . . . . 56
3.2.3 Sufficient Condition for f ( x, y) to be Maximum or Minimum . . . . . . . . 57
3.3 Constrained Maxima-Minima: Lagrange’s Multiplier Method . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.1 Lagrange’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

4 Multiple integrals 67
4.1 Double Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2 Change of order of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

5 Special Functions 73
5.1 Gamma Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.2 Beta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

6 Vector Differentiation 74
6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

7 Vector Integration 75
7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Syllabus 75
Module 1

Single Variable Calculus

• Differentiation- Extrema on an Interval Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean value theorem-
Increasing and decreasing functions.-First derivative test-Second derivative test-Maxima
and Minima-Concavity. Integration-Average function value - Area between curves - Vol-
umes of solids of revolution.

5
6 MODULE 1. SINGLE VARIABLE CALCULUS

1.1 Function
1.1.1 One-One function
A function f : X → Y is defined to be one-one (injective), if the images of distinct elements of
x under f are distinct, i.e. for every x1 , x2 ∈ X , f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) ⇔ x1 = x2 . Otherwise, f is called
many-one.

1.1.2 Range
Range of a function f : X → Y is a subset of the codomain i.e. Y which consists of the images
of the elements of the domain i.e. X . So, Range of f = { f ( x) : x ∈ X } ⊆ Y .

1.1.3 Onto function


A function f : X → Y is said to be onto (surjective), if every element of Y is the image of
some element of X under f , ie for every y ∈ Y , there exists at least one element x ∈ X such
that, f ( x) = y

Remark 1.1.1. f : X → Y is onto iff Range of f = Y (Codomain)

1.1.4 Bijective function


A function f : X → Y is said to be bijective (one-one & onto) if f is both one-one and onto.

1.2 Limit of a function


Let I be an open interval containing c, and let f be a function defined on I , except possibly at
c. The limit of f ( x), as x approaches c, is L, denoted by

lim f ( x) = L,
x→ c

means that given any ϵ > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that for all x ̸= c, if | x − c| < δ, then
| f ( x ) − L | < ϵ.
Mathematicians often enjoy writing ideas without using any words. Here is the wordless
definition of the limit:

lim f ( x) = L ⇐⇒ ∀ϵ > 0, ∃δ > 0 s.t. 0 < | x − c| < δ −→ | f ( x) − L| < ϵ.


x→ c

1.3 Continuous Function


Let f be a function defined on an open interval I containing c.
1. f is continuous at c if lim x→ c f ( x) = f ( c). 2. f is continuous on I if f is continuous at c for
all values of c in I . If f is continuous on (−∞, ∞), we say f is continuous everywhere.
A useful way to establish whether or not a function f is continuous at c is to verify the
following three things:
1.3. CONTINUOUS FUNCTION 7

1. lim x→ c f ( x) exists,
2. f ( c) is defined, and
3. lim x→ c f ( x) = f ( c).

Example 1.3.1. Find the relationship between a & b so that the function f defined by,
(
ax + 1; if x ≤ 3
f ( x) =
bx + 3; if x > 3

is continuous at x = 3

Solution: As f ( x) is continuous at x = 3.

∴ lim+ f ( x) = lim− f ( x) = lim f ( x) = f (3)


x→3 x→3 x→3

Now,
lim f ( x) = lim+ ( bx + 3) = 3 b + 3
x→3+ x→3

Again,
lim f ( x) = lim− (ax + 1) = 3a + 1
x→3− x→3

Also, f (3) = 3a + 1
Hence, 3 b + 3 = 3a + 1 =⇒ a − b = 32 .

•Try these:

Example 1.3.2. For what value of λ is the function defined by,


( ¡
λ x2 − 2 x
¢
if x ≤ 0
f ( x) =
4 x + 1; if x > 0.

continuous at x = 0 ? What about continuity at x = 1?

kx + 1; x ≤ π
½
Example 1.3.3. f ( x) = at x = π is continuous. Find k.
cos x ,x >π

Example 1.3.4. Find all points of discontinuities of f , where


(
sin x
x ; if x < 0
f ( x) =
x+1 if x > 0

Example 1.3.5. Find all points of discontinuities of f , where,


½ | x|
x if x ̸= 0
f ( x) =
0 ; if x = 0.
8 MODULE 1. SINGLE VARIABLE CALCULUS

1.4 Differentiability at a point


Let f be a continuous function on an open interval I and let c be in I . The derivative of f at
c, denoted f ′ ( c), is
f ( c + h) − f ( c )
lim ,
h→0 h
provided the limit exists. If the limit exists, we say that f is differentiable at c; if the limit
does not exist, then f is not differentiable at c. If f is differentiable at every point in I , then
f is differentiable on I .

1.5 Extreme values


Let f be defined on an interval I containing c.
• f ( c) is the minimum (also, absolute minimum) of f on I if f ( c) ≤ f ( x) for all x in I .
• f ( c) is the maximum (also, absolute maximum) of f on I if f ( c) ≥ f ( x) for all x in I .
The maximum and minimum values are the extreme values, or extrema, of f on I .

Theorem Let f be a continuous function defined on a closed interval I . Then f has both
a maximum and minimum value on I .

Local or Relative Extrema The terms local minimum and local maximum are often syn-
onyms for relative minimum and relative maximum. We briefly practice using these defini-
tions.

Relative Minimum and Relative Maximum Let f be defined on an interval I contain-


ing c.
1. If there is an open interval containing c such that f ( c) is the minimum value, then f ( c) is
a relative minimum of f . We also say that f has a relative minimum at ( c, f ( c)).
2. If there is an open interval containing c such that f ( c) is the maximum value, then f ( c) is
a relative maximum of f . We also say that f has a relative maximum at ( c, f ( c)).
The relative maximum and minimum values comprise the relative extrema of f .

1.5.1 Critical Numbers and Critical Points


Let f be defined at c. The value c is a critical number (or critical value) of f if f ′ ( c) = 0 or f ′ ( c)
is not defined.
If c is a critical number of f , then the point ( c, f ( c)) is a critical point of f .

Theorem:Relative Extrema and Critical Points Let a function f have a relative extrema
at the point ( c, f ( c)). Then c is a critical number of f .

1.5.2 Finding Extrema on a Closed Interval


Let f be a continuous function defined on a closed interval [a, b]. To find the maximum and
minimum values of f on [a, b]
1.6. ROLLE’S THEOREM 9

1. Evaluate f at the endpoints a and b of the interval.


2. Find the critical numbers of f in [a, b].
3. Evaluate f at each critical number.
4. The absolute maximum of f is the largest of these values, and the absolute minimum of f
is the least of these values.
p
Example 1.5.1. Find the extreme values of f ( x) = 1 − x2 .

Solution: A closed interval is not given, so we find the extreme values of f on its domain. f
is defined whenever 1 − x2 ≥ 0; thus the domain of f is [−1, 1]. Evaluating f at either endpoint
returns 0 . Hence we find f ′ ( x) = p − x 2 . The critical points of f are found when f ′ ( x) = 0 or
1− x
when f ′ is undefined. It is straightforward to find that f ′ ( x) = 0 when x = 0, and f ′ is unde-
fined when x = ±1, the endpoints of the interval. The table of important values is given in the
following table:

x f ( x)
-1 0
0 1
1 0

The maximum value is 1, and the minimum value is 0.

1.6 Rolle’s Theorem


If a function f ( x) is such that
(i) f ( x) is continuous in [a, b]
(ii) f ′ ( x) exists for every point in (a, b)
and (iii) f (a) = f ( b)
then there exist at least one value of x, say c, where a < c < b such that f ′ ( c) = 0.

Example 1.6.1. Verify Rolle’s theorem for the function f ( x) = x2 + x − 6 in [−3, 2].

Solution: Given f ( x) = x2 + x − 6
(1) As f ( x) is a polynomial, it is continuous on [−3, 2].
(2) As a polynomial function, f ( x) is also derivable on (−3, 2).
(3) f (−3) = 0 = f (2).
Thus all the three conditions of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied and therefore, there may exist at
least one point c in (−3, 2) such that f ′ ( c) = 0.
Now, f ′ ( x) = 2 x + 1 =⇒ f ′ ( c) = 2 c + 1

∴ f ′ ( c) = 0
⇒ 2c + 1 = 0
⇒ c = −1/2 ∈ (−3, 2)

So, Rolle’s theorem is verified.


10 MODULE 1. SINGLE VARIABLE CALCULUS

Try these:

Example 1.6.2. Verify Rolle’s theorem for the following functions:


(I) f ( x) = ( x2 − 1)( x − 2) in [−1, 2].
(II) f ( x) = mod x in [−2, 2].

1.7 Langrange’s Mean value theorem


If a function f ( x) is,
(i) continuous in [a, b]
and (ii) differentiable in ( a, b ),
then there exists at least one value c of x lying in the open interval a < x < b such that
f ( b ) − f ( a)
f ′ ( c) =
b−a

Remarks: Lagrange’s mean value theorem fails for the function that does not satisfy even
one of the two conditions.

Example 1.7.1. Verify Lagrange’s mean value theorem for the function f ( x) = x2 + 2 x + 3 in
[4, 6].

Solution: Given f ( x) = x2 + 2 x + 3.
(I) f ( x) is contimous in [4, 6] as it is a polynomial function.
(II) f ( x) as a polynomial function, is also derivable in (4, 6).
Thus both the conditions of Lagrange’s mean value theorem are satisfied & hence there may
exist at least one real number C in (4, 6) such that,
f (6) − f (4)
f ′ ( c) =
6−4
Now, f ′ ( x) = 2 x + 2
∴ f ′ ( c) = 2 c + 2
(36 + 12 + 3) − (16 + 8 + 3)
∴ 2c + 2 =
2
⇒ 2 c + 2 = 12
⇒ c = 5 ∈ [4, 6]
Therefore the Lagrange’s M.V.T is satisfied by f ( x).

Try these:

Example 1.7.2. Verify Lagrange’s mean value theorem for the following functions:
(a) px2 + qx + r in [a, b], p ̸= 0.
(b) 2 sinx − sin2 x in [0, π].

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