Crime Analysis and the Future of Policing

Police departments have increased their investments in technology and the results are beginning to
show. Robert Davis, director of research at the Police Executive Research Forum, said officers are
becoming more professional in how they operate and that includes how they apply technology. “They
are getting better at procuring technology that can deliver capabilities they didn’t have before,” he said.

(Newcombe, 2014, p. 1)

So what does the 2008 mapping of the entire human genome have to do with law enforcement? Well,
for one, the technology is now available to code the DNA from a cigarette butt and use the profile to
compose a computerized three-dimensional image of the donor’s face. Couple that with the steadily
advancing facial recognition programs, and you could have a suspect identified with very little effort.
Gone are the days of combing a file drawer full of photo mug shots

(Clark, 2013, p. 1)

Predictive technologies are being used to support police operations … Although some of the methods
are promising and describe the current state of [the] field, they are still more academic than practical

(Perry, McInnes, Price, Hollywood, and Smith, 2013, p. xiv)

Introduction

This book has been about the past—and the future—of American policing. In many ways, the future of
policing is here today. In other ways, we can only imagine at this point what we will have the capacity to
do in the future. But what we do know is that crime fighting and policing are rapidly changing and
discovering new and innovative ways to make communities safer while being better able to predict
crime, respond to emergency situations, and make the lives of criminal offenders more perilous.

We have written at various points in this book that routine activities theory and environmental
approaches to crime prevention pay dividends in terms of preventing crime—rather than investing time
and resources in crime detection and apprehension of offenders.

As you will recall, routine activities theory holds that crime takes place when a motivated offender and a
suitable target coincide in time and space with the absence of a committed guardian. Traditional
policing pays attention to the offender, apprehending him or her and trying to make sure the offender
gets his or her comeuppance. And the traditional thinking is that if you put away enough criminals, then
the supply of motivated offenders will be reduced and crime will go down.

A great theory—however, there are two problems with this traditional policing approach. One is that
the police, in general, have a pretty dismal rate of solving crimes; it ranges from about 14% for motor
vehicle thefts to 48% for violent crimes (FBI, 2014). The second problem is that by locking up more
people than any other country, the United States hasn’t, it seems, run out of motivated offenders.
Therefore, we need another approach.

Routine activities theory and other environmental approaches hold out greater promise for the future.
And that’s where crime analysis can play a role in our society. Crime analysts can detect crime problems,

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crime patterns, and hot spots of crime, and make recommendations that lead toward solutions to
problems—instead of trying to view every crime as an isolated event that requires the detection,
solution, and (if things go extremely well) arrest, and (it is hoped, eventually) conviction of one criminal
offender.

Crime analysts with their technology have a much better chance of reducing crime and crime rates than
do patrol officers and detectives. And that’s what this book has tried to emphasize. By introducing you
to the technology, methods, and goals of different types of crime analysis, we hope that we can
influence students to become acquainted with crime analysis, find it fascinating, and go on to further
training, with the end goal of becoming a crime analyst in a police department. There, we believe, you
can become an integral member of both a unit and the department in order to serve as a beacon for
what the future of policing is all about.

The Need for Crime Analysts

The police departments of the future, as is becoming clearer each year, will be about integrating
technology with policing. But, as technology becomes more sophisticated and increasingly critical to
police department operations, departments will need to hire more trained and professional crime
analysts. In fact, crime analysts are an increasingly necessary resource in today’s policing agencies
(Bond, 2015). As we have discussed the different types of crime analysis in this book, it has become clear
that crime analysts may bring needed skills and insights into the various tasks of today’s police agency.
Although each police department has specific requirements, responsibilities, and needs, at a minimum
most departments require skilled crime analysts who can optimize crime mapping software, discover
crime trends, pinpoint crime hot spots, and produce informative reports for the agency and the public
(Bond, 2015).

More police departments are developing crime analysis units and real-time crime centers (RTCCs, or
fusion centers, as they are sometimes called), which must be staffed by qualified and skilled crime
analysts. Many departments choose to hire civilian (nonsworn) crime analysts to manage crime mapping
efforts, gather and analyze data, and present information in a visual-friendly display for department
supervisors to use for tactical, operational, and strategic planning (Bond, 2015).

However, as more crime analysis courses are taught in criminal justice and criminology departments
around the United States, more students will be trained to play roles in either crime analysis units or
RTCCs. But, to be sure, the role of the crime analyst will continue to evolve as technology advances.
Educated and well-trained crime analysts who want to make a career supporting the needs of law
enforcement agencies and the community should find many opportunities (Bond, 2015).

What Makes a Good Crime Analyst?

Are you thinking about becoming a crime analyst after you leave college? Do you have what it takes to
be a competent crime analyst?

Opinions differ somewhat concerning what makes a “good” crime analyst. Some crime analysts who
were formerly police officers may hold the notion that a good analyst should be a police officer first. A
civilian analyst may, on the other hand, believe that an analyst needs to be free of traditional “cop”
thinking. Certainly, there are some people who believe that no matter what, a good crime analyst needs
a strong background in computers and technology.

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While we subscribe to none of these positions in a firm and rigid way, we are of the opinion that a good
crime analyst must bring three things to the job: (1) an educational background in criminology or
criminal justice; (2) a working knowledge of policing and investigation; and (3) training and skills in
computers and statistical analysis.

Yet, one of the drawbacks of this nascent field of crime analysis is that many crime analysts are civilians
who are viewed as entry-level employees lacking professionalism (Santos, 2013). This tends to mean
that for the most part, and in most police departments, there is little room for advancement, especially
for the crime analyst who is not a police officer. So, many crime analysts, in order to get a promotion,
must move to a larger police agency, particularly one with a fusion center or real-time crime center
(RTCC).

With these limitations stated, there are important skills that are needed in order to be a successful
crime analyst. Certainly the three elements of a good crime analyst listed above are essential, but also to
be successful in the job, a crime analyst must be able to communicate complex ideas in a clear and
down-to-earth manner. Furthermore, the crime analyst must be able to relate to police officers, work
within the police culture, think clearly under pressure, defend his or her views on important issues, and
keep a sense of humor (Santos, 2013).

Crime Analyst Qualifications and Job Descriptions

Here are two announcements for crime analyst jobs we found recently. The first comes from the
website http://Monster.com and concerns a crime analyst position opening in West Allis, Wisconsin:

Crime Analyst I

Duties: A Crime Analyst prepares, analyzes, and disseminates information and recommendations
relevant to actual and anticipated criminal activity for the purpose of increasing the effectiveness of
patrol deployment, crime prevention, criminal investigations, and the apprehension of suspects. An
employee in this classification must be adaptable to address changing trends in both technology and
crime.

Typical duties include: assists in researching, analyzing, and collecting data from a variety of sources to
identify and evaluate crime series, patterns, and trends; reviews police officers’ crime and arrest
reports, field interviews, and pawn slips for content; provides statistical information to supervisory and
management staff as necessary; performs tactical analysis, strategic crime analysis, and administrative
analysis dependent on situational demands; conducts and evaluates searches of databases and other
information systems to assist in locating suspects and victims and to identify stolen property; provides
timely and valuable investigative assistance to sworn law enforcement personnel for the purpose of
identifying victims and offenders; assists sworn law enforcement personnel in developing target profiles;
uses profiles to track criminals; utilizes a variety of databases and computer programs to generate maps,
hotspots, reports, and statistical and tactical information; assists in reviewing and responding to
requests for information related to crime analysis from other divisions, departments, outside agencies,
and the public; attends community meetings, department in-service/training programs, and patrol
briefings to discuss crime patterns and review current events; reviews crime data to ensure proper
reporting to state, regional, and federal agencies; communicates with other jurisdictions regarding

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mutual crime problems; notifies detectives of possible multi-jurisdictional links between crimes and
criminals; assists in preparing and developing crime summaries, statistical reports, spreadsheets, charts,
maps, diagrams, graphs, and related materials in order to track and present findings related to criminal
activity, patterns, and trends; prepares predictions based upon previous reported activity and an
analysis of typical behavior patterns; communicates/coordinates with the City of West Allis (COWA) GIS
Coordinator regarding the tracking and mapping of information on COWA Internet and Intranet;
maintains records and develops reports concerning crime analysis; maintains records for in-house
statistics; maintains and files crime analysis and management reports; prepares statistical reports as
required; provides staff assistance to Shift Commanders, Crime Prevention Commander and COWA
Neighborhood Services staff; attends meetings to maintain awareness of new developments in the field
of crime analysis and to share information with others; prepares and assists in the administration of
grants and accreditation process, including the preparation of quarterly and annual reports, and other
special administrative projects; maintains prompt, predictable, and regular physical attendance;
provides truthful and accurate written and verbal communications; maintains the ability to competently
and credibly testify in court; performs other related duties as required.

Desirable knowledge, skills, and abilities: Knowledge of the principles and practices of management,
research methodology, organizational planning, and statistical analysis; law enforcement and criminal
justice systems; laws applicable to record keeping and dissemination of restricted information;
microcomputer systems, applications, and software; and training techniques. Ability to communicate
clearly both orally and in writing; apply principles, practices, methods, and techniques of public
administration, management analysis, and statistics to the gathering, organization, and analysis of data;
prepare technical reports with a high degree of skill and clarity; use mainframe and PC based computer
systems, including creating, maintaining, and accessing database files; prepare statistical charts, graphs,
and exhibits; and establish and maintain effective work relationships with supervisors, other employees,
the public, and other government officials; maintain physical condition appropriate to the performance
of assigned duties and responsibilities which may include sitting for extended periods of time and
operating assigned office equipment; maintain effective audiovisual discrimination and perception
needed for making observations, communicating with others, reading and writing, and operating
assigned office equipment; maintain mental capacity which allows for effective interaction and
communication with others.

Minimum requirements: Associates Degree in Criminal Justice, Crime Analysis or related field or at least
60 college credits from an accredited college or university and/or attendance at an approved crime
analyst certification program; or an equivalent combination of education and experience that would
likely provide the required knowledge and abilities; or three to five years of recent responsible paid
work experience in criminal justice crime analysis, research, or a combination thereof.

Competent in the use of office computers and applicable software, including but not limited to,
Microsoft Office Suite, GIS, SQL, report management systems, graphing programs, and statistical
programs.

Pass a police background check due to access to confidential Police Department information.

Possess the physical capacity to perform the duties of the position including, but not limited to,
continuous sitting, walking, and standing; occasional lifting/carrying up to 20 lbs.; continuous
stretching/reaching of arms; continuous arching of neck; the ability to occasionally bend, kneel, twist,

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stoop, squat, pull, push, etc.; and the ability to continuously focus for long periods of time on projects or
while working on computers.

Salary: The 2015 West Allis resident hourly rate range is $20.86 to $23.47. The non-West Allis resident
hourly rate range is $20.43 to $23.00.

Benefits: Benefits include vacation accrual upon date of hire based on the vacation schedule; a sickness
disability benefit plan; twelve (12) paid holidays; a comprehensive health insurance plan (which is
contributory) covering the employee and his/her family, with eligibility the first of the month following
thirty (30) days of service; fully paid dental insurance covering the employee and his/her family, with
eligibility the first of the month following six (6) months of service; a dual pension system comprised of
the Wisconsin Retirement Fund* and federal Social Security (both of which are contributory); after six
(6) months of service, a fully paid life insurance program* with coverage in the amount of the
employee’s annual salary adjusted to the next highest one thousand dollars, with the option for
additional coverage; an educational reimbursement plan for the pursuit of job related courses; and
voluntary benefit programs consisting of Section 125: Flexible Benefits for Dependent Care and Medical
Reimbursement, Section 457: Deferred Compensation, TreasuryDirect Payroll Savings Plan for Savings
Bonds, Employee Assistance Program (EAP), and Employee Wellness Program.

Here is one from the San Jose, California, Police Department:

About the department: The City of San Jose, the Capital of Silicon Valley, is one of the nation’s best
managed cities and one of the top ten cities in which to live, work, and do business. Moreover, San Jose
is the center of cultural, government and economic activity for the region. The employees of the City of
San Jose have embraced the following values: Integrity, Innovation, Excellence, Collaboration, Respect
and Celebration. The San Jose Police Department is seeking an individual whose values align with the
values of the City’s employees. The mission of the San Jose Police Department is to create safe places to
live, work and learn through community partnerships.

Position and duties: The San Jose Police Department (SJPD) is recruiting to fill a Crime Analysis Program
Manager in the Research and Development Unit (R&D). R&D is in the Office of the Chief of Police and is
responsible for research and preparation of complex reports and specialized projects involving inter-
Departmental issues and intergovernmental topics. The Crime Analysis team analyzes crime data,
produces crime-related reports, and ensures accurate and timely reporting of crime data to the
Department of Justice, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, other City departments and police
management. Under the direction of a Lieutenant, the Crime Analysis Program Manager is responsible
for managing all functions of the Crime Analysis Unit by performing work of considerable difficulty in
planning, coordinating, and directing the utilization of complex computerized systems for crime analysis
functions; insures the accuracy and integrity of the various databases; provides management support
and specialized expertise to users of crime data, systems analysts, and operations personnel.

The essential functions of this position are as follows:

Plan, implement, and manage the Crime Analysis Program; establish objectives; maintain project
timelines for various projects; ensure efficient utilization of resources; and administer program budget.
Establish and/or direct the development of detailed procedures to retrieve, integrate, and analyze crime
data, including data sharing and data transfer. Perform complex statistical analyses to monitor crime

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levels throughout the City and to support strategic deployment of police resources. Summarize statistics
into concise reports for review by the Mayor and Council, City Manager’s Office and Police Command
personnel. Supervise subordinates and professional staff in a manner which they are able to prioritize
assigned work; conduct performance evaluations, and ensure that staff member(s) are properly trained.
Anticipate, plan and implement actions to solve problems effectively. Performs related work as
required.

This recruitment may be used to fill multiple positions in this, or other divisions or departments. If you
are interested in employment in this classification, you should apply to ensure you are considered for
additional opportunities that may utilize the applicants from this recruitment.

Minimum qualifications:

Education: Bachelor’s Degree from an accredited college or university in public or business

administration, information management, criminal justice, statistics, computer science or other related
field.

Experience: Five (5) years of paid, increasingly responsible experience in crime analysis, including two (2)
years of supervisory experience.

Background: Submit to and successfully pass a comprehensive background investigation as required by

the SJPD.

Employment Eligibility: Federal law requires all employees to provide verification of their eligibility to
work in this country. Please be informed that the City of San Jose will not prepare or file a labor
condition application with the Department of Labor.

Desirable qualifications: Possession of certification in Crime and Intelligence Analysis from the California
Department of Justice with the designation of Certified Crime and Intelligence Analyst for the State of
California or its equivalent.

Competencies: The ideal candidate will possess the following competencies, as demonstrated in past
and current employment history. Desirable competencies for this position include:

Job Expertise—demonstrates knowledge of and experience with applicable professional/technical

principles and practices, Citywide and departmental procedures/policies and federal and state rules and
regulations including but not limited to: law enforcement systems and software; theory, principles,
practices, and methods of crime analysis; geographic information systems (GIS) and intelligence
applications.

Supervision—sets effective long and short-term goals based on sound leadership and management
practices; establishes realistic priorities within available resources.

Analytical Thinking—approaches a situation or problem by defining the problem or issue; identifies a set
of features, parameters, or considerations to take into account, collects and analyzes data, uses logic
and intuition to arrive at conclusions and recommendations.

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Communication Skills—Communicates and listens effectively and responds in a timely, effective,
positive, and respectful manner; written reports and correspondences are accurate, complete, current,
well-organized, legible, concise, neat, and in proper grammatical form.

Team Work and Interpersonal Skills—Demonstrates a positive attitude and flexibility along with the
ability to develop effective relationships with staff, colleagues, and the City’s departments by helping
others accomplish tasks and using collaboration and conflict resolution skills.

Collaboration—develops networks and builds alliances; engages in cross-functional activities.

Change Management—demonstrates support for innovation and for organizational changes needed to
improve the organization’s effectiveness; facilitates the implementation and acceptance of change
within the workplace.

Planning—acts to align own unit’s goals with the strategic direction of the organization.

Selection process: The selection process will consist of an evaluation of the applicant’s training and
experience based on the application and responses to the Job-Specific Questions. Only the candidates
whose backgrounds best match the position will be invited to proceed in the selection process.
Additional phases of the selection process will consist of one or more interviews, one of which may
include a practical/writing exercise.

As is evident from these two crime analyst job postings, the job market is varied in terms of different
types of positions available and with divergent salary ranges. However, as is also readily apparent from
these job descriptions, the skills and qualifications for a crime analyst can be extensive and broad.

Education for Crime Analysts

It has been emphasized at various points in this book that crime analysts should possess an overview of
the investigative process from the law enforcement perspective. With that in mind, what follows is an
ideal curriculum, based on the classes Glenn Grana teaches to crime analysts in New York. He refers to it
as a basic criminal investigations course for crime and intelligence analysts, and the intent is to
introduce the analyst to the investigative mindset that a police officer/investigator uses when
conducting a real-time criminal investigation, interview, or follow-up investigation. The goal, upon
completion of the curriculum, is to help the analyst gain a better understanding of the investigative
process that their law enforcement counterparts follow while developing an investigative skill set that
can help to enhance their own investigative process at the same time.

Course curriculum:

•Introduction to criminal investigations

•Historical

•The analyst’s role

•Basic investigative techniques/locating suspects

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•Creating actionable intelligence from information

•Understanding solvability factors

•Working and creating leads

•Interview techniques

•Active listening

•Command of Q and A process when extracting information from interviewee

•Pattern investigations: beyond traditional analysis

•Understanding commonalities and their relevance to MO

•Case management

•Follow-up

•Closing the case out

•Courtroom testimony

•Demeanor

•Understanding Brady and Rosario rules

•Case study: homicide investigation

•Understanding the analyst’s role in a large-scale, multiple homicide investigation

The follow-up to this course would be courses to provide essential knowledge, similar to what has been
featured throughout this book, about analysis of criminal intelligence.

Where to Go for More Information about Crime Analyst Jobs

The first place to go for information is the International Association of Crime Analysts (IACA). This is
probably the most well-known professional association for the crime analyst field. It maintains a Current
Job Opportunities page on its website that lists crime analyst jobs (https://iaca.net/job-listings/). You
may want to note the types of requirements listed. Many require at least a bachelor’s degree or some
other combination of college and experience. Usually, the degrees required are in criminal justice,
sociology, public administration, or computer sciences. IACA also offers a variety of training courses and
professional conferences.

Technology and the Future of Policing

Getting a job and working in criminal justice today means having the opportunity to utilize robots, global
positioning systems (GPS), advanced cameras, and high-powered computer systems. These important
technologies have improved investigation, surveillance, and analysis procedures. But, as with all
technology in all fields, technology works great as long as it is being utilized by workers with the
requisite skill set and intelligence to use it properly.

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Every aspect of law enforcement has a computer program associated with the job, from DNA testing to
robotic cameras to automatic license plate recognition systems—just to name a few. The amount of
technology available to make criminal justice jobs more effective is rapidly growing. Of course, criminals
also utilize these technologies, so professionals in the industry have to remain one step ahead in
technology to combat illicit usage.

As we hope has been made clear in this book, one of the most important technological tools in the field
today is the computer database. There are now database systems for DNA testing and profiling,
fingerprints, and hot spot crime mapping programs. For each type of database that exists, there have
been corresponding technological advancements in that niche.

Everyone is familiar with computers, but the criminal justice field also gets to see more unique forms of
technological advancements, such as the following:

•Robots, robotic cameras, and flying drones. Instead of sending in an officer to check out a dangerous
situation or diffuse a bomb, it’s now possible to send in a robot. There are even flying robotic drones
that give officers a bird’s-eye view of a crime scene without a person having to go up in the air.

•Gunshot detection system (GDS). This system of electronic sensors installed in high-crime areas helps
police quickly detect where any gunshots come from. They allow for an improved response time that
helps to reduce crime.

•GPS and GIS. Police departments can use GPS and geographic information systems (GIS) in so many
ways these days. They can help officers get to a crime scene using the most effective route, and they can
pinpoint where a suspect is located. One great way in which GPS is used is to track fleeing criminals
without having to engage in a dangerous high-speed chase. GIS can be used to track police vehicles so
departments always know where they are located.

•Automatic license plate recognition (ALPR). There are now cameras inside police cars that can
automatically run every single license plate the camera sees. An officer immediately sees if the car is
stolen or if the driver has warrants out for his or her arrest.

But, as you have learned, police departments, through the skills and expertise of crime analysts, can also
use data mining and predictive analytics to identify crime trends and highlight “hidden” connections
between disparate events. This helps the police to gain a more complete picture of crime, predict
patterns of future criminal behavior, and identify the key causal factors of crime in their area.

Just over the horizon of upcoming law enforcement technologies is biometrics, including facial
recognition. The same software that has been used to identify high rollers and cheats in casinos, for
example, can now be used to single out people banned from football stadiums or terrorists on a watch
list at key border control points. Biometrics, including iris recognition, is ready to be used to match
passengers to their digital images on e-passports at border crossings all over the world. This wasn’t even
imagined as possible in the twentieth century.

The most exciting news is that the potential for technology to reduce crime is real and proven. However,
all law enforcement agencies must prepare their officers to embrace new technologies as they become
available. It is apparent that our future safety and security depend on this.

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One important tool in the present—and future—arsenal of police departments is predictive policing. As
the ability to collect, store, and analyze data becomes cheaper and easier, law enforcement agencies are
adopting techniques that harness the potential of technology to provide more and better information.
But while these new tools have been welcomed by law enforcement agencies, they’re raising concerns
about privacy, surveillance, and how much power should be given over to computer algorithms.

Jeffrey Brantingham, a professor of anthropology at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA),
helped to develop the predictive policing system that is now licensed to dozens of police departments
under the brand name PredPol (Hoff, 2013). PredPol’s technique and proprietary algorithm is all about
predicting where and when crime is most likely to occur, although not necessarily who will commit it.

PredPol is now being used in a third of the Los Angeles Police Department’s 21 geographic policing
divisions, and officers on patrol are equipped with maps sprinkled with a dozen or more red boxes
indicating high probabilities of criminal activity (Hoff, 2013). Dozens of other cities across the United
States are using the PredPol software to predict crime, including gang activity, drug crimes, and
shootings.

Challenges to Integrating Crime Analysis into Policing

Even though there are numerous advantages to using technology in police work, there are still barriers
and challenges to implementation. One of the most significant barriers is an incomplete understanding
on the part of police department leadership of how to use both intelligence analysis and crime analysis
more effectively (Peed, Wilson, and Scalisi, 2008). In one study, Taylor, Boba, and Egge (2013) found that
while most police agencies have at least one staff member conducting crime analysis, and while most
police departments consider crime analysis a priority and critical to achieving the agency mission, there
still is much work to be done to bring about an integrated approach within police organizations to make
crime analysis an important part of how patrol operates. Taylor et al. (2013) discovered that few patrol
officers make use of crime analysis or have contact with crime analysis personnel; many police agencies
have no feedback mechanism for the impact of crime analysis; and analysts only infrequently make use
of opportunities (e.g., roll call briefings or ride-alongs) to gain a better understanding of the operations
and culture of patrol.

Other research suggests that training for both intelligence analysts and crime analysts is often
inadequate and limited (Peed et al., 2008). However, development of what Peed et al. (2008) describe
as an integrated crime analysis model is not out of reach, given the right leadership direction and proper
resources and training. They recommend that police management should tailor crime analysis training
to support the specific missions and products most needed by command staff members and line
officers.

Although many law enforcement administrators and managers have not yet fully grasped the full
potential of what skilled crime analysts can do, and they have not quite figured out how to apply crime
analyst skills effectively and efficiently, ultimately we believe that police departments will come to
appreciate the extraordinary benefits of crime analysis. By making greater use of crime analysts working
in RTCCs or fusion centers, the services of crime analysts will enhance the safety and efficiency of the
police to better serve and protect their communities.

References

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Bond, M. (2015). Crime mapping technology and its impact on law enforcement intelligence. In Public
Safety. Retrieved from: http://inpublicsafety.com/2015/01/crime-mapping-technology-and-its-impact-
on-law-enforcement-intelligence/

Clark, M. (2013). Are you ready for the future of policing? Police: The Law Enforcement Magazine.
Retrieved from: www.policemag.com/blog/technology/story/2013/12/future-trends-in-accelerating-
technology-conference.aspx

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). (2014). Crime in the United States, 2013. Uniform Crime Report.
Retrieved from: https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2013/crime-in-the-u.s.-2013/offenses-known-to-
law-enforcement/clearances/clearancetopic_final.pdf

Hoff, S. (2013). Professor helps develop predictive policing by using trends to predict, prevent crimes.
Daily Bruin. Retrieved from: www.predpol.com/dr-jeff-brantingham-featured-in-ucla-article-on-predpol/

Newcombe, T. (2014). Forecasting the future for technology and policing. Government Technology.
Retrieved from: www.govtech.com/public-safety/Forecasting-the-Future-for-Technology-and-
Policing.html

Peed, C., Wilson, R.E., and Scalisi, N.J. (2008). Making smarter decisions: Connecting crime analysis with
city officials. Police Chief. Available at: www.policechiefmagazine.org/making-smarter-decisions-
connecting-crime-analysis-with-city-officials/

Perry, W.L., McInnes, B., Price, C.C., Hollywood, J.S., and Smith, S.C. (2013). Predictive Policing: The Role
of Crime Forecasting in Law Enforcement Operations. RAND Corporation. Retrieved from:
www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR200/RR233/RAND_RR233.pdf

San Jose Police Department. (2015). Join SJDB Blue. [Originally posted online—no longer available.]

Santos, R.B. (2013). Crime Analysis with Crime Mapping. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Taylor, B., Boba, R., and Egge, J. (2013). The Integration of Crime Analysis into Patrol Work: A
Guidebook. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Community Oriented Policing Services.
Retrieved from:
www.nationalpublicsafetypartnership.org/clearinghouse/Content/ResourceDocuments/The%20Integrat
ion%20of%20Crime%20Analysis%20Into%20Patrol%20Work-%20A%20Guidebook.pdf

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