1

____________________
THE NATURE OF ART

O V E R V I E W

Art has been around for as long as our species has. In fact, evidence of figurative art
could be seen as far back as 70,000 years ago, some 47 millennia ahead of the earliest
evidence of agriculture. From cave paintings to digital drawings, tribal dances to flash mobs,
Babylonian tablets to eBook readers—art has stayed on as our greatest way of expressing our
dreams and imagination, ingenuity and creativity, identity and stories.
Because of the broadness and universality of art, there have been numerous views
on how to define it, many discussions on its functions, and countless debates on its
relevance. You yourself may already have your own ideas about what art is and what it is
not. In this module, we will tap into those. Perhaps you’re also knowledgeable about many
artworks, both world-renowned and local, maybe even ones lying around in your house.
They will be of use here. And you may have inklings as to how art is relevant in today’s
increasingly volatile world, how art has been tagged as powerful, transformative, and always
political. We will respond to those inklings.

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ARTS 1’s first module will offer you a variety of perspectives on art, beginning with
a discussion on the numerous critical views on art and its definitions. Then we will explore
how art functions, how it affects our lives both as individuals and members of the society.
By allowing you to apply and test these perspectives through three different activities, this
module hopes to help you figure how they can be of use in understanding your lived
experiences and your future. After all, art offers us great opportunities to exercise criticality.

This module will cover two weeks, and the readings and activities would take you
an estimated seven to eight hours to accomplish. Students with internet connectivity are
expected to go online for an hour or two before the end of this two-week period to submit
your activity output and the module assessment. You are also encouraged to engage in
online discussions on what you’re reading, seeing and learning in class, whenever possible.
This will be your chance to ask questions and join the conversation. Note that you can also
submit your questions in advance and check our discussion thread. For those without
internet connectivity, you may write your answers on the printed version of this study guide.
For all students, please take note that your work on your Learning Portfolio already starts
here, so please take down notes and make sure to log your thoughts and experiences.
KEY CONCEPTS REPRESENTATION, AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE, CANON, HEGEMONY

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

At the end of this module, you should be able to

1. Discuss the various views regarding the nature of art;
2. Explain how art functions; and
3. Examine the relevance of art from an individual to a social standpoint.

L E A R N I N G R E S O U R C E S

Note: The following learning resources are to be used for non-profit educational purposes
only. They are meant for personal use, so reproduction and distribution of these materials
for commercial use are prohibited.

General References
Stecker, Robert. “What Is Art?” in Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Art: An Introduction.
Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. pp. 95-122
Pooke, G. and Newall, D. Art History: The Basics. Routledge, 2008. pp. 82-112
Guillermo, Alice. “Art and Politics.” Pananaw: Philippine Journal of Visual Arts (Vol 1).
NCCA, 1997. pp. 80-89
_____. “Preface, Art and Society.” https://dokumen.tips/documents/preface-art-and-
society.html

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Multimedia References
Why should you listen to Vivaldi's "Four Seasons"? (Bety Schwarm)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xcpc8VDsv3c
Further Reading
Wartenberg, Thomas E. The Nature of Art: An Anthology. 2nd Ed. Wadsworth, 2006.

S T U D Y G U I D E

Topic 1.0 Defining Art

Perhaps you won’t find anyone questioning the art status that Leonardo da Vinci’s
Mona Lisa enjoys. After all, it is one of the most famous paintings in the world. But what
about Maurizio Cattelan’s Comedian? The same month that the coronavirus was identified
in Wuhan, China, this conceptual art caused a media frenzy, even reaching our local
evening news. Would you be completely fine accepting this banana duct-taped to a wall as
“art,” the same tag we just used for da Vinci’s 16th century masterpiece? To argue for this
innocent fruit: Both da Vinci and Cattelan are Italian artists. Both pieces have been displayed
in places for art appreciation. Both were intended to be art. Though one is priceless, the
other isn’t at all cheap. Cattelan’s been able to sell his work for $120,000 USD. Could you
now answer, with full confidence, that Comedian is art? If you're still feeling apprehensive,
know that the feeling isn’t unfounded. The subjectivity of art lends itself to these instances.
Raising an eyebrow and asking if this fruit—so unceremoniously stuck to a wall—is worth
the gallery space is a natural response, a response which has everything to do with how
we’ve been taught about art.

The Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci Comedian by Maurizio Cattelan

displayed at the Louvre Museum, exhibited at the Art Basel, Miami
Paris, France. Photo by Zach Dyson. Beach, Florida, USA. Photo by
Rhona Wise.

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Between Plato’s and Aristotle’s conceptions of art as representation or imitation

(mimesis) to our modern, more accommodating understanding of it as representation
through abstraction or metaphor, we have produced a plethora of ways to point out that
something is indeed a work of art. This is why, as mentioned in the introduction, defining
the word “art” can be quite a tricky thing to do, even if you’re an esteemed scholar or just
someone taking a closer look at art.

One of the earliest conceptions of art comes from ancient Greece, which points to
any craft or skilled activity and its products as art. Think culinary, medical, or martial arts.
The ancient Latin ars, means something similar and does not carry the aesthetic sense that
we associate with it today. When we’re using the word “art” in our daily conversations, we
probably mean something closer to the concept that was dominant in the eighteenth century,
or what we usually hear as fine art, a concept which includes poetry, painting, sculpture,
music, and architecture. Our National Museum of Fine Arts in Manila, for instance, presents
Juan Luna’s Spoliarium, the largest painting in their possession, in its grandest hall. Apart
from painting—poetry, sculpture, music, and architecture also figure in the dictionary
definitions of “art”, pointing to them as expressions of man, as man-made products born of
human creativity, imagination, experience, and skill. This idea of art, together with the
notion of it as representation, will be challenged in this module, in the same way that the
other definitions of art were discussed in your require reading, Robert Stecker’s “What Is
Art?” chapter.
A deeper look at what’s been studied and said about art will also reveal that not all
art is representational, beautiful, or made for its own sake. If Cattelan’s Comedian is any
indicator, the concept of art is ever-broadening. And what the philosopher Marshall
McLuhan says about art may be true: “Art is anything you can get away with.” Indeed, art
resists a singular definition. And to illustrate this, below is a list of the exertions we’ve had
at defining it:
1. Art is an attempt to create pleasing forms. (Herbert Read)
2. Art is the enjoyment of forms. (Ernst Cassirer)
3. Art is a man-made object demanding to be experienced
aesthetically. (Erwin Panofsky)
4. Art is expression; it is not intention or talent. (Bernedetto Croce)
5. Art is the skilled performance or distinctive ability in any activity
whatsoever. (James Jarrett)
6. Art is the power to produce a preconceived result by means of
consciously controlled and directed action. (classic definition
derived from ancient Roman and Greek concepts)
7. Art molds our actual life of feeling; by giving form to the world, it
articulates human nature: sensibility, energy, passion and
mortality. (Suzanne Langer)
8. Art is any embellishment of ordinary living that is achieved with
competence and has describable form. (Melville Herskovits)

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9. Art is the product of creative human activity in which materials are

shaped or selected to convey an idea, emotion or visually
interesting form. (Encarta Encyclopedia)
10. Art… is the becoming and happening of truth. (Heidegger)

The definitions of art presented through this list and in the reading for Module 1 by
no means make for an exhaustive list. If anything, these are just bits making up a small
sample size, which we’re exploring here in the hopes of figuring out the boundaries of art.
And even if there are numerous, sometimes problematic definitions, we will try anyhow,
because tied to understanding the nature of anything is being able to describe it. And even
as a non-art major, even if you don’t consider yourself as an artist, you have a say in these
things as an audience and spectator. Consider one theory of art, which comes from educator
and philosopher John Dewey, who claims that art should be seen as a connatural aspect of
human life, not at all radically distinct. For him art is an experience. He asserts that both
artist and audience have a part in defining and experiencing art; the artist provides the
audience their expected aesthetic experience. This ‘experience’ is focused on “our
conscious appreciation of the complete process of creation.” (Wartenberg, 137-38)

Topic 2.0 How Art Functions

The nature and function of art is

influenced by traditional western aesthetics such
as Plato’s concept of beauty as the ideal form,
Kant’s disinterested contemplation, and Bell’s
formalist perspective. While art is an outcome of
individual imagination and creative agency, it is
also the product of prevailing ideologies and
canons. Canon is defined in Art History: The
Basics by Pooke and Newall as a “judgement of
value or quality” mainly established by
academies. Canon is the standard that artists are
expected to adhere to, a way of doing that is
bound to specific materials, colors,
measurements, proportions, and arrangement of
elements. In the 6th century BC, Greek sculptors
followed a formula in carving the figure of a
young man or Kouros.
The pose is the same: the statues stand erect with the left foot forward and arms at
the side. The body is depicted in identical manner, naked with long hair, broad shoulders
and narrow waist. The frontal walking pose can be attributed to Egyptian’s canonical system
of proportion and the Greek study of the human form. These standards portray idealized
representations, sanctioned by the art world or authorities in art.

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How value is assigned to art throughout history is perpetuated by the ruling elites.
This hegemony or dominance in the artworld is often challenged by artists like Antonio
Vivaldi who veered away from formalist theory of music with his composition “Four
Seasons.”

To further appreciate this, let us listen to Bety Schwarm’s talk (from TED-Ed): Why
should you listen to Vivaldi's "Four Seasons"? (4 minutes, 5 seconds) Click on the link here:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xcpc8VDsv3c

Transcript of “Why should you listen to Vivaldi's ‘Four Seasons’?”

Light, bright, and cheerful. It's some of the most familiar of all early 18th
century music. It's been featured in uncounted films and television commercials,
but what is it and why does it sound that way?

This is the opening of "Spring" from "The Four Seasons," by Italian composer
Antonio Vivaldi. "The Four Seasons" are famous in part because they are a delight
to the ear. However, even more notable is the fact that they have stories to tell.
At the time of their publication in Amsterdam in 1725, they were accompanied by
poems describing exactly what feature of that season Vivaldi intended to capture
in musical terms. In providing specific plot content for instrumental music, Vivaldi
was generations ahead of his time.

If one were to read the poems simultaneously to hearing the music, one would
find the poetic scenes synchronizing nicely with the musical imagery. We are told
that the birds welcome spring with happy song, and here they are doing exactly
that. Soon, however, a thunderstorm breaks out. Not only is there musical thunder
and lightning, there are also more birds, wet, frightened, and unhappy.

In "Summer," the turtle dove sings her name "tortorella" in Italian, before a
hailstorm flattens the fields. "Autumn" brings eager hunters dashing out in pursuit
of their prey.

The "Winter" concerto begins with teeth chattering in the cold before one
takes refuge by a crackling fire. Then it's back out into the storm where there'll be
slips and falls on the ice. In these first weeks of winter, the old year is coming to a
close, and so does Vivaldi's musical exploration of the seasons.

Not until the early 19th century would such expressive instrumental program
music, as it was known, become popular. By then, larger, more varied ensembles
were the rule with woodwinds, brass, and percussion to help tell the tale. But
Vivaldi pulled it off with just one violin, strings, and a harpsichord. Unlike his
contemporary Bach, Vivaldi wasn't much interested in complicated fugues. He
preferred to offer readily accessible entertainment to his listeners with melodies
that pop back up later in a piece to remind us of where we've been. So the first
movement of the "Spring" concerto begins with a theme for spring and ends with
it, too, slightly varied from when it was last heard.

It was an inspired way to attract listeners, and Vivaldi, considered one of the
most electrifying violinists of the early 18th century, understood the value of
attracting audiences. Such concerts might feature himself as the star violinist.
Others presented the young musicians of the Pietà, a Venetian girls' school where

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Vivaldi was Director of Music. Most of the students were orphans. Music training
was intended not only as social skills suitable for young ladies but also as potential
careers for those who might fail to make good marriages.

Even in the composer's own time, Vivaldi's music served as diversion for all,
not just for the wealthy aristocrats. 300 years later, it's an approach that still works,
and Vivaldi's music still sounds like trotting horses on the move. End of transcript.

Not only is Vivaldi’s “Four Seasons” bursting with expressive qualities, it also freed
music from the formalist view that music has no meaning in the conventional, referential
sense. It tells a familiar story, celebrating a subject experienced everyday by ordinary people.

In visual arts, a new way of viewing the world was introduced by Goya and Courbet.
Goya depicted monsters, Courbet favored the mundane, both exposing social reality. Art is
now grounded on history and social relations. Art moved from classical idealist canons to
modernist expressiveness (Guillermo, 1997). You will learn more about the art movements
in Module 2.

Art became reproducible and transportable. It is more accessible to the masses, with
artists seeking a larger audience outside of the academe, museums, and galleries. In an
interview with Smithsonian Magazine, graffiti artist Banksy said that the kind of audience
today makes artists thrive and “all you need now is a few ideas and a broadband connection.
This is the first time the essentially bourgeois world of art has belonged to the people. We
need to make it count.” And so the power shifted to the people, and art rolled out into the
streets, defamiliarizing reality like Kurt Perschke’s RedBall Project.

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The increase in the interaction between the artist and the society transformed the function
of art. Art served as a historical record, documenting the Vietnam War (Napalm Girl by Nick
Ut, 1972) and America’s immigration policy (Brush and Comb Assembly by Tom Kiefer,
2017).

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In Ai Weiwei’s works, art is a protest and cultural commentary, problematizing mass

production in Sunflower Seeds (2010) and heritage loss in Dropping a Han Dynasty Urn
(1995).

Art is now used to bring about political change. In the Philippines, Jose Rizal’s novels
played a significant role in the Philippine Revolution. Juan Abad and Aurelio Tolentino
staged plays opposing the American government. Social realists created visual dissent
against Martial Law then and continue to do so, this time against Duterte’s fascist regime.
Guillermo points out that there is no separation of art and politics, urging the public to
“engage in various forms of political engagement to gain greater control over their lives (80).”

Art as propaganda can have a transformative effect. It can be used to influence and
control perception. Hegemons or institutions can establish beliefs, legitimize canonical
aesthetics and shape our culture through art. But art can also break these dominant canons
and hegemony. In the preface to her book, Art and Society, Guillermo states that “When we
recognize that there are many different aesthetics and histories of aesthetics, we break away
from the domination of the globalizing Western aesthetic tradition.” You will delve deeper
into this in Module 3.

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Topic 3.0 Relevance of Art

You have seen thus far that art and its relevance may be closely linked to its benefits
and impacts, many of which are personal, private and intrinsic, such as those identified by
McCarthy et al. (as cited in Walmsley), which include the following: “captivation, pleasure,
expanded capacity for empathy, cognitive growth.” An extended version of this model by
Brown (as cited in Walmsley) adds the following individual, instantaneous benefits of art:
“mental stimulation, imaginative flight, creative activation, inspiration, renewal, empowered
spirit, emotional reaction, sensory pleasure,….” A progressive exposure to and engagement
with art, argues Brown, would yield cumulative benefits, such as “self-actualisation,
improved social skills, aesthetic growth, ability to think critically, character development,
and emotional maturity.” How does your experience with art validate these models? Can
you further extend these lists?

Aside from looking at these private, individual benefits, however, the relevance of art
may also be examined from a social standpoint. This will be the focus of this section. Here
we will see that “[a]lthough there is pleasure to be gained from the arts and beauty to be
found in them, and though they are often moving,” as Graham asserts, “these features alone
cannot explain the value of art at its finest.” Such an approach necessitates a view of art that
acknowledges the institutional factors surrounding it, one that sees art as construct and
thoroughly political. This section thus foreshadows the discussions on the production,
distribution, and reception of art, which will be discussed in greater detail in Modules 3, 4
and 5, respectively.

We therefore need to orient ourselves to the study of the intersections between art
and politics that foreground the investigation of art’s social existence. Viewed this way, art
may be mobilized to either confirm/control or critique/challenge the status quo. For
instance, art may be used to reinforce or resist hegemony, a political concept advanced by
Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci to refer to “the domination by a ruling ideology through
‘consent’ rather than ‘coercive power’” (Carter). In this process, the privileged maintain
dominance in society because the disadvantaged accept their ideals, values, desires and
interests. These dominant sets of beliefs are perpetuated through institutions such as the
family, religion, media, and the educational system, collectively called Ideological State
Apparatuses (a central concept in French Marxist Louis Althusser’s theory of ideology, which
will be discussed in greater detail in Module 3).

An example with which we can see cultural hegemony in action is through the way
we have valued fairer skin over our natural skin color. It is something that we are conditioned
to accept growing up, but seldom question. Try to recall how frequent (and aggressive) our
culture’s multibillion skin-whitening industry advertises their products on TV. Aside from
advertising, schools and universities are key players in the production of hegemonic values.
For example, the singing of the National Anthem in flag ceremonies inculcate in us images
of the patriotic Filipino who is ultimately willing to be martyred for the Philippines. (Musician
Joey Ayala challenged this meaning in the song in his TED talk, “How Lupang Hinirang
ought to be sung.”) Under hegemony, as these examples show, the civil society is

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deceptively urged to accept the dominant values and meanings in the culture through the
use of various means including art.

Art, however, can be used as a form of resistance or protest to challenge the status
quo and create a counter-hegemony where the value systems of the subordinate class get
recognized.

Consider the following page (which has become a meme) from a literary work for
“farmers and their children” authored by Sen. Cynthia Villar and Yvette Fernandez and
illustrated by Paul Eric Roca. How does this work seek to advance hegemonic values? How
does the meme respond to this attempt?

The meme above instantiates what Billig calls “contestive humor” enacted here
through visual (and textual) mockery, which bears resemblance to political cartoons we see
in newspapers. The use of ridicule in the meme to make a social commentary albeit in a
somewhat crude fashion reveals a subversive form of joking that directly responds to the
hegemonic values in the work.

ACTIVITY Show and Tell: Art at Home (120 minutes)

Find two objects within your living space that you consider as art. Present
each of them by explaining, in your own words, why you chose that particular
item, and then use one definition from Robert Stecker's "What Is Art?" to
support your argument. Briefly explain, too, what canon you think it follows or breaks. And
close your presentation by sharing what cultural hegemony your chosen artwork may be
pushing or contesting.

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For the definitions from Robert Stecker's "What Is Art?", you may choose any of the following
personalities and their definition: Collingwood, Bell, Beardsley, Schlesinger, Lind, Weitz &
Ziff, Danto, Dickie, Levinson, and Stecker. You may paste a photograph, draw, or even
describe in words what your chosen object is. You may choose anything—from everyday
objects to your favorite songs—as long as you can present them as instructed above. Stay
within a 150-word limit per object when presenting them. You may refer to the two examples
given below. 20 points

The image, description, or Your choice’s explanation

illustration of your chosen artwork

I chose this mug because I believe that art is anything that

is beautiful and useful. Clive Bell’s definition of art as
having significant form supports my choice. First, it’s
significant because it is able to provide an aesthetic
experience to me. And it has lines and colors, so it has
form. In my opinion, this artwork follows the standard of
mugs. It has a handle and has a space for liquids. Unlike
porcelain teacups or mugs, though, this one has a rugged
and weathered look reminiscent of crudely-made wares
from earlier times. This style resists the more polished
Example 1 style that is attributed to modern living, and perhaps
romanticizes rustic living as also equally beautiful and
interesting.

I picked BLACKPINK’s “Lovesick Girls” music video

because I also believe that art captivates human
emotions. This song’s music video satisfies what
Schlesinger says about art having to provide an aesthetic
experience. Viewing “Lovesick Girls” simply makes me
happy. The visuals are appealing and so is the message of
the song. The music video is typical of KPOP videos, with
strong use of colors, and a dance routine. BLACKPINK
also conforms to the tradition of KPOP girl groups. The
Example 2 inclusion of rap verses show the influence of African
American music on KPOP, while the message of the song
illustrates the addictive quality of being in love even
though it can be a difficult and usually ends in heartbreak.

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The image, description, or Your choice’s explanation

illustration of your chosen artwork

G U I D E Q U E S T I O N S

1. What does art mean to you?

2. What is art for?
3. Why does art matter?
4. What are some questions you have about art?
5. How has the definition of art changed over time?
6. What intrinsic benefits may be derived from engagement with art?
7. What are the theses and imperatives concerning art and its study
as stated by Guillermo?
8. How can we examine the intersections between art and politics in
works of art?

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A S S E S S M E N T

Essay Questions. Allot 40-90 minutes. 40 points.

On a separate document, write your name, date, and ARTS 1 section. Answer the
following questions in essay form, following the instructions per item on length and required
discussion points. Be mindful of avoiding plagiarism, and use proper citation when
answering.

1. To further challenge your notion of what art is, here is a 1917 piece
titled “Fountain.” It has been widely attributed to Marcel Duchamp
though there is some evidence suggesting it was all Elsa von Freytag-
Loringhoven’s idea.1 Either way, when it was presented to the
artworld, it caused quite a stir as you can imagine. It shook the way
we had viewed about what artworks are and aren’t, who says
something is art or not. In the end, though, the piece secured for itself
a place in the art world as one of the most iconic pieces of modern
art.

In four to six sentences, argue for how “Fountain” is not a work of

art using one definition from Robert Stecker’s “What Is Art?” You must
cite the personality associated with your choice, as well as sufficiently
explain your argument. 10 points

1
Hustevdt, Siri. “A woman in the men's room: when will the art world recognise the real artist behind Duchamp's Fountain?”
Books. The Guardian, 29 March 2019. Accessed 25 February 2021: https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/mar/29/marcel-
duchamp-fountain-women-art-history

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2. The Stonehenge is a famous example of early architecture. The

monument is believed to have an astronomical function when it was
built. What do you think is the purpose and relevance of the
Stonehenge today? Think of and share an architectural structure in the
Philippines with a primary function that has also changed over time.
What does this imply about art and its function? Write your answer
in no more than six sentences. 10 points

3. Identify one meme that has captured your attention recently and that
you consider to be art. Copy and paste, describe, or illustrate the
meme here. In no more than 12 sentences, relate it to the four points
Alice Guillermo makes in her preface to Art and Society: art is
sociohistorical, art is dialogic, art is construct, and art has social
import. 20 points

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R U B R I C S

DISCOURSE/ EXCEEDS MEETS PARTIALLY DOES NOT MEET

CRITIQUE MEETS

20 points

SWEEP Inclusion of all Inclusion of most of Inclusion of half Mention of less than
necessary discussion the necessary the necessary half of the required
10 points points (ex: all 8 of the discussion points (ex: discussion points discussion points (3
visual elements). 10 6-7 visual elements). 8 (ex: 4-5 visual or less of the visual
elements). 6 elements). 4 or less

DEPTH Comprehensive and Comprehensive Barely substantial Insubstantial

engaged discussion of articulation of the articulation of discussion of
7 points each observation. 7 observations. 5 observations. 3 observations. 2

ORDER Consistent logical Fairly consistent logical Some coherence Little to no attempt
and/or aesthetic and/or aesthetic in the delivery of to organize
3 points pattern in the delivery pattern in the delivery observations. observations.
of observations. No of observations. Few Several Glaring and
grammatical errors. 3 grammatical errors. 2 grammatical frequent
errors. 1 grammatical errors.
0

DISCOURSE/ EXCEEDS MEETS PARTIALLY DOES NOT

CRITIQUE MEETS MEET

10 points

SWEEP Inclusion of all Inclusion of most of Inclusion of half Mention of less

necessary discussion the necessary the necessary than half of the
5 points points (ex: all 8 of the discussion points (ex: discussion points required discussion
visual elements). 5 6-7 visual elements). 4 (ex: 4-5 visual points (3 or less of
elements). 3 the visual
elements). 2

DEPTH Comprehensive and Comprehensive Barely substantial Insubstantial

engaged discussion of articulation of the articulation of discussion of
3 points each observation. 3 observations. 2 observations. 1 observations. 0

ORDER Consistent logical Fairly consistent logical Some coherence Little to no attempt
and/or aesthetic and/or aesthetic in the delivery of to organize
2 points pattern in the delivery pattern in the delivery observations. observations.
of observations. No of observations. Few Several Glaring & frequent
grammatical errors. 2 grammatical errors. 1.5 grammatical grammatical errors.
errors. 1 0

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M O D U L E S U M M A R Y

There are many ways and approaches to defining art. Though this activity only
scratches the surface of what these ways and approaches are, it should be fine. From the
dominant views of art as representation and evoking aesthetic experience to both artist and
audience, we reviewed how art status has been traditionally conferred and problematized
by authorities and institutions of the art world. Critics and scholars have also pointed to
historical context as an important consideration. And though dominant, these views are
laden with problems and limitations. After decades of talk and debate, however, no one
universal and elegant definition of art has been adopted by all. This furthers the subjectivity
of art and the multifarious ways it can come to us.

In terms of art’s functions, we focused on the transformative nature of art, whose

transformative powers have been used throughout history to influence and control
perception. Hegemons or institutions such as the government and other organizations
headed by the ruling classes are able to establish and reinforce beliefs and ideologies,
legitimize canonical aesthetics, and shape our culture through the power of art.
Paradoxically, art can and has been used to challenge and even break these dominant
canons and hegemony. And in the unique context of the Philippines, Alice Guillermo said
it best, “When we recognize that there are many different aesthetics and histories of
aesthetics, we break away from the domination of the globalizing Western aesthetic
tradition.” This will be further explored in Module 3.

Art is an ever-evolving, ever-broadening concept that resists a single definition. It is

able to offer us more than expression, by helping us construct our consciousness, identity,
and culture. It also seems to exist to show evidence of our existence, our differences and
similarities, the best of us and the worst of us. This makes art a rich and interesting field to
study.

L E A R N I N G A C T I V I T Y

Before submitting the final project and exiting this module, please make sure you
have accomplished the following activity.

Activity 1 Show and Tell: Art at Home □

Assessment Essay Questions □

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R E F E R E N C E S

Billig, Michael. Laughter and Ridicule: Towards a Social Critique of Humor. SAGE
Publications. 2005.
Carter, David. Literary Theory: The Pocket Essential. Oldcastle Books. 2006.
Graham, Gordon. Philosophy of the Arts: An Introduction to Aesthetics. 3rd Ed. Routledge.
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