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Urbanization and the Growth Trajectory of Urban Centers in India

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Demography India Vol. 53, No. 1 (2024) ISSN 0970-454X

Demography India
A Journal of Indian Association of Study of Population
Journal Homepage: https://demographyindia.iasp.ac.in/

Urbanization and the Growth Trajectory of Urban Centers in India

Nawaj Sarif1* and Archana K Roy2

Abstract
Urbanization is a complex process and a significant phenomenon
that contributes to the development of countries worldwide. This
study endeavors to examine the growth trajectory of urban centers
across subdivisions of India and to explore the regional variations
in urban and city growth using the information provided by the
Census of India. The annual exponential growth method has been
employed to examine the growth dynamics of urban centers. In the
last few decades, India has experienced steady urban growth from
216 million in 1991 to 377 million in 2011, with a slowing growth
rate. Urban centers show distinctive characteristics, with an
increasing share of stabilizing towns, decreasing growing towns,
Keywords and the emergence of declining towns. The growth trajectory
seemingly shifting backwards indicates the slow growth of urban
Growth trajectory, centers, especially among small and medium-sized towns.
regional variation, Significant inequality has been found in terms of the concentration
urbanization, urban of urban centers across the regions. While urban growth and the
transition, urban
level of urbanization significantly control the growth and
policy
distribution of urban centers in India. Cities are considered
engines of growth as they significantly contribute to the economy.
However, some of these engines are struggling for their survival
as population growth slows down or declines. The study
highlights the importance of understanding changing growth
characteristics and linkages between urbanization, urban growth,
and population growth in towns and cities. It calls for a focus on
empowering smaller urban units with adequate infrastructure and
economic opportunities to achieve balanced growth across various
regions and reduce development inequalities. A holistic and
decentralized urban planning approach is suggested to
accommodate the needs of urban inhabitants and foster
sustainable urban development.

* Corresponding author
1Department of Migration and Urban Studies, International Institute for Population Sciences, India. Email:

[email protected]. ORC ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7028-905.

2 Professor, Department of Migration and Urban Studies, International Institute for Population Sciences, India. Email:

[email protected].

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 Sarif and Roy

Introduction population in urban settlements (Spence et al.,

Urbanization refers to the process by which 2009). India is one among the largest urban
people move from rural areas to urban areas, systems in the world, with 377 million (31.12%)
resulting in the growth of urban population in people residing in urban areas in 2011. In
relation to rural population. It also refers to the absolute numbers, the urban population in India
transformation of a settlement from traditional is more than the total population of highly
rural to modern industrial economies and from urbanized countries across the globe (NITI
small to largely populated complex settlements Aayog, 2021). Urban growth is primarily driven
(Davis, 1965). This transformation process has by three key indicators: urban-rural differences
been occurring for centuries, but in recent in natural increase, rural-to-urban migration, and
decades, it has accelerated due to globalization, reclassification of rural areas into urban units or
industrialization, and population growth. changes in definition (Bhagat & Mohanti, 2009).
However, urbanization and urban growth However, variation in urban population
pattern varies in developed and developing distribution and growth creates sub-national
countries. In developing countries, the level of inequality in several socio-economic indicators.
urbanization is low and growing rapidly, but As highly urbanized areas experience rapid
infrastructure improvements are lagging behind. population growth with many growing urban
In contrast, developed countries that have centers as well as economic growth, the low-
already reached a saturation level of urbanized areas experience minimum growth
urbanization are experiencing a slow pace of with few urban centers (Balasubramanian et al.,
urbanization (UNDESA, 2019). According to 2021).
Davis (1965) process of urbanization has three
In India, the urban population distribution at the
stages. The first stage involves a traditional rural
state level is very diverse. Here economically
society that relies mainly on agriculture and has
advanced states have a higher level of
dispersed settlements. The second stage is
urbanization with many large cities. However,
characterized by a shift in the economy and investments
economically disadvantaged states struggle with
in transportation and communication infrastructure,
low levels of urbanization and minimal growth
resulting in a gradual increase in the proportion of the
(Bhagat, 2018). The emergence and growth of
urban population. The third and final stage is
cities across various states in India have been
reached when the urban population exceeds
affected by the existing disparity in urban
three-fourths of the total population, and the rate
population distribution. In the past century,
of urban population growth and total population
India has undergone a rapid urban transition,
growth become equal. At this point, the level of
resulting in changes in the characteristics of
urbanization becomes almost constant. However,
towns and cities. Demographic changes, such as
the time period for follow-up of these stages
low fertility rates, internal migration and an
varies across countries and states.
aging population, have also influenced this urban
Globally urbanization has been considered a key transition. Therefore, it is crucial to comprehend
indicator of development, as it is strongly linked the changing growth characteristics of towns and
with economic growth, per capita income, and cities and understand the urban transition
quality of life (Henderson, 2010; UN- Habitat, process in a better way. The primary objective of
2016). Thus, achieving high economic growth is this study is to examine the growth trajectory of
possible through rapid growth in subnational urban centers and the regional variations in
urbanization levels as urbanization and growth urban and city growth across different states.
go parallel together (Chen et al., 2014). It is Additionally, this study examines the linkages
evident that nearly all middle-income countries between urbanization, urban growth, and
have more than half of their population population growth in urban centers. The findings
concentrated in urban areas, while all high- of this study will be highly beneficial for
income countries have three-fourths of their mitigating urban growth inequality and

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Demography India Vol. 53, No. 1 (2024) ISSN 0970-454X

promoting sustainable urban planning. centers across the states in India.

Materials and methods Definition of Urban, 2011

This study is primarily based on official census The Census of India provides a two-fold
statistics collected from the website of the Census classification of the urban as per recent census
of India. The latest dataset of 2011 has been used. reports, and these are statutory towns and census
The population census provides data on different towns. All places with a municipality,
subunits such as state, district, town, city, and corporation, cantonment board, notified town
village. This study has used state-level and area committee, etc., are the statutory town.
city/town- level data available in various census While census towns are the places that follow the
tables. First, the primary census abstract has been three flowing criteria — i) A minimum
used to understand the population size population of 5000, ii) At least 75% of the male
distribution and composition. Secondly, the A4 main working population engaged in non-
data table has been used, which provides the agricultural pursuits; and iii) A density of
decadal variation in population size, change in population of at least 400 persons per square
civic status and administrative area for all towns kilometer. Further, the Census of India also
and cities in India. provides a six-fold classification of urban centers
as per the size of the population in that urban
Based on the census data, this study has
center. These classifications are Class I (>1,
examined the growth trajectories of towns and
00,000), Class II (50,000 to 99,999 population),
cities. For this, the annual exponential growth
Class III (20,000 to 49,999), Class IV (10,000 to
method has been employed to understand the
19,999), Class V (5000 to 9,999) and Class VI (less
growth of urban centers and examine the urban
than 5,000) town.
growth trajectory in India from 1901 to 2011.
Following the annual exponential growth rate Urbanization and urban growth in India
(AEGR), the towns and cities has been classified India is the most populous country, with a
into three categories: growing, stabilizing, and population of 1.4 billion in 2023, and it is the
declining. All urban centers (towns/cities) that second-largest urban system in the world (United
have experienced negative population growth Nations, 2022). In 1901, India had a population of
during 2001-11 were considered declining towns. only 26 million living in urban areas.
Towns that have experienced a growth rate of 0- Urbanization in India has progressed slowly due
2% per annum were considered stabilizing to a slow process of reclassification of rural areas
towns, while towns exhibiting a growth rate of as urban in comparison to other countries at
more than 2% per annum have been considered similar levels of urbanization (UNDESA, 2019).
growing towns (Wiechmann & Wolff, 2013). The urban population in India increased to 377
Based on these categories, urban growth million in 2011, comprising 31% of the total
trajectories were plotted in graphs. The historical population, up from only 11% in 1901. According
urban growth transition was presented for the to the Census of India, the highest urban
last century. Further, the growth trajectory for all population growth was recorded from 1971 to
towns and cities was analyzed since 1961 as since 1981, with a growth rate of 45%. During 2001-
1961 a standard urban definition was adopted 2011, the urban population grew to 377 million,
and followed the same with minor changes in with a growth rate of 2.8% per annum, and the
1981 and 2011. Growth trajectory has also been level of urbanization in the country increased
presented to understand the regional variation in from 28% in 2001 to 31% in 2011. The first urban
the growth of towns and cities. Further, this growth peak occurred in 1951, owing primarily
study has used a geospatial approach to to the country's split and an influx of refugees
understand the relationship between urban seeking refuge in metropolitan areas. The second
growth and city growth. An overlay analysis was high, reached in 1981, was due to the Nehruvian
performed to examine the urban growth growth model, which established many
inequality and its impact on the growth of urban industrial and mining towns. Since 1981, the

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 Sarif and Roy

decadal growth rate of the urban population has However, there has been a rapid increase in the
been steadily declining (Table 1). Urban growth number of census towns in the last two censuses
seemed to slow down even with the faster conducted in 2001 and 2011 (Figure 1). The total
economic growth during the 2000s (Bhagat, number of census towns has increased from 346
2018). in 1991 to 3890 in 2011, with the majority of towns
being smaller, and newly classified as urban
It is evident that the emergence and growth of
(Figure 1). However, a steady increase in
towns and cities drive urbanization in India.
statutory towns has been observed, rising from
Thus, sustaining the growth of urban centers is
2145 to 4045 from 1961-2011. The increase in the
very important for maintaining the tempo of
number of towns in categories like Class I, Class
urbanization. Evidence shows that the number of
II, and Class III has been noticeable, whereas the
towns and cities in India has rapidly grown from
increase in smaller size classes was not as
1827 in 1901 to 7935 in 2011, with the highest
apparent.
addition of towns occurring in the last decade
from 2001 to 2011. Almost three thousand new The first four class categories (cities and medium-
towns were added during this period (Kumar, sized towns) have demonstrated consistent
2015; Roy et al., 2023). population growth, albeit with a declining
growth rate trend. Specifically, in 1961, the
Population growth in towns and cities in India
population growth rate in class I cities was 5.8%
India's urbanization is characterized by a top-
(Figure 2), which decreased to 1.1% in 2011. In
heavy distribution of population, with a
contrast, the population growth rate in class V
concentration of 70% residing in class I cities. In
and class VI categories is not consistent and
2011, the total urban population was 377 million,
exhibits significant fluctuations. However, in the
of which 264 million was living in class I cities,
last census, class V and class VI towns recorded
and the remaining 113 million resided in the
the highest growth rates of 7.2% and 9.3%,
other five size-class categories. Notably, there
respectively, in 2011 (Figure 2). The increase in
was a significant increase in population size in
growth rate is probably due to the addition of
the class I category over time. In 1961, the
new census towns in 2011.
population of class I cities was 41 million, which
rose to 264 million by 2011. While class II and Urban growth trajectory in India
class III cities also witnessed an increase in Over the past few decades, India has achieved
population over time, the population of class V steady urban growth in the last century;
and class VI cities remained minimal, with however, it has experienced a falling growth rate
occasional fluctuations (Roy et al., 2023). since 1981 (Table 1). The urban growth rate fell
from 3.7% in 1981 to 2.8% in 2011. The share of
As mentioned earlier, towns and cities are
growing towns followed a similar trend with the
broadly classified into two categories: census
urban growth rate, dropping from 75% to 26%
towns and statutory towns. One is based on the
during 1981-2011. Furthermore, the share of
administration unit and the other is based on
stabilizing towns has increased rapidly since
socio-demographic characteristics. Statutory
1981. However, a noticeable change occurred
towns are major urban units where an urban local
with an increase in the share of declining towns
body provides all urban facilities and services.
in the recent decade. In 2011 more than 11% of
On the other hand, census towns are classified as
towns (634 urban centers) experienced negative
urban areas based on certain criteria, such as
population growth.
population size, occupational structure, and
population density given by the Census of India. Overall, the growth of towns and cities has
However, census towns do not have a local self- slowed down, as can be observed in Figure 3,
government structure or administrative powers. where the growth distribution of towns has
In India, the majority of towns were statutory shrunk or compressed to low growth rate over
towns in the past, with only a few census towns. the years. In earlier decades (1961-81), the city

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Demography India Vol. 53, No. 1 (2024) ISSN 0970-454X

growth distribution curve was wide and peaked at higher growth rates.

4500 Census Town Statutory Town

VI
Number of towns

3000 V

IV

III
1500
II

I
0
1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Figure 1 Number of Census Town and Statutory Town in India by size class, 1961-2011
10
8
1951-61
6
4 1961-71
2
AEGR

0 1971-81
-2
1981-91
-4
-6 1991-2001
-8
2001-11
-10
Class I Class II Class III Class IV Class V Class VI

Figure 2 Population growth (annual exponential) in different sizes of towns during 1951- 2011

Table 1 Urbanization, urban growth and share of growing, stabilizing and declining towns in India,
1911-2011
Urbanization AEGR Urban Growing towns Stabilizing towns Declining
Year
Level Pop. (% p.a) (> 2.0% p.a) (0- 2.0% p.a) towns (<0.0%p. a)
1901 10.8 - - - -
1911 10.3 0.0 9.1 36.2 54.7
1921 11.2 0.8 16.3 36.0 47.8
1931 12.0 1.8 27.2 58.3 14.5
1941 13.9 2.8 37.1 53.1 9.9
1951 17.3 3.5 43.6 42.5 13.9
1961 18.0 2.3 50.2 43.3 6.6
1971 19.9 3.2 66.2 29.6 4.2
1981 23.1 3.7 75.7 22.5 1.8
1991 25.5 3.1 62.5 33.3 4.1
2001 27.8 2.8 50.4 43.3 6.3
2011 31.1 2.8 27.7 60.8 11.5

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 Sarif and Roy

40
35 1961

30 1971
SHARE OF TOWN/CITY

25
1981
20
1991
15
10 2001

5 2011
0
Less -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5+
than -2
ANNUAL EXPONENTIAL GROWTH RATE

Figure 3 Growth trajectories of urban centers in India from 1961 to 2011

urbanization, the growth patterns of towns and

Hence, there has been a shift in the urban growth
cities in India vary significantly across different
process from 1961 to 1981, with cities exhibiting
regions.
higher growth rates increasing, while towns and
cities with negative growth rates decreasing. The northern region exhibits the highest share of
After 1981, a reverse shift began to occur, and by growing towns, at 38%, followed by the western
2011, a rapid shift was evident. Specifically, the region at 29%, and the north-eastern region at
majority of towns and cities were growing at a 29%. On the other hand, the central (67%),
growth rate of 0 to 2% (annual exponential) in southern (65%), and eastern (61%) regions shows
2011. Thus, towns and cities are mostly a higher share of stabilizing towns or towns that
stabilizing, while there is a notable increase in the grew at a rate of 0-2% annually. In other regions,
percentage of declining towns and cities over half of the towns are in a stabilizing state.
compared to 1981 (Figure 3). However, the share of declining town is higher in
the western and north- eastern regions, at over
However, the growth transition is not similar for
14%, followed by the southern region at 13% and
all categories of towns and cities. Results
the eastern region at 12%. Conversely, in the
highlight that there is wide variation in growth
central and northern regions, the share of
patterns across various size classes of urban
declining towns is low, at 8.1% and 10%,
centers (Figure 4). Larger towns, such as those in
respectively (Figure 5).
Class I and Class II categories, have almost a
similar pace of growth, with peaks at 2% (AEGR), A similar result can be depicted in the growth
indicating a majority with a high growth rate. trajectory of towns and cities across different
However, the smaller towns in Class V and Class regions in India, as depicted in Figure 6. The
VI categories paint a different picture. Their central region demonstrates a majority of towns
growth rate is much lower than any other class, in the growing and stabilizing phase. The
with a large proportion of towns exhibiting northern region displays a sharp peak in growth
negative growth rates. Although urban centers rate between 1-2%, indicating that a majority of
are declining in all classes, a greater share of the towns are stabilizing. In contrast, the
Class V and Class VI towns are declining with a southern, eastern, and western regions exhibit an
higher negative growth rate. inflated distribution towards negative growth
rates, with many towns and cities in these regions
Regional variations in urban growth
experiencing a high negative growth rate.
This study reveals that, much like the level of

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Demography India Vol. 53, No. 1 (2024) ISSN 0970-454X

50
SHARE OF TOWN/CITIES

40 I

II
30
III
20 IV

V
10
IV
0
-5 and -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5+
less
ANNUAL EXPONENTIAL GROWTH RATE

Figure 4 The growth trajectory of urban centers by size class category of town/city in India, 2011

Declining (< 0.0) Stabilizing (0.0-2.0) Growing (> 2.0)

67.0

64.5
PERCENTAGE OF TOWN/CITY

60.9

57.1

56.9
51.5

38.4

28.7
28.6
26.9
24.9

22.7
14.4
14.3

12.8
12.3
10.2

8.1

NORTH CENTRAL EAST NORTH EAST WEST SOUTH

REGIONS

Figure 5 Regional variation in the share of declining, stabilizing and growing towns in India, 2011

50 North
45 Central
40
SHARE OF TOWN/CITY (%)

East
35
30 North
25 East
West
20
15
10
5
0
Less -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5+
than -2 ANNUAL EXPONENTIAL GROWTH RATE (%)
Figure 6 Regional variations in the growth trajectories of towns and cities in India, 2011

97
 Sarif and Roy

Himachal Pradesh. Furthermore, the map shows

Further analysis indicates that there is a wide
that urban growth is comparatively higher in
variation in the level of urbanization, urban
highly urbanized states, except for Tripura,
growth rate, and concentration of towns and
Nagaland, and Sikkim.
cities across different regions of India. These
three components are strongly related to each The level of urbanization and urban growth is
other. Figure 7 illustrates the level of also reflected in the distribution of towns and
urbanization in 2001 and 2011, the annual cities across the states. States like Tamil Nadu,
exponential growth rate of urban population, Maharashtra, Kerala, West Bengal, and Gujarat
and the number of towns and cities located in have the majority of the towns in India. On the
each state in 2011. The map reveals that other hand, states like Bihar, Odisha, Himachal
urbanization is higher in larger states like Tamil Pradesh, and the North Eastern States have a
Nadu, Maharashtra, Kerala, and Gujarat and a minimal number of towns, as they have low
few smaller states like Delhi, Chandigarh, Goa, urban growth and low levels of urbanization
and Mizoram. In contrast, it is lower in states like (Figure 7).
Bihar, Odisha, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and

Figure 7 State-wise distribution of towns and cities, level of urbanization and urban growth during
2001-11

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Demography India Vol. 53, No. 1 (2024) ISSN 0970-454X

Figure 8 The relationship between urbanization level and growth rate of different size-class towns in
India, 2011

Additionally, the results highlight the

Discussion
interlinkage between the level of urbanization
India has a very complex urban system. In the
and city growth. It is evident that higher
past few decades, the level of urbanization has
urbanization is strongly associated with a greater
increased steadily. After independence, a rapid
concentration of large urban centers and rapid
rural-urban transformation took place, and urban
population growth (Figure 8). The figure also
centers were growing fast (Bhagat & Mohanti,
indicates that highly urbanized states like Tamil
2009). However, in the post-liberalization period,
Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab, Delhi, and
several major changes took place in the Indian
West Bengal exhibit many rapidly growing town
urban system. Urban growth in India followed a
clusters. Moreover, these states have a substantial
declining trend due to the structural
number of larger towns (Class I and Class II). In
transformation in the country (Kundu, 2003;
contrast, lowly urbanized states display a
Bhagat & Mohanti, 2009). The structural changes
concentration of smaller towns, albeit with a
led to the concentration of the economy in
limited number, and the growth rate of towns
selected major cities like Bengaluru, Delhi,
and cities is also very low in these regions. For
Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, and
example, the north-eastern states have a much
Pune, leading to slow urban growth across many
lower density of urban centers, with hardly any
parts of the country (NITI Aayog, 2022).
Class I cities found in any of these states.
Additionally, following the steady urbanization
Furthermore, the map clearly shows that urban
process, many new towns have emerged across
centers in India are concentrated in
the states in India. This study has found that
agglomeration-oriented patterns surrounding
statutory towns have followed a steady increase
larger cities, exhibiting higher growth rates.

99
 Sarif and Roy

in number. However, the number of census different states in India.

towns has increased drastically in the last two
Hence this study has explored that following the
censuses, and it accounts for nearly half of all
same trend, many towns and cities will be
urban centers in India. The sudden increase in the
shrinking in future decades, while many
number of census towns was due to a change in
registered shrinkages at the current time as well
the urban definition adopted by the 2011 census
(Ganapati, 2014). The same trend may follow in
(Tiwana & Sahib, 2020).
many developing countries across the globe.
However, India’s urbanization is characterized as Demographic changes in terms of low fertility,
top-heavy urbanization. The lion’s share of the aging, and internal migration plays a vital role in
urban population is concentrated in large cities, the shrinking process (Zhai et al., 2022). Indeed,
and there is a dominance of million-plus cities it is paradoxical for developing countries as in the
over India’s urbanization (Bhagat, 2004). period of rapid urban growth, and many urban
Therefore, consistent growth can be observed in centers are shrinking (UN- Habitat, 2008). It
large cities, and it was accelerated mainly due to indicates that the urban transition in many
extensive resource mobilization and investment. developing countries has taken a different shape
Thus, it has led to the metropolitanization of the in the form of urban shrinkage and urban decline,
Indian economy in the last few decades (Shaban ghost cities etc., and it may have a greater
et al., 2020). However, small and medium towns' consequence on economic growth, development
growth fluctuated over time in India. The same disparity and quality of life (Hartt et al., 2021;
was argued by Chouraqui (2021) while studying Martinez-Fernandez et al., 2012).
medium-size towns in France that population
Urban Policy in India
decline is common among weakened medium-
Urban policy in India has undergone significant
sized cities. Overall, the majority of urban centers
changes since the country's independence in 1947
are stabilizing in terms of population growth,
(Bhagat, 2014). India was primarily an agrarian
while some are declining and shrinking. As a
economy earlier; however, over the years, rapid
result of the fertility decline and population
urbanization has taken place, and now, more
stabilization in the country, these towns and
than one-third of the population lives in urban
cities are stabilizing or declining (Pandey, 2020).
units. In the early period, the government
On the contrary urban to urban out-migration
focused on strengthening the industrial base in
plays a crucial role in the redistribution of
the country and promoting higher economic
population among the urban centers.
growth. However, it has helped in the emergence
Additionally, there has been a significant shift in of large agglomerations and cities. Though not
the growth trajectory of towns and cities in India. much emphasis was placed on social and
In the last decade, the growth rate of most towns environmental development in urban areas.
and cities has decreased to below 2% per annum,
After the 1960s the Government of India took the
indicating their stabilization. However, the
initiative towards urban planning and
growth and decline scenarios differ for different
development and recognized the importance of
classes of towns and cities. The growth patterns
cities. Therefore, the government introduced
of towns and cities also vary across regions. In
several policies to address the challenges of
less developed regions, the share of growing
urbanization. The focus shifted from industrial
towns is lower, while stabilizing and declining
growth to creating livable cities with better social
towns are more prevalent. Moreover, states with
and environmental conditions. The government
higher levels of urbanization, encompassing
introduced policies to improve housing
larger geographic areas, host a greater number of
conditions, provide basic services such as water
towns and cities, and their urban growth rates are
supply and sanitation, and create better
also higher. A strong relationship can be
transportation infrastructure. The growth of new
observed between the level of urbanization and
major cities like Chandigarh, Gandhinagar, and
the growth rate of towns of different sizes across

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Demography India Vol. 53, No. 1 (2024) ISSN 0970-454X

Bhubaneswar was part of the programme. and inadequate resources for urban local bodies
(Aijaz, 2007). However, the urban policy in India
During the sixth five-year plan, a major policy on
was never implemented with a holistic approach
urban development launched as Integrated
targeting balanced urban development. Most of
Development of Small and Medium Towns
the urban policies taken by the government
(IDSMT) was launched by the central
addressed the issue in larger urban units,
government in 1979 to regenerate smaller urban
especially in major cities, while smaller towns
centers. Later in the 1980s, urban policy shifted to
were growing on their own. These policies
the decentralization of urban governance and
function at many levels to resolve the issue, but
more power was given to the urban local bodies,
many problems like congestion, cleanliness,
and citizens were involved in the decision-
housing, and drainage must be addressed (Batra,
making process (Shaw, 1996).
2009). Moreover, inadequacy in management,
After the 2000s, the government introduced especially in smaller cities, restricts local
several policies to address the challenges of rapid governments from optimally benefiting from
urbanization, given the growing importance of reform initiatives (Nandi & Gamkhar, 2013).
the urban sector. The Jawaharlal Nehru National Schemes like Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana
Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) was (PMAY), Mukhya Mantri Awas Yojana (MMAY),
launched in 2005 to provide financial and Providing Urban Amenities in Rural Areas
technical assistance to cities for infrastructure (PURA), and Rurban Mission (RM) were
development. The National Urban Housing and implemented to improve the quality of life in
Habitat Policy was introduced in 2007 to improve villages and other smaller towns. However, the
housing conditions in urban areas. The Atal implementation of these policies was not efficient
Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban due to the lack of experts working on the rural
Transformation (AMRUT) was launched in 2015 sector to develop them at par with urban sector
to provide basic services such as water supply, (Kulkarni et al., 2017). Therefore, issues faced by
sanitation, and transportation to small and the inhabitants in small and medium-sized towns
medium-sized cities, also a GIS bases master plan and villages have not been addressed and
was introduced under AMRUT mission (NITI neglected so far (Datta, 2006). If these policies
Aayog, 2021). were implemented holistically, ensuring the
In recent years, the focus of urban policy has basic amenities, education and health facility,
shifted to creating smart and sustainable cities. road infrastructure, and livelihood generation
The Smart Cities Mission, launched in 2015, aims activities, it might have transformed the rural
to promote sustainable urban development by economy, and uncontrolled migration of the
using technology and innovation. The policy people from villages may automatically stop
emphasizes the creation of livable and (Kulkarni et al., 2017). Even though few attempts
sustainable cities with better quality of life for were made but it failed to achieve its objectives.
citizens. Along with that, other policies like Later these policies were dropped one after
Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) and Deen another.
Dayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Urban Conclusion
Livelihoods Mission (DAY – NULM) were In this era of globalization and modernization,
launched (Bhagat, 2014; MoUHA, 2020). people are seeking better facilities, lifestyles, and
Thus, urban policy in India has evolved opportunities to achieve a healthy and better
significantly since independence, with a shift quality of life. Consequently, it is the
from a focus on economic growth to creating government's responsibility to provide urban
livable and sustainable cities. However, there are facilities equally to attain sustainable
still significant challenges that need to be development. The states with low levels of
addressed, including the provision of basic urbanization require attention from the
services and infrastructure, informal settlements, government to expedite the urbanization process

101
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