Computer

Networks
(CN)
 What is Computer Network ?
 It is a digital telecommunications network which
allows nodes to share resources.
 Sharing resources:
 Software
 Files and Data
 Storage devices
 Printers, Scanners, Fax and Modem

2
3
 Course Objectives
1. To introduce the concept, terminologies, and
technologies used in modern data
communication and computer networking and
the functions of different layers.
2. To explain the basics of connecting devices used
and protocols used in data link layer.
3. To understand the basic concepts of addressing
and to study the various routing protocols.
4. To learn how process to process delivery is
carried out in transport layer and basic transport
layer protocols, congestion control techniques
and applications.

4
 Course Outcomes
1.Understand the principles of data communication and
networking.
2.Gain knowledge of data link control, which involves flow
and error control.
3.Know two prominent wireless technologies for LANs:
IEEE 802.11 Wireless LANs, and Bluetooth, a technology
for small wireless LANs.
4.Have exposure to principles of addressing and routing.
5.Gain the knowledge of network, transport and application
layer protocols.
6.Introduced to basics of cryptography and internet security.

5
 Unit I : Physical Layer
 Data Communications, Networks
 Networks models: OSI model, Layers in OSI
model, TCP / IP protocol suite, Addressing
 Guided and Unguided Transmission media.
 Switching: Circuit switched networks, Data
gram Networks, Virtual circuit networks.
 Cable networks for Data transmission: Dial-
up modems, DSL, Cable TV, Cable TV for
Data transfer.

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7
 Unit II: Data Link Layer
 Data link control: Framing, Flow and
error control, Protocols for Noiseless
and Noisy Channels, HDLC.
 Multiple access: Random access and
Controlled access
 Wired LANS: Ethernet:- IEEE
standards, standard Ethernet, changes
in the standard, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit
Ethernet.
 Introduction to Wireless LANS: IEEE
802.11, Bluetooth.
 Connecting LANS: Connecting
devices, Backbone networks, Virtual
LANS

8
 Unit III: Network and Transport Layer
 Logical addressing: IPv4 and IPv6
addresses.
 Internet Protocol: Internetworking,
IPv4, IPv6
 Address mapping: ARP, RARP,
BOOTP, DHCP, ICMP, IGMP.
 Delivery: Forwarding , Routing,
Unicast, Multicast routing protocols.
 TRANSPORT LAYER: Process-to-
Process delivery, User Datagram
Protocol (UDP), Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP).

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 Unit IV: Application Layer and Network
Security
 APPLICATION LAYER:
Domain Name System (DNS) ,
E-mail, FTP,
 WWW and HTTP Multimedia.
 Introduction to Network
Security, Services, Mechanisms
and Attacks, Symmetric Key
Cryptography, Asymmetric Key
Cryptography, Security in the
Internet, Firewalls.

10
 List of Experiments
1. Study of Windows Server Operating System &
Implementation of LAN.
2. Installation and configuration of Web & FTP Services.
3. Study of Network Protocol Analyser.
4. Examine how networking packets are transferred and
exchanged in a TCP/IP network.
5. Write a program for implementation of Shortest Path
algorithm.
6. Study of wireless LANs.
7. Write a program for Encryption and Decryption.

11
 Learning resources

Text Books:
1. Behrouz A. Forouzan, “Data communication
and Networking”, 4th edition, TMH, 2006
2. Andrew S. Tannenbaum, “Computer
Networks”, Pearson Education, Fourth
Edition, 2003

12
Reference Books:
1. Wayne Tomasi, “Introduction to Data Communication and
Networking”, 1/e, Pearson Education
2. James .F. Kurouse& W. Rouse, “Computer Networking: A
Topdown Approach Featuring”,3/e, Pearson Education.
3. William Stallings, “Cryptography and Network Security
Principles and Practices”, PHI.
4. Greg Tomshon, Ed Tittel, David Johnson. “Guide to
Networking Essentials”, fifth edition, Thomson India
Learning, 2007.
5. William Stallings, “Data and Computer Communication”,
Eighth Edition, Pearson Education, 2000.

13
 Assessment Scheme
Class Continuous Assessment (CCA): 50 Marks
Assignments Mid term Test Quizzes
A1 (10M):- U1 & 2 (U 1 & 2) (U 1 to 4)
Each unit: 5M
A2 (10M):- U3 & 4
20M 20 M 20 M

Laboratory Continuous Assessment (LCA): 50 Marks

File Practical
exam
30 20

End Term Examination: 40 M (entire syllabus)

 Chapter 1
• Introduction:
• Telecommunication: Communication at a distance.
• Examples: Telephony, Telegraphy, and TV.
• Data communications : Exchange of data between
two devices ( or Communication system)
 Communication system: combination of hardware
(physical equipment) and software (programs).
• Data: Information presented in whatever form is
agreed upon by the parties creating and using the
data.

1.15
 Fundamental characteristics
(Effective data communications)
 Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct
destination.
 Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately.
 Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner.
This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
 Real-time: Audio and Video
• Blockage of channel is not acceptable
 Non-real time: E-mail, SMS, WhatsApp
• Blockage of channel is acceptable
 Jitter: It refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.

16
Five components of data communication

 1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be

communicated.
 Popular forms : Text, Numbers, Pictures, Audio, and Video.
 2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data
message. Examples: Computer, Workstation, Telephone
handset, Video camera.
 3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the
message.
 Examples: Computer, Workstation, Telephone handset, TV.
17
Five components of data communication

 4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the

physical path by which a message travels from sender to
receiver.
 5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications.
 It represents an agreement between the communicating
devices.
 Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating.
18
Cont.

 Wireline:
 Telephony: Coaxial cable, Optical fiber cable (OFC)
 RF and Microwave : Waveguides

Wireless (RF-link): Antenna at both ends

 Radio and TV
 Satellite Communication
 RADAR
 Mobile Communication
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 Data flow
(Simplex, Half-duplex, and Full-duplex)

20
Simplex (One-way communication)

21
Half duplex (walkie-talkie)

22
Full duplex

23
 NETWORKS
 A network is a set of devices (or nodes) connected by
communication links (wired or wireless) and capable of
communication.
 Examples of devices or nodes:
 Large computer
 Desktop
 Laptop
 Cellular phone
 Router (which connects the network to other networks)
 Switch (which connects devices together)
 MODEM (which changes the form of data)
 Most networks use distributed processing. It means dividing a
task among multiple computers.
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 Network Criteria
 A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria.
1. Performance
2. Reliability
3. Security

25
1. Performance
 It can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time.
 Factors:
 Number of users
 Type of transmission medium
 Capabilities of the connected hardware
 Efficiency of the software
 It is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput
and delay.
• Expected: more throughput and less delay.

26
Reliability : It is measured by the frequency of
failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a
failure.
Security:
 Protecting data from
unauthorized access, damage and development.
 Implementing policies and procedures for data
recovery and losses.

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 Physical Structures
1. Point-to-Point:
 Dedicated link between two devices.
 The entire capacity of link is reserved between those two
devices.

28
 2. Multipoint (or Multidrop)
 More than two specific devices share a single link
 The capacity of a channel is shared either Spatially
(simultaneously) or Temporally (turn by turn basis)

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 Physical Topology
 Physical topology: Physical layout of the network (or
geometrical representation of the links and nodes)
 2 or more devices connect to a link.
 2 or more links form a topology.

30
 1. Mesh
 Every device has a dedicated point-to-
point link to every other device.
 Dedicated: Link carries traffic only
between the two devices it connects.
 Physical links: n(n - 1)
 Duplex-mode links: {n(n - 1)}/2
 Input/output ports: n -1
Example: n = 5
 Physical links: 20
 Duplex-mode links: 10
 Input/output ports: n -1: 4

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 Advantages

 Eliminating the traffic problems (dedicated links).

 Robust: If one link becomes unusable, it does not disable the
entire system.
 Privacy or Security: Intended recipient sees it and others can
not have access (physical boundaries prevent).
 Finally, point-to-point links make fault. Identification and
Fault isolation is easy.
 Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems.
 This will handle by N/W manager.

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Disadvantages

 Amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required.

 First: Installation and reconnection are difficult.
 Second: The wiring is larger than the available space (in walls,
ceilings, or floors).
 Finally: Expensive (I/O ports and cable)
 Implemented in a limited fashion: acts as a backbone (several
other topologies can be connected).
 Practical example : Telephone regional offices.

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2. Star

 Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a

central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not
directly linked to one another.
 Unlike a mesh topology, It does not allow direct traffic
between devices.
 Hub or controller is a exchange.

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 Advantages
• Less expensive than a mesh topology.
• Each device needs only one link and I/O
port. Easy installation and
reconfiguration.
• Less cabling is needed.
• Robustness: If one link fails, only that
link is affected. All other links remain
active. Easy fault identification and
isolation.
• Hub working: used to monitor link
problems and bypass defective links.

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 Disadvantages
Dependent on hub, If the hub goes down, the whole
system is dead.
More cabling is required than Ring or Bus topology.
Application: LANs

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 3. Bus

 It is an example of multipoint connection.

 One long cable acts as a backbone.
 Nodes are connected to link by drop lines and taps.
 Signal strength is a function of cable length which limits the
number of taps.

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 Advantages
• Ease of installation.
• Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient
path.
• It uses less cabling than Mesh or Star topologies.

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Disadvantages

 Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.

 It is usually designed optimally efficient at installation.
 It can therefore be difficult to add new devices.
 Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality
(solution: limits the number and spacing of devices).
 Adding new devices: Requires modification or replacement of
the backbone.
 Fault of break in bus: Stops all transmission.
 It was one of the first topologies used in the design of early
LANs.
 Application: Ethernet LANs
39
4. Ring

Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection

with only the two devices on either side of it.
A signal is passed along the ring in one direction.
Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
When a device receives a signal intended for another
device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes
them along.

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Advantages

 Easy to install and reconfigure.

 Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors (either
physically or logically).
 To add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections.
 The only constraints are media and traffic considerations
(maximum ring length and number of devices).
 In addition, fault isolation is simplified.

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 Disadvantages

 Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.

Break in the ring (disabled station) can disable the
entire n/w.
 Solution: Dual ring
 Less popular.

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Hybrid

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 Categories of Networks
 Two primary categories: (based on its length and topology)
1. Local Area Networks (LANs) : < 2miles
2. Wide Area Networks (WANs) : worldwide
3. Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs): 10 miles
 Order of sequence: LAN, MAN and WAN

Limited MAN connects WAN connects MANs in a large

geographical area LANs in city or geographic area. Internet is
such as home or town world’s largest WAN
office building 44
 1. LAN
 Where? Office, Building, or Campus.
 Home office: Two PCs and a printer.
 Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
 LANs are designed to share resources:
 Hardware (e.g., a printer)
 Software (e.g., an application program)
 Data.
 LAN topologies: Bus, Ring, and Star.
 LAN : Size, Transmission media and Topology
 Early LANs : 4 to 16 Mbps .
 Today’s LANs: 100 or 1000 Mbps.
 Wireless LANs : Newest evolution in LAN technology.
45
 3. WAN
 Long-distance transmission of information.
 Where? Over large geographic areas (Country, a
Continent, or even the whole world).
WAN can be:
 as complex as the backbones that connect the
Internet
 as simple as a dial-up line that connects a home
computer to the Internet.

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47
 Early switched WAN : X.25 (Packet-switching)
 X.25 is being gradually replaced by Frame relay
(high-speed and more efficient network).
 Example of switched WAN:
 asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network (fixed-
size data unit packets called cells).
 wireless WAN (more popular).

48
 2. MAN
 Size: LAN < MAN < WAN.
 Where? Town or City.
 High-speed connectivity.
 Examples:
 Telephone Company network ( high-speed DSL line
to the customer).
 Cable TV network (high-speed data connection to the
Internet).

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Heterogeneous Network

50
 Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
 It allow users access
to networks to
establish Internet connectivity.
 Local
 Regional
 National
 International

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 Protocols and Standards
Protocols OR Rules
Standards: Agreed upon rules

52
 Protocols
 Key elements of a protocols are:
1. Syntax: Structure or format of the data, meaning in which they
are presented.
 Example: Protocol (first 8 bits of the data - address of the
sender, second 8 bits of the data - address of the receiver, and
rest bits are data (or message).
2. Semantics: Meaning (or interpretation) of each section of bits.
3. Timing: When data to be sent and how they can be sent.
 Example: Sender - 100 Mbps, Receiver - 1 Mbps.

53
 Standards
 These are essential in creating and maintaining an open competitive
market for equipment manufactures and in guaranteeing National and
International interoperability of data and telecommunications
technology and processes.
 It provide guidelines to manufactures, vendors, government agencies,
and other service providers.
 Data communication standards fall into two categories:
1. de facto ( meaning “by fact”)
2. de jure (meaning “ by law” or “by regulation”)
 Standards Organizations:
1. International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
2. International Telecommunication Union – Telecommunication (ITU-T)
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
4. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
5. Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
54
 TRAI: Telecom Regularity Authority of India.
 FCC: Federal Communications Commission, US govt. agency.
 ITU: The International Telecommunication Union is an agency
of the United Nations, coordinate telecommunication operations
and services throughout the world.

55
 Chapter 2: Network Models
 Two models haven been devised to define CN operations.
1. The OSI model – 7 layer n/w (1.Never implemented in
practice, 2. Reference model)
2. The Internet model (TCP/IP) - 5 layer n/w (1. Implemented
in practice, 2. CN syllabus is framed)

56
 Protocol Layering
• Simple communication: Only one simple protocol

• Complex communication: Divide the task between different

layers and we need a protocol at each layer, or protocol
layering.

57
 Advantages:
 It allows us to separate the services from the implementation.
 Internet: Communication does not always use only two end
systems: there are intermediate systems that need only some
layers, but not all layers.
 Principles of Protocol Layering:
1. Bi-directional communication at each layer.
2. The two objects under each layer at both sites should be
identical.

58
Logical ( or Imaginary) Connections
between Peer layers

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 The OSI Model

 OSI: Open Systems Interconnection ( introduced in the late

1970s)
 International Standards Organization (ISO: 1947) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards.
 ISO standard covers: all aspects of n/w communications.
 The OSI model is not a protocol.
 It is a model for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.
60
7- layers of the OSI model

61
Headers and Trailers

62
Interaction between layers

 Software layers: 7, 6, and 5

 Hardware + Software layers: 4, 3, and 2
 Hardware layer: 1 63
Summary of layers

64
 1. Physical Layer
 It is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to
the next.

65
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium: type of
transmission medium
• Representation of bits: Define type of encoding or data
formats ( digital data into digital signal conversion).
• Date (or Transmission) rates: Number of bits sent per second
(fb) and Tb (bit duration). Tb = 1/fb
• Synchronization of bits: To sync sender and receiver clock.
• Line configuration: Point-to-Point OR Point-to-multipoint.
• Physical topology: Mesh, Star, Ring, Bus, or Hybrid.
• Transmission mode: Simplex, Half-duplex, or Full-duplex.
66
2. Data Link Layer

It is responsible for moving frames from one node to the next.

67
• Framing: It divides the stream of bits into data units called
frames.
• Physical addressing: If the frames are to be distributed to
different systems on the network, It adds a header to the frame
to define the sender/or receiver of the frames.
• Flow control: If Date rate (Tx) > Date rate (Rx), the data link
layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid
overwhelming the receiver.
• Error control: It adds reliability to the physical layer by
adding mechanism to detect & retransmit damaged or lost
frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate
frames. It is normally achieved through a trailer added to the
end of the frame.
• Access control: When two or more devices are connected to
the same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to
determine which device has control over the link at any given
time .
Hop – to - hop (node - to - node) delivery
70
3. Network Layer

It is responsible for the delivery of the individual packets

from the source host to the destination host.
71
• Logical addressing: It adds a header includes logical address
of the sender and receiver.
• Routing: When independent networks or links are connected
to create internetworks (networks of network) or a large
network, the connecting devices (called routers or switches)
route the packets to their final destination.

72
Source-to-destination delivery 73
4. Transport Layer

It is responsible for the delivery of a message from one

process to another. 74
• Service-point address: Computers often run several programs
(specific process) at the same time. Transport layer header
must contain source-point address (or port address).
• Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into
segments, with each segment containing a sequence number.
These numbers are used to reassemble the message and to
identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
75
• Connection control: The transport layer can be either
connectionless or connection oriented. A connection –
oriented:- Prior connection must be established. A
connectionless:- No prior connection is established.
• Flow control: Similar to the data link layer. However, flow
control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across
a single link.
• Error control: Similar to the data link layer. However, error
control at this layer is performed process to process rather than
across a single link. Error correction is usually achieved
through retransmission for damage, loss, or duplicate frames. 76
 5. Session Layer

It is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

77
• Dialog control: It allows the communication between two
process to take place in either half-duplex or full-duplex.
• Synchronization: It allows a process to add checkpoints, or
synchronization points to a stream of data.

78
 6. Presentation Layer

It is responsible for translation, compression, and encrytion.

79
• Presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two.
• Translation: The process (running programs) in two systems are
usually exchanging information in the form of character strings,
numbers, and so on. The presentation layer at the sender changes the
information from its sender-dependent format into a common
format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the
common format into its receiver-dependent format.
• Encryption: To carry sensitive information, a system must be able
to ensure privacy. Cryptography (Encryption and Decryption).
• Compression: Data compression reduces number of bits contained
in the information. Data compression becomes particularly
important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and
video. 80
 7. Application Layer

It is responsible for providing services to the user.

 X.500: (Directory service; Electronic directory of people)

 FTAM: File Transfer and Access Management
 X.400: Messaging standard specified by ITU-T
81
• It enables the user, whether human or software, to access the
network.
• It provides user interfaces and support for services such as e-
mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed information
services.

82
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

83
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the
OSI model.
• It is a protocol suite (a set of protocols organized in different layers) used in
the Internet today.
• Upper level protocol is supported by the 1 or 2 lower level protocols.
• Original TCP/IP: 4 layers
• Updated TCP/IP: 5 layers

84
Layered Architecture

85
Communication through an internet

86
 Logical connections between layers of the TCP/IP
protocol suite

 Duty of application, transport, and network layers : End-to-End

(internet).
 Duty of data-link and physical layers: Hop-to-Hop (link).
 Top 3 layers: The data units should not be changed by any router or
switch.
 Bottom 2 layers: The data units can be changed only by the routers, not
by the switches.
87
Identical objects in the TCP/IP protocol suite

88
TCP/IP and OSI model

89
 Physical and Data Link Layers:
 TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol but it supports all the
standard and proprietary protocols.
 A network in a TCT/IP internetwork can be a LAN or a WAN.
 Network Layer (or internetwork layer):
• TCP/IP supports the Internetworking Protocol (IP). In turn, uses 4
supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP
• IP: It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol – best effort delivery
service. IP transports data in packets called datagrams.
1. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): It obtains the physical address
from the logical address.
2. Reverse ARP: It obtains the logical address from the physical address.
3. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): It gives notification of
datagram problems back to the sender. It also sends query and error
reporting messages.
4. Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP): It is used to facilitate
the simultaneous transmission of a message to a group of recipients.
 Transport Layer:
• Two main protocols - TCP and UDP
• IP :- Host – to – host protocol (delivery of a packet from one physical
device to another).
• UDP and TCP:- Delivery of a message from one process (running
program) to another process.
1. User Datagram Protocol (UDP):
 It is the simpler of the two standard TCP/IP transport protocols.
 It is a process – to – process to protocols that adds only port address,
checksum error control, and length information to the data.
2. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):
 It provides full transport – layer services to applications.
 It is a reliable stream (or connection – oriented) transport protocol.
3. Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP):
 It provides support for voice over the Internet.
 It combines the best features of UDP and TCP.

91
 Application Layer:
 SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
 FTP : File Transfer Protocol
 HTTP : Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
 DNS : Domain Name System
 SNMP : Simple Network Management Protocol.
 TELNET : Terminal Network.

92
Encapsulation/Decapsulation

93
 Addressing
 Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the
TCP/IP protocols.

94
 1. Physical addresses
 Also known as Link address
 It is the address of a node as defined by its LAN and WAN
 It is included in the frame used by the data link layer
 It is lowest-level address.
 Size and Format vary depending on the network.
 Example: Ethernet uses a 6-byte (or 48-bit or 12 hexadecimal
digits) physical address (imprinted on the NIC)
07:01:02:01:2C:4B

95
 IMSI = MAC (NIC)
 Mobile Number = IP address

96
2. Logical Addresses

97
 Logical Addresses

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop, but the logical addresses
usually remain the same. 98
 3.Port Addresses

The physical addresses change from hop to hop, but the logical
and port addresses usually remain the same. 99
4.Specific Addresses

100
Chapter 7: Transmission Media

101
Classes of transmission media

102
 Twisted-Pair Cable

 Wire carries signal.

 It also carries: Interference (noise) and Crosstalk and create
unwanted signals.
 If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted
signals is not the same in both wires because they are at
different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources
(e,g., one is closer and the other is farther).
 This results in a difference at the receiver.
 By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained.
 The unwanted (noise or cross talk) signals are mostly
canceled out. 103
 UTP and STP cables

 The most common twisted-pair cable is unshielded twisted-

pair (UTP).
 IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its
use called shielded twisted-pair (STP).
 Metal shield improves the quality of cable by preventing the
penetration of noise.
 It is bulkier and more expensive.
104
 Categories of UTP cables
The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has
developed standards to classify UTP cables.

105
 UTP connector
RJ 45 (Ethernet 802.3)

106
 1000Base T: (Gigabit Ethernet)
 It need all 8 pins.
 It use 4 pairs (each transmits
250Mbps duplex) of wires.
 Parallel transmissions. 107
UTP performance

108
 Applications
 Telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.
 The local loop line: Subscribers to the central
telephone office.
 The DSL lines: Used by telephone companies to
provide high-data-rate (or high-bandwidth)
connections.
 LANs : 10Base-T and 100Base-T.

109
 Coaxial cable
 It carries HF signals than UTP cables.
 Larger BW is available.

110
 Categories of coaxial cables

 Each RG number denotes a unique

set of physical specifications:
 Wire gauge of the inner conductor
 Thickness and type of the inner
insulator
 Construction of the shield
 Size and Type of the outer casing
111
10Base2/5

112
 BNC connectors
(Bayonet Neill–Concelman)

113
 Coaxial cable performance

 Attenuation is much higher in coaxial cables than in UTP cable.

 More number of repeaters are needed.
114
 Applications
 Telephone networks:
 Analog: carry 10,000 voice signals simultaneously.
 Digital: support 600 Mbps data rate.
 Coaxial cables are replaced by fiber-optic cable.
 Cable TV networks :
 RG - 59.
 Coaxial cables are replaced by fiber-optic cable.
 Ethernet LAN:
 10Base2 or Thin Ethernet (RG -58).
 10Base5 or Thick Ethernet (RG -11).
115
 Fiber-Optic Cable
 It carries the signal in terms of light.
 It is made of glass or plastic.
 It has huge bandwidth (30 THz)
 Broadband communication system (BCS):
 Optical fiber communication (backbone of the
telecommunication technology)
 Satellite communication.

116
 Principle of light ray

 Light travels in a straight line: moving through a single

uniform substance.
 Light changes direction: moving from a more dense to a less
dense substance.
117
Construction

 Core (glass or plastic) is more dense than Cladding (plastic).

 Dcore (50 μm) < Dcladding
 Plastic buffer coating: to cushion the fiber.
 Inside jacket: Kevlar (strong material used in the fabrication
of bulletproof vests ) to strengthen the cable.
 Outer jacket: made of either PVC or Teflon.

118
 Operating principle

 It uses total internal reflection principle to guide light.

 Refractive index of the core (n1) > the cladding (n2).

119
Types

120
 Multimode: Support multiple beams
 Step-index : Density of the core remains constant from the center to the
edges.
 Graded-index: Varying densities (Density is highest at the center of the core
and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge).
 Single-mode: It uses step-index fiber and carries a highly focused source
of light.
121
Fiber types

122
 FOC connectors

 SC (Subscriber channel): used for cable TV. It uses a

push/pull locking system.
 ST (Straight-tip): used for connecting cable to networking
devices.
 MT-RJ: similar in size to RJ45.
123
 Optical fiber performance

 Attenuation is flatter than in the case of UTP and coaxial cable.

 Need 10 times less repeaters.
124
 Applications

 Backbone networks: wide BW

 WDM: wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) -1600Gbps.
 SONET n/w: (Synchronous Optical Network)
 Hybrid n/w: Cable TV companies use a combination of optical
fiber (backbone structure) and coaxial cable (connections to
users: Narrow BW).
 LAN:
 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet)
 1000Base-X (use FOC).

125
 Advantages
 Higher BW ( or higher data rates) than UTP and coaxial cable.
 BW utilization are limited by the signal generation and
reception technology available.
 Less signal attenuation:
 FOC: 50 km without repeater.
 UTP or coaxial cable: need repeaters every 5 km.
 Immunity to EM interference: EM noise cannot affect FOC.
 Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant to
corrosive materials than copper.
 Light weight:
 Greater immunity to tapping:
 Signal tapping is difficult in FOC than copper cables.
 Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.126
 Disadvantages
 Installation and maintenance:
 FOC is a relatively new technology.
 Installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet
available everywhere.
 Unidirectional light propagation: Two fibers are needed for
bidirectional communication.
 Cost: The cable and the interfaces are more expensive.

127
 Unguided media: Wireless
 Transmission of EM waves without using a physical
conductor.
 Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are
available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving
them.

128
RF wave propagation

129
Propagation methods

130
Frequency Bands

7.131
Wireless transmission waves

7.132
 RF waves: Omnidirectional antenna
(360˚ coverage)

 Applications:
Multicasting:
 AM and FM radio
 TV
 Cordless phones.

7.133
 Microwaves: Unidirectional antennas

 Applications
 Point-to-point link or
Microwave link (LoS)
 Cellular phones
 Satellite networks
 Wireless LANs
7.134
 Infrared (Ir) signals
These can be used for short-range communication in
a closed area using line-of-sight propagation.
The Infrared Data Association (IrDA): provides
specifications for a complete set of protocols for
wireless infrared communications.

135
136
137
138
Chapter 8: Switching
 A network is a set of connected devices.
 How to connect multiple devices?
 Solution 1: Point-to-Point connection
between each pair of devices (a Mesh
topology) or between a central device and
every other device(a Star topology).
 Drawbacks:
 Impractical and wasteful when applied to
very large networks.
 The number and length of links require too
much infrastructure to be cost-efficient.
 The majority of those links would be idle
most of the time.
139
 Solution 2: Multiconnections (a Bus topology)
 Drawback:
 Distance between devices and the total number of devices
increase beyond the capacity of the media and equipment.

140
 Better solution: Switching

141
Taxonomy of switched networks

142
A small circuit-switched network

8.143
 Important points:
 Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer.
 Before starting communication, the station must make a reservation for the
resources to be used during the communication:
 Channels (Bandwidth in FDM and Time slots in TDM)
 Switch buffers
 Switch processing time
 Switch input/output ports
 Data transfer between two devices are not packetized.
 There is no addressing involved during data transfer. Of course, there is
end-to-end addressing used during the set-up phase.
144
Three phases

145
 Delay:
 Total delay: Connect + Data transfer+ Disconnect
 Connect:
1. The propagation time of the source device A (slope of the first green box)
2. Request signal transfer time (Height of the first green box)
3. Propagation time of the acknowledgment (ACK) device B (slope of the second green box)
4. Signal transfer time of the ACK (height of the second green box)
 Data transfer:
1. The propagation time (slope of the colored box)
2. Data transfer time (height of the colored box)
 Disconnect:
1. Receiver requests discussion + signal transfer time
146
 Efficiency:
 Circuit-switched networks are not efficient as compared to
other two types of networks because resources are allocated
during the entire duration of the connection.
 These resources are not available to the other connections.

147
 2.Packet-switched Networks
 Packet:
 Obtained from input data
 called Datagrams.
 Size (fixed or variable): Network and the governing
Protocol.
 Operating at network layer.
 The Internet has adopted the datagram approach.
 It uses the universal addresses to route packets : S to D.
 Two types:
1. Datagram Networks
2. Virtual-Circuit Networks
148
 No resource allocation for a packet. It means
 No reserved BW on the links.
 No scheduled processing time for each packet.
 Resources are allocated on demand basis (first come, first-served).
Example: When a switch receives a packet, no matter what is the S or
D, the packet must wait if there are other packets being processed.

149
Datagrams Networks

 Switch is called a router.

 Each packet treated independently.
 Packets can take any practical route.
 Packets may arrive out of order.
 Packets may get lost or delayed.
 In most protocols, it is the responsibility of an upper-layer protocol to
reorder the datagrams or ask for lost datagrams before passing them
on to the application.
8.150
 The datagram networks : called connectionless networks.
 Connectionless: the switch does not keep information
about the connection state.
 No setup or teardown phases.

151
 Routing table
 If there are no setup or teardown phases,
how to route the packets?
 Routing table :
 It has a destination address with
forwarding output ports (recorded form).
 Dynamic and updated periodically.
 The destination address (header of a
packet) remains the same during the
entire journey of the packet.
 Circuit-switched network: Each entry
is created (setup phase is completed) and
deleted (teardown phase is over).

8.152
 Efficiency
 Better efficiency than the circuit-switched network.
 Reason: Resources are allocated only when there are
packets to be transferred.

153
 Greater delay than the virtual- Delay
circuit network.
 Reasons:
 Although there are no setup and
teardown phases, each packet
may experience a wait at a switch
before it is forwarded.
 Delay is not uniform for the
packets of a message (different
paths)
 Delay calculation (2 switches):
3T + 3τ + WI + W2
T: Transmission time
τ : Propagation delay
(slopes 3τ of the lines)
W1 and W2: Waiting times
 Processing time in each switch is
ignored.
8.154
 2.2 Virtual-Circuit Network
 It is a cross between a circuit-switched n/w and a datagram n/w. It has some
characteristics of both.
1. Circuit-switched n/w: 3 phases ( setup, data transfer and teardown).
2. Allocation of Resources:
 Circuit-switched n/w:- during the setup phase
 Datagram n/w: on demand basis
• 3. Datagram network: data are packetized and each packet carries an
address in the header.
4. Circuit-switched n/w: all packets follow the same path established during
the connection.
5. Circuit-switched n/w: Physical layer
Datagram n/w: Network layer
Virtual-circuit n/w: Data link layer
•
155
 Virtual-circuit n/w

Switches: allow traffic

from S to D.
 Examples of S or D:
Computer, Packet switch
or Bridge.

8.156
 Addressing

 Two types of addressing are involved:

1. Global
2. Local VCI (virtual-circuit identifier).

157
 Global Addressing
A source or a destination needs to have a global
address - an address that can be unique over world
wide.
 Used only to create a VCI.

158
 Virtual-circuit identifier (VCI)

 It is used for data transfer.

 When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI; when it leaves, it
has a different VCI.

8.159
 Three Phases

1. Setup phase: The S and D use their global addresses

to help switches make table entries for the
connection.
2. Data transfer
3. Teardown phase: The S and D inform the switches
to delete the corresponding entry.

160
2.Source-to-destination data transfer

8.161
 3.Setup
acknowledgment

1.Setup request

8.162
Teardown Phase: In this phase, source A, after
sending all frames to B, sends a special frame
called a teardown request. Destination B
responds with a teardown confirmation frame.
All switches delete the corresponding entry
from their tables.

163
 Efficiency

 Resource reservation can be made:

1. During the setup: Delay for each packet is the same.
2. On demand during the data transfer phase: each packet may
have different delays.
 Big advantage: Resource allocation is on demand.
 The source can check the availability of the resources, without
actually reserving it.

164
 Delay

 Total delay is 3T+ 3τ + setup delay + teardown delay

T: Transmission time
τ : Propagation delay
8.165
 Ch.9: Using Telephone and Cable Networks
for Data Transmission
Telephone networks (late 1800s) : Based on circuit
switching
 First: analog voice communication.
 Second: Digital-voice (using PCM)
 Third: Digital data using dial-up modem (existing
but slow)
 Fourth: Digital subscriber line (DSL): High-speed
downloading and uploading.
Cable networks:
 First: TV programs.
 Second: Internet with high-speed.
9.166
 A telephone system

 PSTN: Public Switched Telephone Network

 Local-loop: Twisted-pair cable with BW of 4 kHz.
 Trunks: Optical fiber or Satellite link (supports large number
of voice conversations simultaneously)

9.167
 Functionalities

1. Signaling: Dial tone, Ringing tone, and Busy tone

2. Transferring telephone numbers between offices
3. Maintaining and monitoring the call
4. Keeping billing information
5. Maintaining and monitoring the status of the
telephone network equipment
6. Providing other functions such as caller ID, voice
mail, and so on

168
 Data signals require a higher degree of
1. Dial-up modems accuracy to ensure integrity. For
safety’s sake, therefore, the edges of
this range are not used for data
communications

169
 MODEM Standards (ITU-T)

 The modem uses a combined modulation and encoding

technique called trellis coded modulation (TCM).
 Trellis is essentially QAM plus a redundant bit (used for error
detection).
 Basic data rate: 2.4 kbps
 V.32:- 32-QAM (5-bits):
 4 - bits for date and 1 bit for error detection
 Resulting data rate= 4 x 2.4 = 9.6 kbps
 V.32 bis:- First ITU-T standard: 128 - QAM (7 bits)
 6 bits for data and 1 bit for error detection
 Resulting data rate= 6 x 2.4 = 14.4 kbps

170
V.34bis:
 28.8 kbps with 960 - point constellation.
 33.6 kbps with 1664 - point constellation.
V.90 : 56 k modems: (world-wide telephone
companies)
 fs = 8000 sps
 n = 8 bits per sample.
 7 bits for data and 1 bit for control purpose.
 Total bit rate: 8000 x 7 = 56 kbps.
171
Uploading and downloading in 56K modems

9.172
 2.Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
It provides higher-speed than exiting local lines
(Modems) to access the Internet.
 DSL technologies: ADSL, VDSL, HDSL, and SDSL.
 called: xDSL (where x can be replaced by A, V, H, or
S)
 ADSL: Asymmetric DSL
 HDL: High-bit-rate DSL
 VDSL: Very high-bit-rate DSL
 SDSL: Symmetric DSL

173
 ADSL
Asymmetric DSL.
Different uploading and downloading speed.
Designed for residential users and not for businesses.

The existing local loops can handle bandwidths up to 1.1 MHz

174
 Adaptive Technology

 Theoretical bandwidth of the local loop is 1.1 MHz.

 Factors affecting the bandwidth:
 Distance between residence and the switching office
 The size of the cable
 The signalling used
 Date rate of ADSL is not fixed, it changes based on the
condition and type of the local loop cable

175
Discrete Multitone Technique (DMT)
(QAM and FDM)

9.176
 Channel 0: Voice channel
 Idle channels: 1 to 5 are not used and provide a gap between voice and
data communication.
 Upstream data and control:
 Channels: 6 to 30 (25 channels)
 24 for data + 1 for control
 Total bit rate: 24 x 4 KHz x 15 = 1.44 Mbps
 Actual: below 500 kbps
 Downstream data and control:
 Channels: 31 to 255 (225 channels)
 224 for data + 1 for control
 Total bit rate: 224 x 4 KHz x 15= 13.4 Mbps.
 Actual : below 8 Mbps

177
Customer site: ADSL modem

Telephone company site:

DSL access multiplexer
9.178
Summary of DSL technologies

9.179
 3. Cable TV network

Communication in the traditional

cable TV network is unidirectional.

180
 Hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) network

Communication in an HFC cable TV

network can be bidirectional. 9.181
 4.Cable TV for Data transfer

Cable companies are now competing with telephone

companies for the residential customer who wants
high-speed data transfer.
DSL (high-data-rate connections) for residential
subscribers using UTP cable, which is very
susceptible to interference.
 Solution: Cable TV network.

182
 Bandwidth

 Video band:
 RF band: 54 to 550 MHz.
 Each TV signal has BW of 6 MHz.
 RF BW = (550 - 54) MHz= 490 MHz.
 Number of TV channels = 490 MHz/6 MHz = 80.

9.183
 Bandwidth

 Downstream Data Band

 RF band: 550 to 750 MHz. This band is divided into 6-MHz channels.
 Modulation: 64-QAM (N = 6 bits/symbol) or possibly 256-QAM.
 5 bits for data and one bit for FEC.
 Data rate:
 30 Mbps (5 bits/Hz × 6 MHz).
 With 1OBase-T cable, this limits the data rate to 10 Mbps.

9.184
 Upstream Data Band
 5 to 42 MHz. This band is also divided into 6-MHz channels.
 Modulation:
 LF are more susceptible to noise and interference. For this reason, the
QAM technique is not suitable for this band.
 A better solution is QPSK.
 Data Rate:
 2 bits/symbol in QPSK.
 12 Mbps (2 bits/Hz × 6 MHz)
 However, actual data rate is less than 12 Mbps.
185
 Sharing
 Upstream:
 RF BW = (42 – 5) MHz = 37 MHz
 Channels = 37 MHz/6MHz = 6.
 How 1000, 2000, or even 100,000 subscribers can be served with 6
channels.
 Solution: FDM/TDM sharing.
 Downstream:
 RF BW = (750 – 550) MHz = 200 MHz
 Channels = 200 MHz/6 MHz = 33 channels
 Solution: FDM/TDM sharing.

186
 CM and CMTS

CM : Cable Modem

CMTS: CM Transmission system

187
 Data Transmission Schemes: DOCSIS

 Several schemes have been designed to create a

standard for data transmission over an HFC network.
 Multimedia Cable Network Systems (MCNS), called
Data Over Cable System Interface Specification
(DOCSIS).
It defines all the protocols necessary to transport data
from a CMTS to a CM.

188