GBEP Ethiopia Technical Report ISBN

SUSTAINABILITY OF
BIOGAS AND SOLID

BIOMASS VALUE
CHAINS IN ETHIOPIA
Results and recommendations
from implementation of the
Global Bioenergy Partnership
Indicators
TECHNICAL REPORT
Supported by:
Federal Ministry
for the Environment, Nature Conservation
and Nuclear Safety
based on a decision by the German Bundestag

SUSTAINABILITY OF BIOGAS
AND SOLID BIOMASS VALUE
CHAINS IN ETHIOPIA
Results and recommendations from implementation of the

Global Bioenergy Partnership Indicators
TECHNICAL REPORT
Copyright © United Nations Environment Programme, 2019
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or
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The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not
imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations
Environment Programme concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or
area or of its authorities, or concerning delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Moreover, the views expressed do not necessarily represent the decision or the stated
policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, nor does citing of trade names or
commercial processes constitute endorsement.
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of tables......................................................................................................................... iv
List of figures........................................................................................................................ vi
List of maps......................................................................................................................... vii
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................... viii
Foreword............................................................................................................................ ix
Abbreviations and acronyms................................................................................................... x
1 Implementation of the GBEP Sustainability Indicators for bioenergy in Ethiopia....................1

1.1 Background................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Implementation of the GBEP indicators in different countries.............................................5
1.3 Application of GBEP indicators in Ethiopia........................................................................6
1.4 Outcome.................................................................................................................... 6
1.5 References................................................................................................................. 7
2 Country context and energy overview...................................................................................8

2.1 Overview of Ethiopia..................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Environmental situation............................................................................................... 9
2.3 Agriculture and livestock............................................................................................... 9
2.4 The energy situation.................................................................................................... 10
2.5 References............................................................................................................... 17
3 Description of the selected bioenergy pathways.................................................................19

3.1 The biogas pathway in Ethiopia....................................................................................19
3.2 The solid biomass (fuel wood and charcoal) pathway.......................................................24
3.3 References............................................................................................................... 35
4 Results of THE GBEP Sustainability Indicators for biogas and solid biomass for cooking in
Ethiopia..............................................................................................................................38
4.1 Indicator 1. Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions..............................................................38
4.2 Indicator 2. Soil quality................................................................................................. 46
4.3 Indicator 3. Harvest levels of wood resources.................................................................56
4.4 Indicator 4. Emissions of non-greenhouse gas air pollutants, including air toxics.................65
4.5 Indicator 5. water use and efficiency.............................................................................75
4.6 Indicator 6. Water quality.............................................................................................81
4.7 Indicator 7. Biological diversity in the landscape...............................................................85
4.8 Indicator 8. Land use and land-use change related to bioenergy feedstock production........92
4.9 Indicator 9. Allocation and tenure of land for new bioenergy production...........................105
4.10 Indicator 10. Price and supply of a national food basket.................................................112
4.11 Indicator 11. Change in income...................................................................................116
4.12 Indicator 12. Jobs in the bioenergy sector.....................................................................124
4.13 Indicator 13. Change in unpaid time spent by women and children collecting biomass.......130
4.14 Indicator 14. Bioenergy used to expand access to modern energy services......................136
4.15 Indicator 15. Change in mortality and burden of disease attributable to indoor smoke.......141
4.16 Indicator 16. Incidence of occupational injury, illness and fatalities.....................................146
4.17 Indicator 17. Productivity............................................................................................. 148
4.18 Indicator 18. Net energy balance.................................................................................157
4.19 Indicator 19. Gross value added..................................................................................163
4.20 Indicator 20. Change in consumption of fossil fuels and traditional use of biomass............168
4.21 Indicator 21. Training and requalification of the workforce................................................171
4.22 Indicator 22. Energy diversity......................................................................................180
4.23 Indicator 23. Infrastructure and logistics for distribution of bioenergy.................................182
4.24 Indicator 24. Capacity and flexibility of use of bioenergy...................................................190
ii
5 Conclusions and recommendations....................................................................................195
5.1 Conclusions........................................................................................................... 195
5.2 Recommendations and future monitoring for bioenergy pathways.................................199
iii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1. The GBEP Sustainability Indicators...............................................................................3
Table 2.1. Ethiopian energy production capacities per sources of energy in 2014............................10
Table 2.2. Ethiopian energy indicators for 2016...........................................................................10
Table 2.3. Ethiopian energy balance for 2016.............................................................................12
Table 3.1. Daily rate of feeding required livestock and estimated stove hours................................20
Table 3.2. Capacity and number of biodigesters..........................................................................21
Table 3.3. Summary of biogas digesters installed during first phase of National Biogas Programme. .22
Table 3.4. Categories of forests with their coverage, mean annual increment and yield...................26
Table 3.5. Agricultural production and residues...........................................................................27
Table 3.6. Total biomass production by region............................................................................28
Table 3.7. Total biomass fuel consumption by region...................................................................31
Table 3.8. Source and type of fuel/ energy used by urban and rural households..............................31
Table 3.9. Distribution of improved cookstoves by Ethiopian government and GIZ.........................32
Table 3.10. Performance-based categorization of cookstoves.......................................................33
Table 4.1. Assumptions of the greenhouse gas life cycle analysis of the biogas pathway.................39
Table 4.2. Summary of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from biogas compared to traditional wood
(open fires)
..............................................................................................................................
40
Table 4.3. Assumptions of the greenhouse gas life cycle analysis of the solid biomass pathway........41
Table 4.4. Summary of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from firewood used in improved
cookstoves compared to traditional biomass cookstoves and LPG
..............................................................................................................................
42
Table 4.5. Summary of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from charcoal used in improved
cookstoves compared to traditional wood (open fires) and LPG
..............................................................................................................................
43
Table 4.6. Characteristics of selected soil properties of major woody biomass sources of vegetation types
52
Table 4.7. Forest cover of Ethiopia............................................................................................ 58
Table 4.8. Tree cover loss and gain........................................................................................... 59
Table 4.9. Growth and standing stock of forests of Ethiopia..........................................................61
Table 4.10. Wood removals for the year 2017............................................................................61
Table 4.11. Estimate of wood fuel supply in Ethiopia...................................................................62
Table 4.12. Future demand and supply projections (2015-2030) of wood fuel / feedstocks...............63
Table 4.13. Comparison of summary of toxic and non-greenhouse gas emissions from the use
of biogas with firewood used in traditional cookstove and LPG
..............................................................................................................................
67
Table 4.14. Comparison of summary of toxic and non-greenhouse gas emissions from the use
of firewood in improved cookstoves and in traditional wood (open fires)
..............................................................................................................................
69
Table 4.15. Comparison of toxic and non-greenhouse gas emissions from the use of charcoal in
improved cookstoves, traditional wood (open fires) and LPG
..............................................................................................................................
71
Table 4.16. Water resource...................................................................................................... 76
Table 4.17. Water use by sector............................................................................................... 78
Table 4.18. Water withdrawals associated with biogas production in Ethiopia in 2016.....................79
Table 4.19. Ecosystem hotspot areas in Ethiopia.........................................................................87
Table 4.20. Spatial distribution of fuelwood consumption areas in and the surrounding hotspot
ecosystem
areas..................................................................................................................... 88
Table 4.21. Spatial distribution of charcoal consumption areas in and the surrounding hotspot ecosystem
areas..................................................................................................................... 89
iv
Table 4.22. Land-cover types of Ethiopia, shares and changes between 2000 and 2015..................94
Table 4.23. Tree cover loss and gain..........................................................................................96
Table 4.24. Industrial plantation forest areas in ha by species and region in Ethiopia......................97
Table 4.25. Non-industrial plantations forest areas including firewood and charcoal by region in Ethiopia
.............................................................................................................................................. 97
Table 4.26. Forest and woodland status at 2015.........................................................................98
Table 4.27. Change of animal feed holders.................................................................................98
Table 4.28. Land cover change and animal feed holders..............................................................98
Table 4.29. Total national consumption of biomass fuels (2013) and shrubland cover change, 2000-2015
............................................................................................................................................. 100
Table 4.30. National total wood removal from the forest for different purposes, including energy in
Ethiopia.................................................................................................................................. 100
Table 4.31. Estimate of wood fuel supply in Ethiopia..................................................................101
Table 4.32. Extent of forest plantations supplying the national biomass fuel use...........................103
v
Table 4.33. Historical development of land tenure in Ethiopia, pre-1975 to now............................106
Table 4.34 Categories of forest resources ownership and their total land area used in Ethiopia........107
Table 4.35. Different rental prices of rural land for agricultural projects in different regional states.....109
Table 4.36. Incentives for plantation development for solid biomass production in Ethiopia............110
Table 4.37. Type of crops grown using slurry and the change in production..................................114
Table 4.38. Purpose of the bioslurry (%)...................................................................................114
Table 4.39. Source and amount of masons’ payment per region...............................................................118
Table 4.40. Masons’ income before and after installing biogas plants..........................................118
Table 4.41. Estimated annual benefits and costs attributed to biogas installation..........................119
Table 4.42. Income (birr) saving from purchasing expenditure....................................................119
Table 4.43. Direct jobs associated with the biogas production value chain, 2015-2018..................126
Table 4.44. Direct jobs associated with the fuelwood value chain, 2014-2017...............................127
Table 4.45. Direct jobs associated with the charcoal value chain, 2014-2017................................128
Table 4.46. Average time saved before and after the adoption of biogas technology.....................132
Table 4.47. Computation of Indicator 14 for solid biomass..........................................................137
Table 4.48. Computation of Indicator 14 for biogas....................................................................138
Table 4.49. Estimates of burden of disease attributable to solid fuel use in Ethiopia......................142
Table 4.50. Health benefit satisfaction rate with biogas plant......................................................143
Table 4.51. Use of wood, dung or charcoal for cooking after biogas.............................................144
Table 4.52. Major problems and disadvantages people face while collecting firewood....................147
Table 4.53. Occupational injuries encountered by the biogas user family during firewood collection 147
Table 4.54. Cost of biogas production......................................................................................150
Table 4.55. Energy content of biomass fuels.............................................................................152
Table 4.56. Common charcoal production technologies used and conversion efficiency.................152
Table 4.57. Summary of results of Indicator 18 for the biogas pathway in Ethiopia........................159
Table 4.58. The net energy balance for production and utilization of 1 kg fuel wood in Ethiopia in
2014, considering the average of urban and rural areas
............................................................................................................................
160
Table 4.59. Net energy balance for production and utilization of charcoal in 2014.........................161
Table 4.60. Gross value added from biogas..............................................................................165
Table 4.61. Value added of wood fuel production......................................................................166
Table 4.62. Gross value added from solid biomass (charcoal and firewood)..................................167
Table 4.63. Herfindahl Index of the country with and without modern bioenergy...........................181
Table 4.64. Common wood sources for charcoal production by producer type in 2016...................186
Table 4.65. Means of charcoal transport and quantity transported per trip by producer category....188
Table 4.66. Ratio of capacity of the biogas pathway...................................................................192
Table 4.67. Ratio of capacity of the solid biomass (fuel wood and charcoal) pathway.....................192
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1. Ethiopian gross domestic product (GDP)......................................................................8
Figure 3.1. Drawing of the SINIDU Biogas digester......................................................................20
Figure 3.2. Biogas potential (digesters) of some regions of Ethiopia..............................................21
Figure 3.3. Yearly distribution of biogas digesters in Ethiopia........................................................23
Figure 3.4. Functionality rate by region (%).................................................................................24
Figure 3.5. Earth mound charcoal production.............................................................................30
Figure 3.6. Injera baking biomass improved cookstoves available in Ethiopia.................................33
Figure 3.7. Charcoal improved cookstoves.................................................................................33
Figure 4.1. Summary of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from using biogas compared to traditional
wood (open fires) for cooking...................................................................................40
Figure 4.2. Summary of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from wood used in improved cookstoves
compared to traditional wood (open fires) and LPG.....................................................42
Figure 4.3. Summary of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from charcoal used in improved
cookstoves compared to traditional wood (open fires) and LPG
............................................................................................................................
43
Figure 4.4. Tree cover loss by region for the period 2001-2014 (>10% canopy cover)....................60
Figure 4.5. Projection of fuelwood demand, 2015-2035................................................................63
Figure 4.6. Summary of life cycle SO2 emissions from using biogas compared to traditional wood cooking
during collection, transport, processing and use..........................................................66
Figure 4.7. Summary of life cycle CO emissions from using biogas compared to traditional wood cooking
and LPG during collection, transport, processing and use.............................................66
Figure 4.8. Summary of life cycle PM10 emissions from using biogas compared to traditional
wood cooking during collection, transport, processing and use
............................................................................................................................
66
Figure 4.9. Summary of life cycle SO2 emissions from using firewood in improved cookstoves,
compared to traditional wood cooking and LPG during collection, transport,
processing and use
............................................................................................................................
68
Figure 4.10.
............................................................................................................................
Summary of life cycle CO emissions from using firewood in improved cookstoves,
processing and use
............................................................................................................................
68
Figure 4.11.
............................................................................................................................
Summary of life cycle PM10 emissions from using firewood in improved cookstoves,
processing and use
............................................................................................................................
68
Figure 4.12.
............................................................................................................................
Summary of life cycle SO2 emissions from using charcoal in improved cookstoves,
processing and use
............................................................................................................................
70
Figure 4.13.
............................................................................................................................
Summary of life cycle CO emissions from using charcoal in improved cookstoves,
vii
processing and use
............................................................................................................................
70
Figure 4.14.
............................................................................................................................
Summary of life cycle PM10 emissions from using charcoal in improved cookstoves,
compared to traditional wood (open fires) and LPG during collection, transport,
processing and use
............................................................................................................................
70
Figure 4.15. Water withdrawal by sector......................................................................................78
Figure 4.16. Metal kiln.............................................................................................................. 91
Figure 4.17. Land cover change between 2000 and 2015 in Ethiopia..............................................99
Figure 4.18. Animal feed holder changes between 2000 and 2015 in Ethiopia.................................99
Figure 4.19. Biogas impact on the number of animals (%)............................................................115
Figure 4.20. Map of charcoal supply chain.................................................................................121
Figure 4.21. Charcoal depots.................................................................................................... 121
Figure 4.22. The allocation of the time saved in each regional state of Ethiopia.................................133
Figure 4.23. Benefits of improved cookstoves.............................................................................134
Figure 4.24. Numbers of deaths attributable to indoor air pollution in 2016 in Ethiopia....................142
Figure 4.25. Functionality rate by region.....................................................................................150
Figure 4.26. Biogas production and utilization process flow diagram.............................................158
Figure 4.27. Dung stored in the inlet pit for later use has become dry...........................................173
viii
LIST OF MAPS
Map 3.1. Annual total dung consumption by wereda...............................................................19
Map 3.2. Forest cover of Ethiopia..........................................................................................25
Map 3.3. Main locations of charcoal production.......................................................................29
Map 4.1. Major soil types map of Ethiopia..............................................................................48
Map 4.2. Soil pH map of Ethiopia........................................................................................... 49
Map 4.3. Map of organic carbon content in topsoil (0-5 cm) of Ethiopia......................................50
Map 4.4. Cation exchange capacity map of Ethiopia from 0-5 cm soil depth...............................51
Map 4.5. Distribution of the forest resources of Ethiopia..........................................................58
Map 4.6. Ethiopian surface water leaving the country..............................................................77
Map 4.7. Protected areas in Ethiopia......................................................................................86
Map 4.8. Fuel wood consumption by woreda..........................................................................88
Map 4.9. Hotspot ecosystem areas........................................................................................88
Map 4.10. Charcoal consumption by woreda............................................................................89
Map 4.12. Invasive species distribution....................................................................................90
Map 4.14. Land cover change of Ethiopia between 2000 and 2015..............................................95
Map 4.15. Shrub land cover change of Ethiopia between 2000 and 2015.....................................96
Map 4.16. Annual consumption of woody biomass by woreda (tons/yr).....................................102
Map 4.17. Annual natural sustainable supply of woody biomass by woreda (tons/ha/yr)..............102
Map 4.18. Main locations of charcoal production.....................................................................122
Map 4.19. Annual natural sustainable supply of woody biomass by woreda (tons/ha/yr)..............184
Map 4.20. Annual total wood fuel consumption by woreda (tons/yr)..........................................184
Map 4.21. Main locations of charcoal production areas in Ethiopia............................................185
Map 4.22. Annual total charcoal consumption by woreda.........................................................185
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) supported the development of this
report in Ethiopia in the framework of the project “Building Capacity for Enhancing
Bioenergy Sustainability Through the Use of GBEP Indicators”, with financial assistance
from the International Climate Initiative (IKI) of the German government. The project was
coordinated by Laura Williamson from UNEP’s Economy Division for overall management,
Kouadio N’Goran from UNEP’s Africa Office for regional management and Dr. Maryse
Labriet as indicator expert.
In Ethiopia, the project was implemented by Tirhas Mebrahtu from the Environment,
Forest and Climate Change Commission (EFCCC) as in-country coordinator and Berhane
Kidane from the Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute (EEFRI) as team
leader.
We would like to thank all the researchers for their dedication and contributions to this
report, including:
 From EEFRI: Yalemsew Adela, Hundessa Adugna, Mohammed Berhanu, Dr. Tatek
Dejene, Getachew Desalegn, Buzayehu Desisa, Abraham Dilnesa, Dr. Alemayehu
Esayas, Alemtsehay Eyasu, Degnechew Genene, Biruk Gobena, Fikermariam Haile,
Gemechu Kaba, Getachew Kebede, Dr. Shasho Megersa, Dr. Anteneh T.
Tekleyohannes, Dr. Teshome Tesema, Mahelete Tsegaye, Adefires Worku,
Gemechu Yadeta, Dr. Yonas Yohannes.
 From EFCCC: Kedir Jemal.
We would also like to express our appreciation to Dr. Agena Anjulo, Deputy Director
General of EEFRI, for his oversight and technical contribution to the report, as well as to
the many government bodies, academic institutions, stakeholders and individual experts
that, as members of the multi- stakeholder working group established under the project,
provided useful feedback and guidance throughout the project implementation. These
include the Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission; the Ministry of Water,
Irrigation and Energy; the National Biogas Program; the Ministry of Mines and Petroleum;
the Ministry of Health; the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources; the Central
Statistics Agency; the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs; GIZ Ethiopia; SNV in
Ethiopia; and Addis Ababa University.
Furthermore, we would like to express our appreciation to Horst Fehrenbach, from the
Institute for Energy and Environmental Research, for the training delivered in Ethiopia on
the assessment of emissions from biogas and solid biomass.
We would also like to thank Lisa Mastny for editing and proofreading the final version
and Moses Ako from the UNEP Africa Office for the design and formatting of the report.
This work was made possible with the financial support of the International Climate Initiative (IKI) of the
German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU).
x
FOREWORD
Fellow citizens, partners and colleagues,
I am delighted to present the report Sustainability of Biogas and Solid Biomass Value Chains in
Ethiopia: Results and Recommendations from Implementation of the Global Bioenergy Partnership
Indicators.
Ethiopia is one of the fastest growing economies in Africa, and with this has come
increased demand for energy services. Ethiopia’s energy sector is highly dependent on
biomass (firewood, charcoal, crop residues and animal dung). Its high reliance on solid
biomass for cooking and heating, coupled with rapid population growth and an increased
demand for agricultural output (land for crop production and livestock feed) has reduced
access to solid fuels. Moreover, the unsustainable use of these fuels is associated with
deforestation and resultant land degradation. This is compounded by rising demand for
charcoal in urban areas – where households use primarily charcoal for heating
purposes – as well as by high demand for wood and agricultural residues in rural
households.
To break this downward cycle, Ethiopia’s second national energy policy specifically calls
for the integration of environmental sustainability into the country’s energy production
and supply. This policy outlines the need to enhance Ethiopia’s bioenergy supply and to
increase efficiency in this sector. It is under this mandate that the Environment, Forest
and Climate Change Commission (EFCCC) has engaged in this work to begin assessing the
sustainability of Ethiopia’s bioenergy sector with the use of the Global Bioenergy
Partnership (GBEP) bioenergy sustainability indicators.
The 24 GBEP indicators assess the environmental, social and economic impacts of
bioenergy value chains. In this pilot study two critical pathways were chosen: 1) biogas
from animal dung used by households and 2) solid biomass (firewood and charcoal)
used in improved cookstoves for cooking and heating. The report outlines the current
and future potential of Ethiopia’s bioenergy sector and presents the key results and
conclusions. Report results also illustrate important factors that can shape the long-term
and periodic monitoring aspects of the sector.
It is my sincere hope that these findings will help improve our overall knowledge and
understanding about Ethiopia’s bioenergy sector and will serve as a starting point to
improve the sustainability of this sector and support the design of effective sustainable
bioenergy policies as part of low-carbon development strategies.
This work was undertaken by the Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission
(EFCCC) and the Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute (EEFRI), with the
support of a multi- stakeholder working group. We are grateful for the technical support
from the United Nations Environment Programme and for the financial support from the
German Climate Initiative (IKI).
Fekadu Beyene (Prof.)

Commissioner of Environment, Forestry and Climate Change
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
xi
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
°C Degree Celsius
BCE Biogas construction enterprise
BEST Biomass Energy Strategy
BUS Biogas Users’ Surveys
CEC Cation exchange capacity
CFPME Construction and fuelwood production and marketing
enterprise CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CO2eq Carbon dioxide equivalent
CRGE Climate Resilient Green Economy
Strategy CSA Central Statistical Agency
EBES Ethiopian Biomass Energy Strategy
EEA Ethiopian Energy Agency
EEFRI Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research
Institute EFCCC Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Commission EPA Environmental Protection Authority
EPRDF Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front
EREDPC Ethiopian Rural Energy Development and Promotion
Centre FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
g Gram
GBEP Global Bioenergy Partnership
GDP Gross domestic product
GGGI Global Green Growth Institute
GHG Greenhouse gas
GIS Geographic information system
GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit GTP Growth and Transformation Plan
GW Gigawatt
GWP Global warming potential
HI Herfindahl Index
ICLS International Conference Labor Statisticians
IEA International Energy Agency
IFEU Institut für Energie-und Umweltforschung
Heidelberg ILO International Labour Organization
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change ICS Improved cookstoves
IWMI International Water Management
Institute kg Kilogram
km2 Square kilometre
kWh Kilowatt-hour
ktoe Kilotons of oil equivalent
L Litre
LCA Life cycle analysis
LHV Low heating value
LPG Liquefied petroleum gas
LULC Land use and land cover
3
m cubic metre
MEFCC Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
xii
MoWIE Ministry of Water Irrigation and
Electricity MSWG Multi-stakeholder working
group
Mtoe Million tons of oil equivalent
NBPE National Biogas Programme of
Ethiopia NFSDP National Forest Sector
Development Program NGONon-governmental
organization
NMVOC Non-methane volatile organic
compound NOx Nitrogen oxides
ODI Overseas Development Institute
PASDEP Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End
Poverty PFM Participatory Forest Management
PM10 Particulate matter 10 micrometres or less in
diameter PM2.5 Particulate matter 2.5 micrometres or
less in diameter PPP Purchasing power parity
PV Photovoltaic
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
SLM Sustainable Land Management
SNNPR Southern Nation Nationalities and People’s
Region SO2 Sulphur dioxide
t Ton
toe Tons of oil equivalent
TPES Total primary energy supply
TWh Terawatt-hour
UNEP United Nations Environment
Programme WRB World Reference Base for
soil sciences
xiii
1 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE GBEP SUSTAINABILITY
INDICATORS FOR BIOENERGY IN ETHIOPIA
1.1 Background
The Global Bioenergy Partnership (GBEP) is an international initiative of more than 70
Partners and Observers (referred to as “members”), including governments,
intergovernmental organizations and civil society, that work on the sustainability of
bioenergy and its contribution to climate change mitigation. The GBEP provides a
platform for sharing information and examples of good practice in sustainable bioenergy,
and the initiative builds its activities on three strategic areas: sustainable development,
climate change, and energy and food security. It also seeks to enhance collaborative
project development and implementation, with a view to optimizing the contribution of
bioenergy to sustainable development, taking into account environmental, social and
economic factors. In December 2011, the GBEP published a report with a set of 24
sustainability indicators for bioenergy (Table 1.1), with contributions from all members
and agreed on a consensus basis (Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO] 2011).
Even though several national and regional initiatives have defined their own sustainability
criteria for bioenergy (mainly focused on liquid biofuels), the work of the GBEP is unique
because it is currently the only initiative that has built consensus among a broad
range of national governments and international organizations on the sustainability of
bioenergy, with an emphasis on providing measurements useful for informing national-
level policy analysis and development. Moreover, the GBEP work addresses all forms of
bioenergy. The GBEP sustainability indicators do not feature directions, thresholds or
limits and do not constitute a standard, nor are they legally binding on GBEP members.
The GBEP has sought to develop a holistic set of science-based and technically sound
indicators for national evaluation of the domestic production and use of modern
bioenergy. All members were invited to contribute their respective experience and
technical expertise to the development and refinement of the indicators.
The GBEP first developed and provisionally agreed on a list of themes, then established
three sub- groups: 1) Environmental – co-led by Germany and the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP); 2) Social – led by the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO); and 3) Economic and Energy Security – co-led
by the International Energy Agency (IEA) and the United Nations Foundation. These sub-
groups undertook the detailed work on the indicators for these themes, which were
equally divided among the three sub-group headings. The GBEP report on the
sustainability indicators of bioenergy also contains a section listing examples of
contextual information about cross-cutting issues relating to the legal, policy and
institutional framework of relevance to bioenergy and its ability to contribute to
sustainable development.
During the process of developing the indicators, GBEP members used the work of
relevant organizations and international processes related to environmental quality,
social welfare and sustainable economic development. Some of the relevant
international organizations whose work has informed the development of indicators
include the IEA, the International Labour Organization (ILO), the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), UNEP, the FAO, the United Nations Industrial
Development Organization (UNIDO) and the World Health Organization (WHO).
1
The development of the indicators made use of existing guidance documents on
sustainable development as discussed in the global community, especially taking into
account the Millennium Development Goals, the Commission on Sustainable Development
(CSD) and Agenda 21. The GBEP developed themes that are connected to the social
impact of access to modern energy services, notably human health and safety, and
rural and social development.
Since the publication of the GBEP Sustainability Indicators (FAO 2011), the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) have been internationally accepted. Nearly all of the 17 SDGs
are linked to biomass in some way, as either a driver for increased use or as sustainability
safeguards (IINAS and IFEU 2018). Furthermore, access to modern energy services from
bioenergy for households and businesses can promote social development and poverty
reduction, and as such can contribute to achieving various SDGs, including those related
to health, education and gender equality (in addition to energy access).
The GBEP developed indicators relevant to the economic themes of sustainability,

including those that cover the concepts of economic development, energy security,
resource availability and efficiency of use, infrastructure development, and access to
technology. Indicators related to these themes were informed by the work of the CSD,
international organizations, and agencies and ministries within the governments of
GBEP members.
Within the environmental pillar, a number of central themes were considered as part of
the discussion of the GBEP Sustainability Indicators, including those related to
greenhouse gas emissions, productive capacity of the land and ecosystems, water and
air quality, biological diversity and land-use change. These important aspects were
discussed and incorporated within relevant indicators and their underlying
methodologies.
The development of the indicators was informed by relevant international processes

also focusing on these themes, including the Convention on Biological Diversity, the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change.
The selection criteria for the indicators were relevance, practicality and scientific basis.
Additionally, the geographic scale was considered, as well as whether the full set of
indicators was balanced and sufficiently comprehensive while still practical.
In Table 1.1, the 24 GBEP Sustainability Indicators are set out under the three pillars, with
the relevant themes listed at the top of each pillar. The order in which the indicators are
presented has no significance. Full supporting information relating to the relevance,
practicality and scientific basis of each indicator, including suggested approaches for their
measurement, can be found in FAO (2011).
2
Table 1.1. The GBEP Sustainability Indicators
ENVIRONMENTAL PILLAR
THEMES
The GBEP considers the following themes relevant, and these guided the development of indicators under this
pillar: greenhouse gas emissions; productive capacity of the land and ecosystems; air quality; water
availability, use efficiency and
quality; biological diversity; and land-use change, including indirect effects.
INDICATOR NAME INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
1. Lifecycle greenhouse Lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions from bioenergy production and use,
gas emissions as per the
methodology chosen nationally or at the community level, and reported
using the GBEP Common Methodological Framework for GHG Lifecycle Analysis
of Bioenergy Version One
2. Soil quality Percentage of land for which soil quality, in particular in terms of soil organic
carbon, is
maintained or improved out of total land on which bioenergy feedstock is
cultivated or harvested
3. Harvest levels of wood Annual harvest of wood resources by volume and as a percentage of net
resources growth or
sustained yield, and the percentage of the annual harvest used for bioenergy
4. Emissions of non- Emissions of non-greenhouse gas air pollutants, including air toxics, from
greenhouse gas air bioenergy feedstock production, processing, transport of feedstocks,
pollutants, including air intermediate products and end products, and use; and in comparison with
toxics other energy sources
5. Water use and  Water withdrawn from nationally determined watershed(s) for the
efficiency production and processing of bioenergy feedstocks, expressed as the
percentage of total actual renewable water resources and as the
percentage of total annual water withdrawals, disaggregated into
renewable and non-renewable water sources
 Volume of water withdrawn from nationally determined watershed(s)
used for the
production and processing of bioenergy feedstocks per unit of
bioenergy output, disaggregated into renewable and non-renewable
water sources
6. Water quality  Pollutant loadings to waterways and bodies of water attributable to
fertilizer and pesticide application for bioenergy feedstock cultivation,
and expressed as a percentage of pollutant loadings from total agricultural
production in the watershed
 Pollutant loadings to waterways and bodies of water attributable to
bioenergy
processing effluents, and expressed as a percentage of pollutant
loadings from total agricultural processing effluents in the watershed
7. Biological diversity in  Area and percentage of nationally recognized areas of high biodiversity value
the landscape or critical ecosystems converted to bioenergy production
 Area and percentage of the land used for bioenergy production where
nationally recognized invasive species, by risk category, are cultivated
 Area and percentage of the land used for bioenergy production where
nationally
recognized conservation methods are used
8. Land use and land-  Total area of land for bioenergy feedstock production, and as
use change compared to total national surface and agricultural and managed forest
related to land area
bioenergy  Percentages of bioenergy from yield increases, residues, wastes and
feedstock degraded or contaminated land
production  Net annual rates of conversion between land-use types caused directly by
bioenergy feedstock production, including the following (amongst others):
o arable land and permanent crops, permanent meadows and
pastures, and managed forests;
o natural forests and grasslands (including savannah, excluding natural
permanent meadows and pastures), peatlands and wetlands
3
SOCIAL PILLAR
THEMES
pillar: price
and supply of a national food basket; access to land, water and other natural resources; labour conditions;
rural and social development; access to energy; human health and safety.
9. Allocation and tenure Percentage of land – total and by land-use type – used for new bioenergy
of land for new production where:
bioenergy  a legal instrument or domestic authority establishes title and procedures
production for change of title; and
 the current domestic legal system and/or socially accepted practices provide
due
process and the established procedures are followed for determining legal
title
10. Price and supply of a Effects of bioenergy use and domestic production on the price and supply of a
national food basket food basket, which is a nationally defined collection of representative foodstuffs,
including main staple crops, measured at the national, regional, and/or
household level, taking into consideration:
 changes in demand for foodstuffs for food, feed and fibre;
 changes in the import and export of foodstuffs;
 changes in agricultural production due to weather conditions;
 changes in agricultural costs from petroleum and other energy prices; and
 the impact of price volatility and price inflation of foodstuffs on the national,
regional, and/or household welfare level, as nationally determined
11. Change in income Contribution of the following to change in income due to bioenergy production:
 wages paid for employment in the bioenergy sector in relation to comparable
sectors
 net income from the sale, barter and/or own consumption of bioenergy
products, including feedstocks, by self-employed
households/individuals
12. Jobs in the bioenergy  Net job creation as a result of bioenergy production and use, total and
sector disaggregated (if possible) as follows:
o skilled/unskilled
o temporary/indefinite
 Total number of jobs in the bioenergy sector and percentage adhering to
nationally recognized labour standards consistent with the principles
enumerated in the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at
Work, in relation to comparable
sectors
13. Change in unpaid Change in average unpaid time spent by women and children collecting biomass
time spent by as a result of switching from traditional use of biomass to modern bioenergy
women and services
children
collecting
biomass
14. Bioenergy used to  Total amount and percentage of increased access to modern energy
expand access to services gained through modern bioenergy (disaggregated by bioenergy
modern energy type), measured in terms of energy and numbers of households and
services businesses
 Total number and percentage of households and businesses using bioenergy,
disaggregated into modern bioenergy and traditional use of biomass
15. Change in mortality Change in mortality and burden of disease attributable to indoor smoke from
and burden of solid fuel use, and changes in these as a result of the increased deployment
disease of modern bioenergy services, including improved biomass-based
attributable to cookstoves
indoor
smoke
16. Incidence of Incidences of occupational injury, illness and fatalities in the production of
occupational injury, bioenergy in relation to comparable sectors
illness and
fatalities
4
ECONOMIC PILLAR
THEMES
pillar: resource availability and use efficiencies in bioenergy production, conversion, distribution and end-
use; economic development; economic viability and competitiveness of bioenergy; access to technology
and technological capabilities; energy security/diversification of sources and supply; energy security /
infrastructure and logistics for distribution and
use.
17. Productivity  Productivity of bioenergy feedstocks by feedstock or by farm/plantation
 Processing efficiencies by technology and feedstock
 Amount of bioenergy end product by mass, volume or energy content
per hectare per year
 Production cost per unit of bioenergy
18. Net energy balance Energy ratio of the bioenergy value chain with comparison with other energy
sources, including energy ratios of feedstock production, processing of feedstock
into bioenergy,
bioenergy use; and/or life cycle analysis
19. Gross value added Gross value added per unit of bioenergy produced and as a percentage of gross
domestic
product
20. Change in the  Substitution of fossil fuels with domestic bioenergy measured by energy
consumption of content and in annual savings of convertible currency from reduced
fossil fuels and purchases of fossil fuels
traditional use of  Substitution of traditional use of biomass with modern domestic bioenergy
biomass measured by energy content
21. Training and re- Percentage of trained workers in the bioenergy sector out of total bioenergy
qualification of the workforce, and percentage of re-qualified workers out of the total number of jobs
workforce lost in the
bioenergy sector
22. Energy diversity Change in diversity of total primary energy supply due to bioenergy
23. Infrastructure and Number and capacity of routes for critical distribution systems, along with an
logistics for assessment of the proportion of the bioenergy associated with each
distribution of
bioenergy
24. Capacity and flexibility  Ratio of capacity for using bioenergy compared with actual use for each
of use of bioenergy significant utilization route
 Ratio of flexible capacity which can use either bioenergy or other fuel
sources to total
capacity
Source: FAO 2011
1.2 Implementation of the GBEP indicators in different countries
As of mid-2019, the GBEP indicators have been implemented in a number of countries

(Argentina, Colombia, Egypt, Germany, Ghana, Indonesia, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, the
Netherlands, Paraguay and Vietnam), with Germany implementing the indicators for a
second time and four other countries in the process of implementing them (Brazil,
Uruguay, Ethiopia and Kenya). Trainings on the GBEP indicators were also organized in
Togo, Ghana and the Philippines.
In each application, countries collected information regarding the performance of their

bioenergy sector. The application of the indicators also provided national institutions with
an understanding of what is needed to establish long-term monitoring of their bioenergy
sectors. Improved knowledge and understanding of particular bioenergy pathways is one
outcome. The other is an increased understanding of how to evaluate the contribution of
the agriculture and energy sectors to national sustainable development priorities.
5
With regard to Ethiopia and Kenya, biomass use is very high in both countries. Overall
energy demand is also rising in both countries due primarily to rapid economic growth
(EAC 2016). This use, coupled with growth, has serious implications for the bioenergy
sector, particularly as no bioenergy
6
sustainability framework currently exists in either country. Sustainably managing the
bioenergy sector is central to each country’s aspirations to achieve middle-income status
by 2025 (Ethiopia) or 2030 (Kenya). However, policy makers are unable to make well-
informed decisions to increase the sustainability of the bioenergy due to a lack of
capacity.
1.3 Application of GBEP indicators in Ethiopia

The objective of applying the GBEP Sustainability Indicators for Bioenergy in Ethiopia was
to help strengthen the country’s capacity to monitor the environmental, social and
economic impacts of the bioenergy sector. Results from the project can also be used to
inform the design of effective sustainable bioenergy policies as part of low-carbon
development strategies.
The first phase of the project assessed the priority bioenergy pathways to examine in
Ethiopia. Building on a multi-stakeholder meeting in April 2018, two priority bioenergy
pathways were identified. They were chosen based on their spread, their relevance in
terms of policymaking, and the need for further evidence and analysis regarding their
sustainability. The following pathways and the related sustainability issues represented
the main focus of the project:1
1. Biogas produced from animal dung and used by households for cooking and heating.
2. Solid biomass (charcoal, firewood) used in improved cookstoves for cooking and heating.
The application of the GBEP indicators was entrusted to a team of experts from the
Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute (EEFRI) supported by the
Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission (EFCCC). EEFRI was in turn
supported by UNEP throughout the project, which provided technical support to the
national experts on the meaning of and rationale behind the indicators and their indicative
methodological approaches; on how to adapt the indicators to the country context; and
on how to implement the chosen methodologies. This was done throughout the
project in an iterative process.
Out of the April 2018 meeting, a multi-stakeholder working group (MSWG) was
formed bringing together relevant stakeholders from the public and private sectors,
including government agencies and academic and research institutions. The MSWG was
consulted over the course of the project to validate data and discuss results and
recommendations.
1.4 Outcome
The results and recommendations emerging from the application of the GBEP
Sustainability Indicators for Bioenergy in Ethiopia were shared with stakeholder and
national representatives during the final workshop, held on 4 November 2019 in Addis
Ababa. The work behind these results and recommendations are detailed in the
following sections.
This work is a starting point for increasing the sustainability of the bioenergy sector in
Ethiopia. By establishing benchmarks, it is hoped the national government will continue to
engage in a regular process of assessing the evolution of the sector. Through continuous
reporting, results from the indicator calculations will help to inform decision makers as to
the direction of national bioenergy policies with the ultimate goal of achieving
sustainability of the nation’s bioenergy sector.
7
1
For a detailed description of the selected pathways in Ethiopia, see section 3.
8
1.5 References
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2011). The Global Bioenergy Partnership
Sustainability Indicators for Bioenergy. First Edition.
http://www.globalbioenergy.org/fileadmin/user_upload/gbep/docs/Indicators/
The_GBEP_Sustainability_Indic ators_for_Bioenergy_FINAL.pdf.
International Institute for Sustainability Analysis and Strategy (IINAS) and Institute of Energy and
Environmental Research (IFEU) (2018). Linkages between the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
and the GBEP Sustainability Indicators for Bioenergy (GSI): Technical Paper for the GBEP Task Force on
Sustainability. http://www.globalbioenergy.org/fileadmin/user_upload/gbep/docs/Indicators/
IINAS_IFEU 2018 Linkages_ SDGs_and_GSIs_-_final.pdf.
Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (2016). Eastern African Community
Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Status Report. Paris.
9
2 COUNTRY CONTEXT AND ENERGY OVERVIEW
2.1 Overview of Ethiopia

Ethiopia is considered one of the largest and most densely populated countries in Africa.
Located in the Horn of Africa, it is a rugged country split by the Great Rift Valley
(Ethiopian History 2011). The current population is around 108 million based on the latest
United Nations estimates. Around 20.6 per cent of the population is urban (22,180,245
people in 2018). The current population is around
49.8 per cent male and 50.2 per cent female, and the median age is 18.8 years (Ethiopian
Population Statistics 2018). The total Ethiopian land area is 1 million square kilometres
(km2), and the population density is 108 persons per km2 (279 persons per square
mile). Ethiopia accounts for around 1.41 per cent of the world population and has the
third largest population in Africa.
Ethiopia lies between the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer, between 3° N and 15° N
latitude and 33° E and 48° E longitude. The country’s total border is 5,328 kilometres and
the adjacent countries are Djibouti, Eritrea, Kenya, Somalia and Sudan (Geography 2018).
The climate of Ethiopia is varied in terms of geographic location and elevation, with three
major climatic zones: Cool Zone, at elevations above 2,400 metres, where temperatures
vary from near freezing to 16°C; Temperate Zone, at elevations from 1,500 to 2,400
metres, with temperatures ranging from 16 degrees Celsius (°C) to 30°C; and Hot Zone,
at elevations below 1,500 metres with daytime temperature variations from 27°C to 50°C.
The rain conditions are normal with the rainy season from mid-June to mid-September
(longer in the southern highlands) preceded by sporadic rain showers from February
or March; the other months of the year are usually dry (Ethiopian Climate 2018).
Ethiopia is also one of the poorest countries in Africa, with a per capita income of $783.
According to official statistical data, the country’s economic growth was around 10.5 per
cent on average between 2003/04 and 2016/17. Real per capita gross domestic product
(GDP) more than doubled from $32 billion in 2010/11 to $81 billion in 2016/17, and
per capita income doubled from $396 to
$862 in the same period. The gross national income per capita in Ethiopia was a reported
$1,890 in 2017, according to the World Bank’s development indicators, compiled from
officially recognized sources. The share of the population living below the national poverty
line decreased from 30 per cent in 2011 to 24 per cent in 2016 (World Bank 2018). The
youth unemployment rate is 7 per cent, and 25 per cent of youth aged 15 to 29 are
reported to be underemployed. Unemployment among urban youth is at 29 per cent
(Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency 2014).
Figure 2.1. Ethiopian gross domestic product (GDP)
10
Source: Tradingeconomics.com/World Bank
11
2.2 Environmental situation
The major environmental issues facing Ethiopia include frequently occurring drought,
flooding, soil erosion, deforestation and depletion of soil nutrients that has a serious
negative impact on farmland, livestock and overall nutrition. Ethiopia has suffered from
severe drought and population displacement in a period of less than two years. As a
result, around 2.7 million people require assistance to access drinking water; an
estimated 5.6 million people need emergency food aid; around 2.7 million pregnant
woman, children and lactating mothers demand supplementary food and feeding; and
around 1.9 million households require livestock assistance (Office for the Coordination of
Human Affairs 2017; United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund [UNICEF]
2018).
Among sub-Saharan African countries, Ethiopia has a high level of soil erosion
(Mekonnen et al. 2015). A study by Hurni et al. (2015) showed that the rate of soil
erosion was 20 mg/ha/year on cultivated lands, and a rate of soil erosion of around 42
mg/ha/year has been reported across the country on cultivated lands (Haregeweyn et al.
2017). Around 47 mg/ha/year rate of soil erosion has been a serious problem in the
Upper Blue Nile Basin (Gelagay and Minale 2016).
Due to the heavy reliance of the economy on rain-fed agricultural and pastoral activities,
Ethiopia is vulnerable to severe food shortages and famines. Moreover, the country
faces a number of challenges to development, including limited access to education,
high disease and death rates and lack of food security (Ethiopia Climate Vulnerability
Profile 2018).
2.3 Agriculture and livestock

Agriculture makes significant contributions to the country’s gross domestic product
(GDP). It accounts for around 40.0 per cent of GDP, around 80.0 per cent of total exports
and 80 per cent of total employment in the country (Matousa, Todob and Mojoc 2013).
Other important sectors are service, contributing around 40 per cent, and industrial
sectors, contributing 15.0 per cent (The World Factbook 2016).
Ethiopia has around 51.3 million hectares of arable land. However, only around 20 per
cent is currently cultivated by smallholders, whereas more than 50 per cent of all
smallholder farmers and pastoralists operate on less than 1 hectare. Moreover, Ethiopia
has great potential for the production of coffee and accounts for over 3 per cent of the
global coffee market. Coffee is by far the largest foreign exchange earner in Ethiopia, and
the country exported about 190,734 metric tons in 2013/14 earning $749 million. Overall
agricultural production (i.e., cereals) increased by 45 per cent (European Union Business
Forum in Ethiopia 2015). Maize is one of the most important crops in Ethiopia, and the
country is the second biggest maize producer in Africa.
Ethiopia’s livestock population is considered the largest in Africa and the tenth largest in
the world. The sector accounts for around 10 per cent of Ethiopia’s export income, with
leather and leather products constituting around 7.5 per cent and live animals 3.1 per
cent. The country is home to about 17 million head of sheep, 22 million head of goats, 49
million head of cattle and 38 million chickens. The country also has demonstrated
potential for fishery development in its rivers, reservoirs and freshwater lakes. Additional
areas of potential investment in the agricultural sector include fish, meat and milk
processing, and the raising and fattening of cattle, goat, sheep and camel (Ethiopia
Ministry of Industry 2016).
12
2.4 The energy situation
2.4.1 Resources and supply

Ethiopia is endowed with renewable and sustainable energy sources. These include
hydropower and, to a lesser extent, wind, geothermal and solar as well as biomass. The
approximate potential for hydropower is around 45 gigawatts (GW), for wind is 10 GW
and for geothermal is 5 GW, and solar irradiation ranges from 4.5 kilowatt-hours
(kWh)/m2/day to 7.5 kWh/m2/day (Mondal et al. 2018).
Only a small amount of the renewable energy potential is harnessed today.
The annual production of electricity is around 11,000 gigawatt-hours mainly generated

from hydropower (93 per cent) followed by wind energy (7 per cent), and around 1.6 per
cent of this production is exported. Most of the energy supply for the transport sector is
imported in the form of liquid petroleum (International Energy Agency [IEA] 2018).
Table 2.1. Ethiopian energy production capacities per sources of energy in 2014
(Assuming optimal conditions of the installed power plants)
Energy production
Energy production Energy production
Sources of energy capacity per capita
capacity [kWh] capacity (%)
[kWh/capita]
Hydropower electricity 20.97 x 109 86% 199.83
Renewable energy (biomass,
2.7 x 109 11% 25.56
solar,
wind energy)
Fossil fuels 0.7 x 109 3% 6.97
Total 24.39 x 109 100% 232.36
Source: Statistics of Ethiopia. Available at: https://www.worlddata.info/africa/ethiopia/index.php.
2.4.2 Energy indicators

The key indicators describing the energy situation of Ethiopia in 2016 are provided in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2. Ethiopian energy indicators for 2016
Parameter Value Unit Parameter Value Unit

Population 102 Millions TPES/population 0.50 toe/capita
GDP 52 Billion 2010 $ TPES/GDP 0.98 toe/thousand
2010 $
GDP PPP 161 Billion 2010 $ TPES/GDP PPP 0.32 toe/thousand
2010 $
Energy production 48 Mtoe Electricity 0.09 MWh/capita
consumption
/ population
Net imports 4 Mtoe CO2/TPES 0.21 t CO2/toe
TPES 52 Mtoe CO2/population 0.11 t CO2/capita
Electricity 9 TWh CO2/GDP 0.21 kg CO2/2010 $
consumption
CO2 emissions 11 Mt CO2 CO2/GDP PPP 0.07 kg CO2/2010 $
Source: IEA World Energy Balances 2018. Available at: https://www.iea.org/statistics/?
country=ETHIOPIA&year=2016&category=Renewables&indicator=RenewGenBySource&mode=table&data Table=INDICATORS.
2.4.3 Consumption
The final energy consumption of Ethiopia was an estimated 42,148 kilotons of oil
equivalent (ktoe) in 2016, of which around 92 per cent was consumed by domestic
appliances, 4 per cent by the transport sector, 3 per cent by industrial sectors and
around 1 per cent by others. Bioenergy
13
accounts for most of the energy supply, and the domestic use of energy commonly stems from
unsustainable sources.
There are notable differences in the rate of electricity access in urban and rural areas of
the country. In urban areas, around 87 per cent of the population has access to electricity
(Mondal et al. 2017), whereas in rural areas electricity access is extremely low at around 5
per cent of the population (World Bank 2015).
Eighty-three percent of the population resides in rural areas, relying largely on traditional
biomass energy sources (i.e., firewood, crop residues and dung) for cooking and heating.
Biomass energy sources account for 91 per cent of final energy consumed, petroleum for
around 7 per cent, and electricity for only 2 per cent (IEA 2018). Biomass covers over 98
per cent of total energy consumption in the residential sector, and electricity accounts for
only around 2 per cent of total energy consumption.
Ethiopia’s total electricity consumption was 6.35 terawatt-hours (TWh) in 2013, and
increased to around 9.14 TWh in 2016 (IEA 2018; Mondal et al. 2017), whereas net energy
imports were around
3.02 million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe) in 2013, 3.5 Mtoe in 2014 and increased to
3.71 Mtoe in 2015 and 3.99 Mtoe in 2016 (IEA 2018). Due to population pressure and
rapid economic growth, the demand for energy is rising tremendously. The country’s
demand for electricity in particular is predicted to grow by around 10-14 per cent per year
until 2037 (Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation 2013).
2.4.4 Energy balance

Ethiopia can almost fulfill its energy demand with domestic energy production. Energy
production and consumption as well as energy exports play great roles in the country’s
economic growth, and other sources of energy such as refined petroleum and coal are
imported and utilized (Table 2.3).
14
Table 2.3. Ethiopian energy balance for 2016
Coal (1) Crude Oil Natural Nuclear Hydro Geothermal, Biofuels Electri-city Heat Total (2)
oil products gas solar, etc. and waste
ktoe ktoe ktoe ktoe ktoe ktoe ktoe ktoe ktoe ktoe ktoe
Production 0 0 0 0 0 895 70 47 048 0 0 48 013

Imports 272 0 3 729 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 001
Exports 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -15 0 -15
International marine
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
bunkers (3)
International aviation
0 0 -471 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -471
bunkers (4)
Stock changes 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7
Total primary energy
272 0 3 265 0 0 895 70 47 048 -15 0 51 535
supply
Transfers 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Statistical differences 0 0 -19 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -19
Electricity plants 0 0 -1 0 0 -895 -70 0 965 0 -1
Combined heat and
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
power
plants
Heat plants 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gas works 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Oil refineries 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Coal transformation 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Liquefaction plants 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Other transformation 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -9 174 0 0 -9 174
Energy industry own use 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -29 0 -29
Losses 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -164 0 -164
Total final consumption 272 0 3 245 0 0 0 0 37 874 757 0 42 148
Industry 272 0 792 0 0 0 0 0 261 0 1 326
Transport 0 0 1 734 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 1 741
Other 0 0 626 0 0 0 0 37 867 496 0 38 989
15
Residential 0 0 289 0 0 0 0 37 490 284 0 38 064
Commercial and public
0 0 59 0 0 0 0 377 206 0 642
services
Agriculture / forestry 0 0 139 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 139
Fishing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Non-specified 0 0 139 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 144
Non-energy use 0 0 93 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 93
-of which
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
chemical/petrochemical
(1) The column of coal also includes peat and oil shale where relevant.
(2) Totals may not add up due to rounding.
(3) International marine bunkers are included in transport for world totals.
(4) International aviation bunkers are included in transport for world totals
Source: IEA World Energy Balances 2018. Available at: https://www.iea.org/statistics/?

country=ETHIOPIA&year=2016&category=Renewables&indicator=RenewGenBySource&mode=table&dataTable=BALANCES.
16
2.4.5 Energy policies
Growth and Transformation Plan
The Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) of the Ethiopian Government (Mengistu et
al. 2015), which is guided by the green economy strategy (Federal Democratic Republic
of Ethiopia [FDRE] 2011), includes the development and dissemination of alternative
energy from renewable sources such as biomass, solar photovoltaic (PV) cells, wind,
geothermal and hydropower electricity. In compliance with this strategy, biomass-based
energy consumption has been the first alternative for rural areas.
Furthermore, the green growth strategy stipulates measures to be taken to mitigate

greenhouse gas emissions and save energy. The measures include the promotion of
efficient light bulbs, with the goal of achieving 100 per cent penetration; dissemination of
fuel wood efficiently; the distribution of improved cooking stoves, with a target of 11.45
million set for the GTP-II period of 2016-2020; afforestation of 2 million hectares and
reforestation of 1 million hectares by 2030 (FDRE 2011; Ministry of Environment, Forest
and Climate Change [MEFCC] 2016).
Climate policies
The Nationally Determined Contribution of Ethiopia to climate change mitigation includes
a 64 per cent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from the business-as-usual
scenario in 2030. This is equivalent to a reduction of 255 million tons of carbon dioxide
equivalent (MtCO2 eq.) from the projected business-as-usual emissions of 400
MtCO2eq. (FDRE 2017). Emissions in 2010 were 150 MtCO2eq, emitted by livestock
sector (42 per cent of the total), deforestation and forest degradation due to the cutting
and burning of fuel wood and due to logging (37 per cent), crop cultivation (9 per cent),
end-use sectors (9 per cent) and power generation (3 per cent).
The plan to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions is built on the following four pillars:
1. Improving crop and livestock production practices for greater food security
and higher farmer incomes while reducing emissions;
2. Protecting and re-establishing forests for their economic and ecosystem
services, while sequestering significant amounts of carbon dioxide and
increasing the carbon stocks in landscapes;
3. Expanding electric power generation from renewable energy;
4. Leapfrogging to modern and energy efficient technologies in transport, industry
and building sectors.
Sustainable development and energy policies

Ethiopia issued several policy and strategic documents aimed at ensuring attainment of
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The forefront ones are the Climate Resilient
Green Economy Strategy (CRGE) for addressing both climate change adaptation and
mitigation objectives, Ethiopia’s National Energy Policy and the Biomass Energy Strategy.
Among these policies and strategies:
 The Green Economy Strategy has prioritized programmes that could help to develop
sustainable forestry and reduce fuelwood demand (i.e., reduce demand for fuel wood
through distribution and usage of fuel-efficient stoves or via alternative-fuel cooking
and baking techniques such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), electric or biogas
stoves) contributing to forest management, enhanced carbon sequestration, reduction
of forest degradation, afforestation and reforestation of woodlands (Susanne et al.
2013). Predominantly, the Ethiopian Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity is
in charge of implementing these programmes.
 The National Energy Policy aims to increase the sustainable and renewable sources
17
of energy (i.e., bioenergy supply) and enhance the efficiency of bioenergy use. In
February 2013, the Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity published and
adopted the final draft strategic plan
18
for the national Energy Policy of the country. Its major objective is to increase the
efficiency of biomass fuel utilization, facilitate the shift to greater use of modern fuels,
address household energy problems by promoting agro-forestry and integrate
environmental sustainability into energy production and supply systems (Ethiopia
Communicating Policy 2018).
The policy also states that the country will not depend only on hydropower to increase
the supply of electricity, but also take advantage of other renewable and sustainable
energy resources such as solar panels, geothermal energy and wind power.
Moreover, the country needs to encourage energy conservation in major energy-
consuming sectors such as transport, industry and others while ensuring that energy
development is environmentally friendly and sustainable; and to provide appropriate
encouragement for the private sectors (Energypedia 2018). The draft national energy
policy of 2013 is yet to be endorsed by the Council of Ministers.
 The government of Ethiopia has also developed its sustainable bioenergy policy as
an essential constituent of the strategy of the national development programme,
with decent legal provisions for the promotion of environmentally friendly energy
sources (i.e., establishment of biofuels production and processing industries),
distribution and utilization of biofuels across the country, replacement of fossil fuels
used in transport sectors and mitigation of climate change (Abreham and Belay
2015).
Status of liquid biofuels

Over the past two decades, Ethiopia has been looking to expand its energy capacity
(Gebreegziabher and Mekonnen 2011). The government’s recently issued biofuel
strategy aims to encourage domestic biofuel production, with the goal of decreasing
reliance on expensive fossil oil imports (Ethiopia Ministry of Mines and Energy 2007).
The biofuel strategy was developed and endorsed by the Council of Ministers in 2007
during a time of high universal enthusiasm for biofuels because of record high oil costs.
Explicit goals incorporate substituting oil powers with biofuels; creating jobs and raising
wages through biofuel feedstock creation, handling, and conveyance; and decreasing the
emissions of ozone-depleting substances via substitution of oil by biofuels. Key
procedures for gathering destinations incorporate technology transfer and research and
development; generation of advanced ethanol from sugarcane molasses and biodiesel
from Jatropha, castor oil and palm oil; expanding biofuel use for vehicles and for cooking;
guidelines on the side of change to biofuels including measures and mixing mandates for
vehicles. Cross-sectoral issues incorporate solid partner commitments, universal
collaboration, effective coordination and initiatives (including a biofuel gathering), and
expanding the fund for biofuel advancement (MEFCC and Netherlands Development
Organisation [SNV] 2018).
Biofuel ventures exist in various locales of Ethiopia, with an emphasis on bioethanol and
biodiesel generation. In addition, Ethiopia set a target for a 5 per cent mix of bioethanol in
vehicle fuel in 2008, which was raised to 10 per cent a few years later. Authority reports
show that by mixing more than 38.2 million litres of bioethanol with fuel, the nation had
the option to save $30.9 million on oil imports since 2008 (Biofuelsdigest 2013). Despite
the fact that the recently launched Climate Resilient Green Economy strategyenvisages 5
per cent biodiesel blending in transport fuel by 2030 (FDRE 2011), biodiesel mixing in
vehicle fuel has not yet begun in the country. As a component of the arranged large-scale
development in the sugar business that is stipulated in the national Growth and
Transformation Plan (GTP), Ethiopia also aims to produce 181,604 cubic metres of
bioethanol from sugar by-products (from molasses) towards the end of the GTP period
2010/11-2014/15 (Ministry of Mines and Energy 2010).
19
The most common liquid biofuels produced are biodiesel and bioethanol. The potential
for producing fuel alcohol from molasses and other raw materials, including trees such as
eucalyptus, is large in Ethiopia. The country has high potential for biodiesel production
(Gebremeskel and Tesfaye
20
2008). The current biofuel development strategy emphasizes the production of
bioethanol from sugar beet, sugar cane, sweet sorghum and others, and biodiesel from
jatropha and castor. The country has an estimated potential area of about 25 million
hectares of land suitable for production of biodiesel feedstock (Gebremeskel and
Tesfaye 2008).
Ethiopia has good agro-climatic conditions for sugarcane production, high productivity per
hectare (around 150 tons/ha), and high sucrose content (10-14 per cent). There are
currently 13 sugar mills, of which 8 are completed and 5 are in development. It takes
around 1 ton of molasses to produce 250 litres of ethanol. Ethiopia currently produces
28 million litres of ethanol per year across two plants, with a third being developed; it is
imperative for Ethiopia to de-carbonise its transport sector in order to achieve global
climate change mitigation. Bioethanol from sugarcane is also a potential solution for
aviation biofuels (RSB 2018). In 2016, biofuel production in Ethiopia was 0.35 thousand
barrels per day. Biofuel production increased from 0 thousand barrels per day in 2002 to
0.35 thousand barrels per day in 2016, growing at an average annual rate of 34.17 per
cent (Knoema 2019).
Bioethanol from sugarcane molasses was produced for the first time at Finchaa Sugar
Factory. Production of bioethanol increased from 299,444 litres in 2001 to 13 million litres
in 2011 (Sugar Corporation 2014; Shemelis et al. 2013). In 2010/11 annual production
of Finchaa sugar estate reached 8 million litres, while that of Metehara was 12.5 million
litres. Ethiopia is establishing several sugar estates, and nine were to start production by
2014/15. When the new factories commence production and the expansion to Wonji,
Metehara and Finchaa is complete, the annual production of bioethanol from sugarcane
molasses will be substantially increased (Gaia Association 2014).
At the Ethiopian Development Research Institute (EDRI), the biofuels venture review was
led by the Environmental Economics Policy Forum for Ethiopia (EEPFE) in 2010. As
indicated by this review, there are around 15 biofuels companies, including non-
governmental organisations (NGOs), involved in biofuels production in Ethiopia. The
overview demonstrated that two companies are at the product testing stage and only
one company exported biodiesel at least once. The rest are still at a much younger stage.
The survey also determined that complementary local innovations are occurring in the
biofuels sector, including the invention of biodiesel stoves, processors/distilleries and
biogas-driven vehicles.
Finchaa Sugar Factory Ethanol Plant has an installed capacity of 450 hectolitres of pure
alcohol per day. The calculations of the net present value and internal rate of return of
the project show that production of bioethanol from molasses is economically viable at
current prices. With the assumption that the impact of all other factors is the same for
both products, cost examination based on energy content demonstrates a cost savings
of 0.36 Ethiopian birr per litre of ethanol, supplanting imported lamp oil in the cooking
needs of family units. Yearly cost savings from the task’s ethanol supply are around 3.2
million birr at full plant limit. In comparative advantage assessment, the calculated
domestic resource cost figure of 9.70 is less than the shadow exchange rate (11.58 birr
per $1) signifying that the domestic production cost is less than the import cost. The
actual incentive included through bioethanol generation over the time frame undertaken
is 175 million birr (Temesgen 2018).
Developing bioethanol plants related to existing and upcoming sugar manufacturing

plants is in progress. The Ethiopian Minerals, Petroleum and Bio Fuel Development
Corporation and Sugar Corporation, both open ventures, likewise declared that they will
set up a 1.1 billion birr ethanol industry to produce 50,000 litres of ethanol per day. The
21
joint venture of the two undertakings will be set up at Omo Kuraz III, a sugar industrial
facility developed by Complant, which is relied upon to begin preliminary test before the
part of the arrangement year (Yewondwossen 2018).
22
Decision process in energy policies
The formulation and implementation of a sustainable and renewable energy policy
requires consideration of several issues such as national and regional level cooperation
on energy investment; social, environmental, political and cultural interaction among
institutions across the country; participation of stakeholders; and financial development.
Strong commitment and capacity is also required to enforce regulatory policies at the
federal and regional levels, and to this effect the Ministry of Water, Irrigation and
Electricity is in charge of implementing the energy policies.
Moreover, the national bioenergy policy can be incorporated and integrated into
national energy and national macroeconomic developmental strategies, the transport
sector, and agriculture and industrialization strategies while ensuring linkage among
the regional and federal government for the ease of policy enforcement.
2.5 References
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Journal of Energy and Natural Resources 4(6), 62-72.
Energypedia (2018). https://energypedia.info/wiki/Ethiopia_Energy_Situation. Accessed 8 November
2018. Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency (2014). Ethiopia Mini Demographic and Health Survey. Addis
Ababa.
Ethiopia Climate Vulnerability Profile (2018). https://www.climatelinks.org/resources/ethiopia-
climate- vulnerability-profile. Accessed 3 November 2018.
Ethiopia Communicating Policy (2018). https://blogs.ubc.ca/misrak509/. Accessed 8 November 2018.
Ethiopia Ministry of Industry (2016). https://infomineo.com/agriculture-in-ethiopia-3/. Accessed 3
November 2018. Ethiopia’s Climate Resilient Green Economy (2016). http://www.ethcrge.info/crge.php.
Accessed 6 November 2018. Ethiopian Geography (2018). https://aethiopien-botschaft.de/?
page_id=181. Accessed 3 November 2018.
Ethiopian History (2011). http://www.selamta.net/history.htm.
Ethiopian Climate (2018). https://www.historycentral.com/nationbynation/Ethiopia. Accessed 3
November 2018. Ethiopian Population Statistics (2018). http://www.worldometers.info/world
population/ethiopia-population/.
Accessed 4 November 2018.
European Union Business Forum in Ethiopia (2015). Ethiopian Economic and Trade Report.
Addis Ababa. http://bit.ly/2a1uQY6.
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (2011). Ethiopia’s Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) Strategy.
Addis Ababa.
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (2017). Nationally Determined Contribution.
https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Ethiopia%20First/INDC-Ethiopia-100615.pdf.
Ferede, T., Gebreegziabher, Z., Mekonnen, A., Guta, F. and Levin, J. (2015). Biofuel Investments and
Implications for the Environment in Ethiopia: An Economy-wide Analysis. Environment for Development.
Gaia Association (2014). Holistic Feasibility Study of a National Scale-up Program Regarding Bio-ethanol
Stoves and Micro Distilleries.
Gebreegziabher Z. and Mekonnen A. (2011). “Sustainable Financing of Ethiopia’s Energy
Infrastructure: An Economic Analysis.” In: G. Alemu and W. Gebeyehu (eds.), Proceedings of the 9th
International Conference on the Ethiopian Economy Volume II. Addis Ababa: Ethiopian Economics
Association, pp. 155-176.
Geissler, S., Hagauer, D., Horst, A., Krause, M. and Sutcliffe, P. (2013). Biomass Energy Strategy of
Ethiopia. In cooperation with the Ethiopian Ministry of Water and Energy. Supported by European
Union Energy Initiative Partnership Dialogue Facility (EUEI PDF).
23
Gelagay, H.S. and Minale, A.S. (2016). Soil loss estimation using GIS and remote sensing
techniques: a case of Koga watershed, Northwestern Ethiopia. International Soil and Water
Conservation Research 4, 126-136.
24
Guta, D.D. (2012). Application of an almost ideal demand system (AIDS) to Ethiopian rural residential
energy use: Panel data evidence. Energy Policy 50, 528-539.
Guta, F., Damte, A. and Rede, T.F. (2015). The residential demand for electricity in Ethiopia. Environment for
Development.
Haregeweyn, N., Tsunekawa, A., Poesen, J., Tsubo, M., Meshesha, D.T., Fenta, A.A. et al. (2017).
Comprehensive assessment of soil erosion risk for better land use planning in river basins: case
study of the Upper Blue Nile River. Science of the Total Environment, 574: 95-108.
Hurni, K., Zeleke, G., Kassie, M., Tegegne, B., Kassawm, T., Teferi, E. et al. (2015). Economics of Land
Degradation (ELD) Ethiopia Case Study. Soil Degradation and Sustainable Land Management in the
Rain-fed Agricultural Areas of Ethiopia: An Assessment of the Economic Implications. Report for the
Economics of Land Degradation Initiative. 94.
International Energy Agency (2012). Energy balances of non-OECD countries. Paris.
International Energy Agency (2018). https://www.iea.org/countries/ethiopia/. Accessed 3 November 2018.
Knoema (2019). https://knoema.com/atlas/Ethiopia/topics/Energy/Renewables/Fuel-ethanol-production.
Matousa, P., Todob, Y. and Mojoc, D. (2013). Roles of extension and ethno-religious networks in
acceptance of resource-conserving agriculture among Ethiopian farmers. International Journal of
Agricultural Sustainability 11(4), 301-316.
Mekonnen, D., Bryan, E., Alemu, T. and Ringler, C. (2015). Food versus fuel: examining tradeoffs in
the allocation of biomass energy sources to domestic and productive uses in Ethiopia. Agricultural
and Applied Economics Association.
Mekonnen, M., Keesstra, S.D., Baartman, J.E., Ritsema, C.J. and Melesse, A.M. (2015). Evaluating
sediment storage dams: structural off-site sediment trapping measures in northwest Ethiopia.
Cuadernos de Investigación Geográfica 41, 16.
Mengistu, M.G., Simane, B., Eshete, G. and Workneh, T.S. (2015). A review on biogas technology
and its contributions to sustainable rural livelihood in Ethiopia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
48, 306-316.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2016). National Technology Needs
Assessment for Climate Change Mitigation (Draft). Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change and SNV Netherlands Development
Organisation (2018). Review of Policies and Strategies Related to the Clean Cooking Sector in Ethiopia, Final
Report Strengthening the Enabling Environment for Clean Cooking Project.
Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (2010). The Five Years (2010/11-2014/15) Growth and
Transformation Plan. Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Mines and Energy (2007). The Biofuel Development and Utilization Strategy of Ethiopia. Addis
Ababa.
Mondal, M.A.H., Bryan, E., Ringler, C., Mekonnen, D. and Rosegrant, M. (2018). Ethiopian energy
status and demand scenarios: Prospects to improve energy efficiency and mitigate greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions. Energy 149, 161-172.
Mondal, M.A.H., Bryan, E., Ringler, C. and Rosegrant, M. (2017). Ethiopian power sector
development: Renewable based universal electricity access and export strategies. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews 75, 11-20.
Office for the Coordination of Human Affairs (2017). https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-call-
action- february-2017-enar.
RSB (2018). Event summary: A successful RSB Aviation Biofuel Summit in Ethiopia.
https://rsb.org/2018/03/28/event-summary-a-successful-rsb-aviation-biofuel-summit-in-
ethiopia/
Temesgen, M. (2018). Financial and Economic Analysis of Ethanol Production from Sugar Molasses: A Case
Study of an Integrated Sugar Plant in Ethiopia.
United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (2018).
http://www.unicef.org/appeals/ethiopiaaccessed.
World Bank (2018). https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/ethiopia/overview. Accessed 2 November 2018.
25
Yewondwossen, M. (2018). Ethiopian ethanol production closer to reality. Capital
Ethiopia. https://www.capitalethiopia.com/capital/ethiopian-ethanol-production-
closer-realty.
26
3 DESCRIPTION OF THE SELECTED BIOENERGY PATHWAYS
3.1 The biogas pathway in Ethiopia
3.1.1 Supply and conversion

Main sources of biogas feedstock and potentials
Cattle
Ethiopia has a large livestock population. The country’s livestock population according to
the 2016/2017 survey was 59.5 million (Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency [CSA] 2017).
Around 700 kilograms (kg) of dry dung can be obtained per animal per year (Bond and
Templeton 2011). Cattle are mostly range fed, and around 40 per cent of the produced
dung is not accessible for collection. Around 22.8 million tons of dung were used in
Ethiopia in 2013 for energy purposes (Map 3.1).
The biogas yield of cow’s dung is influenced by the type of feed and the digester’s
process conditions (Zinoviev et al. 2010). According to Seyoum (2018), around 2.83
cubic metres (m3) of biogas can be produced per day by loading 45 kg of dung daily
into a 6 m3 SINIDU model biogas digester in Ethiopia. Biogas production also depends
on the size of the biodigester (Table 3.1).
Map 3.1. Annual total dung consumption by wereda
Source: Geissler et al. 2013.
27
Table 3.1. Daily rate of feeding required livestock and estimated stove hours
Plant Daily fresh No. of cattle Min estimated gas Min estimated
Daily water (L)
size dung (kg) required production (L) stove hrs (400 L/h)
(m3)
min max min max min max min max min max
4 20 40 20 40 4 8 680 1 600 1.7 4.0
6 30 60 30 60 6 12 1 020 2 400 2.6 6.0
8 40 80 40 80 8 16 1 360 3 200 3.4 8.0
10 50 100 50 100 10 20 1 700 4 000 4.3 10.0
Source: Workneh and Eshete 2008.
Agricultural residues
Even if agricultural residues can be competitive biogas feedstocks sources in Ethiopia,
biogas production from agricultural residues is not as popular as using cow dung in the
country. Around
19.7 million tons per year of agricultural residues were used in Ethiopia in 2013 (Geissler
et al. 2013). A biogas yield of 0.3-0.6 m3/kg is mostly reported for cereal crop residues
(Rajendran et al. 2012).
By-products of coffee processing, which are currently discarded as waste, could also be
an alternative feedstock for biogas production in Ethiopia. The main regional states
involved in coffee production and processing are Oromia; Southern Nations, Nationalities
and Peoples’ Region (SNNPR); and Gambella (Chala et al. 2018).
Types and capacity of digesters and stoves

The fixed-dome type of biodigester was selected by the National Bioenergy Programme
of Ethiopia (NBPE) for promotion at the household scale (Workneh and Eshete 2008). It is
a modified version of a Nepalese model with an Ethiopian name – SINIDU – with
different sizes available between 4 m3 and 10 m3, of which 6 m3 volume capacity is
most common (Figure 3.1 and Table 3.2). This design is preferred because of its
robustness, ease of operation, opportunity to accommodate high shares of local
materials, correct sizing and low cost.
The use of biogas for cooking requires specially designed stoves. The thermal efficiency of
such stoves is similar to that of LPG stoves, which is around 55-60 per cent (O’Sullivan
and Barnes 2007).
Figure 3.1. Drawing of the SINIDU biogas digester
Source: Personal communication with Mr. Sisay Girma (NBPE).
28
Table 3.2. Capacity and number of biodigesters
Capacity of Number of Capacity of Number of

biodigesters (m3) biodigesters biodigesters biodigesters
Year Year (m3)
A B A B
4 m3 2 588 4 m3 1 848
6 m3 10 091 6 m3 15 893
2015 8 m3 194 2017 8 m3 462
10 m3 65 10 m3 277
Total 12 938 Total 18 480
4 m3 2 324 4 m3 1 330
6 m3 12 702 6 m3 19 728
2016 8 m3 310 2018 8 m3 665
10 m3 155 10 m3 443
Total 15 491 Total 22 166
Source: Reports of National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia (Rai 2018; Seyoum 2018).
3.1.2 Policies and programmes applied to biogas pathway

Ethiopia has already prepared an energy policy to promote the utilization of bioenergy
(Ministry of Water and Energy 2012). It also has a large National Biogas Programme,
with three main phases.
The first stage (2008-2013)

A feasibility study undertaken by the Ethiopian Rural Energy Development and Promotion
Centre (EREDPC) and SNV-Ethiopia in 2006 (Esthete, Sonder and ter Heegde 2006)
assessed two scenarios of biogas production potential in Ethiopia, with the options of
implementing from more than 1 million to 3.5 million digesters in four regions of Ethiopia
(Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.2. Biogas potential (digesters) of some regions of Ethiopia
Based on this study, the National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia was launched for a first
stage of implementation between 2008 and 2013 (Kamp and Forn 2016; Yitayal,
Mekibib and Araya 2017). The plan was to build 14,000 family-sized biogas digesters
(Table 3.3). The SINIDU model, an adaptation of the Nepalese GGC-2047 fixed-dome
digester, was installed (Boers, Workneh and Eshete
29
2008). Most of the biogas digesters are fed with cow dung waste (Mengistu et al. 2015;
Gwavuya et al. 2012).
Only 8,161 biogas digesters were built during the first phase of the National Biogas
Programme (Table 3.3), including 2,480 biodigesters in Oromia, 1,992 in Tigray, 1,892 in
Amhara and 1,699 in SNNPR (Alemayehu 2014). The first years of implementation of the
programme faced several obstacles. Firstly, biogas was considered a new technology in
the rural context. The situation was also exacerbated by a cement crisis facing the
country during 2010-2011 (Alemayehu 2014). Another challenge was the limited
availability of qualified masons to properly build the digesters. The availability of credit
for households was also too limited despite the micro-finance arrangements put in place.
In 2010, during an intermediate revision of the National Biogas Programme, it was

decided to reduce the initial target from 14,000 to 10,000 biogas digesters by the end of
the first phase in 2013.
Table 3.3. Summary of biogas digesters installed during first phase of National Biogas Programme
Targets/accomplishments
Actual
Indicator Initial target
implementation
Number of constructed biogas digesters 14 8 161
000
Number of active woredas (districts) 28 130
Average cost of biodigester (6 m3) 7 519 14 000 birr

birr
Percentage of cost covered by subsidy 57% 43%
Number of biogas digesters installed per year by National Biogas Programme phase 1
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Sum
Forecast 100 400 1 000 2 000 3 000 3 500 10 000
Actual 98 30 731 1 641 2 511 3 150 8 161(1)

82% of the revised target or 58% of the original target
(1)
Source: Kamp and Forn 2016.
The second stage of the NBPE (2014-2017)

The second phase of the National Biogas Programme took place from 2014 to 2017 and
aimed to construct 20,000 additional biogas digesters. According to Rai (2018), a total of
12,071 biogas digesters were built during the second phase (Figure 3.3).
A significant goal for this second phase was to enable private sector involvement in the
production of biogas for consumption and business, a goal that was not accomplished in
the first stage of the National Biogas Programme (Oppennoorth 2014). The private
sector was also encouraged to construct biogas digesters domestically.
30
Figure 3.3. Yearly distribution of biogas digesters in Ethiopia
Data source: Rai 2018.
Current and future developments

The government wants to expand the production and utilization of biogas in the country.
Financial support was obtained from the European Commission in 2016 to scale up the
dissemination of the National Biogas Programme (NBPE+). The total cost of the project is
23,000,000 Euro of which 21,000,000 Euro is to be covered by the European
Development Fund. It is being implemented within 60 months (2016-2020).
The objective is to improve the living standards of rural Ethiopians by promoting the use of
clean and renewable biogas. Around 35,000 biogas digesters will be installed to impact
210,000 people in eight regions of Ethiopia (Afar, Amhara, Benishangul-Gumuz, Gambela,
Oromia, SNNPR, Somali and Tigray regional states). The project will develop mechanisms
and partnerships to ensure that a self- sustaining biogas market is created. Total number
of installed biodigesters is therefore expected to have already increased!
The main implementers

Amongst the main NGOs working on biogas promotion in Ethiopia, LEM-Ethiopia and the
Institute for Sustainable Development work respectively on biogas promotion and
awareness and on user training on bioslurry utilization (Kamp and Forn 2016).
Furthermore, SNV-Ethiopia plays a role as technical advisor and promoter of
biodigester implementation.
3.1.3 Challenges and opportunities to biogas development

Expected benefits of biodigester development are numerous.
 At the household level: clean and renewable energy, health benefits, time saving,
improved sanitary conditions, increased agricultural production, economic and
financial returns. Women are particularly targeted, more particularly related to
time savings and labour associated with the provision of energy for
consumption.
 At the national level: reduction of the over exploitation of the biomass cover,
rural employment, income generation, micro and small enterprise
development.
 At the global level: reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.
Despite the promising impacts of biogas development, the implementation of a domestic

biogas programme is not simple, and not all biodigesters are working (Figure 3.4). The
main constraints are as follows: 1) low income of most rural households, 2) scarce
availability of water, 3) scattered
31
population pattern, 4) gender imbalance in decision making at the household level, and 5)
low awareness of domestic biogas technology (Esthete, Sonder and ter Heegde 2006).
A significant challenge in many areas of Ethiopia is water scarcity and drought during
certain times of the year. Under the traditional fixed-dome model, an equal amount of
manure and water has to be provided daily. To remediate the scarcity of water in biogas
digesters, 50 per cent of the digesters in Ethiopia are made to have a toilet connection
(Jijawo 2014). However, this contribution is negligible in comparison to the daily amount of
excreta or liquid that is required (Tauseef et al. 2013).
Figure 3.4. Functionality rate by region (%)
Source: Rai 2018.
3.2 The solid biomass (fuel wood and charcoal) pathway
3.2.1 Supply
Forestry coverage
Different sources give differing figures for the forest cover of Ethiopia. While FAO
estimates the Ethiopian forest cover to be around 11.4 per cent (Food and Agriculture
Organization [FAO] 2015), Amente et al. (2016) claim it to be more than 15 per cent by
adopting a new definition of forests. Map 3.2 shows a map of the forest cover of
Ethiopia. More details are provided in the analysis of Indicator 3 on harvest levels of
wood resources.
32
Map 3.2. Forest cover of Ethiopia
Source: National REDD+ Secretariat, MEFCC 2018.
Woody biomass
Biomass can be found in many forms, including forestry resources, agricultural crop and
processing residues, dedicated energy crops such as miscanthus and switchgrass, and
municipal solid waste (Hood et al. 2011). Although biomass can be used for diverse
purposes, nearly 95 per cent of the nation’s energy supply is derived from it; woody
biomass is the most important biomass fuel, providing an estimated 68 per cent of the
total (Berhanu et al. 2016; Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change [MEFCC]
2018).
In Ethiopia, wood fuel is produced legally and sustainably from natural high forests and
woodlands (27 per cent), area exclosures (1.4 per cent) and energy plantations and
woodlots (5.5 per cent). A small volume of wood fuel is also sourced from wood waste
(0.14 per cent) and a negligible amount from imports. The remainder, around 66 per cent,
is unsustainably sourced from natural high forests and woodlands (Table 3.4). The
biomass demand for fuel, with per capita consumption of around 0.9 tons per year, is
double that of the sustainable annual yield. The forest sector review (MEFCC 2017)
indicates that the volume of sustainable yields of branches, twigs and leaves from high
forest is 3.4 million m3, woodland 3.3 million m3 and shrubland 2.0 million m3.
Data from FAO (2018) indicate that the annual fuelwood (including wood for charcoal
production) and charcoal production of Ethiopia were around 109,389,000 m3 and
4,317,000 Mt, respectively.
33
Table 3.4. Categories of forests with their coverage, mean annual increment and yield
Mean annual Annual yield

Category of Coverage
Sub-category increment
forests [mil. ha] [mil m3] [mil tons]
[m3/ha/year]
High forest 2.9 5.65 10.5 7.6
Woodland 21.5 0.8 11.1 8.0
Natural forest
Shrubland 20.1 0.5 6.5 4.7
Subtotal (Natural) 44.5 28.1 20.4
Public plantations Oromia 0.0577 15.7 0.9 0.7
Public plantations Amhara 0.0321 15.7 0.5 0.4
Particleboard plantations 0.015 15.7 0.2 0.2
Public plantations other regions 0.052 20 1 0.8
Plantation
Peri-urban energy plantations 0.0267 15 0.4 0.3
Private/community small-scale
woodlots 0.778 15 11.7 8.5
Subtotal (manmade forests) 0.9615 14.8 10.7
All forests 45.5 42.9 31.1
Source: MEFCC 2017; MEFCC 2018.
Biomass of various sizes and shapes, including fine biomass, has been utilized. The fine
biomass may be raw biomass or remnant dust from charcoal making. The fine biomass
used to be left at production sites or dumped as waste. However, as population pressure
increased, the rise in the demand for fuel was tremendous. As a result, the fine biomass
was found to be useful either as fuel directly or after compaction through traditional or
industrial means.
Agriculture and animal residues

In terms of energy potential, woody biomass accounts for around 79 per cent of the
total biomass resource potential; animal waste represents 11 per cent, crop residues 8
per cent and human waste 2 per cent (Bewketu et al. 2014; MEFCC 2017).
Agricultural residues are important as a source of biomass intended for fuel (Table 3.5).
The utilization rate of agricultural residues is low and accounts for only 30 per cent
(MEFCC 2016; Berhanu et al. 2016).
34
Table 3.5. Agricultural production and residues
2014/2015
Residue-to- Quantity of
Land cover Production
Type of crop Residue production residue
(1 000 ha) (1 000 tons)
ratio (1 000 tons)
Teff Chaff 3 017.5 4 420.6 9 39 785.4

Wheat Chaff 1 605.8 3 930.1 1.75 6 877.7
Maize Stalk 2 027.19 6 497.5 2.11 13 709.7
Pulses Chaff 1 732.6 2 820.8 1.89 5 331.3
Sugarcane leaf Leaf 30.1 1 513.4 0.298 451.0
Sorghum Stalk 1 678.4 3 720.8 2.23 8 297.4
Barley Chaff 1 020.4 1 210.2 1.76 2 130.0
Vegetables residue 171.4 714.8 0.42 300.2
Sugarcane bagasse Bagasse 30.1 1 513.4 0.36 544.8
Rice Chaff 34.8 90.3 1.72 155.3
Coffee Husk 598.4 372 2.11 784.9
Grass Stalk/ Chaff 707
P. Julifloa and other invasive Biomass 502 400 21 21
bush
Forest residue Biomass 180 000 105
Cattle dung Dung 23
Source: Berhanu et al. 2016; Tekleyohannes et al. 2018.
Supply by region
Table 3.6 presents the annual supply of woody biomass by region.
35
Table 3.6. Total biomass production by region
Branches,
Natural On-farm trees On-farm Wood Sustainable Sustainable
Natural stock Total yield leaves and Dead wood
Region yield Stock trees yield clearing yield wood
[tons] [tons/yr] twigs [tons/yr]
[tons/yr] [tons] [tons/yr] [tons/yr] [tons/yr] [tons/yr]
[tons/yr]
Addis Ababa 503 009 83 835 83 835 16 767 100 602 0.1
Afar 15 639 133 909 141 909 141 181 830 312 783 1 403 754 0.7
Amhara 111 210 009 5 870 207 296 872 394 26 718 515 32 588 722 1 987 401 2 224 203 36 800 326 18.7
BSG 76 613 747 3 529 603 7 648 653 688 379 4 217 982 705 920 1 532 275 6 456 177 3.3
Diredawa 565 621 34 427 2 943 252 264 895 299 322 7 240 11 313 317 875 0.2
Gambela 69 150 099 3 319 232 3 958 970 356 307 3 675 639 664 316 1 815 641 6 155 597 3.1
Harari 15 708 1 037 2 067 722 186 095 187 132 187 132 0.1
Oromiya 348 563 457 17 983 519 072 363 46 726 583 64 710 319 3 851 003 6 935 040 1 611 088 77 107 450 39.2
736
SNNPR 226 831 897 9 264 276 362 786 103 32 658 977 41 923 253 2 120 243 4 995 391 49 038 887 25
Somali 261 209 171 7 949 673 14 605 082 1 314 457 9 264 130 1 589 931 5 224 183 16 078 245 8.2
Tigrai 30 508 605 809 615 14 410 347 1 296 931 2 106 546 177 089 610 170 2 893 805 1.5
Total 1 140 810 49 754 1 224 364 110 211 159 966 11 301 23 660 1 611 088 196 539
456 882 885 141 022 740 999 850
2
8
Supply of charcoal
Male youth in rural areas manufacture charcoal – using inefficient (10-15 per cent) earth-
mound kilns – from freely harvested acacia timber species (such as Acacia tortilis, A.
mellifera, A. Senegal and A. seyal) in Gewane in Afar; in Bilate in SNNPR; in Langano and in
Borana, Oromiya, and in the Harshin and Somale regions. The charcoal is supplied to
nearby and distant towns and cities in each region and beyond. Charcoal also is
produced in the dry woodlands of Amhara, Tigray and Benishangul-Gumuz. The bulk
of charcoal comes from either acacia species and/or the invasive species Prosopis juliflora
through the eastern gate to Addis Ababa. Map 3.3 shows the approximate
locations of charcoal production in Ethiopia.
Charcoal production in Ethiopia, particularly from acacia woodland timber species, is

illegal. As in the majority of sub-Saharan African countries, in Ethiopia the charcoal is
produced, packed, transported and distributed to wholesalers or retailers without formal
legalization and with law enforcement authorities turning a blind eye. Any of the actors
can also sell charcoal to consumers directly (Bekele and Girmay 2013).
Map 3.3. Main locations of charcoal production
Charcoal briquettes from bamboo, Prosopis juliflora and other biomass residues are
being produced on a limited scale (Bekele and Girmay 2013; Emrich 1985). The same
study shows that 42,045 sacks of charcoal were entering the city of Addis Ababa each
day, which may translate to 537,124,875 tons per annum. Although charcoal making
from Eucalyptus camaldulensis is being observed, acacia species remain favoured because
of their smooth combustion and better energy yield.
29
Charcoal is dominantly produced in a traditional way using charcoal pits and earth-mound
kilns, as shown in the past by Emrich (1985). It continues to be produced through
traditional means (Figure 3.5). Some improved charcoal-making methods, such as using
Casamance kilns, metal kilns and drum kilns, have been introduced and are being used at
a limited scale. The conversion efficiency of traditional kilns is very low, in the range of
only 10 to 15 per cent.
Figure 3.5. Earth-mound charcoal production
Source: Bekele and Girmay 2013.
Experience in participatory forest management

One of the sources of sustainable biomass supply are managed natural forests and
exclosures. Managed natural forests are those tended by participatory community
development activities, known as participatory forest management (PFM). PFM is
exercised to reconcile conflicts of interest in a multi-stakeholder-based decision-making
process with the objective of managing multi-purpose forest resources by establishing
mechanisms to managing their excess (Limenih and Bekele 2008).
The seemingly successful PFM has mainly been supported by the German and
Japanese development cooperation agencies, GIZ and JICA, respectively. The NGO Farm
Africa has also been a player in PFM. While natural forests in general are closed for
biomass extraction, those under the umbrella of PFM are open to utilization of forest
excess without causing degradation, including for fuel when conditions allow. Although
their share is not exactly known, in many parts of the country, mainly in Amhara and
Tigray Regional States, some communal woodlands are closed for rehabilitation and
conservation purposes and are not available to harvest fuelwood.
3.2.2 Consumption of biomass fuel

Overall consumption
Biomass is used in 90 to 92 per cent of Ethiopian households to obtain energy for
cooking and heating (Bewketu et al. 2014). Households usually use a mix of biomass
based on the agroecology system in which they are located and the type of biomass
that is accessible to them (Table 3.7 and Table 3.8). Around 11 per cent of the total wood
biomass is consumed in urban areas. Consumption is estimated at 0.917 tons per capita
per year according to an unpublished project document of the former MEFCC in 2018.
Consumption by restaurants and other food services in rural areas is 0.3 tons, by
boarding schools and universities 0.75 tons and by day schools 0.26 tons.
30
Table 3.7. Total biomass fuel consumption by region
Branches,
Round Charcoal as Total
leaves and Total wood Residues Dung Charcoal
Region wood wood wood
twigs [tons/yr] [tons/yr] [tons/yr] [tons/yr]
[tons/yr] [tons/yr] [%]
[tons/yr]
Addis 684 228 1 060 439 1 744 667 2 39 964 212 088
Ababa
Afar 830 552 1 195 154 2 025 706 2 49 364 239 031
Amhara 9 549 847 8 042 277 6 603 169 24 287 123 23 3 867 504 8 221 892 1 339
000
BSG 419 308 271 709 202 893 896 911 1 427 246 188 435 40 579
Diredawa 219 831 54 698 359 246 633 774 1 39 971 29 548 71 849
Gambela 181 653 74 736 96 236 364 659 0 67 069 44 966 20 735
Harari 136 728 38 463 225 685 400 876 0 28 108 21 501 45 137
Oromiya 17 812 11 070 9 921 703 38 804 638 37 7 571 451 6 261 813 1 984
299 636 341
SNNPR 15 264 7 185 536 3 564 630 26 014 470 25 7 539 192 2 229 843 712 926
304
Somali 2 520 644 211 155 3 203 569 5 935 369 6 152 929 220 755 614 467
Tigrai 614 995 1 284 533 2 167 743 4 067 271 4 31 256 5 511 309 433 549
Total 48 234 28 233 28 600 105 172 19 724 22 819 5 713
389 742 468 465 725 390 549
Table 3.8. Source and type of fuel/ energy used by urban and rural households
Percentage of households [%]

Type of fuel
Country level Rural Small town (urban) Large town urban
Collected firewood 61.5 77.2 34.6 14
Purchased firewood 12.1 3.2 46.7 33
Charcoal 5.2 0.5 6.4 21.7
Crop residue/leaves 6.8 8.9 0.7 1.3
Dung/manure 6.6 8.2 2.1 2
Electricity 5.2 0.1 4.5 23.3
None 0.9 0.3 2.3 2.8
Other 1.8 1.7 2.7 1.9
Source: CSA and World Bank 2017.
Cookstoves
Cookstoves are indispensable devices for the conversion of biomass to energy for
cooking. Cookstoves can generally be classified and identified based on the level of
applied engineering knowledge, material of construction, type of draft used, combustion,
intended use (for domestic or communal purposes), functionality, presence of chimney,
portability and type of feedstock used (Kshirsagar and Kalamkar 2014). In the traditional
cooking method, a three-stone open cookstove is used with wood, and a stove made of
sheet metal is used with charcoal. Open three-stone stoves dissipate most of the heat
into the surroundings without any significant recovery. The traditional open-fire
cookstove can be improved to a closed stove with either cement or clay enclosure and is
25 to 50 per cent more energy efficient, with less smoke and less carbon monoxide
emission (Figure 3.9). The traditional charcoal stove is improved by incorporating a clay
lining that enables more thermal heat retention and less radial heat dissipation (Figure
3.10).
Biomass cookstoves can be generally categorized as those for injera baking (Mirt and
31
Gonzye stoves) and those for pot-size general cooking (mainly Tikikil) (Figure 3.6). Typical
charcoal cookstoves
32
include Merchaye, Lakech and traditional metal stoves (Figure 3.7). They are also
categorized as charcoal stoves (e.g., Lakech and Mirchaye) and wood/raw biomass (Tikikil
and all injera baking) according to the fuel they use. Of the improved stoves implemented
from 2005 to 2017, 27 per cent were closed mud stoves, 21 per cent Mirt stoves, 14 per
cent Lakech, 6 per cent Tikikil, 5 per cent Upesi and 1 per cent other stoves
(Energypedia 2018).
The metal traditional charcoal cookstove needs 700 grams (g) of charcoal to meet the
daily cooking energy demand of an average household, while Mirchaye and Lakech
stoves need only 478 g and 536 g of charcoal for the same purpose (Mamuye et al.
2017).
While the Lakech improved cookstove has been more popular than the Mirchaye, the
latter is gaining in popularity. Nevertheless, there is still a need to cover around 80 per
cent of the households that still do not use yet the improved cookstove (Table 3.9).
Table 3.9. Distribution of improved cookstoves by Ethiopian government and GIZ
Region 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Sum

Oromiya 529 744 613 245 1 491 263 892 861 886 082 685 259 707 139 5 805 593
Amhara 598 747 419 831 80 769 93 583 104 879 255 256 205 736 1 758 801
SNNPR 106 366 124 616 122 374 135 457 80 485 133 439 124 401 827 138
Tigrai 16 488 34 420 0 82 605 103 789 140 517 130 413 508 232
Benshangul- 5 685 2 895 2 971 4 170 2 809 7 993 10 615 37 138
Gumaz
Dire Dawa 800 4654 538 3 200 13 741 22 933
Somale 113 35 1 500 1 500 3 148
Afar 1 523 3 500 5 023
Harari 4 682 600 5 282
Gambela 424 424
Addis Ababa 60 885 199 147 182 498 383 183 223 470 373 149 296 500 1 718 832
GIZ 85 585 124 325 95 661 112 377 417 948
Total 1 318 828 1 484 428 2 004 200 1 687 1 514 1 606 1 494 11 110
520 429 942 145 492
Source: Unpublished data obtained from Water, Irrigation and Energy 2018.
33
Figure 3.6. Injera baking biomass improved cookstoves available in Ethiopia
Left side - Mirt (Tier 0: Fuel use: 393 g/kg)

Middle - Gonzye (Tier 0: Fuel use: 617
g/kg)
Right side - biomass pot-size cookstove named Tikikil (Tier 2: Thermal efficiency:
26%) Source: MEFCC and SNV 2018.
Figure 3.7. Charcoal improved cookstoves
Left side – Mirchaye (7.5 L water /478 g of charcoal /

day) Middle – Laketch (7.5 L water / 536 g of
charcoal/ day)
Right side - tradition metal cookstove (7.5 L water / 700 g of charcoal/
day) Source: Mamuye et al. 2017.
Table 3.10. Performance-based categorization of cookstoves
Emissions Efficiency / Fuel use

High Indoor emissions
High power CO Lower power PM power Lower power
Tier Therm Specific Safety
CO PM
[g/MJ] [mg/MJ] [g/min/L] [mg/min/L] al consumptio
[g/min] [mg/
efficienc n
min]
y [MJ/min/L]
[%]
0 >16 >979 >0.20 >8 <15 >0.050 >0.97 > 40 < 45
1 < 16 < 979 < 0.20 <8 > 15 < 0.050 < 0.97 < 40 > 45
2 < 11 < 386 < 0.13 <4 > 25 < 0.039 < 0.62 < 17 > 75
3 <9 < 168 < 0.10 <2 > 35 < 0.028 < 0.49 <8 > 88
4 <8 < 41 < 0.09 <1 > 45 < 0.017 < 0.42 <2 > 95
Source: MEFCC and SNV 2018.
34
3.2.3 Projects, programmes and policies
Policies
The draft national energy policy of 2013 is yet to be endorsed by the Council of
Ministers. Clean cooking and bioenergy policies include the promotion of clean and
efficient technologies, particularly for the household sector; and sustainable bioenergy
production.
The Biomass Energy Strategy (BEST), issued in 2013, proposed increasing the biomass
energy supply base through the promotion of fast-growing trees, increasing biomass fuel
use efficiencies, and integration of the BEST strategy into energy policy and a special
policy on charcoal.
The government established the National Improved Cookstoves Program (NICSP) in

2013, to run up to 2030 with five-year phases aligned with the government’s Growth and
Transformation Plan (GTP). The main objective of the programme is to support the
government’s GTP targets for improved cookstove adoption and dissemination by
creating a vibrant market for improved cookstove technologies through relevant
institutional capacity development and strong support of private sector involvement. It
will also contribute to realization of the Climate Resilient Green Growth strategy of
reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and ensuring access to
clean energy.
By coordinating all the stakeholders, the programme aims to empower the private sector
to grow in all aspects of the value chain and to develop the improved cookstove market
where customer demand “pulls” products through the value chain as opposed to the
government “pushing” products to customers. The target for GTP-I period (2011-2015)
was to distribute around 9.415 million improved cookstoves; distribution of more than
8.87 million of the stoves was achieved. By the year 2017, more than 15 million improved
cookstoves were already disseminated (MEFCC 2017). A target of 11.45 million is set for
GTP-II period (2016-2020), taking into account the lessons learned from the first period.
Equally importantly, biomass energy is also part of the country’s mix of sustainable or
renewable energy sources (MEFCC 2016). In this regard, tree planting on farms and as
home gardens is being promoted to encourage the sustainable use of biomass as a
cost-effective household fuel (Gebreegziabher and van Kooten 2013).
The availability and sustainable use of biomass resources will be supported by the
country’s national forest monitoring system, which will maintain updated forest statistics
at the national and sub- regional/regional scales (MEFCC 2017). This has been a severe
constraint for evidence-based decision making in the forest biomass-using energy sector.
The government has also devised a financial and granting facility (CRGE) under the major
supervision of the Ethiopian Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission. The
Facility coordinates and supports projects aimed at efficient, sustainable and cost-
effective use of biomass energy.
National standards
The Ethiopian Standard Agency has revised and developed the Clean Cook Stove and
Clean Cooking Solution, Performance Requirements and Test Methods (ES 6085:
2019) document, based on the previous standard of 2017.
Some implementers
Finally, several projects are supported by NGOs. For example, GIZ has been supporting
35
projects using the Mirt and Lakech brands of biomass cookstoves (GIZ ECO 2014).
World Vision Ethiopia has been working with GIZ to disseminate biomass stoves to
rural areas under broad programmes like the
36
voluntary carbon market and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). Ethiopia is
involved in several projects and programmes of activities under the CDM. Those are only
examples. Many training activities by different partners were also implemented; more
details are provided in Indicator 21.
3.2.4 Challenges and opportunities

Improved cookstoves have been undergoing continuous improvement and sometimes
have acquired different brand names. Use of traditional cookstoves, which have poor
combustion features, have very negative health impacts on vulnerable members of
families such as children under the age of five, resulting in a high incidence of
respiratory problems (Sanbata et al. 2014).
Beyond technical improvement of the stoves, it is important to pay attention to the

determinants of adoption of newly improved cookstoves. Adoption of improved
cookstoves was found to be largely influenced by the household head’s age, sex,
education level, income and wealth (Woubshet 2008; Beyene and Koch 2013; Mamuye
et al. 2017).
A large proportion of the population still cooks with traditional stoves. The need to
disseminate improved cookstoves and other clean cooking methods is therefore
enormous.
3.3 References
BIOGAS
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2014. Addis Ababa.
Boers, W., Workneh, K. and Eshete, G. (2008). National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia
Programme Implementation Document. Ethiopia Rural Energy Development and
Promotion Centre (EREDPC)/ SNV/Ethiopia.
Bond, T. and Templeton, M.R. (2011). History and future of domestic biogas plants in the developing world.
Energy Sustain Dev. 15, 347-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2011.09.003.
Chala, B., Oechsner, H., Latif, S. and Müller, J. (2018). Biogas potential of coffee processing waste in
Ethiopia. Sustainability 10, 2678. doi:10.3390/su10082678.
Esthete, G., Sonder, K. and ter Heegde, F. (2006). Report on the Feasibility Study of a National
Programme for Domestic Biogas in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.
Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency (2017). Agricultural Sample Survey 2016/17 [2009E.C.] Volume
II, Report on livestock and livestock characteristics (private peasant holdings). Statistical Bulletin
585. Addis Ababa.
Gwavuya, S.G., Abele, S., Barfuss, I., Zeller, M. and Müller, J. (2012). Household energy economics in
rural Ethiopia: A cost-benefit analysis of biogas energy. Renew. Energy 48, 202-209.
Jijawo, T. (2014). Interview with Tamirat Jijawo, Regional Biogas Coordinator for SNNPR. May 12, 2014.
Kamp, L.M. and Forn, E. (2016). Ethiopia's emerging domestic biogas sector: Current status,
bottlenecks and drivers. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 60, 475-488. doi:
10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.068.
Kellner, C. (2014). Interview with Christopher Kellner, Regional Technical Advisor at BORDA. April 22, 2014.
37
and its contributions to sustainable rural livelihood in Ethiopia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 48, 306- 316.
Ministry of Water and Energy (2012). Ethiopian National Energy Policy. Addis Ababa.
38
O’Sullivan, K. and Barnes, D.F. (2007). Energy Policies and Multitopic Household Surveys: Guidelines
for Questionnaire Design in Living Standards Measurement Studies. World Bank Publications:
Washington, DC.
Oppenoorth, H. (2014). Interview with Harrie Oppenoorth, Senior Advisor in Energy and Climate
Change for Hivos International. April 17, 2014.
Rai, S. (2018). National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia (NBPE). Addis Ababa.
Rajendran, K., Aslanzadeh, S. and Taherzadeh, M.J. (2012). Household biogas digesters – A
review. Energies 5, 2911-2942.
Seyoum, S. (2018). The Economics of a Biogas Digester. Livestock Economics Division ILCA, Addis Ababa.
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/132634928.pdf.
Tauseef, S.M., Premalatha, M., Abbasi, T. and Abbasi, S. A. (2013). Methane capture from livestock manure.
Journal of Environmental Management 117, 187-207. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.12.022.
Workneh, K. and Eshete, G. (2008). National Biogas Programme Ethiopia, programme
implementation document. Ethiopian Rural Energy Development and Promotion Centre.
Yitayal, A., Mekibib D. and Araya A. (2017). Study on biogas production potential of leaves of
Justicia schimperiana and macro-nutrients on the slurry. Int J Waste Resour 7, 294. doi:
10.4172/2252-5211.1000294.
Zinoviev, S., Müller-Langer, F., Das, P., Bertero, N., Fornasiero, P., Kaltschmitt, M. et al. (2010). Next-
generation biofuels: Survey of emerging technologies and sustainability issues. ChemSusChem
3, 1106-1133.
SOLID BIOMASS
Amente, G., Tennigkeit, T., Carodenuto, S., Kassaye, M.L., Feye, T.A., Belay, H.K. et al. (2016).
National Forest Sector Development Programme, Institutional Strengthening for Forest Sector Development in
Ethiopia. United Nations Development Programme.
Bekele, M. and Girmay, Z. (2013). Reading Through the Charcoal Industry in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.
Berhanu, M., Jabasingh, S.A. and Kifile, Z. (2016). Expanding sustenance in Ethiopia based on
renewable energy resources – A comprehensive review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy 75,
1035-1045. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.082
Bewket, W., Gebreyohannis, S., Ayana, M., Adinew, M., Arega, T., Birru, B. et al. (2014). First
Assessment Report, Working Group II - Climate Change Impact, Vulnerability, Adaptation and Mitigation, IV,
Water and Energy, Ethiopian Academy of Sciences, Addis Ababa.
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36, 605-613
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Environmental and Social Assessment (SESA) For the Implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Including the Oromia
Forested Landscape Program (OFLP) Social Assessment (SA). Ministry of Environment and Forest, The
National REDD+ Secretariat and Oromia REDD+ Coordination Unit. Addis Ababa.
Emrich, W. (1985). Energy from Biomass Handbook of Charcoal Making. The Traditional and Industrial
Methods, Solar Energy R&D in the European Community, Series E Vol 7.
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– Ethiopia Socioeconomic Survey (ESS)2015/2016. Central Statistical Agency and Living Standards
Measurement Study (LSMS). World Bank. Addis Ababa.
Ethiopia National REDD+ Secretariat (2018). National REDD+ Strategy (2018-2030). Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
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Assessment, Country Report – Ethiopia. Rome.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2018). Forest Products 2016 Year Book.
FAO Statistics. Rome.
39
Gaia Association (2012). Improved Cook Stoves, Final Report, GHG Mitigation and Sustainable
Development through the Promotion of Energy Efficient Cooking in Social Institutions in Ethiopia, Project
implemented by
40
Gaia Consulting Oy and Ethio Resource Group. Financed by Nordic Climate Facility of Nordic
Development Fund and the implementing partners.
Gebreegziabher, Z. and van Kooten G.C. (2013). Does community and household tree planting
imply increased use of wood for fuel? Evidence from Ethiopia. Policy and Economics 34, 30-40.
GIZ Energy Coordination Office GIZ-ECO (2014). Energizing Development (EnDev) Ethiopia Improved
Cook Stoves (ICS). Addis Ababa.
Hood, E.E., Nelson, P. and Powell, R. (2011). Plant Biomass Conversion. John Wiley & Sons.
Kilawe, E. and Habimana, D. (2016) Forestry Contribution to National Economy and Trade in Ethiopia,
Kenya and Uganda. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Addis Ababa.
Kshirsagar, M.P. and Kalamkar, V.R. (2014). A comprehensive review on biomass cookstoves and
a systematic Approach for modern cookstove design. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
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Learnt and Challenges Encountered, The Ethiopian and Tanzanian Experiences. FARM-Africa/SOS-
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Mamuye. F., Lemma, B. and Woldeamanuel, T. (2018). Emissions and fuel use performance of
two improved stoves and determinants of their adoption in Dodola, southeastern Ethiopia,
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Enabling Environment for Clean Cooking Project, Final Report. Addis Ababa.
Sanbata, H., Asfaw, A. and Kumie, A. (2014). Association of biomass fuel use with acute
respiratory infections among under- five children in a slum urban of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
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41
4 RESULTS OF THE GBEP SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS FOR
BIOGAS AND SOLID BIOMASS FOR COOKING IN ETHIOPIA
4.1 Indicator 1. Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions
4.1.1 Researcher(s)
Dr. Anteneh T. Tekleyohannes1 and Adefires Worku2
Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute (EEFRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
1
[email protected], 2 [email protected]
4.1.2 Definition
(1.1) Lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions from bioenergy production and use, as per the
methodology chosen nationally or at community level and reported using the GBEP
Common Methodological Framework for GHG Lifecycle Analysis of Bioenergy
Version One.
4.1.3 Measurement unit(s)

Grams of CO2 equivalent per megajoule (gCO2eq/MJ)
4.1.4 Overall methodology of the implementation

The spreadsheet-based life cycle analysis (LCA) tool, developed by the Institut Für
Energie-und Umweltforschung Heidelberg (IFEU) in partnership with GBEP and UNEP, was
used to quantify the carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and nitrous oxide emissions of each
stage of the value chain: feedstock production and collection, processing, transport of
primary or transformed resources, storage, and final uses by the consumers. The
aggregation to CO2 equivalent (CO2eq) using the global warming potential (GWP) factors.
Emission factors are based on international literature and life cycle analysis databases
and adapted to Ethiopia.
Sources of information for the biogas pathway were secondary data, such as peer
reviewed publications and reports of the National Biogas Programme and the
Netherlands Development Organisation (SNV), locally working on biogas fuel
development in Ethiopia. Emissions of the biogas pathway are then compared to those
of a pathway based on traditional biomass (open fires).
Sources of information for the solid biomass pathway were secondary data, such as peer
reviewed publications and data from the former Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change of Ethiopia related to its cookstove project. The analysis considers the
use of wood and charcoal in improved cookstoves. Emissions are compared to those of a
pathway based on traditional biomass (open fires) and those of a pathway based on LPG.
This comparison aims at exploring the consequences of fuel substitutions.
4.1.5 Key findings

BIOGAS
Assumptions
The National Biogas Programme (NBPE) uses standardized digesters serving individual
households, which need to have at least four cattle so as to obtain adequate amount of
excreta for effective anerobic digestion. The biogas is used without any upgrade. The
42
digestate is either directly applied to fields or composted and then used for the same
purpose. Therefore, the scope of life cycle
43
analysis of greenhouse gas emissions included the collection of the animals’ excreta, the
anaerobic digestion and the use of the biogas for cooking. It does not include the
emissions associated with the bioslurry.
Main assumptions of the computation are presented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1. Assumptions of the greenhouse gas life cycle analysis of the biogas pathway
Biogas
No mechanical
Dung collection No transport
80% water content
No heating
No electricity needed
Biodigester
0.04 m3 biogas/kg fresh
matter 60% methane content
in volume
Methane leakage 1%
Cookstove thermal efficiency 57%
Reference case – traditional cooking solution (open fires)
No mechanical collection or logging
Biomass
No transport
Cookstove thermal efficiency 8%
Source: Assumptions on biogas are based on Tumwesige et al. 2014.
Share between supply, process and use

Greenhouse gas emissions from biogas are about 11.6 gCO 2eq per megajoule of energy
produced at the utilization level. More than 90 per cent the greenhouse gas
emissions from biogas come from the processing stage of the life cycle (Table 4.2),
corresponding to leakage of 9.8 g of biogenic methane from the biodigester. The use of
biogas for cooking generates only 9.3 per cent of total greenhouse gas emissions,
composed of 5.1 per cent biogenic CO2 and 4.2 per cent nitrous oxide in gCO2eq.
Comparison with traditional cooking

Total emissions from biogas represent less than 4 per cent of emissions from traditional
cooking systems based on open fires. This reduction corresponds to the emissions from
burning during the cooking activity, which is less complete with firewood than with
biogas.
44
Figure 4.1. Summary of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from using biogas compared to traditional wood
(open fires) for cooking
260 Emission from manure biogas

Emission from open fires
CO2 Emissions [gCO2eq / MJ heat]

240
220
200
180
160
20
15
10
0
Collection Transport Processing Use Total
Life Cycle Stages
Table 4.2. Summary of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from biogas compared to traditional wood (open
fires)
Difference in emissions (biogas over

Reference emission traditional wood cookstoves)
Emission from
Life cycle from traditional
Emission manure biogas
stage wood fuel In percent Per functional unit
(gCO2eq / MJ heat) (gCO2eq / MJ heat) (g CO2eq / MJ heat)
( %)
Collection 0 0 - -
Transport 0 0 - -
CO2 eq. Processing 9.76 0 - +9.76
Use 1.88 223.51 -99 -221.63
Total 11.64 223.51 -95 -211.87
FIREWOOD
Assumptions
The assumptions (Table 4.3) reflect the current situation related to the production,
transport and use of firewood and charcoal. Solid wood biomass and charcoal come
from both plantations/woodlots and natural forests. The analysis does not consider seed
collection, nursery and trees/plantation management owing to absence of data.
45
Table 4.3. Assumptions of the greenhouse gas life cycle analysis of the solid biomass pathway
Wood used in improved cookstoves

Wood
72% water content
0 km to rural households
Transport
70 km to urban households, by platform truck (12 tons diesel)
Share wood consumed in urban
11%
areas
Air drying
Drying
20% water content after drying
Cookstove thermal efficiency 28% thermal efficiency
Charcoal used in improved cookstoves
No mechanical effort for collection
Wood
72% water content
Air drying
Drying
20% water content after drying
Traditional kilns: 100%, with a conversion efficiency of 17%
Kilns
Modern kilns: 0%, with a conversion efficiency of 26%
To kilns: 5 km, by diesel platform truck
Transport to kilns
From kilns to households: 200 km, by diesel platform truck
Mirchaye (improved): 9%
Share of cookstoves Lakech (improved): 11%
Traditional: 80%
Improved: 38%
Cookstove thermal efficiency
Traditional: 10%
Reference case – Traditional cooking solution (open fires)
Biomass
Same transport distance as for wood or charcoal
Cookstove 8%
Reference case – LPG
Thermal efficiency of stoves 54%
Transport of LPG by land 870 km
Transport vehicle for LPG Tanker truck – medium
Transport of LPG by sea 1 884 km
Transport tanker, ship Tanker ship – 22.56 kt
Source: Assumptions are made based on Bhattacharya et al. 2002; Hansmann et al. 2008; Chidumayo and Gumbo
2013; GEMIS 2014; Daniel 2016; Mamuye et al. 2017; SNV-SEECCS 2018; Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change [MEFCC] 2019. Transport distances of LPG are obtained from shipping and road route as described
in Google Maps.

The greenhouse gas emissions from production and use of firewood in improved
cookstoves reaches 62 gCO2eq per megajoule of heat generated (Table 4.5). Combustion
at the stove level represents 95 per cent of the emissions. The key drivers behind the
emissions are the efficiency of the improved cookstoves and the distance travelled
between wood gathering and consumption.
Comparison with traditional wood (open fires) and improved cookstoves

The production and use of firewood in open fires needed to produce the same amount of
energy to the same households would be about 234 gCO2eq per megajoule of heat (Table
4.4). The fuel use generates most of the greenhouse gas emissions (Figure 4.2). The
emission from the traditional biomass cooking solution (open fires) is higher by 60
per cent than that of the biomass improved cookstove. The difference comes mostly
from the use, reflecting the higher efficiency of the improved cookstove compared to
open fires (Figure 4.2, Table 4.4). Similarly, Figure 4.2 and Table
4.4 show the better performance of biomass improved cookstoves even when they are
compared with LPG cookstoves, as the latter emitted 64 per cent more greenhouse gas
emissions. The difference here is due to LPG processing and use.
46
Figure 4.2. Summary of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from wood used in improved cookstoves
compared to traditional wood (open fires) and LPG
250
Emission from ICS using wood
CO2 emissions [gCO2 eq /MJ Heat]

Ref emission from open fires
Ref emission from LPG
200
150
100
50
0
Life Cycle Stages
Table 4.4. Summary of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from firewood used in improved cookstoves
compared to traditional biomass cookstoves and LPG
Difference in emissions Difference in emissions

Reference
Emission Reference (wood ICS over open fires) (wood ICS over LPG)
emission
from ICS emission Per
Life cycle from
Emission using wood from LPG Per functional In functional
stages open fires In percent
(gCO2eq / MJ (gCO2eq / MJ unit (gCO2eq percent unit
(gCO2eq / (%)
heat) heat) / MJ heat) ( %) (gCO2eq / MJ
MJ heat) heat)
Collection 0 0 0 - - - -
Transport 3.04 11.35 8.56 -73 -8.31 -64 -5.52
CO2eq Processing 0 0.00 46.97 - - -100 -46.97
Use 59.37 223.51 124.40 -73 -164.14 -52 -65.03
Total 62.41 234.85 175.76 -73 -172.45 -64 -113.35
Note: ICS = improved cookstoves
CHARCOAL
Assumptions
Assumptions are described in Table 4.3.

The production and use of charcoal in improved cookstoves emit 130 g of greenhouse gas
per mega joule of heat generated. The processing stage of charcoal emits 85 per cent of
the total emission in the supply, processing and use.
Comparison with traditional wood and LPG

In a life cycle perspective, cooking with a charcoal improved cookstove emits 47 per cent
less greenhouse gas than cooking with open fires, and 27 per cent less than cooking with
LPG (Table 4.5). In all cases, the processing and use stages are the most emitting. More
than 90 per cent of the emission of cooking with traditional wood (open fires) come from
direct emission of burning; this is
47
higher than in the case of charcoal and improved cookstoves due to the very low thermal
efficiency of open fires. However, in the case of open fires, no emissions are emitted
during processing, contrary to charcoal. More than 70 per cent percent of the emission
from LPG comes from direct burning, because LPG is a fossil fuel. Emissions from
processing LPG are smaller than emissions from processing charcoal.
Figure 4.3. Summary of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from charcoal used in improved cookstoves
250
Emission from ICS using charcoal
Ref emission from traditional wood CS
CO2 Emissions [gCO2 eq/MJ Heat]

200
150
100
50
0
Life Cycle Stages
Table 4.5. Summary of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from charcoal used in improved cookstoves
Difference in
Reference emissions(charcoal ICS over Difference in emissions
Emission from emission Reference traditional wood – open (charcoal ICS over LPG)
ICS using from emission fires)
Life cycle
Emission charcoal traditional from LPG Per
stages
(gCO2eq / MJ wood (open (gCO2eq / Per functional In functional
In percent
heat) fires) MJ heat) unit (g CO2eq percent unit
(%) (gCO2eq /
(gCO2eq / MJ / MJ heat) ( %)
heat) MJ heat)
Collection 0 0 0 - - - -
Transport 4.69 23.78 8.56 -80 -19.09 -45.2 -3.87
CO2eq Processing 105.97 0.00 46.97 - +105.97 +126 +58.99
Use 19.40 223.51 124.40 -91 -204.11 -84 -105.01
Total 130.06 247.29 177.32 -47 -117.23 -27 -47.26
48
4.1.6 Main conclusions and recommendations
BIOGAS
Synthesis of the findings
The greenhouse gas emission from biogas per unit of heat is smaller than the
emission from solid biomass and charcoal. Moreover, the use of biogas from manure
has a good potential to offset the greenhouse gas emission from enteric
fermentation.
Practices and policies to improve sustainability

Minimizing leakages of greenhouse gases during the processing of manure biogas can
significantly decrease the greenhouse gas emissions as most of it comes from the
processing stage of its life cycle. The ongoing National Biogas Programme (NBPE) and
those supported by NGOs such as SNV can play a decisive role in innovating the
fermentation process by upgrading the biogas and promoting its use with higher-
efficiency cookstoves. Research institutes could also play a decisive role in bringing
quicker changes by offering evidence-based advice regarding improving energy
efficiency of biogas cookstoves.
Future monitoring
Future research and development works should widen the scope of this life cycle analysis
from gate- to-gate to cradle-to-grave by including emissions from fodder production and
enteric fermentation. Consequently, the comparison of emissions from chemical fertilizers
with the one obtained from slurry of the biodigester would also be of interest.
FIREWOOD

The solid biomass pathway emits 95 per cent of the greenhouse gas (per unit of heat)
during the use stage of its life cycle. Even if the emissions are much smaller than open
fires, improved cookstove innovations remain indispensable to bring a significant
reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.

The government and NGO-sponsored large-scale improved cookstove dissemination
programmes should be strongly supported. In particular, the thermal efficiency
improvement of stoves should be given priority in the projects of the Environment,
Forests and Climate Change Commission of Ethiopia and other partners.
Future monitoring
In the current version of the analysis, biomass burning is considered to emit zero
biogenic CO2 assuming that the wood would grow again and that there is no land-
use change induced by the growing and use of bioenergy. This follows the
recommendation of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. More information
on land-use dynamics would be useful to calculate the carbon stock in the country.
Better knowledge on the transport of firewood and the efficiency of the cookstoves in real
conditions would be useful to better know the associated greenhouse gas
emissions. Future research and development activities should widen the scope of this life
cycle analysis to at least cradle-to-grave by including emissions data from tree planting
and growing. Systematic, comprehensive and reliable inventory database of greenhouse
gas emissions from all the life cycle stages of biomass should be established and updated
49
regularly. It is commendable to expand this life cycle analysis to end-point impact
assessment so that the results can be understood in light of
50
comprehensive impact categories. For example, end-point impact assessment gives
information on the impacts on climate change and human health, instead of looking into
emissions only in terms of the global warming potential.
CHARCOAL
Innovating the charcoal processing life cycle stage and finding a regulated way of
implementing improvements is crucial since the processing life cycle of the charcoal
produces 80 per cent of the greenhouse gas emissions. The use stage of the charcoal’s
life cycle emission is lower than that of the solid biomass.

Better knowledge on the transport of charcoal, the efficiency of the processing and the
efficiency of the cookstoves in real conditions would be useful to better know the
associated greenhouse gas emissions.
Data on the production, distribution and sale of charcoal are unreliable because charcoal
making is prohibited, except in a few special cases. Prohibition of charcoal making has
exacerbated the degradation of woodland on top of making charcoal production a sinful
act and one of the lowest- priority areas for innovation research. Complexity of the
problem calls for close partnership in innovating the charcoal production process
between the Ethiopian government (the forest, environment and energy sectors), rural
youth and research institutes.
Application of blockchain technology could be one of the most effective ways to prove the
legality and sustainability of charcoal manufacturing. In this regard, the Ministry of
Innovation and Technology of Ethiopia initiated a programme that tests the use of
blockchain technology in tracking and certifying agri-products in which charcoal
production process can be included. Parallel with the introduction of innovative tools for
tracking and authentication, programmes geared towards development, introduction and
adoption of improved charcoal making kilns should be promoted and supported.
New materials with improved thermal insulation and extended durability are being
invented more frequently owing to nano and other leading-edge technologies. It is
important to look out for charcoal cookstove incorporating innovations in new materials
and optimal combustion. The innovations can significantly cut emissions and cost.
Future monitoring
Future research and development activities should widen the scope of this life cycle
analysis to at least cradle-to-grave by including emissions from seed collection, tree
planting and growing.
Systematic, comprehensive and reliable inventory database of greenhouse gas emissions
from all the life cycle stages of charcoal should be established and updated regularly. It is
recommendable to expand this life cycle analysis to end-point impact assessment so that
the results can be understood in light of comprehensive impact categories.
4.1.7 References
Bhattacharya, S.C., Albina D.O. and AbdulSalam, P. (2002). Emission factors of wood and
charcoal-fired cookstoves. Biomass and Bioenergy 23, 453-469.
Chidumayo, E. and Gumbo, J.D. (2013). The environmental impacts of charcoal production in
tropical ecosystems of the world: A synthesis. Energy for Sustainable Development 17, 86-94.
51
Daniel, A. (2016). Geometrical Optimization of Biomass Cook Stove for Efficient Utilization of Energy (In case
of Tikikil stove). A thesis research submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of
Master of Science in thermal engineering. Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, Addis Ababa
University.
Ethiopia Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission (2019). Distribution status of
improved cookstoves in Ethiopia. Unpublished report. Addis Ababa.
Globales Emissions-Modell Integrierter Systeme (GEMIS) (2014). Version 4.9.
http://www.iinas.org/gemis- download-de.html.
Hansmann, C., Stingl, R., Prieto, O.G., Lopez, C.B. and Resch H. (2008). High-frequency energy-assisted
vacuum drying of fresh E. globulus. Drying Technology 26(5), 611-616.
Mamuye, F., Lemma, B. and Woldeamanuel, T. (2017). Emissions and fuel use performance of two
improved stoves and determinants of their adoption in Dodola, southeastern Ethiopia,
Sustainable Environment Research 28, 32-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.serj.2017.09.003.
SNV Netherlands Development Organisation, Strengthening Enabling Environment in Clean
Cooking Sector (2018). Review of Policies and Strategies Related to the Clean Cooking Sector in
Ethiopia. Strengthening the Enabling Environment for Clean Cooking Project, Final Report.
Tumwesige, V., Fulford, D. and Davidson, G.C. (2014). Biogas appliances in Sub-Sahara Africa.
4.2 Indicator 2. Soil quality
4.2.1 Researcher(s)
Dr. Yonas Yohannes1 and Mahelete Tsegaye2
1
4.2.2 Definition
(2.1) Percentage of land for which soil quality, in particular in terms of soil organic
carbon, is maintained or improved out of total land on which bioenergy feedstock is
cultivated or harvested.

Percentage

Soil quality encompasses three basic components: physical, chemical and biological
attributes of the soil. Various soil quality indicators are used to evaluate different land-use
types. The most popular indicators used to assess soil quality are soil organic carbon,
total nitrogen and soil acidity (pH).
Several studies have given credence to the role of soil organic carbon in improving soil
physical, chemical and biological properties. Soil organic carbon plays a major role in soil
productivity because it represents the dominant reservoir and source of major plant
nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur). It also influences pH, cation exchange
capacity, anion exchange capacity, water status and soil structure. Total nitrogen is the
main nutrient used for vegetation growth and is also used as a key soil quality
assessment. Soil pH is one of the most important soil parameters and is essential for
plant growth and productivity.
The analysis was made at a national level rather than based on the selected bioenergy
pathways. Secondary sources from existing international and national studies have been
used to describe the soil quality of Ethiopia.
52
4.2.5 Key findings
Overview of the forests in Ethiopia
Ethiopia is a vast country (1,104,300 km2). It has a huge biomass energy potential with
estimates putting the national woody biomass stock at 1,149 million tons (United
Nations Environment Programme [UNEP] 2017).
Based on the revised national forest definition (Ministry of Environment Forest and
Climate Change [MEFCC] 2018), the total forest cover is estimated at close to 17.35
million ha (15.7 per cent of the country area). These resources include natural forests,
bamboo, dense acacia-dominated woodland (collectively called natural forest) and
planted forests comprising public industrial plantations and private woodlots. Natural
forests account for around 91 per cent of total forest area. Montane forests are the main
constituents of the natural vegetation, of which dry Afromontane forms the largest part.
Privately owned plantations and woodlots cover 5 per cent, and a small area of forest
(about 1 per cent) is covered by publicly owned forest plantations.
The forest sector review in 2015 revealed that the annual volume of wood harvested for
solid biomass (charcoal and firewood) is around 120.4 million m 3 of roundwood
equivalent, of which
115.0 million m3 was used as firewood and 5.4 million m3 for conversion into charcoal
(MEFCC 2018). The forest sector review document released in 2015 has been reviewed by
UNEP (2016). This study pointed out that the majority (93 per cent) of solid biomass
(firewood and charcoal) is sourced from natural forests, woodlands and area exclosures.
The remaining 7 per cent is harvested from public and private plantations and
woodlots.
Ethiopian soils are undergoing severe mining of nutrients because of rapid population
growth. Among other factors, severe agricultural expansion, soil loss, deforestation,
habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation are the major threats. Due to land shortage,
expansion to marginal lands and protected areas has also become a common practice.
Consequently, the Ethiopian soil is currently affected by multiple issues that negatively
impact the physical, chemical and biological condition of soil health and soil fertility.
Available studies
Between 2017 and 2018 the Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute
(EEFRI) in collaboration with Natural Resources Institute Finland (NRIF) collected 123 soil
samples from 43 sites in different regional states of the country. The sampled sites
encompassed different forest ecosystems, and most sampling sites were covered in
Oromia regional state and SNNPR. In the Tigrai and Amhara regions, soil samples were
collected from four sites only. From all sampling sites, soil samples were collected in three
soil increments (0-10, 10-20 and 20-30 cm).
The study carried out by EEFRI and NRFI was mainly focused on soil bulk density and soil
organic carbon determination to produce national estimates for soil carbon stocks of
forests. So it does not fully assess the effect of the different forest ecosystem on all
relevant factors that define the soil quality. On the other hand, across the nation useful
studies on soil qualities of different forest ecosystem have been assessed by researchers
and different institutes. These secondary sources of information were consulted to draw
the range of soil organic carbon per cent and other soil quality parameters (Table 4.6).
53
Types of soil in Ethiopia
Soil types in Ethiopia are highly complex and dependent on the complicated topography.
Types of soils have not yet been well described in the literature, and the classifications
are therefore broad overviews based on the FAO soil classification systems. In general, 18
major soil types are found in Ethiopia, with more than 82 per cent of them represented by
Leptosols, Vertisols, Nitisols, Gypsisols, Calcisols and Cambisols. From this figure around
24 per cent of the soil types are represented by Leptosols (Map 4.1).
Map 4.1. Major soil types map of Ethiopia
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO] et al. 2012.
According to the International Union of Soil Sciences Working Group World Reference
Base for Soil Resources (WRB), Leptosols are often characterized by shallow soils over
hard rock or highly calcareous material or a deeper soil that is extremely gravelly and/or
stony (WRB 2015). In Ethiopia Leptosols are particularly widespread in montane areas
where some of the Afromontane forest vegetations are located. Erosion is the greatest
threat to Leptosol areas of Afromontane vegetation where high population pressure,
overexploitation, encroachment and grazing lead to deterioration of forests and
threaten large areas of vulnerable Leptosols and Nitosols (Woldu 1999).
The other three important soil types groupings in terms of total area covered are:
Cambisols, Fluvisols and Regosols (Map 4.1). The major dominant soil association in the
Afromontane rain forest region of the country is Dystric Nitosols. Whereas, dry
Afromontane forest soil of the country is well- drained and reflects the general increase in
rainfall with elevation and slope, causing a decline in topsoil pH and a change from cation-
rich clay soils (Mollic Nitisols/Typic Palehumults) to strongly leached Humic
Umbrisols/Humic Dystrudepts in the upland forest.
54
Contrary to Afromontane vegetations, soil types of woodland ecosystems, which is the
major source of fuel wood and charcoal, vary depending on the locations and altitudes.
For example, soil types of the Combretum-Terminalia Woodland of northern Ethiopia are
predominantly Haplic Luvisols, and Vertisols are the second most abundant soil types
(ILRI 2005). Soils of these ecosystems are dominated by the influence of the level terrain,
making rainy season waterlogging a common phenomenon. On the other hand, the major
soil units of acacia woodlands that are found within the Rift Valley, the water regime
together with the accumulation of basic cations led to the formation characterized by
Vertisols (Mazic Vertisols/Aridic Haplusterts) (Fritzsche et al. 2007).
Ethiopian forest soil quality

More than 50 per cent of Ethiopian soils are generally acidic in nature (Map 4.2). Studies
carried out in different Afromontane vegetation areas showed that all surveyed forest soil
types in such ecosystem tend to be acidic, and average values fall within the range of 5 to
7 (see references cited in Table 4.6). Soil organic carbon, total nitrogen and pH can be
used effectively in sustainable forest management if threshold values are identified.
Map 4.2. Soil pH map of Ethiopia
Source: FAO et al. 2012.
55
Most soil samples from the study sites carried out by different researchers and institutes
are brownish and exhibited hue, the dominant spectral color or quality, values of about
10YR and 7.5YR and becoming reddish with decreasing elevation. According to the soil
sampling carried out by EEFRI and NRFI, from 0-10 cm soil depth, average soil organic
carbon across the sampling sites ranged from 1 per cent to 7.7 per cent. From the same
soil depth, the subset of 123 soil samples from the respective regions indicated that the
average soil organic carbon was 2.7 per cent (Amhara), 3.7 per cent (Oromia), 3.9 per
cent (Tigrai) and 4.4 per cent (SNNPR).
Unlike plant nutrients or soil pH levels, there are few accepted guidelines for adequate
organic matter content in particular soils. However, the soil organic carbon threshold for
sustaining soil quality in tropical agroecosystems is widely suggested to be about 2 per
cent, below which deterioration may occur (Patrick et al. 2013). Based on this, overall
Ethiopian forest soil can be considered as adequate to soil plant nutrition. The map of
organic carbon content of Ethiopian soils shows that forested regions in the central,
southern and southwestern parts of the country exhibit distinctively larger values of
organic carbon than those of other regions, with substantial areas showing less than
25 g kg-1 of organic carbon (Map 4.3).
Map 4.3. Map of organic carbon content in topsoil (0-5 cm) of Ethiopia
56
The majority of Ethiopian woodland vegetation soils tend to be more yellowish, reddish or
brown depending on the hydration of ferric oxide and extensive weathering of the
parental mineral content. For example, the color of surface horizons of northern
woodlands varied from brown (7.5YR 4/4) to dark yellow-brown (10YR 4/4) and dark brown
(7.5YR 3/4) to dark yellowish-brown (10YR 3/4) when they were dry and moist (Eshete et
al. 2011). The average cation exchange capacity (CEC) of Ethiopian soils ranged from 6
to 96 cmol kg-1 (Map 4.4). As compared to woodland vegetation areas, the CEC of
Afromontane forest soils is larger (Map 4.4). In general, the CEC of soil sampled from
different forest ecosystem explored by researchers ranged from 25 to 75 cmol kg -1. In all
profiles sampled the main ions associated with CEC in soils are the exchangeable cations
calcium (Ca2+) that contribute more than 30 per cent (by charge). The exchangeable
cations content can be arranged in series of decreasing values: Ca>>>Mg>>K>Na.
Map 4.4. Cation exchange capacity map of Ethiopia from 0-5 cm soil depth
57
Table 4.6. Characteristics of selected soil properties of major woody biomass sources of vegetation types
Major woody biomass sources of vegetation types (1)
Combretum-Terminalia
Soil characteristics Dry evergreen Afromontane Moist evergreen Acacia-Commiphora Desert and Semi-
woodland and
forest Afromontane Rainforest woodland and bushland desert scrublands
wooded grassland
Plinthaquic Paleudalf
Basaltic, trachitic Granite, Cretaceous limestone, Alluvial, Basaltic
Antalo Granite, Gneisses and
Parent materials gneisses, schist, sedimentary volcanic rocks, lava flows
Limestone Migmatites
sandstone, and basalt rocks, Ignimbrites and and limestone
Dithiotrachytes and basalts
pumices
Luvisols, Regosols, Cambisols,
Plinthosols,
Nitisols, Umbrisols, Lithosols, Yermosols
Type Cambisols, Andosols, vertisols,
Regosols and Cambisols Humic, Mollic, Andosols, Xerosols,Eutric
Vertisols, Alluvial
vertisols Fluvisol
Planosols, and Solonetz
Nitosols, Acrisols,
Red, red brown to
Dark yellowish-brown yellow, brown, grey reddish brown,
Color Dark reddish brown to black black
Reddish, Brown or red dark gray
pH 5–8 5.3 - 8.1 6.6 - 8.7 4.98 - 8.28 7.4 - 9.1
Organic carbon (%) 1.8 - 5.2 2.4 - 6.0 1.5 - 3.2 0.8 - 3.7 0.5 - 1.5%
Total nitrogen (%) 0.08 - 0.15 0.06 - 0.22 0.07 - 0.12 0.02 - 0.29 0.01 - 0.07
Mohr 1971; Kamara Mohr 1971;
Mohr 1971; Solomon et Mohr 1971, Asres 1996; and Haque 1987; Friis Demissew and
al. 2002; Aerts et al. Solomon et al. 2002; Gole Mohr 1971; Solomon et Coppock van Breugel 2010;
2006; Fritzsche Zech, 2003; Yimer, Ledin and al. 1994; Fritzsche Zech, FAO;
References
Guggenberger 2007; Abdelkadir 2006; Yimer 2002; Fritzsche, Zech, Guggenberger 2007; 2015; Eyasu 2016;
Yohannes et al. 2011; Ledin and Abdelkadir Guggenberger 2007; FAO Eshete, Sterck, and Mesene and
Adugna and Abegaz 2007; FAO 2015; Eyasu 2015, Eyasu 2016 Bongers 2011; Dalle et Kabtamu 2017;
2015; FAO 2015; Eyasu 2016 al. 2014; FAO 2015; Megersa and
2016 Eyasu Worku 2018
2016
(1)
Types of vegetation cited according to Friis, Demissew and van Breugel (2010)
5
2
Impact of the use of biomass on soil quality
Soils are the literal fundament of cultivating solid biomass feedstocks. Thus, ensuring and
sustaining soil quality is fundamental for the future productive use of land. Extraction of
solid biomass for use as an energy source or for any other purposes leads to soil quality
deterioration. Usually, negative impacts of biomass harvesting on soil nutrient pools (e.g.,
nitrogen, phosphorus and base cations) and soil acid-base status are more frequent in the
forest floor than in the mineral soil (Raulund- Rasmussen et al. 2008). Over time, reduced
soil carbon contents are generally expected following solid biomass extraction. Field-
based studies revealed a slight tendency towards reduced soil nitrogen following tree
harvesting (Carter et al. 2002).
Furthermore, harvesting of boles, branches and leaves particularly from nutrient poor
sites may lead to soil acidification. Understanding the consequences of solid biomass
extraction activities on soil organic carbon and other parameters is critical to enhancing
and managing soil quality. Thus, management of soil quality involves management of the
soil organic carbon pool. Since agroecologies, and soil types found in the country differ
from place to place, generalizations are difficult to make for different vegetation types in
the management of soil organic carbon. Therefore, it is pertinent to identify site-specific
indicators of soil quality that can be used as a reference for the impact of biomass
utilization on specific soil quality parameters.
The potential of manure or digestate

Manure or digestate, whether alone or in mixture with compost, is considered to have
potential as an effective soil amendment for restoration of degraded lands and forests to
forestry end use.
However, to our knowledge there is no single experience all over the country on the
effects of digestate application on forest ecosystem and degraded land to fully exploit the
digestate potential as such. Moreover, considering the existing number and
distribution of biogas plants across the nation, it may not be feasible to transport the
slurry to a central location and package it for sale and use as a source of fertilizer. But it
is easily applicable and reasonable to handle the slurry at the plant premises where some
of the biogas villages are found. As a result, the loss of nutrients from slurry collection
point is substantial.
Regarding this, there is a good experience initiated by SNV Ethiopia, which has engaged
LCB / Institute for Sustainable Development to help in the documentation of
knowledge on the use of bioslurry from farmers’ practices and from on-farm research
trials by using experts and MSc students from Ethiopian universities (Eshete 2011).
Trials on farmers’ fields conducted by the initiatives have shown beneficial effects of
bioslurry organic fertilizers in the form of liquid in increasing the yields of wheat crops,
fruit trees and vegetables in their homesteads. In urban areas, Butajira municipality, for
example, has started to collect bioslurry from these households for the greening project
of Butajira town. The bioslurry is collected from each urban household using a plastic
tanker purchased and distributed by the municipality.
There are also entrepreneurs in some localities who make a compost using bioslurry
together with agricultural residue, biodegradable kitchen wastes, etc. These
entrepreneurs have already come forward to produce and market organic fertilizers.
There is a need to compile the existing local practices and other countries’ experiences to
scale up bioslurry utilization technologies in forestry development; it is applicable
especially for tree seedling production in a nursery. On the other hand, in order to market
and promote bioslurry organic fertilizers, there is a need to formulate a national
53
programme, so that both biogas for household cooking and bioslurry as organic fertilizer
can be used effectively.
54
4.2.6 Conclusion and recommendations
Ethiopia’s energy requirement in households is met mainly with biomass fuels sourced
from the natural forests and woodlands, and some is sourced from unidentified sources.
To meet the ever- increasing population growth, charcoal production, which is largely
informal, is expected to continue to increase in the future. Given rising demand for solid
biomass, a continuation of unsustainable production and use can be expected to
exacerbate climate change, which, in turn, could affect the health and productivity of
forests and woodlands and thereby reduce future wood-energy supplies in many places
of the country.
The evidence indicates that the harvesting and production technology systems in the
nation are unsustainable. Thus, misuse of the natural resources and obsolete
technologies has a direct link to the worsening of the forest resource depletion, soil and
environmental degradation. Due to rapid population growth, cultivation on steep slopes,
clearing of vegetation, and overgrazing, land degradation and soil nutrient depletion are
more serious in the marginal highlands of the northern parts of the country than
elsewhere (Tamene and Vlek 2008).
Practice and policies for sustainable utilization of solid biomass

Land is a fundamental issue closely related to biomass in general, and to bioenergy in
particular. Therefore, the sustainability of biomass or bioenergy depends on the
productivity of the land use. Different options are available to improve the efficiency and
sustainability of solid biomass production related to soil quality. The soil quality can be
improved using the existing local and international experience such as sustainable forest
management; sustainable community-managed woodlots plantations and agroforestry. It
is necessary to protect high-biodiverse areas, including existing protected areas. Specific
activities to cultivate and harvest solid biomass and to manage their extraction have to
be addressed in terms of their compatibility with different forest types.
To assure that the cultivation systems and practices maintain or improve soil quality, the
soil organic carbon content of land being used for solid biomass resources cultivation or
for extracting surplus biomass growth must be at least maintained. In this regard, more
work is necessary to complete the nationally available GIS data concerning high potential
solid biomass areas, and updates of the existing GIS data with a sufficiently high
resolution are required for many solid biomass sources found in different agroecologies.
To cement such initiatives, there is a need to develop comprehensive national policy
frameworks for the sustainable management of solid biomass production that directly
affects the soil organic carbon and to integrate this effort across any biomass
development sectors.
Future monitoring
Because of the diverse agroecology, soil types and methodologies employed, the
literature on percentage of soil organic carbon, total nitrogen and pH values in Ethiopian
soil varies. Soil quality indicators such as organic matter content, total nitrogen and pH
can only be used effectively in sustainable forest management if threshold values are
identified Therefore, it is important to create soil organic carbon, total nitrogen and pH
databases and to set threshold values for representative forest types using standard
and uniform soil sampling methodologies that are simple and cost effective to
measure, and are applicable to the majority of forest ecosystems. Regarding this, there is
a need to continue to research these soil quality indicators, and EEFRI and other higher
learning institutes are taking the lead to accomplish the task. These institutes should
55
work in collaboration to use long-term soil monitoring data to test whether soil indicators
can identify trends that can be useful for sustainable forest management
56
4.2.7 References
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properties among the highland’s resources of Northeast Wolega, Ethiopia: are these signs of
degradation? Solid Earth Discussion 7, 2011-2035.
Aerts, R., Van Overtveld, K., Haile, M., Hermy, M., Deckers, J. and Muys, B. (2006). Species
composition and diversity of small Afromontane forest fragments in northern Ethiopia. Plant
Ecology 187, 127-142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11258-006-9137-0.
Asres, T. (1996). Agroecological zones of southwest Ethiopia. Matreialien Zur Ostafrica-Forschung, Heft 13.
Carter, M.C., Dean, T.J., Zhou, M., Messina, M.G., and Wang, Z. (2002). Short-term changes in
soil C, N, and biota following harvesting and regeneration of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.).
Forest Ecology & Management 164(1-3), 67–88. doi:10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00590-4.
Coppock, D.L. (1994). The Borana Plateau of Southern Ethiopia: Synthesis of Pastoral Research,
Development and Change, 1980-91. International Livestock Centre for Africa Systems Study 5,
Addis Ababa, 393.
Dalle, G., Brigitte, L. Maass, B.L. and Isselstein, J. (2014). Relationships between vegetation
composition and environmental variables in the Borana rangelands, southern Oromia, Ethiopia
Sinet: Ethiopian Journal of Science 37(1), 1-12.
Eshete, A., Sterck, F.J. and Bongers, F. (2011). Diversity and production of Ethiopian dry
woodlands explained by climate – and soil – stress gradients. Forest Ecology & Management 261,
1499-1509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.01.021.
Eshete, G. (2011). Bio-slurry: Is it a fertilizer in the making? SNV Netherlands Development
Organisation, Case studies.
Eyasu, E. (2016). Soils of the Ethiopian Highlands: Geomorphology and Properties. CASCAPE Project,
ALTERA, Wageningen University and Research Centre. Wageningen, the Netherlands. 385.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (1984). Assistance to Land Use-Planning,
Ethiopia: Geomorphology and Soils. Field Document AG DP/ETH/78/003. United Nations Development
Programme and FAO. Rome.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, International Institute for Applied
Systems Analysis, International Soil Reference and Information Centre, Institute of Soil Science –
Chinese Academy of Sciences and Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (2012).
Harmonized World Soil Database (version 1.2). FAO, Rome, and IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria.
http://webarchive.iiasa.ac.at/Research/LUC/External-World-soil- database/HTML/.
Friis, I., Demissew, S. and van Breugel, P. (2010). Atlas of the Potential Vegetation of Ethiopia. The Royal
Danish Academy of Science and Letters, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Fritzsche, F., Zech, W. and Guggenberger, G. (2007). Soils of the main Ethiopian Rift Valley
escarpment: A transect study. Catena 70, 209–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2006.09.005.
Gole, T.W. (2003). Conservation and Use of Coffee Genetic Resources in Ethiopia: Challenges and
Opportunities in the Context Current Global Situations. Bonn.
http://www.coffee.uni-bonn.de/download/Tadesse-W- Gole_2003_Conservationand-Use-of-
Coffee-genetic-Resources-in-Ethiopia.pdf.
International Livestock Research Institute (2005). Metema Pilot Learning Site Diagnosis and Program Design.
International Livestock Research Institute. Unpublished. Addis Ababa. 1-100 pp.
IUSS Working Group World Reference Base (2015). World Reference Base for Soil Resources, update
2015. International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. World Soil
Resources Reports N 106. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome.
Kamara, C.S. and Haque, L. (1987). Characteristics of Vertisols at ILCA research and outreach sites in
Ethiopia. Plant Science Division Working Paper 85. International Livestock Centre for Africa. Addis
Ababa. 69 pp. [ILCA library accession no. S-93, N.B51].
57
Megersa, B. and Worku, A. (2018). Impact of tree species in different sub-habitats on soil
physico-chemical properties of Allaidege rangeland, Southern Afar, Ethiopia. Asian Journal of
Science and Technology, 9(01): 338-346.
Program, Ethiopia. Volume I: Situation Analysis. Addis Ababa.
Mohr, P.A. (1971). The Geology of Ethiopia. University College of Addis Ababa, Central Printing
Press, Addis Ababa.
Patrick, M., J.S. Tenywa, P. Ebanyat, M.M. Tenywa, D.N. Mubiru, T.A. Basamba et al. (2013). Soil
organic carbon thresholds and nitrogen management in tropical agroecosystems: Concepts
and prospects. Journal of Sustainable Development 612, 31-43.
Raulund-Rasmussen, K., Stupak, I., Clarke, N., Callesen, I., Helmisaari, H.-S., Karltun, E. et al.
(2008). Effects of very intensive forest biomass harvesting on short and long-term site
productivity. In Sustainable Use of Forest Biomass for Energy. A Synthesis with Focus on the Baltic and Nordic
Region. D. Röser, A. Asikainen, K. Raulund- Rasmussen, and I. Stupak (eds.) Springer. Dordrecht,
The Netherlands. 29-78.
Solomon, D., Fritzsche, F., Lehmann, J., Tekalign, M. and Zech, W. (2002). Soil organic matter
dynamics in the sub-humid agroecosystems of the Ethiopian Highlands: Evidence from natural
carbon abundance and particle- size fractionation. Soil Science. Society of America Journal 66, 969-
978. doi:10.2136/sssaj2002.9690.
Tamene L. and Vlek P.L.G. (2008). Soil Erosion Studies in Northern Ethiopia. In: Braimoh A.K., Vlek P.L.G. (eds.).
Land Use and Soil Resources. Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
United Nations Environment Programme (2016). The Contribution of Forests to National Income in
Ethiopia and Linkages with REDD+. Nairobi.
United Nations Environment Programme (2017). Atlas of Africa Energy Resources. Nairobi.
Yimer, F., Ledin, S. and Abdelkadir, A. (2006). Soil organic carbon and total nitrogen stocks as
affected by topographic aspect and vegetation in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. Geoderma 135,
335-344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2006.01.005.
Yimer, F., Ledin, S. and Abdelkadir, A. (2007). Changes in soil organic carbon and total nitrogen
contents in three adjacent land use types in the Bale Mountains, south‐eastern highlands of
Ethiopia. Forest Ecology & Management 242, 337–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2007.01.087.
Yohannes, Y., Shibistova, O., Abate, A. Fetene, M. and Guggenberger, G. (2011). Soil CO2 efflux in
an Afromontane forest of Ethiopia as driven by seasonality and tree species. Forest Ecology &
Management 261, 1090-1098.
4.3 Indicator 3. Harvest levels of wood resources
4.3.1 Researchers
Dr. Teshome Tesema1 and Getachew Desalegn2
1
4.3.2 Definition
(3.1) Annual harvest of wood resources by volume and as a percentage of net growth or
sustained yield, and the percentage of the annual harvest used for bioenergy.

M3/ha/year, tons/ha/year, m3/year or tons/year, percentage
58
The indicator applies to bioenergy production from wood resources and forestry residues,
according to nationally defined forest type. It applies therefore more particularly to the
pathway on solid biomass. Some comments are also provided on the pathway on biogas.
The analysis mainly focused on the national situation.
Secondary data sources (literatures, reports, survey results, national figures, etc.) on
forest cover, forest productivity, annual harvest of wood resources and firewood
specifically were used. Data on net annual growth and sustained yield, disaggregated by
region, were not available when the testing was carried out.
4.3.5 Key findings

BIOGAS
Biogas plants have various social, economic, environmental and climatic impacts. Biogas
offers an attractive option to replace unsustainable utilization of wood and charcoal as a
household fuel source. According to a survey in Ministry of Water, Irrigation and
Energy MoWIE (2018), both biogas users and experts from different offices believe that
biogas has significantly reduced the use of firewood contributing to improvement in the
forest coverage. Even though the increase in forest coverage is not totally attributed to
the introduction of biogas technology, it has meaningfully contributed because a majority
of biogas users have fully or partially shifted from solid biomass to gaseous energy
sources due to the biogas programme. The introduction of the biogas technology
has also strengthened area closure because users have changed their free grazing to a
cut-and-carry animal feeding system (MoWIE 2018). Therefore, the biogas being produced
and utilized helped to save a huge amount of wood that could be obtained from
harvesting and, thus, biogas has contributed to the conservation of forests.
Moreover, the contribution of biogas technology in reducing the time and cost of
collecting traditional energy sources is greatly appreciated by the majority of biogas
users (around 85 per cent of respondents) both in semi-urban (76 per cent) and rural (90
per cent) areas. Improvements in cooking, including convenience as well as speed, were
given as the most advantageous reasons for using biogas compared to conventional
methods (MoWIE 2018).
SOLID BIOMASS
Definition of forest and forest coverage
In Ethiopia forest is defined as land occupied with trees (natural and planted, including
bamboo) attaining a height of more than 2 metres at maturity, canopy cover of more than
20 per cent and covering an area of more than 0.5 ha, with a minimum width of 20
metres or not more than two‐thirds of its length (Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change MEFCC 2017; MEFCC 2018a). Accordingly, the forest coverage of
Ethiopia is estimated to be about 17.35 million ha or 15.5 per cent of the land mass of the
country (Map 4.5 and Table 4.7) (MEFCC 2016; MEFCC 2017; MEFCC 2018a).
Ethiopia adopted this new forest definition in 2015 (MEFCC 2015). It differs from the Food
and Agriculture Organization [FAO] forest definition and therefore from the definition used
in the data reported to the Global Forest Resources Assessment of the FAO. The FAO
forest definition includes thresholds of 10 per cent canopy cover, a 0.5 ha area and a
5 m height (FAO 2018).
59
The reason for changing the national forest definition is to better capture the natural
primary state of Ethiopia’s forest vegetation. Lowering the tree height from 5 metres to 2
metres captures natural
60
forest vegetation types such as dry land forests, where trees reach a height of around 2-3
metres. Increasing the canopy cover threshold from 10 per cent to 20 per cent avoids
acceptance of highly degraded forest lands into the forest definition and in this way
provides incentives for protecting quality forest. The proposed change in forest definition
results in the inclusion of what previously was classified as Ethiopia’s dense woodlands
that have a wider distribution through the country. Commercial agriculture is
expanding mainly on dense woodlands.
Map 4.5. Distribution of the forest resources of Ethiopia
Source: EMA 2013 cited in MEFCC 2018a)
Table 4.7. Forest cover of Ethiopia
Ethiopian new forest definition (2015)

Types of forests Area coverage (ha) % of total land
Natural forest 5 266 419 4.7
Woodlands 10 739 286 9.5
Plantation forest 827 612 0.7
Bamboo forest 519 124 0.5
Total 17 352 441 15.5
Source: MEFCC 2018a.
Ethiopia has one of the largest bamboo resources in Africa. According to recent remote
sensing- based inventory conducted by INBAR – Tsinghua University, Ethiopia would have
a higher potential, with a total of 14,745 km2 or 1.47 million ha of bamboo in
Ethiopia (INBAR 2018 cited in Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission
EFCCC (2019).
61
Loss of forest area
Forest loss (>10 per cent canopy cover) for the period 2001-2014 was 381,285 ha
(MEFCC 2018a) (Table 4.8). Deforestation and land degradation are widespread in
Ethiopia due to the high levels of human pressure and unsustainable land use. Given
Ethiopia’s largely rugged topography, an estimated 27 million ha of land in the highlands
are degraded, of which 14 million ha are severely eroded (Berry 2003 cited in MEFCC
2018a). At the national level, the rate of deforestation and forest degradation in Ethiopia
ranges from 140,000 to 200,000 ha/year and has resulted in severe land degradation
and loss of biodiversity (MEFCC 2018a). There has been a continued loss of forest
between 2000 and 2010. Figure 4.4 and Table 4.8 show that although there are regional
differences, tree cover loss has generally been increasing in recent years.
Table 4.8. Tree cover loss and gain
Forest loss (ha) (>10% Forest gain (ha)

Regional state
canopy cover) (>50% canopy cover)
Period 2001-2014 2001-2012
Addis Ababa 335 579
Afar 72 12
Amhara 7 385 4 264
Benshangul-Gumaz 58 755 922
Dire Dawa 3 0
Gambella Peoples 15 914 1 161
Harari People 16 0
Oromia 188 960 42 351
Somali 869 251
SNNPR 107 406 12 609
Tigray 1 569 389
Total 381 285 62 538
62
Figure 4.4. Tree cover loss by region for the period 2001-2014 (>10% canopy cover)
The drivers of deforestation and forest and land degradation vary greatly at the regional
and local levels. The main direct drivers of deforestation are small-scale agricultural
expansion and fuelwood consumption, and to a lesser extent, illegal logging and forest
fires (FDRE 2011 cited in MEFCC 2018a). Another important driver has been identified as
large-scale agricultural investments, which until recently were promoted by the
government as a vehicle for rural development and economic growth. Overgrazing,
settlement, and uncontrolled tree harvesting and utilization also contribute. On public
land (which is typically where forests are found), there may be no sense of ownership of
the resource, leading to a tragedy of the commons problem where optimization of
individual harvest levels leads to degradation of the common resource.
Growth and standing stock

Growth and standing stock in the current forest vegetation of Ethiopia is presented in
Table 4.9. Actual incremental yield for the various forest vegetation is very low. For
natural forest this is mainly due to over-logging in the past and lack of proper
management for the remaining forest. For plantation forest, the main reason is the lack of
proper silviculture and stand management.
63
Table 4.9. Growth and standing stock of forests of Ethiopia
Forest vegetation
Parameters
Natural forest Plantation (industrial) Plantation (woodlots)
Standing stock (m3/ha) 48.73(1) 179 75
Total standing volume (m3) 790 355 000 33 836 907 61 129 275
Mean annual increment (m3/ ha / yr) 2.01(1) 12.5 15
Annual sustainable yield (m3/year) 32 594 000
(1)
Note: These estimates are adjusted by means of weighted average from the data by WBISPP (2004) for high forest and
woodlands. The natural forest calculations exclude bamboo forest. The larger share of the natural forest defined today is
woodlands, and adjustment of the standing stock and mean annual increment is needed to arrive at a realistic sustainable
yield and total standing stock.
Source: WBISPP 2004 and FSR 2015 cited in MEFCC 2018a.
The current mean annual increment of 12.5 m³/yr/ha estimated for the industrial
plantation is low compared to the potential growth of around 46 m3/ha/yr for eucalyptus
stands and 33 m3/ha/yr for conifer stands when planted and managed on good sites
(MEFCC 2018a). The current industrial plantations are not planted on good sites and not
well managed. Currently, only 190,000 ha of poorly managed industrial plantations exist
in the country (Forest Sector Review 2015 cited in MEFCC 2018b). According to FAO
(2019), the production of roundwood in 2017 was 110.6 million m 3 (Table 4.10). This is
slightly less than the 120 million m3 supply estimated by MEFCC (Table 4.9). The reasons
for the difference deserve more analysis in the future.
Table 4.10. Wood removals for the year 2017
Assortment Production (m3)

Round wood 113 557 000
Fuel wood (including wood used for 110 622 000
charcoal production) (1)
Industrial wood 2 935 000
Charcoal production is 4.4 million tons of charcoal.
(1)
Source: FAO 2019
Fuel wood supply

The total wood product demand in 2015, measured by the volume of wood consumed in
the country (production import-export) is around 130.3 million m 3 of roundwood
equivalent. Approximately 92.3 per cent of this is in the form of wood fuel and the
rest is in the form of industrial wood (MEFCC 2018a). The annual volume of wood
harvested for wood fuel is around 120.4 million m3 of roundwood equivalent in 2015
(115.0 million m3 as firewood and 5.4 million m3 for conversion into charcoal) (MEFCC
2018a). Harvest per hectare is not available.
Currently, more than 90 per cent of the domestic supplies of fuel wood come from diverse
sources such as natural high forests and woodlands, industrial plantations and private
forests (trees outside forests including woodlots) (Table 4.11).
64
Table 4.11. Estimate of wood fuel supply in Ethiopia
Estimated annual supply of fuel wood Proportion

Forest type
in roundwood equivalent (million (%)
m 3)
Woodlots 6.6 5.48
Natural forests and woodlands (sustainable supply) 32.1 26.66
Peri-urban energy plantations 0.08 0.07
Public plantations 0.07 0.06
Area exclosures 1.64 1.36
Wood fuel from waste 0.17 0.14
Import 0.000279 0.00
Unknown source (1) 79.74 66.23
Total 120.40 100
This is most likely the volume extracted from natural forests through unsustainable
(1)
harvest. Source: MEFCC 2017; MEFCC 2018a.
Unsustainable extraction of wood from forests and woodlands for the purpose of
fuel wood and charcoal has contributed greatly to the loss of forest resources and to
widespread degradation and deforestation. This in turn has contributed to a sustainable
supply gap for the volume of fuel wood needed today (MEFCC 2018a). The loss of acacia
woodland in the Central Rift Valley area is usually associated with charcoal production
and firewood extraction. Acacia species are the favoured sources for charcoal production
given their smooth combustion and better energy yield.
Fuel wood demand

The largest source of wood-based production and consumption in Ethiopia is wood
fuel (firewood and charcoal). According to recent studies, nearly 95 per cent of the
nation’s energy consumption comes from “biomass fuels” of which “wood fuel” is the
most important, providing an estimated 68 per cent of the total (MEFCC 2018a). The vast
majority of households depend on wood or charcoal for domestic energy consumption,
using wood for cooking, heating and lighting. A massive increase in charcoal
consumption was observed in the past 15 years due to the significant increase in rural
incomes, proliferation of rural markets, improved road system and reduced transport
costs and the limited land for growing trees surrounding urban areas. More details are
provided in the description of the pathway (section 2 of the report).
Demand for energy for cooking and heating in Ethiopia far outstrips sustainable supply.
Further, the efficiency of conversion and use of wood fuel is typically low due to poor
technologies for production of charcoal, and inefficient woodstoves (see Indicator 18).
Extensive extraction of fuel wood for both commercial and subsistence purposes is a
driver of woodland degradation throughout Ethiopia. Fuel wood extraction is most
prominent surrounding urban areas, as urban areas have high demand for fuel wood.
The extent of biomass scarcity is exemplified by the long travel distances currently
required for wood collection.
Projection of fuelwood demand and supply

The present trend shows that both rural and urban demand for wood energy has
increased and is expected to increase due to the growing populations and macro-
economic changes. The projected sustainable fuelwood supply is estimated to reach 8.6
million m³ in 2030 (Bekele 2011; Indufor 2016; Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change [MEFCC] 2018a). The future wood fuel / feedstocks projections (2015-
2030) of demand and supply indicate that demand during the years 2020, 2025 and 2030
will still greatly exceed the supply (Table 4.12; Figure 4.5).
65
Figure 4.5. Projection of fuelwood demand, 2015-2035
Source: Adapted/drawn from that data of Kassa and Ewnetu 2014.
Table 4.12. Future demand and supply projections (2015-2030) of wood fuel / feedstocks (firewood and
charcoal) from plantations and natural forests
Wood fuel source 2020 2025 2030

Wood fuel (firewood/charcoal) demand from natural
153 441 176 528 203 015
forests and plantations (1 000 m³)
Wood fuel (firewood/charcoal) supply from
10 243 10 619 10 996
natural forests and plantations (1 000 m³)
Supply rate (%) over demand 6.7 6 5.4
Source: Adapted from Bekele 2011.
4.3.6 Conclusions and recommendations

The annual volume of wood harvested for wood fuel was around 120.4 million m3
of roundwood equivalent in 2015, and in 2035 it will reach 157.79 million m3. Currently,
more than 90 per cent of the domestic supplies of fuel wood come from diverse
forests (trees outside forests including woodlots). To fill the indicated gap, there is a
great need to establish additional fuelwood plantations across the country.
As regards biogas, its use has greatly reduced the use of firewood contributing to
improvement in the forest coverage. However, quantified values are not available.

The Ethiopian forest policy and strategy (2007) and the recent forest proclamation
number 1076/2018 encourages farmers / tree growers, communities and private
investors (in public private partnerships) to grow, manage and utilize forests for their
different products including fuel wood and charcoal (FDRE 2018). It is believed that this
policy provision will help to bring fuelwood plantations that will contribute to filling the
fuelwood demand gap in the country. The additional land requirement needed to
establish fuelwood plantations can be minimized by using fast-growing
66
and high-yielding tree/shrub species such as Eucalyptus, Acacia decurrens, with appropriate
stand management.
Promoting and developing woodlots and agroforestry can be guided by identifying which
multi- purpose tree species are most appropriate for which agroecological zone. Once this
knowledge is available, a site-species matching should be carried out by the appropriate
extension service provider for each parcel of land prior to planting. This site-species
evaluation should be conducted prior to delivery of seedlings from the nursery.
Thereafter, the land holders should be informed about why they are planting these
different tree species and they should be trained in their management. Thus, extension
services play a key role in assessing the land and creating awareness regarding the
purpose of the specific trees that were planted in the respective areas (MEFCC 2018b).
According to MEFCC (2018b), the strategy for improved and sustainable charcoal
production from agriculture and forest by products will be:
 Establish market regulation and improve law enforcement to reduce the
availability of unsustainable, illegal wood fuel on the market;
 Increase the supply of sustainable wood fuel production through promoting
woodlots and sustainable management of natural forests;
 Provide incentives for the establishment and management of woodlots (could be
done in the context of REDD+).
The residues from industrial plantations will be used as a sustainable solid biomass
source. Moreover, it is important to use other energy alternatives such as biogas,
hydropower, solar, wind, geothermal and other non-wood biomass energy sources in
order to reduce pressure on existing forest resources of the country.
Future monitoring
In Ethiopia, although a significant proportion of harvested wood is used for energy
purposes (wood fuel, charcoal, etc.), data are only available on forest cover, wood supply,
wood demand and consumption. It is very difficult to get data by cubic metre per hectare
per year and in tons per hectare per year both for the supply and demand. Therefore,
monitoring of this indicator in the future would be important in Ethiopia, along with
Indicators 17 and 22, in order to assess whether statistics on the use of wood fuel match
the shares of energy coming from traditional use of biomass.
4.3.7 References
Bekele, M. (2011). Forest plantations and woodlots in Ethiopia. African Forest Forum Working Paper
Series 1, 12.
Ethiopia Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission (2019). Ethiopia Bamboo
Development Strategy and Action Plan (2019-2030).
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (2018). A proclamation to provide for the public-private partnership.
Federal Negarit Gazetta of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, No. 1076. Addis Ababa.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2011). The Global Bio-energy Partnership
Sustainability Indicators for Bioenergy. First edition. Rome.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2018). Year Book of Forest Products 2016. Rome.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2018). Terms and Definitions, Global
Forest Resources Assessment 2020. Rome.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2019). Year Book of Forest Products 2017. Rome.
67
Forest Policy (2007). Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Policy and Strategy. Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Addis Ababa.
INDUFOR (2016). Commercial Plantation Forestry Investment Plan Ethiopia Study INDUFOR. Final Report.
Kassa, M. and Ewnetu, Z. (2014). The Importance of Forestry in Ethiopia and the Need for Investing in
the Sector to Meet National Goals and International Commitments. Unpublished report.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2016). The Contribution of Forests to National
Income in Ethiopia and Linkages with REDD+, Executive summary. Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2017). Ethiopia Forest Sector Review. Technical
Report. Focus on commercial forestry and industrialization. Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2018a). National Forest Sector Development
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2018b). National Forest Sector Development
Program, Ethiopia. Volume II: Program Pillars, Action Areas and Targets. Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity (2018). Report on National Biogas Users’ Survey. National
Biogas Programme of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.
4.4 Indicator 4. Emissions of non-greenhouse gas air pollutants, including air

toxics
4.4.1 Researcher(s)
Dr. Anteneh T. Tekleyohannes, Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute
(EEFRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
[email protected]
4.4.2 Definition
(4.1) Emissions of non-greenhouse gas air pollutants, including air toxics, from 1)
feedstock production, 2) processing, 3) transport of feedstocks, intermediate products
and end products, and
4) use; and comparisons with other energy sources.

Emissions of PM2.5, PM10, NOX, sulphur dioxide and other pollutants in 1) mg/ha, mg/MJ,
and as a percentage; 2) mg/m3 or ppm; 3) mg/MJ; 4) mg/MJ

The spreadsheet-based life cycle analysis (LCA) tool, developed by the Institut für
Energieund Umweltforschung Heidelberg (IFEU) in partnership with GBEP and UNEP, was
used to quantify the toxic, non-greenhouse gas and particulate emissions of each stage of
the value chain: feedstock production and collection, processing, transport of primary or
transformed resources, storage, and final uses by the consumers. The spreadsheet
includes sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, non-methane volatile organic
compounds, PM10, dust and ammonia. Emission factors are based on international
literature and life cycle analysis databases and adapted to Ethiopia. Sources of
information are similar as for Indicator 1.
4.4.5 Key findings

Numerical results are presented below. Analysis is provided in the following section.
68
BIOGAS
Figure 4.6. Summary of life cycle SO2 emissions from using biogas compared to traditional wood cooking
during collection, transport, processing and use
0.24
Emission from manure biogas
0.22 Ref Emission from firewood in traditional
0.20
SO2 Emission [g/MJ Heat]

0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.010
0.005
0.000
Life Cycle Stage
Figure 4.7. Summary of life cycle CO emissions from using biogas compared to traditional wood cooking and
LPG during collection, transport, processing and use
44 Emission from manure biogas

Ref Emission from firewood in traditional CS
42
CO Emissions [g/ MJ heat]
40
38
36
34
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
Life Cycle Stages
Figure 4.8. Summary of life cycle PM10 emissions from using biogas compared to traditional wood cooking
during collection, transport, processing and use
2.1 Emission from manure biogas

Ref Emission from firewood in traditional CS
2.0
1.9
PM10 [g/MJ Heat]
1.8
1.7
0.010
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0.000
Life Cycle Stages
69
Table 4.13. Comparison of summary of toxic and non-greenhouse gas emissions from the use of biogas with
firewood used in traditional cookstove and LPG
Reference Difference in emissions (biogas over

Toxic Emission from emission from traditional wood (open fires))
Life cycle
and non- manure biogas (g/MJ traditional wood
stage in percent Per functional unit
GHG heat) (open fires) (g/MJ
(%) (g/MJ heat)
emission heat)
Collection 0 0 0 0
Transport 0 0.01 -100 -0.01
SO2 Processing 0 0.11 0 0
Use 0.13 0.001 +12900 +0.13
Total 0.13 0.12 +9 +0.01
Collection 0 0 - -
Transport 0 0.01 -100 -0.10
NOx Processing 0 0.12 0 0
Use 0.26 0.07 +271 +0.19
Total 0.26 0.19 +36 +0.07
Collection 0 0 - -
Transport 0 0.001 -100 -0.02
CO Processing 0 0.05 0 0
Use 0.20 41.41 -99.5 -41.26
Total 0.20 41.46 -100 -41.26
Collection 0 0 - -
Transport 0 0.003 -100 -0.003
NMVOC Processing 0 0.10 -100 -0.10
Use 0.04 6.67 -99.5 -6.63
Total 0.04 6.77 -99 -6.64
Collection 0 0 - -
Transport 0 0.0004 -100 -0.003
PM10 Processing 0 0.01 -100 -0.01
Use 0.002 1.96 -99.9 -1.96
Total 0.002 1.97 -99.9 -1.96
Collection 0 0 -- -
Transport 0 0.001 -100 -0.001
Dust Processing 0 0.01 -100 -0.01
Use 0.002 201.57 -100 -201.57
Total 0.002 201.57 -100 -201.57
Collection 0 0 - -
Transport 0 0.000003 -100 -0.00004
Processing 0 0.000192 -100 -0.000192
NH3 Use 0 0 - -
Total 0 0.000195 -100 -0.000195
70
FIREWOOD
Figure 4.9. Summary of life cycle SO2 emissions from using firewood in improved cookstoves, compared to
traditional wood cooking and LPG during collection, transport, processing and use
0.30
0.28 Emission from firewood used in ICS
0.26 Ref emission from firewood used in traditional CS
0.24 Reference emission from LPG
0.22
SO2 Emission [g/MJ Heat]

0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.014
0.012
0.010
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0.000
Collection transport processing use total
Life Cycle Stages
Figure 4.10. Summary of life cycle CO emissions from using firewood in improved cookstoves, compared to
45
Emission from firewood used in ICS
Ref emission from firewood used in traditional CS
CO Emissions [g/MJ Heat]
40
35
10
0
Life Cycle Stages
Figure 4.11. Summary of life cycle PM10 emissions from using firewood in improved cookstoves, compared to
2.1 Emission from firewood used in ICS

2.0 Ref emission from firewood used in traditional CS
1.9 Ref emission from LPG
PM10 Emissions [g/MJ Heat]
1.8
1.7
0.55
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.02
0.01
0.00
Life Cycle Stages
71
Table 4.14. Comparison of summary of toxic and non-greenhouse gas emissions from the use of firewood in
improved cookstoves and in traditional wood (open fires)
Difference in emissions
Reference
(Firewood in ICS over Difference in emissions
Emission emission from
Reference traditional wood (open (Firewood in ICS over LPG)
Toxic from firewood used fires)
Life cycle emission
and non- firewood in traditional
stage from LPG Per Per
GHG used in ICS wood (open
(g/ MJ heat) in percent functional functional
emission (g/MJ heat) fires) (g/MJ in percent (%)
(%) unit (g/MJ unit (g/MJ
heat) heat) heat)
Collection 0 0 0 - - - 0
Transport 0.002336 0.0087 0.0044 -73.1 -0.006 -46.9 -0.002
SO2 Processing 0 0 0.114 - - -100 -0.11
Use 0.00021 0.0008 0.118 -73.8 -0.0006 -99.8 -0.12
Total 0.002546 0.0095 0.236 -73.2 -0.007 -98.9 -0.23
Transport 0.027985 0.104 0.004 -73.1 -0.08 599.6 0.02
NOx Processing 0 0 0.118 - - -100 -0.12
Use 0.021008 0.069 0.403 -69.6 -0.05 -94.8 -0.38
Total 0.048993 0.173 0.525 -71.7 -0.12 -90.7 -0.48
Collection 0 0 0 0 - 0
Transport 0.006419 0.024 0.001 -73.3 -0.02 541.9 0.005
CO Processing 0 0 0.045 - - -100 -0.05
Use 9.012605 41.412 0.262 -78.2 -32.4 3339.9 8.75
Total 9.019024 41.436 0.308 -78.2 -32.4 2828.3 8.71
Collection 0 0 0 - - 0
Transport 0.002647 0.01 0.003 -73.5 -0.0074 -11.8 -0.0004
NMVOC Processing 0 0 0.095 - - -100 -0.1
Use 1.84874 6.667 0.137 -72.3 -4.8 1249.4 1.71
Total 1.85139 6.677 0.234 -72.3 -4.8 691.2 1.62
Transport 0.00087 0.003 0.0003 -71 -0.002 190 0.0006
PM10 Processing 0 0 0.0095 - - -100 -0.01
Use 0.48319 1.961 0.0098 -75.4 -1.5 4830.5 0.47
Total 0.48406 1.964 0.0196 -75.4 -1.5 2369.7 0.46
Transport 0.00104 0.00388 0.00084 -73.2 -0.003 23.8 0.0002
Dust Processing 0 0 0.01133 - - -100 -0.01
Use 53.99 201.569 0.0121 -73.2 -147.6 446098.3 53.98
Total 53.99 201.573 0.0121 -73.2 -147.6 446098.3 53.98
Transport 0.00001 0.000042 0.000002 -76.2 0 400 0.00001
Processing 0 0 0.000192 - - -100 -0.0002
NH3 Use 0 0 0.000195 -100 -0.0002
Total 0.00001 0.000042 0.000389 -76.2 0 -97.4 -0.0004
72
CHARCOAL
Figure 4.12. Summary of life cycle SO2 emissions from using charcoal in improved cookstoves, compared to
0.12
Emission from ICS using charcoal
Ref emission from traditional CS using wood
SO2 emission [g/MJ of Heat]

0.10
0.02
0.00
Collection transport processing use
Life Cycle Stages
Figure 4.13. Summary of life cycle CO emissions from using charcoal in improved cookstoves, compared to
50 Emission from ICS using charcoal

45 Ref emission from traditional CS using wood
40 Ref emission from LPG
35
CO Emission [g/MJ Heat]
30
25
20
15
10
0.5
0.0
Life Cycle Stages
Figure 4.14. Summary of life cycle PM10 emissions from using charcoal in improved cookstoves, compared to
traditional wood (open fires) and LPG during collection, transport, processing and use
2.25
2.20 Emission from ICS using charcoal
2.15 Ref emission from traditional CS using wood
2.10 Reference emission from LPG
2.05
PM10 Emission [g/MJ Heat]
2.00
1.95
1.90
1.85
1.80
1.75
1.70
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
Life Cycle Stages
73
Table 4.15. Comparison of toxic and non-greenhouse gas emissions from the use of charcoal in improved
cookstoves, traditional wood (open fires) and LPG
Reference Difference in emissions

Emission Difference in emissions
emission Reference (charcoal in ICS over
from ICS traditional wood (open fires)) (charcoal in ICS over LPG)
Toxic non- from emission
Life cycle using
GHG traditional from LPG Per
stage charcoal Per functional
emission wood (open (g/ MJ In percent In percent functional
(g / MJ unit
fires) using heat) (%) (%) unit
heat) (g / MJ heat)
wood (g / MJ heat)
(g / MJ heat)
Collection 0 0 0 - 0 - 0
Transport 0.00361 0.01828 0 -80.3 -0.01 - 0.004
SO2 Processing 0.00008 0 0.0044 - 0.00008 -98.2 -0.004
Use 0.00008 0.00078 0.114 -89.7 -0.0007 -99.9 -0.11
Total 0.00377 0.01906 0.118 -80.2 -0.02 -96.8 -0.11
Transport 0.043 0.219 0.236 -80.4 -0.18 -81.8 -0.19
NOx Processing 0.005 0 0 - 0.005 - 0.005
Use 0.015 0.069 0.004 -78.3 -0.05 275 0.01
Total 0.064 0.288 0.118 -77.8 -0.22 -45.8 -0.05
Transport 0.01 0.05 0.403 -80 -0.04 -97.5 -0.39
CO Processing 18.34 0 0.525 - 18.34 3393.3 17.82
Use 13.32 41.41 0 -67.8 -28.09 - 13.32
Total 31.67 41.46 0.001 -23.6 -9.79 3166900 31.67
Transport 0.004 0.021 0.045 -81 -0.02 -91.1 -0.04
NMVOC Processing 7.62 0 0.262 - 7.62 2808.4 7.36
Use 0.85 6.67 0.308 -87.3 -5.82 176 0.54
Total 8.47 6.69 0 26.6 1.78 - 8.47
Transport 0.001 0.007 0.003 -85.7 -0.006 -66.7 -0.002
PM10 Processing 0.041 0 0.095 - 0.041 -56.8 -0.05
Use 0.174 1.961 0.137 -91.1 -1.79 27 0.04
Total 0.217 1.968 0.234 -89 -1.751 -7.3 -0.017
Collection 0 0 0 0 - 0
Transport 0.002 0.008 0 -75 -0.006 - 0.002
Dust Processing 2.5 0 0.0003 - 2.5 833233.3 2.5
Use 0.41 201.57 0.0095 -99.8 -201.16 4215.8 0.4
Total 2.91 201.58 0.0098 -98.6 -198.67 29593.9 2.9
Transport 0.00002 0.00009 0.0196 -77.8 -0.00007 -99.9 -0.02
Processing 0 0 0 - 0 - 0
NH3 Use 0 0 0.00084 - 0 -100 -0.0008
Total 0.00002 0.00009 0.01133 -77.8 -0.00007 -99.8 -0.01
74
BIOGAS
Generally, the biogas pathway generates significantly greater amounts of sulphur dioxide
and nitrogen oxides when compared with firewood and charcoal used in improved
cookstoves. This shows a strong need for improvement of the quality of the biogas
through upgrades. Use of biogas emits less of the lethal toxic carbon monoxide when
compared to firewood and charcoal burned in any of the cookstoves. Emission of
nitrogen oxides as well as ammonia can be minimized by maintaining the carbon-to -
nitrogen ratio within the optimal range (20:1 to 30:1) required for efficient anaerobic
digestion (Adelekan 2012). Optimal carbon-to-nitrogen can be maintained by mixing the
manure substrate with easily digestible and abundant biomass resources.
The non-greenhouse gas emissions should be completely removed or transformed

into benign by- products. For this, it is essential to trace and quantify their presence
during collection, transport, processing and use. The major non-greenhouse gas emissions
arise from the major elemental constituents of the cattle manure (carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur). There is high nitrogen content in the faeces and urine of
dairy cattle which ranges from 10-17 and 4-10 gram, respectively, in each fresh kilogram
of weight (Sommer et al. 2013). Specifically, the dairy manure can contain about 39.1, 4.6,
26.7, 0.83, 0.25 and 0.99 per cent of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and
chlorine. The molecular constituents are methane (55-80 per cent), CO2 (20-45 per cent)
and negligible traces of hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide (Dahiya et al. 1986). The
major oxidative high energy yielding elemental constituents are carbon and hydrogen.
Oxidation of carbon yields 15 times more energy than the combustion of sulphur
while hydrogen oxidizes by releasing 10 times more energy than that of sulphur. Simple
molecules and compounds of the rest are considered as impurities and should in
some way be removed or minimized via pretreatment of the substrate or upgrade of
the biogas. Water in the biogas should be extracted using for example activated carbon.
The noxious odor dihydrogen sulphide can be removed by methods which either oxidize it
to elemental sulphur or to sulphate biologically or chemically (Sommer, Ward and Leahy
2013). It is also important to scrutinize how the non-greenhouse gas emissions of
biogas fare when compared to its reference cases in each of the life cycle stages. Biogas
fares better in reduced emission of the non-greenhouse gas emissions in overwhelming
cases of the life cycle stages.

It is recommended to do cookstove improvement research, as the use stage is the life
cycle stage that generates significant amounts of toxic emissions such as carbon
monoxide. In this regard, the ongoing National Biogas Programme and those supported
by NGOs such as SNV can play a decisive role in the biogas upgrade research and its use
in more improved cookstoves. Research institutes should also have major research
programmes in this regard.
Future monitoring
Future research and development activities should widen the scope of this life cycle
analysis by including emissions from enteric fermentation. Systematic, comprehensive
and reliable inventory database of the toxic, non-greenhouse gas and particulate type
emissions from all the life cycle stages of biogas should be established and updated
75
regularly. It is also recommended to include the impact assessment and interpretation
phases of life cycle analysis so that the results can be understood in light of
comprehensive impact categories.
76
FIREWOOD
The solid biomass pathway emits most of the toxic, non-greenhouse gas and particulate
emissions during the use life cycle stage and also during transport. As a result, improved
cookstove innovations are indispensable to bring a significant reduction in these
emissions. One of the reasons for increased emissions of carbon monoxide and ammonia
is the combustion of solid biomass with high moisture content, which could have been
reduced by allowing the biomass to dry in the open air.

The improved cookstove projects of the Environment, Forests and Climate Change
Commission of Ethiopia and particularly those of NGOs such as GIZ should be given
priority. There is also a need to reduce the transport distance by optimizing the supply
chain of firewood.
Future monitoring
The inclusion of the smaller particulates PM2.5 in the life cycle analysis tool used for the
analysis would be an important addition, given the toxicity of these particles for health.
Moreover, future research and development activities should widen the scope of this life
cycle analysis to at least cradle-to-grave by including emissions from tree planting and
growing. A systematic, comprehensive and reliable inventory database of the toxic, non-
greenhouse gas and particulate type emissions from all the life cycle stages of the
biomass should be established and updated regularly. Similar to the biogas pathway, in
this one also it is recommended to include the impact assessment and interpretation
phases of life cycle analysis so that the results can be understood in light of
comprehensive impact categories.
CHARCOAL
Most of the emissions of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, non-methane
volatile organic compounds, PM10 and dust using charcoal in improved cookstoves occur
during the charcoal processing and use life cycle stages. Particularly dust and non-
methane volatile organic compounds dominate emissions of the use life cycle stage. The
excessive emissions during charcoal processing stages arise mainly due to the inefficient
technology used. The traditional earth-mound kilns use internal heating with a difficult-to-
control combustion process (insulation and control of air flow) resulting in increased
emissions of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide (Emrich 1985).

Innovating the charcoal processing and use life cycle stages and finding regulated ways
of implementing improvements are crucial since these stages are the dominant
contributors to the overall emissions of toxic, non-greenhouse gas and particulate types.
Particularly, there is a strong need to find effective methods to mitigate the high rate of
carbon monoxide emission in the processing and use life cycle stages of the charcoal life
cycle. This should start by decriminalizing charcoal making and promoting innovative,
optimal and sustainable means of charcoal making.
Generally, prohibiting charcoal making while it is supporting the livelihoods of many rural
youth does not make sense. This has only exacerbated degradation of the woodland in
addition to making the charcoal production a sinful act and one of the lowest-priority
areas for innovation research.
77
Innovation of the charcoal-making process is complex and calls for close partnership
between the Ethiopian government (the forest, environment and energy sectors), rural
youth and research institutes. Application of blockchain technology could be one of the
most effective ways to prove the
78
legality and sustainability of charcoal manufacturing. In this regard, the Ministry of
Innovation and Technology of Ethiopia initiated a programme that tests the use of
blockchain technology in tracking and certifying agri-products, in which the charcoal
production process can be included.
Future monitoring
The inclusion of the smaller particulates PM2.5 in the life cycle analysis tool used for the
analysis would be an important addition, given the toxicity of these particles for health.
Moreover, future research and development activities should also widen the scope of this
life cycle analysis to at least cradle-to-grave by including emissions from tree planting,
growing and harvesting. A systematic, comprehensive and reliable inventory database of
the toxic, non- greenhouse gas and particulate type emissions from all the life cycle
stages of charcoal should be established and updated regularly. Similar to the biogas
pathway, in this one also it is recommended to include the impact assessment and
interpretation phases of life cycle analysis so that the results can be understood in light
of comprehensive impact categories.
4.4.7 References
Adelekan, B.A. (2012). Potentials of Selected Tropical Crops and Manure as Sources of Biofuel. In:
S. Kumar (ed.). Biogas. Intech, Croatia.
Bhattacharya, S.C., Albina D.O. and AbdulSalam, P. (2002). Emission factors of wood and charcoal-
fired cookstoves. Biomass and Bioenergy 23, 453-469.
Chidumayo, E. and Gumbo, J.D. (2013). The environmental impacts of charcoal production in
tropical ecosystems of the world: A synthesis. Energy for Sustainable Development 17, 86-94.
Dahiya, R.P., Chand, A., Sharma, S.C. and Dayal, M. (1986). Investigations of seeded combustion
products of biogas/ air – O2 systems. Energy Conversions Management 26(2), 253-258.
Daniel, A. (2016). Geometrical Optimization of Biomass Cook Stove for Efficient Utilization of Energy: (In case
of Tikikil Stove). A thesis research submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of
Master of Science in thermal engineering. Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, Addis Ababa
University.
Emrich, W. (1985). Handbook of Charcoal Making, The Traditional and Industrial Methods. 7(E), Springer
Science.
Ethiopia Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission (2019). Distribution Status of Improved
Cookstoves in Ethiopia. Unpublished report. Addis Ababa
Globales Emissions-Modell Integrierter Systeme (GEMIS) (2014). Version 4.9.
http://www.iinas.org/gemis- download-de.html.
Hansmann, C., Stingl, R., Prieto, O.G., Lopez, C.B. and Resch H. et al. (2008). High-frequency energy-
assisted vacuum drying of fresh E. Globulus. Drying Technology 26(5), 611-616.
Mamuye, F., Lemma, B. and Woldeamanuel, T. (2017). Emissions and fuel use performance of two
improved stoves and determinants of their adoption in Dodola, southeastern Ethiopia.
Sustainable Environment Research 28, 32-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.serj.2017.09.003.
SNV Netherlands Development Organisation, Strengthening Enabling Environment in Clean
Cooking Sector (2018). Review of Policies and Strategies Related to the Clean Cooking Sector in
Ethiopia. Strengthening the Enabling Environment for Clean Cooking Project, Final Report.
Sommer, S.G., Christensen, M.L., Schmidt, T. and Jensen, L.S. (eds.) (2013). Animal Manure Recycling,
Treatment and Management.
Sommer, S.G., Ward, Alastair J. and Leahy, J. J. (2013) Bioenergy Production. In: Sommer, S.G.,
Christensen, M.L., Schmidt, T. and Jensen, L.S. (eds.), Animal Manure Recycling, Treatment and
79
Management.
Tumwesige, V., Fulford, D. and Davidson, G.C. (2014). Biogas Appliances in Sub-Sahara Africa.
80
4.5 Indicator 5. Water use and efficiency
4.5.1 Researcher(s)
Mahelete Tsegaye1 and Dr. Yonas Yohannes2, Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research
Institute (EEFRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
1
4.5.2 Definition
(5.1) Water withdrawn from nationally determined watersheds(s) for the production and
processing of bioenergy feedstocks, expressed
(5.1a) as the percentage of total actual renewable water resources (TARWR) and
(5.1b) as the percentage of total annual water withdrawals (TAWW),
disaggregated into renewable and non-renewable water sources;
(5.2) volume of water withdrawn from nationally determined watershed(s) used for the
production and processing of bioenergy feedstocks per unit of bioenergy output,
disaggregated into renewable and non-renewable water sources

(5.1a)
Percentage
(5.1b)
Percentage
(5.2) m3/MJ or m3/kWh or m3/tone for feedstock production phase if considered separately
4.5.4 The overall methodology of the implementation

The analysis has focused on the study of the current situation related to water supply,
demand, and uses, and the characterization of water basins in the country. Water
resources were estimated using FAO AQUASTAT while for overall information concerning
water availability and water demand, national reports were consulted.
As regards solid biomass, all types of plantations of feedstock for solid biomass
production are mostly rain fed in Ethiopia; therefore, water consumption for solid
biomass cultivation is mainly composed of green water.
As regards biogas, the water used by biodigesters is calculated using secondary data.
Since cow dung is a residue, the water used to produce dung does not need to be
considered in the indicator.
4.5.5 Key findings

Overall water resources in Ethiopia
Ethiopia is endowed with a substantial amount of water resources but very high
hydrological variability.
The surface water resource potential is impressive, the proper use of surface water is not
effective and there is no such development on the use. But there is ineffective use and
little developed on the use of surface water for different purposes. The country has 12
major river basins, which form four major drainage systems:
 The Nile basin (including Abbay or the Blue Nile, Baro-Akobo, Setit-Tekeze/Atbara
and Mereb) covers 33 per cent of the country and drains the northern and central
81
parts westwards.
 The Rift Valley (including Awash, Denakil, Omo-Gibe and Central Lakes) covers 28
per cent of the country and consists of a group of independent interior basins
extending from Djibouti in
82
the north to the United Republic of Tanzania in the south, with nearly half of its total
area being located in Ethiopia.
 The Shebelle-Juba basin (including Wabi-Shebelle and Genale-Dawa) covers 33 per
cent of the country and drains the southeastern mountains towards Somalia
and the Indian Ocean.
 The North-East Coast (including the Ogaden and Gulf of Aden basins) covers 6
percent of the country.
Most of the rivers in Ethiopia are seasonal, and there are almost no perennial rivers
below 1,500 m altitude. Around 70 percent of the total runoff takes place during June-
September. The dry season flow originates from springs that provide base flows for
small-scale irrigation.
The groundwater potential of the country is not known with any certainty, but so far
only a small fraction of the groundwater has been developed or used. It is, however,
more easily available than surface water in arid areas and supplies about 80 per cent of
the existing drinking water sources (Ethiopian Environmental Protection Authority [EPA]
and United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP] 2008). Traditional wells are widely
used by nomads and other rural areas.
Internal renewable surface water resources are estimated at 120,000 million m³/year, and
renewable groundwater resources are around 20,000 million m³/year, but 18,000 million
m³/year is considered to be overlap between surface water and groundwater, which gives
a value of total internal renewable water resources of 122,000 million m³/year (Table
4.16).
Table 4.16. Water resource
Renewable freshwater resources Year Magnitude Rate/ Unit

Precipitation (long-term average) - 848 mm/yr
- 936 400 million m3/yr
Internal renewable water resources (long-term average) - 122 000 million m3/yr
Total renewable water resources - 122 000 million m3/yr
Dependency ratio - 0 %
Total renewable water resources per inhabitant 2015 1 227 m3/yr
Total dam capacity 2015 31 484 million m3
Source: FAO 2016.
External water resources are null and the surface water leaving the country is estimated at
96,500 million m³/year (Figure 4.18), of which:
 64,600 million m³/year flows into Sudan through the Blue Nile and its tributaries
(52,600 million m³/year), the Atbara river (4,370 million m³) and the Setit-Tekeze
river (7,630 million m³/year);
 13,000 million m³/year flows into South Sudan through the Baro and Akobo
rivers forming the Sobat river;
 8,200 million m³/year flows into Somalia through the Genale and Dawa rivers
forming the Juba river (5,900 million m³/year) and the Shebelle river (2,300
million m³/year);
 10,000 million m³/year flows into Kenya through the Omo River into Lake Turkana; and
 700 million m³/year flows into Eritrea.
These important run-off flows to other countries have resulted in Ethiopia being called the
“Water Tower of East Africa”.
83
Map 4.6. Ethiopian surface water leaving the country
Legend
International Boundary River
Administration Boundary Irrigation Scheme
Capital, Regional Capital, Town Mountain
Zone of Irrigation Development Dam
Lake Swamp
Source: FAO 2016.
Main withdrawals of water

Agriculture is by far the main water-withdrawing sector (Figure 4.15). Both irrigated and
rainfed agriculture are important in the Ethiopia economy. Nevertheless, virtually all food
crops (97 per cent) in Ethiopia come from rainfed agriculture, with the irrigation subsector
accounting for only about 3 per cent of food crops. Industrial crops such as sugar cane,
cotton, and fruit are mostly irrigated (FAO 2015). Urban and peri-urban irrigation is not
significant in terms of area coverage and production, but the traditional irrigation
practiced around Addis Ababa plays an important role in supplying vegetables to the
Addis Ababa market. The use of irrigation technology, although currently not widespread,
can reduce risk and improve production (FAO 2015). Based on the total irrigated area,
cropping pattern and calendar, annual agricultural water withdrawal was an estimated
5,200 million m³ in 2002, while municipal and industrial water withdrawals were an
estimated 330 million m³ and 20 million m³ respectively (FAO AQUASTAT 2016).
84
Agricultural water withdrawal in 2016 was an estimated 9,000 million m³, showing a large
increase from 2002. This seems to be underestimated given the large increase or
irrigated areas and the changing in irrigated crops. The huge livestock population
withdrew an estimated 687 million m³ in 2010 (European Union [EU] 2011). Industrial
demand was an estimated 51 million m³, and municipal water withdrawal was 810
million m³, in 2005.
Groundwater is mostly used for drinking supply. It represents around 70 per cent of rural
water supply and plays a major role in several of the largest cities – Addis Ababa, Dire
Dawa, Mekelle and Harar – and a number of medium-sized towns. Groundwater use in
irrigation is only at a pilot scale for now, but plans to develop it are being studied, and
shallow groundwater wells are being constructed by farmers in some areas (Ethiopia
Ministry of Water Resources [MoWR] 2011).
Figure 4.15.Water withdrawal by sector
Source: FAO 2016.
Table 4.17. Water use by sector
Water withdrawal Year Magnitude Rate/Unit

Total water withdrawal 2016 10 548 million m3/yr
Irrigation 2016 9 000 million m3/yr
Livestock 2010 687
Municipalities 2005 810 million m3/yr
Industry 2005 51 million m3/yr
Per inhabitant 2015 106 m3/yr
Surface water and groundwater withdrawal (primary and 2016 10 548 million m3/yr
secondary)
As % of total renewable water resources 2016 8.6 %
Non-conventional source of water
Production municipal wastewater 2014 226(1) million m3/yr
Treated municipal wastewater 2014 0.8(1) million m3/yr
Direct use of treated municipal wastewater - million m3/yr
Direct use of agricultural drainage water - million m3/yr
Desalinated water production - million m3/yr
This refers to the nine cities only.
(1)
Source: FAO 2016.
85
Availability of water for biodigesters
Availability of sufficient water is a key factor limiting the pace of biogas expansion in
Ethiopia. (Biruk 2010; Mengistu et al. 2015).
Availability of water is mainly area dependent, and in most parts of Ethiopia recurrent
droughts have to be taken into consideration. Although a comprehensive national study of
groundwater resources has not been conducted, some surveys suggest that there is
ample groundwater potential in many parts of Ethiopia. Additionally, there are many
locations where permanent rivers and streams flow in the highlands of Ethiopia.
Fetching water required to mix with the daily input of fresh dung in a 1 litre:1kg fresh
dung ratio should not take more than 20 to 30 minutes. Many farm locations definitely
meet this requirement, but many also do not. Careful and strict selection of the locations
for the installation of biogas plants should help avoid disappointments (Netherlands
Development Organisation [SNV] 2008).
Urine can be collected and used for feeding the biogas plant and replaces the daily
amount of water required. However, the type of stable floor commonly used in Ethiopia
does not allow for urine collection. The collections of urine will, however, be promoted,
and rural households will be encouraged to voluntarily construct a low-cost stable floor
suitable for urine collection (SNV 2008).
Besides the biogas digesters installed at the household level, digesters are installed
around the condominium houses that were distributed to people by the government,
some industries, universities, and other sectors. But there are no available data on how
much water they consume and how much biogas energy they produce.
The average household biogas digester volume is 6 m 3, and the total amount of water
used by all household biogas digesters is an estimated 273,057.42 m3/yr for 22,166
household biodigester plants, of which 75 per cent are functional. The related average
estimated biogas production is 1.17 m3/day for a single biodigester and 19,450.66 m3/day
for the 22,166 household biodigester plants, of which 75 per cent are functional,
equivalent to 7,099,492.73 m3/year. Assuming that 22 MJ of thermal energy is generated
from 1 m3 of biogas, then 156,188,840.06 MJ of total thermal energy is generated in a
year. Therefore, in the case of household biogas digesters in Ethiopia, the water
withdrawn per unit of energy output is 0.006 m3/kWh.
Table 4.18. Water withdrawals associated with biogas production in Ethiopia in 2016
Parameter Value
Total actual renewable water resource in Ethiopia 122 000 million m3/year
Total water requirements for operating biogas digesters 273 057 m3/year
Total water withdrawals to operate biogas digester as a percentage of total 2.24%
actual
renewable water resource
Total biogas produced from biogas digesters 7 099 492 m3/year
Total energy produced from biogas digesters 156 188 840 MJ
Volume of water withdrawal for biogas production per unit of energy output 0.0017 m3/MJ
Source: Computation by the authors.

Ethiopia has a high water potential for both groundwater and surface water, and total
internal renewable water resources are 122,000 million m³/year. Of this, renewable
86
surface water is an estimated 120,000 million m³/year, and renewable groundwater
resources are around 20,000 million m³/year; the rest (18,000 million m³/year) is
considered to be overlap between surface water
87
and groundwater. There is no external water resource, but 96,500 million m³/year of
surface water leaves to the neighbouring country.
The amount of water used by biogas digesters in the country is 273,057 m³/year. The
unavailability of water is an important factor contributing to the malfunction and non-
function of the biodigesters.
Water is the main factor that limits the implementation and dissemination for biogas
digester installation and efficiency. Therefore, it is suggested that to run a biogas digester
efficiently, the time to reach the water body should be less than 30 minutes.

The Ethiopia Water Sector Policy, also known as the Federal Water Resource
Management Policy, was issued in 1998. The objectives of this policy are sustainable
use, protection and efficient use of water resources. The policy was legalized by the
Ethiopia Water Resource Proclamation No.
197/2000, which is intended to be a more comprehensive and stronger version of the
earlier Water Resources Utilization Proclamation No. 92/1994.
In 2007, the Ethiopia Council of Ministers approved the River Basin Councils and
Authorities Proclamation (Proclamation No. 534/2007) to authorize the establishment of
River Basin High Councils and River Basin Authorities for each of Ethiopia’s major river
basins. The Ethiopia Water Sector Policy focuses primarily on river basins as the
fundamental planning unit and water resource management domain. Overall the water
polices of Ethiopia are mainly focused on promoting national efforts towards efficient,
equitable and optimum utilization of available water resources at the national level.
In the case of biogas digesters, there is a need to align the programme with Ethiopia’s
national water policies and strategies. It is also essential to consider the availability of
water and the use of other water sources for the installed and future biodigesters. Urine is
also another possibility; however, its use requires the construction of a simple floor for the
collection of urine and its injection into the biogas plant. Therefore, there is a need for
further research on the way to use urine to supplement water in water-unavailable
areas.
Future monitoring
The water sectors monitoring and evaluation ranges from reports, field visits, and
meetings by different agencies using standard formats. The Federal Ministry undertakes
mid-term and annual review meetings with the respective Water Bureaus. But the filing
and documentation system is weak. In the case of biogas digesters, in addition to the
water availability check, there is a need to monitor the functionality of biogas digesters
after the installation and to give consecutive training to users. Revising the programme
and system based on water use and efficiency should be given consideration.
4.5.7 References
Biruk, T. (2010). Assessment of the Potential and Challenges of Microfinance Institutions to Enable the
Uptake of the Household Biogas in the National Biogas Program (NBP) of Ethiopia. The University of
Twente, the Netherlands.
Ethiopia Environmental Protection Authority and United Nations Environment Programme (2008).
Environment for Development. Ethiopia Environment Outlook. Addis Ababa.
Ethiopia Ministry of Water Resources (2011). Ethiopia: Strategic Framework for Managed Groundwater
Development. Addis Ababa.
88
European Union (2011). Managing Water for Inclusive and Sustainable Growth in Ethiopia: Key Challenges
and Priorities. European Report on Development.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2015). Ethiopia Irrigation Market Brief.
Country Highlights. Rome.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2016). AQUASTAT.
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/Profile_segments/ETH-
WR_eng.stm.
Lemelem, T. (2016). Biogas technology adaptation in rural Ethiopia: Its effect on the crisis of deforestation.
Journal of Energy Technologies and Policy 6(1).
and its contributions to sustainable rural livelihood in Ethiopia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 48, 306-
316. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.026.
4.6 Indicator 6. Water quality
4.6.1 Researcher(s)
Alemayehu Esayas1 and Mahelete Tsegaye2, Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research
1
4.6.2 Definition
(6.1) Pollutant loadings to waterways and bodies of water attributable to fertilizer and
pesticide application for bioenergy feedstock production, and expressed as a percentage
of pollutant loadings from total agricultural production in the watershed;
(6.2) Pollutant loadings to waterways and bodies of water attributable to bioenergy
processing effluents in the watershed.

(6.1) Annual nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) loadings from fertilizer and pesticide active
ingredient loading attributable to bioenergy feedstock production (per watershed area): in
kg of N, P and active ingredient per ha per year
(6.2) Pollutant loadings attributable to bioenergy processing effluent: pollutant levels in
bioenergy processing effluent in mg/litre.

This indicator does not apply to solid biomass since no fertilizer is used to grow solid
biomass used for energy purposes.
Published articles/book chapters found from internet research were used as references to
compile relevant information on the environmental impacts of biogas digesters in
Ethiopia. Although it is known that bioslurry from installed biogas digesters has been used
as fertilizer in Ethiopia, indicator component 6.2 could not be reported due to a lack of
published data on pollutant loading to waterways and bodies of water from biogas
processing effluents.
89
4.6.5 Key findings
NATIONAL LEVEL
Water pollution is still mostly limited to urban and industrial areas, but soil salinization is
directly linked to irrigated agriculture.
Erosion and sedimentation

Erosion is caused by natural factors, such as topography, torrential rains and wind. It is
also caused by human activities, in particular deforestation for agriculture, charcoal,
construction and mining, or by grazing, all due to unsustainable utilization and rapidly
expanding human and livestock populations. Annual soil erosion amounts to about 1,900
million tons/year, impacting water, land and agricultural productivity (Awulachew,
Erkossa and Namara 2010). Since the majority of the main rivers have their headwaters
in the highlands of the country, their silt content is high. As a result, water bodies are
silting up, especially in the Abbay basin (Mosello et al. 2015).
Sedimentation in dams, such as the Koka, Aba Samuel, Borkena and Gondar, has reduced
their storage capacity. Water levels of natural lakes have decreased, in particular in
Awasa, Abaya, Alemaya, Lange, Rudolf, Chew Bahir, Adele and Zway, and some lakes
show signs of drying up. Finally, a number of rivers have changed their courses due to
siltation, particularly during the rainy season, resulting in yearly flooding in the areas near
the river banks. This is particularly the case of the Lower Awash River (Ethiopia
Environmental Protection Authority [EPA] 2003; EPA 2008).
Water pollution
Water pollution is still limited to industrial, mining and urban areas (EPA 2012), but it is a
growing problem in the Awash River Basin, due to major cities and industries in the Upper
Basin. In the early 2000s, around 80 per cent of industries around Addis Ababa
discharged their waste into nearby water bodies without any treatment. Tributaries of
the Awash River around Addis Ababa and Nazareth are polluted (Ethiopia EPA 2003).
Pollution has caused water hyacinth infestation in Lake Koka, an algal bloom in Lake Aba
Samuel, industrial pollution of the Akaki River and nitrate pollution of the Awash River
(Mosello et al. 2015).
Salinization
Salinity problems due to waterlogging were observed in irrigated lands along the Awash
River. In the 1980s, thousands of hectares of the Amibara plantation for cotton, in the
middle Awash basin, had to be abandoned after less than five years of irrigation farming
due to faulty drains (Environmental Resources Management Ltd 2007).
Prospects for agricultural water management

Recurring droughts and growing population pressure drove the Ethiopian government to
prioritize irrigated agriculture in the country’s development agenda in order to reduce the
food deficit.
Targets of the 2006-2010 PASDEP, 487,000 ha of small-scale irrigation and 323,000 ha of
medium- and large-scale irrigation by the end of the period (PASDEP), were mostly
achieved. Ethiopia’s first Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) targeted a colossal
increase in irrigated land area for the period 2010-2015, for a total of 1.85 million ha in
small-scale irrigation and an additional 785 583 ha in medium- and large-scale irrigation
schemes by 2015 (GTP 2010). These were almost reached but mostly through traditional
water management, often with temporary structures and not full-control irrigation
90
schemes.
The second GTP once more set a vast increase for the period 2015-2020, although this
small-scale irrigation target is lower than in the 2010-2015 GTP, with 1.7 million ha under
small irrigation
91
schemes and 954,000 ha under medium and large scale by 2019/2020 to develop 98 per
cent of the irrigation potential (GTP2). The area under irrigation is mostly expanded with
small irrigation schemes, requiring lower capital and technology investments and
reaching small communities.
However, despite the immense increases mentioned above, the harvested irrigated crops
were in 2014/2015 not yet using this new potential fully. In addition, the rapid
infrastructure development should be quickly followed by institutional development and
in particular creation of water use associations for local irrigation management to ensure
these new irrigation schemes are properly managed, operated and maintained.
BIOGAS
Biogas technology has environmental benefits, since the technology provides an
opportunity to treat and re-utilize a variety of organic wastes and thereby reduce
environmental problems. For instance, pathogenic organisms are removed in the process
of anaerobic digestion taking place in the biogas digester. However, nitrogen,
phosphorous and other minerals remain largely unchanged; therefore, effluent from a
digester must be retained in a holding pond and used either as recycled flush water or for
irrigation (Engler et al. 1999). However, in the Ethiopian context, there is no empirical data
that characterizes quantitatively the composition of the bioslurry from different
households that own biogas digesters.
In this regard, a household survey of 71 households who installed biogas digesters

in the Oromia (21), SNNPR (22), Amhara (13) and Tigray (15) regions revealed two
relevant information; (1) 91.6 per cent used bioslurry as fertilizer, and (2) utilization of
bioslurry as fertilizer varied from region to region. In urban areas such as Butajira and
Bishoftu towns, bioslurry was mostly discarded to wastelands instead of using it as
organic fertilizer. This shows that there is also a mismanagement issue regarding
bioslurry utilization. However, water pollution issues associated with mismanagement of
the bioslurry have not been documented.
Bioslurry has known additional benefits such as a basal manure and as a foliar application
or spray, an insect repellent, increasing soil fertility and improving the soil structure and
water holding capacity, decreasing soil erosion, concentrated feed for cattle, pigs, and
fish, and production of earthworms and algae, for the production of vitamin B12 and
amino acids for animal growth, increasing quality and quantity of organic grown flowers
and vegetables, increase the availability of nutrients for soil micro-flora like nitrogen-
fixing and phosphor solubilizing organisms, reducing the use of phosphate, a non-
renewable source that is being depleted globally, reducing wastewater, water pollution,
greenhouse gas emissions and noxious odours, and reducing weed growth and
diminishing attractiveness to insects or flies (Warnars and Oppenoorth 2014).
Consequently, it can only be speculated that nitrogen and phosphorous from
bioslurry, possibly applied to household farms and wastelands, may be washed away
and ultimately lead to nonpoint source pollution of nearby water bodies.

Water in Ethiopia is mostly polluted in urban and industrial areas, but in rural areas
mainly soil salinization linked to irrigation was observed. Due to the direct discharge of
industry waste into rivers, most of the rivers around Addis Ababa and industrial cities are
polluted. Influent from agricultural land to water bodies is also a source of pollutants.
92
There is a general claim that the use of bioslurry as fertilizer causes less pollution
compared to the use of inorganic fertilizers such as urea and diammonium phosphate,
which are commonly used in
93
Ethiopia. Such an advantage can be utilized to promote the use of biogas technology in
developing countries such as Ethiopia. However, there is a lack of empirical data on
whether the users are implementing good waste management practices not to pollute
local water bodies due to the adoption of biogas technology. In particular, information on
the bioslurry/digestate management is missing to reach a strong conclusion.

It is well known that the currently dominant practice, especially in rural households of
Ethiopia, is the unsustainable use of wood and charcoal to satisfy energy needs. If this
practice continues, it will further accelerate the deforestation rate in the country. If this
trend is to be reversed, it is critical to diversify energy sources. Biogas is an attractive
option in this regard. Moreover, biogas complies with the principles of the country’s
Energy Policy and Environmental Protection strategy as stipulated in the National Biogas
Programme. It is thus recommended that farmers’ awareness and technical skill is
enhanced by informing them of the benefits of bioslurry – i.e., that it is more
environmentally friendly since it causes less pollution to water bodies, cost-effective
because it is locally available, increases crop yields equivalent to or even better than
chemical fertilizers, contributes to waste minimization, etc.
Future monitoring
Due to a lack of data, we cannot be sure if water bodies are directly receiving biogas
effluents in the country. Therefore, researchers in the country should fill this gap by
characterizing the composition of bioslurry from anaerobic digestion and conducting
water quality assessment of water bodies receiving these effluents directly, if any.
4.6.7 References
Awulachew, S.B., Erkossa, T. and Namara, R. (2010). Irrigation Potential in Ethiopia –
Constraints, and Opportunities for Enhancing the System. International Water Management
Institute. https://ethiopianagriculture.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/ethiopia-irrigation-diagnostic-
july-20101.pdf.
Engler, C.R., Jordan, E.R., McFarland, M.J. and Lacewell, R.D. (1999). Economics and environmental
impact of biogas production as a manure management strategy. In: Proceedings of the 1999
Texas Animal Manure Management Conference. Texas A&M University. College Station, TX, USA.
109-114.
Ethiopia Environmental Protection Authority (2003). State of Environment Report of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.
Ethiopia Environmental Protection Authority (2008). Ethiopia Environment Outlook:
Environment for Development. Addis Ababa.
Ethiopia Environmental Protection Authority (2012). United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development (Rio+20): National Report of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.
Environmental Resources Management Ltd (2007). Ethiopia – Irrigation and Drainage Project:
Environmental and Social Management Framework. World Bank. Washington, D.C.
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/156341468031586770/Environmental-and-social-
management- framework.
Ministry of Finance and Development (2010). Growth and Transformation Plan 2009/10-2014/15.
Addis Ababa.
Mosello, B., Calow, R., Tucker, J., Parker, H. Alamirew, T. Kebede, S. et al. (2015). Building Adaptive
Water Resources Management in Ethiopia. Overseas Development Institute. London.
Waarnars, L. and Oppenoorth, H. (2014). Bioslurry: A Supreme Fertilizer. A Study on Bioslurry Results and Ises.
K. Atkinson, (ed.). Hivos People Unlimited. Delta Hague.
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4.7 Indicator 7. Biological diversity in the landscape
4.7.1 Researcher(s)
Getachew Kebede1 and Adefires Worku (PhD)2, Ethiopian Environment and Forest
Research Institute (EEFRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
1
4.7.2 Definition
(7.1) Area and percentage of nationally recognized areas of high biodiversity value or
critical ecosystems converted to bioenergy production;
(7.2) Area and percentage of the land used for bioenergy production where nationally
recognized invasive species, by risk category, are cultivated;
(7.3) Area and percentage of the land used for bioenergy production where nationally
recognized conservation methods are used.

Absolute areas in hectares or km2 for each component and for total area used for
bioenergy production. Percentages of bioenergy production area was calculated from
these and given either separately for each relevant category (i.e. different types of
priority areas for and specific methods) or as a combined total across such categories.

GIS techniques are useful to evaluate the spatial distribution of the biodiversity hotspot
areas and bioenergy production areas. Secondary data (literatures, reports, survey
results, national figures, etc.) on forest cover, spatial distribution of biodiversity hotspot
areas and firewood specifically have been used.
4.7.5 Key findings

NATIONAL LEVEL
Vegetation types of Ethiopia are being considered as ecosystems where the
classification is as follows: Afroalpine and Sub-Afroalpine, Dry Evergreen Montane Forest
and Grassland Complex, Moist Evergreen Montane Forest, Acacia Commiphora
Woodland, Combretum-Terminalia Woodland, Lowland Semi-evergreen Forest, Desert and
Semi- Desert Scrubland, and Inland Waters (Sebsebe et al. 1996; Environmental
Protection Authority [EPA] 1997; Zerihun 1999).
Ethiopia is a biodiversity hotspot country, ranking 5th in the region and 25th in the world
in biodiversity. Ethiopia hosts two of the 34 global mega-biodiversity hotspots, namely the
Eastern Afromontane and the Horn of Africa hotspots (Friis et al. 2010). Ethiopia is
also one of the nine vavilove agro-biodiversity centres of the world. The flora and fauna
of Ethiopia includes between 6,500 and 7,000 plant species, 240 mammals, and 845 bird
species, of which 1,150 plant species, 22 mammals, and 24 bird species are endemic to
the country (Bongers and Tennigkeit 2010).
Biodiversity hotspots and protected areas share a total surface area of 30,361 km2 (2.69
per cent) of the total area of the country, which is 1,127,127 km².
Owing to its huge biodiversity Ethiopia has demarcated different biodiversity hotspot
areas, which are categorized as national parks, controlled hunting areas, sanctuaries
95
and wildlife reserves. These biodiversity-rich areas are distributed in different
ecosystems and are known for their unique
96
compositions of plants and animals (Map 4.7; Table 4.19). Biodiversity hotspots and
protected areas share a total surface area of 30,361 km 2 (2.69 per cent) of the total area
of country, which is 1,127,127 km².
In spite of the difficulties in providing a concrete estimate, the size of the landmass that
has global and national significance, due to its high biodiversity value not limited to
instituted protected areas, is much larger than the nationally recognized protected areas.
Despite the rich biodiversity, there are many species with rapidly declining populations
and at risk of extinction unless they are protected. Indigenous timber species such as
Junipers procera, Cordia africana, Podocarpus falcatus and Olea africana are some of the plant
species that are gazetted to be protected in the country.
Despite the diverse ecosystems with a huge wealth of plants, animals, and microbial
species, in Ethiopia inadequate attention has given to the conservation and sustainable
use of these resources. Not all of the areas with global and national significance are
comprehensively protected, for instance, only Awash and Semen Mountains National
Parks are demarcated and gazetted so far.
Most Protected Areas may have guards but lack clear demarcation of boundaries and
hence are exposed to continued encroachment. In addition, other major factors
contributing to accelerated decline of the country’s biological resources include fast
population growth, weak institutional capacity to implement policies, poverty and high
dependence on natural resources, poor market performance and climate change.
Map 4.7. Protected areas in Ethiopia
Source: Lakew Berhanu, Ethiopia’s Protected Area System Plan Project, Wildlife Conservation Department, Ministry of Agriculture
97
Table 4.19. Ecosystem hotspot areas in Ethiopia
Name Area Ecosystem category

(km2)
Abijata-Shalla Lakes National Park 887 Acacia-Commiphora woodland
Awash National Park 756 Acacia-Commiphora woodland and evergreen scrub
Bale Mountains National Park 2 471 Afroalpine and sub-afroalpine, dry evergreen montane forest
and
evergreen scrub
Gambella National Park 5 061 Lowland (semi) evergreen forest, Combretum-Terminalia
woodland and savanna and moist evergreen montane
forest
Mago National Park 2 162 Desert and semi-desert scrubland, Acacia-Commiphora
woodland
and Combretum -Terminalia woodland and savanna
Nechisar National Park 514 Acacia-Commiphora woodland and evergreen scrub
Omo National Park 4 068 Desert and semi-desert scrubland, Acacia-Commiphora
woodland and Combretum-Terminalia woodland
and savanna
Simien Mountains National Park 179 Afroalpine and sub-afroalpine and dry evergreen montane
forest
Yangudi-Rassa National Park 4 731 Desert and semi-desert scrubland and Acacia-Commiphora
woodland
Babille Elephant Sanctuary 6 982 Desert and semi-desert scrubland, Acacia-Commiphora
woodland and evergreen scrub
Senkelle Swayne’s 54 Acacia-Commiphora woodland and
Hartebeest Sanctuary evergreen scrub
Yabello Sanctuary 2 496 Desert and semi-desert scrubland and evergreen scrub
Total 30 361 km2
Source: Mohammed Abdi et al. 2003.
FIREWOOD
In Ethiopia, wood fuel is the major energy sources, accounting for an estimated more than
90 per cent of annual consumption. Despite few variations, wood biomass is used as
a source of energy across all regions and in cities and urban areas. As mentioned earlier
and also in Table 4.19, national parks, sanctuaries, wildlife reserve and controlled hunting
areas constitute a unique biodiversity in the country. Despite the comparatively large
area coverage of biodiversity hotspots in Ethiopia, an estimated 105,172,465 tons of
wood fuel is produced and consumed annually, which mainly comes from these
nationally recognized high value ecosystems.
In Ethiopia, the heavy reliance on biomass energy of a large majority of the population
has been putting severe pressure on the sustainable management of these biodiversity
hotspots. For instance, a large volume of wood fuel use occurs around and to the east of
Lake Tana in Amhara region, which is a biodiversity hotspot (Map 4.8). There is also
high consumption of wood fuel along the Hareghe highlands, areas that host one of the
34 global biodiversity hotspots, and on either side of the Rift Valley in the SNNPR and
Oromia regions (Map 4.9). More specifically, controlled hunting areas in Ethiopia are most
vulnerable to woodfuel collection, of up to 300,000 tons per year. National parks are also
one of the areas where a large volume of wood fuel is produced in the country, implying
how exposed these sites are to severe deforestation due to fuelwood collection and use
(Table 4.20).
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Map 4.8. Fuel wood consumption by woreda Map 4.9. Hotspot ecosystem areas
Table 4.20. Spatial distribution of fuelwood consumption areas in and the surrounding hotspot ecosystem
areas
Hotspot area name Wood fuel consumption tons/year

0 – 50 000 50 000 – 100 000 – 200 000 – 300 000 –
100 000 200 000 300 000 400 000
Controlled hunting -
area
National park - -
Sanctuary - - - -
Wildlife reserve - - -
Grey areas show the range of charcoal for different ecosystem hotspot areas.
Based on the spatial distribution of biodiversity hotspot areas, wood fuel consumption in
and around controlled hunting areas ranges from 0 to 300,000 tons/year. In and
around national parks and in sanctuary areas and wildlife reserves, the magnitude of
wood fuel consumption ranges from 50,000 to 100,000 and from 0 to 100,000
tons/year respectively.
CHARCOAL
Charcoal production
Charcoal is another major energy source in Ethiopia, and its production and
consumption is increasing. Most case studies reveal that charcoal production in
Ethiopia is unsustainable; in some areas such as the central Rift Valley, it has already
resulted in rapid land-use transformation and poor natural regeneration of native plant
species, exposing the area to desertification risks. Charcoal production and use vary
from place to place. For instance, the Afar and Somali regions are among the major
charcoal-consuming areas in the lowlands. In highlands, eastern Oromiya, Amhara
and Tigray regions use a considerable amount of charcoal.
In Ethiopia, charcoal production is estimated at 5,713,700 tons/year (Table 4.21).

Unfortunately, the overlay of different maps (Map 4.10 and Map 4.11) shows that
most charcoal production and consumption is around major nationally recognized high
biodiversity value areas, implying the harm that charcoal production could cause to
99
these ecosystems unless it is urgently monitored and managed. For instance,
unsustainable charcoal production is carried out throughout all hunting
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areas with a production rate of 50,000 tons per annum. Charcoal is also produced and
used in and around national parks and wildlife reserves.
Map 4.10. Charcoal consumption by woreda Map 4.11. Hotspot ecosystem areas
Table 4.21. Spatial distribution of charcoal consumption areas in and the surrounding hotspot ecosystem
areas
Hotspot area name Charcoal consumption tons/year

0 – 5 000 5 001– 10 000 10 001 – 25 25 001 – 50 000
000
Control hunting area
National park -
Sanctuary - - -
Wildlife reserve - -
Grey areas show the range of the amount of charcoal for different ecosystem high spot areas
Based on the spatial distribution of biodiversity hotspot areas, charcoal consumption in

and around controlled hunting areas ranges from 0 to 50,000 tons/year. In and around
national parks and sanctuary areas, charcoal consumption ranges from 5,001 to
25,000 and from 25,001 to 50,000 tons/year respectively. In and around wildlife reserve
areas, charcoal consumption ranges from 0 to 10,000 tons/year.
Invasive species distribution

In Ethiopia so far, 37 invasive alien species and several native bush encroachers are
identified. The most important invasive species that are having severe impacts on
ecosystem productivity and biodiversity conservation and hence need to be
controlled and eradicated include Parthenium hysterophorus, Eichhornia crassipes, Prosopis
juliflora and Lantana camara (Taye et al. 2007). The major native bush encroachers
include Acacia drepanolobium, A. melifera and many others.
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Map 4.12. Invasive species distribution Map 4.13. Hotspot ecosystem areas
Source: Pastoral Agriculture Rural Development Bureau [PARDB] 2008.
According to Maps 4.12 and 4.13, the spatial distribution of high-ecosystem-value areas
and invasive specious were found to be overlapping, with rapid expansion of invasive
species to high value areas over time. Prosopis juliflora, for instance, has been invading
protected areas in the Afar region, displacing several indigenous plant and animal
species. So far Prosopis has covered over 1 million ha of land in the Afar region alone
(Figure 4.16). In the southern and southeastern lowlands where there are wildlife
reserves, native acacias are aggressively encroaching and causing damage to the
ecosystems.
In the Afar region, charcoal production and pod crushing were introduced as control
means in areas where Prosopis was established well and had mature trees. To pilot the
interventions, four cooperatives were established in Gewane and Amibara districts and
were granted official licences by the government to implement the identified activities.
Cooperative members were trained and technically supported on how to manage their
interventions, which included: Prosopis tree harvesting techniques to prevent coppicing;
utilization of time and labour for efficient charcoal production using metal kilns; pod
collection, drying, and crushing using small hammer. A market survey was also carried
out to better understand and connect the charcoal trade to cities including Nazareth and
Addis Ababa.
Unfortunately, these and many other invasive species management efforts such as
those on Parthenium and water hyacinth did not bring sustainable change in
managing them; rather, most invasive species are encroaching biodiversity hotspot
areas in many parts of the country. The major reasons for the lack of success include
weak participation of the local administration and communities in the process, lack of or
weak monitoring and evaluation of interventions, lack of policies and overall poor
institutional follow-up of interventions. Scarcity of knowledge on technologies and about
the dynamic invasion strategy of the species are also undermining success.
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Figure 4.16. Metal kiln
Source: Taye et al. 2007.

Ethiopia is a biodiversity hotspot country, ranking 5th in the region and 25th in the world
in biodiversity. Ethiopia hosts two of the 34 global mega-biodiversity hotspots. When we
consider areas of high biodiversity value in the most comprehensive terms, and not
limited to instituted protected areas, the size of the country’s landmass that has global
and national significance is much larger than the nationally recognized protected areas.
However, most of these areas are under persistent threats. A major threat is the
collection and consumption of biomass energy.
Preliminary assessments show that the areas under plantation to be used as a

source of wood fuel and charcoal overlap with high conservation value areas,
constituting an estimated 30,361 km2 or 0.2 per cent of the total landmass of the country.
This alone shows the already huge land-use competition between conservation and
biomass-based energy production, which is expected to grow dramatically in the near
future with rapidly increasing population. Similarly, the expansion of invasive species,
which on the other hand are becoming sources of charcoal, is increasing. More- efficient
stoves, biogas, cattle dung and crop residue are important avenues to replace the use of
charcoal and fuel wood and thereby minimize the pressure on biodiversity hotspot areas.

The following recommendations are proposed:
 Plan and implement appropriate strategies and technologies that will enhance
the use of solid biomass (wood fuel and charcoal) to minimize pressure on
biodiversity hotspots.
 Promote effective and efficient utilization of biogas, cattle dung and crop
residue-based energy production and energy utilization.
 Establish a continued biodiversity hotspot areas monitoring system and prepare
up-to-date and accurate vulnerability trends that advise risk management.
 Design and implement effective, efficient and integrated use of invasive species
as sources of value-added energy to minimize their effect on biodiversity
hotspots.
 Disseminate more efficient bioenergy technologies, improve policies and research
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findings in order to add value to the energy sector and to minimize its effect on
sustainable biodiversity management.
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Monitoring
Ethiopia needs to plan and implement a strategy that effectively and efficiently uses
alternative energy sources such as wood fuel and biogas. This, however, requires putting
in place an appropriate monitoring strategy, which again requires detailed information.
Without the necessary data on demand and supply chains and on the production-to-
consumption actors, it will be difficult to plan and implement an effective monitoring
system, and emphasis should be placed on accessing data and on overall knowledge
management in the bioenergy sector.
4.7.7 References
Ethiopia Environmental Protection Authority (1997). National Conservation Strategy Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.
Mohammed, A., Yirmed, D., Mengistu, W., Bekele, J., Almaz, B. and Azam, Y. (2003). Terrestrial Wild
Animals and Protected Areas of Ethiopia. Prepared for Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Project.
Ethiopia.
Pastoral Agriculture Rural Development Bureau (2008). Ethiopia.
Sebsebe, D., Mengistu, W. and Yilma, D. (1996). Ethiopia’s Natural Resource Base in Important Bird
Areas of Ethiopia: A First Inventory. Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society. Addis Ababa.
Taye, T., Fessehaie, R. and Firehun, Y. (2007). Invasive Alien Weed Species in Ethiopia: Biology,
Distribution and Importance, and Available Control Measures. Addis Ababa.
Zerihun, W. (1999). Forests in the vegetation types of Ethiopia and their status in the geographical context. In:
S. Edwards, Abebe Demissie, Taye Bekele and G. Haase (eds.). Forest Genetic Resource
Conservation: Principles, Strategies and Actions. Addis Ababa, June 21-22.
4.8 Indicator 8. Land use and land-use change related to bioenergy

feedstock production
4.8.1 Researcher(s)
Getachew Kebede1 and Dr. Tatek Dejene2, Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research
1
4.8.2 Definition
(8.1) Total area of land for bioenergy feedstock production, and as compared to total
national surface and (8.2) agricultural land and managed forest area
(8.3) Percentages of bioenergy from: (8.3a) yield increases, (8.3b) residues, (8.3c) wastes,
(8.3d) degraded or contaminated land
(8.4) Net annual rates of conversion between land-use types caused directly by bioenergy
feedstock production, including the following (amongst others):
- arable land and permanent crops, permanent meadows and pastures, and managed forests
- natural forests and grasslands (including savannah, excluding natural permanent
meadows and pastures), peatlands, and wetlands
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4.8.3 Measurement unit (s)
(8.1) and (8.2) Hectares and percentages
(8.3) Percentages
(8.4) Hectares per year

The total land area in a country used for bioenergy production is derived from spatial data
or estimated from data on land used for solid biomass production based on the FAO
definition of forest lands. For this purpose, raw land cover satellite data produced by the
Catholic University of Louvain- Geomatics and the European Spatial Agency, ESA, deliver
consistent global LC maps at 300 m spatial resolution on an annual basis from 1992 to
2015. The CRS used for the global LC databases is a geographic coordinate system
(GCS) based on the WGS84 reference ellipsoid. The LC-CCI maps include 22 classes at
level 1, i.e., global scale, and 14 additional level 2 classes at a regional scale, to allow a
more detailed description of LC.
4.8.5 Key findings

Land use and land cover (LULC) status of Ethiopia
In Ethiopia, forest is defined as land occupied with trees (natural and planted, including
bamboo) attaining a height of more than 2 metres at maturity, canopy cover of more than
20 per cent and covering an area of more than 0.5 ha, with a minimum width of 20
metres or not more than two‐thirds of its length (Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change [MEFCC] 2017; MEFCC 2018a). Accordingly, the forest coverage of
Ethiopia is estimated to be around 17.35 million hectares or 15.5 per cent of the land
mass of the country (MEFCC 2016; MEFCC 2017; MEFCC 2018a)2.
Detailed land cover types of Ethiopia, as well as shares and changes between 2000 and
2015, are provided in Table 4.22, Map 4.14 and Figure 4.15. Of the 11 LULC types
identified and evaluated in the country, broad-leaved deciduous, broad-leaved
evergreen, crop land, irrigated or post flooding, and grassland showed growth over the
15-year of period, while the rest declined in their cover (Table 4.22). Between 2000 and
2015, large areas of bare lands, rain-fed crop land, and herbaceous cover were
converted to other LULC types, while most bare lands and shrublands lost substantial
area within a 15-year period across the country (Table 4.22).
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6
2
This forest definition differs from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) forest definition and therefore from the definition used in the
data reported to the Global Forest Resources Assessment of the FAO. More details on the differences are included in Indicator 3.
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Table 4.22. Land-cover types of Ethiopia, shares and changes between 2000 and 2015
2000 2015 2000-2015

LULC _Class Area_ (ha) % Area_ (ha) % Land use
change
Bare areas 6 754 312 5.98 6 657 220 5.90 -97 093
Broadleaved, deciduous
close 336 705 0.30 594 299 0.53 257 594
to open > (15%)
Broadleaved, deciduous,
open 15 030 298 13.31 15 576 330 13.80 546 033
(15-40%)
Broadleaved,
4 309 569 3.82 4 516 064 4.00 206 495
evergreen,
closed to open (>15%)
Consolidated bare areas 554 059 0.49 553 892 0.49 -167
Crop land, irrigated or
post 565 172 0.50 589 483 0.52 24 312
flooding
Crop land, rainfed 12 497 771 11.07 12 458 452 11.03 -39 319
Grassland 6 421 948 5.69 6 946 473 6.15 524 525
Herbaceous cover 2 015 270 1.78 2 004 399 1.78 -10 871
Mosaic cropland (>50%) 4 910 059 4.35 4 829 948 4.28 -80 111
Mosaic herbaceous (>50%) 1 562 348 1.38 1 536 079 1.36 -26 269
Mosaic natural
vegetation 7 909 943 7.01 7 461 619 6.61 -448 324
(>50%)
Mosaic tree and shrub 1 711 077 1.52 1 813 790 1.61 102 713
(>50%)
Needle leaved,
evergreen, 19 881 0.02 437 0.00 -19 444
close to open (>15%)
Shrub or herbaceous
cover, 165 292 0.15 164 280 0.15 -1 012
flooded, fresh water
Shrub land 46 572 602 41.25 46 084 225 40.82 -488 378
Shrub land deciduous 259 014 0.23 258 651 0.23 -363
Sparse herbaceous cover
(<15%) 7 373 0.01 6 633 0.01 -740
Sparse shrub (<15%) 41 205 0.04 38 075 0.03 -3 130
Sparse tree (<15%) 666 589 0.59 192 851 0.17 -473 738
Tree cover aquatic 81 570 0.07 81 782 0.07 212
Tree cover mixed leaf type 9 093 0.01 32 0.00 -9 061
Unconsolidated bare areas 95 0.00 95 0.00 1
Urban areas 39 116 0.03 86 336 0.08 47 220
Water bodies 469 086 0.42 458 003 0.41 -11 083
Total area 112 909 100.00 112 909 100.00 0
449 449
Source: Raw land use data used from raw land use data used from Catholic University of Louvain-Geomatics and ESA
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Map 4.14. Land cover change of Ethiopia between 2000 and 2015
Source: Raw land use data used from Catholic University of Louvain-Geomatics and ESA.
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Forest loss (>10 per cent canopy cover) for the period 2001-2014 was 381,285 ha
(MEFCC 2018) (Table 4.23). Deforestation and land degradation are widespread in
Ethiopia due to the high levels of human pressure and unsustainable land use. Given the
country’s largely rugged topography, an estimated 27 million ha of land in the highlands
is degraded, of which 14 million ha is severely eroded (Lemenihand Kassa 2014; Berry
2003 cited in MEFCC 2018). At the national level, the rate of deforestation and forest
degradation ranges from 140,000 to 200,000 ha/year and has resulted in severe land
degradation and loss of biodiversity (FAO 2010 cited in MEFCC 2018). There has been
a continued loss of forest between 2000 and 2010.
FAO (2015) estimated a decline of forest cover from 15.11 million ha in 1990 to 12.5
million ha in 2015. In other words, Ethiopia lost over 2.6 million ha of her forests, with an
annual average loss of 104,900 ha between 1990 and 2015 (FAO 2015) (Table 4.23). The
losses were even worse until 2010 (141000 ha lost per year since 1990), slightly
compensated by an annual increase of 40,600 ha between 2010 and 2015.
Map 4.15. Shrub land cover change of Ethiopia between 2000 and 2015
Source: Raw land use data used from Catholic University of Louvain-Geomatics and ESA
Table 4.23. Tree cover loss and gain
Regional state Forest loss (ha) Forest gain (ha) Regional state Forest loss (ha) Forest gain (ha)
(>10% canopy (>50% canopy (>10% canopy (>50% canopy
cover) cover) cover) cover)
Period 2001-2014 2001-2012 Period 2001-2014 2001-2012
Addis Ababa 335 579 Harari People 16 0
Afar 72 12 Oromia 188 960 42 351
Amhara 7 385 4 264 Somali 869 251
Benshangul- 58 755 922 SNNPR 107 406 12 609
Gumaz
Dire Dawa 3 0 Tigray 1 569 389
Gambella 15 914 1 161 Total 381 285 62 538
Peoples
Note: Due to variation in research methodology and/or date of content, tree cover and tree cover loss and gain statistics
cannot be compared against each other. Accordingly, “net” loss cannot be calculated by subtracting tree cover gain from
tree cover loss, and current (or post-2000) tree cover cannot be determined by subtracting annual tree cover loss from tree
cover in 2000. Further, “tree cover” does not equate to “forest cover.” “Tree cover” refers to the biophysical presence of
trees, which may be a part of natural forests or tree plantations. Thus, loss of tree cover may occur for many reasons,
including deforestation, fire, and logging within the course of sustainable forestry operations. Similarly, tree cover gain may
indicate the growth of tree canopy within natural or managed forests.
Source: MEFCC 2018.
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The causes of land use and loss of forest area
The drivers of deforestation and forest and land degradation vary greatly at the regional
and local levels. The main direct drivers of deforestation are small-scale agricultural
expansion and fuelwood consumption, and to a lesser extent illegal logging and forest
fires (FDRE 2011 cited in MEFCC 2018). Another important driver has been identified as
large-scale agricultural investments, which until recently were promoted by the
government as a vehicle for rural development and economic growth. Overgrazing,
settlement, and uncontrolled tree harvesting and utilization also contribute.
On public land (which is typically where forests are found), there may be no sense of
ownership of the resource, leading to a tragedy of the commons problem where
optimization of individual harvest levels leads to degradation of the common
resource.
Fire is also responsible for the loss of forest in the country, affecting the distribution, and
composition of forest resources (Lemenih and Bekele 2008; Wassie, Teketay and Powell
2005). For instance, the most devastating wave of forest fires, which occurred in 2000
due to an extended drought, damaged over 150,000 ha of forested lands throughout the
country (Teketay 2001). This trend is more pronounced in the high forest areas compared
to other ecosystems and has a direct implication on the change of these forest
ecosystems (Lemenih and Bekele 2008).
Plantation status of Ethiopia

Plantation forests in Ethiopia are mainly dominated by Eucalyptus, Cupressus, Pinus and
Acacia genera (Bekele 2011; Moges, Eshetu and Nune 2010). Among these, Eucalyptus
species hold the largest share and cover about 56 per cent of the total plantation by
area (Bekele 2011). Eucalyptus is preferred owing to its fast-growth nature, coppicing
ability and wider adaptation to different ecological conditions (FAO 2009). It also serves
as the main source of firewood, farm implements, poles and posts in Ethiopia (Kelemu
and Tadesse 2010).
The major regional states that account for the majority of the total plantation forest area
are Oromia, Amhara, SNNPR and Tigray. These are also the regions with major
commercial forest plantations (Table 4.24). Plantation forests managed for the production
of sawn wood dominate and cover more than 50 per cent of the total area, and the
residues are used for firewood and local construction materials (Table 4.25).
Table 4.24. Industrial plantation forest areas in ha by species and region in Ethiopia
Regional
Eucalypts Cypress Juniper Pines Grevillea Others Total area
state
Oromia 29 700 32 100 4 400 3 500 1 300 7 800 78 800
Amhara 18 000 23 400 300 100 - 2 800 44 600
SNNPR 20 300 7 000 - - - - 27 300
Tigray 39 700 - - - - - 39 700
Source: Data collected from regional bureaus of agriculture.
Table 4.25. Non-industrial plantations forest areas including firewood and charcoal by region in Ethiopia
Regional state Area of non-industrial Area of peri-urban plantations

plantations/woodlots (ha) (ha)
Oromia 27 800 26 700
Amhara 639 400 -
Southern 64 000 -
Tigray 23 700 -
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Total 754 900 26 700
Source: FAO 2015.
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Table 4.26. Forest and woodland status at 2015
Forest area 2015 Other woodland 2015

Area in 1 000 ha % of land Area in 1 000 ha % of land
12 499 11.4 40 631 37.1
Source: FAO 2015.
Contribution of animal feed

According to CSA (2000; 2015) animal feeds are classified as green fodder (grazing), crop
residue, improved feed, hay, industrial by-products and other feeds. Green fodder is
simply pasture grasses; crop residue includes harvested by-products (straw and chaff of
cereals and pulses, etc.); improved feed includes alfalfa; hay includes any type of grass,
clover etc. cut and dried as fodder; and finally industrial by-products include oil cake
(rapeseed cake, nueg cake, sunflower cake, etc.), bran, and brewery residue.
Green fodder (grazing) remains the major type of feed, and its share increased greatly
between 2000 and 2015 (Table 4.27) due to the conversion of shrubland and woodland to
grass land. It is followed by crop residue, which has declined slightly. Hay and by-products
have also decreased (Table 4.27). A very small amount of improved feed was used
and has not really changed.
There is a strong relationship between land cover change and change in animal feed
holders (Table 4.28, Figures 4.17 and 4.18). Grassland increased by 524,525 ha from
2000 to 2015, and grass fodder also increased by 4,489,214 holders. Crop residue
increased by 4,147,865, which was mainly generated from irrigated crop land rather than
from rain-fed crop land.
Table 4.27. Change of animal feed holders
2000 2015 Change

Percentage Number of Percentage number of
Number of from the total holders from the holders
Item holders reporting feed reporting total feed (2000-2015)
Green fodder/ 9 789 364 40.3% 14 278 578 56.2% 4 489 214
Grazing
Crop residue 8 128 882 33.5% 12 276 747 30.1% 4 147 865
Improved feed 37 296 0.2% 309 030 0.3% 271 734
Hay 2 874 880 11.8% 4 906 662 7.4% 2 031 782
By-product 663 408 2.7% 1 402 438 1.2% 739 030
Others 2 806 337 11.5% 4 840 846 4.8% 2 034 509
Total 24 300 167 100.0% 38 014 038 100.0% 13 714 134
Source: CSA 2000; CSA 2015.
Table 4.28. Land cover change and animal feed holders
2000-2015 Land cover change in hectares

Crop land, irrigated or post flooding 24 312
Crop land, rainfed -39 319
Grass land 524 525
2000-2015 Change number of holders
Crop residue 4 147 865
Grass fodder/grazing 4 489 214
Source: Raw data used from Catholic University of Louvain-Geomatics, ESA; CSA 2000; CSA 2015.
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Figure 4.17. Land cover change between 2000 and 2015 in Ethiopia
Source: Raw land use data used from Catholic University of Louvain-Geomatics and ESA.
Figure 4.18. Animal feed holder changes between 2000 and 2015 in Ethiopia
Source: CSA 2000; CSA 2015.
Linkages with bioenergy
Total national biomass fuel consumption and cover change

Total national consumption of wood for energy purposes (including charcoal equivalent of
wood) is estimated at 105.2 million tons per year, with 5.7 million tons of charcoal in
2013 (Table 4.29). It is increasing each year. The regional shares of wood (including
charcoal equivalent of wood) consumption in Oromiya, SNNPR and Amhara are 37 per
cent, 25 per cent and 23 per cent respectively. Regions with high charcoal
consumption have been exposed to high shrubland degradation (Table 4.29). The national
wood removal increased sharply from 1990 to 2015 (Table 4.30), which shows that the
declines in woodland and shrubland were strongly linked to the high use of charcoal and
wood for energy production in the country.
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Table 4.29. Total national consumption of biomass fuels (2013) and shrubland cover change, 2000-2015
Branches, Shrubs land

Charcoal as
Region Round wood leaves and Total wood Total wood Residues Dung Charcoal cover change
wood
twigs (2000-2015)
tons/yr tons/yr tons/yr tons/yr % tons/yr tons/yr tons/yr Area in
Hectares
Addis Ababa 684 228 - 1 060 439 1 744 667 2% - 39 961 212 088 -900
Afar 830 552 - 1 195 154 2 025 706 2% - 49 364 239 031 +6300
Amhara 9 549 847 8 042 277 6 603 169 24 287 123 23% 3 867 504 8 221 892 1 339 000 -153000
Bsg 419 308 271 709 202 893 893 911 1% 427 246 188 435 40 579 -53000
Diredawa 219 831 54 698 359 246 633 774 1% 39 971 29 548 71 849 -128
Gambela 181 653 74 736 96 236 364 659 0% 67 069 44 966 20 735 +1400
Harari 136 728 38 463 225 685 400 876 0% 28 108 21 501 45 137 +328
Oromiya 17 812 299 11 070 636 9 921 703 38 804 638 37% 7 571 451 6 261 813 1 984 341 -108700
SNNPR 15 264 304 7 185 536 3 564 630 26 014 470 25% 7 539 192 2 229 843 712 926 -65200
Somali 2 520 644 211 155 3 203 569 5 935 369 6% 152 929 220 755 614 467 -56500
Tigray 614 995 1 284 533 2 167 743 4 067 271 4% 31 256 5 511 309 433 549 -58500
Total 48 234 389 28 233 742 28 600 468 105 172 465 19 724 725 22 819 390 5 713 700 -495928
Source: Raw land use data used from Catholic University of Louvain-Geomatics and ESA and Geissler et al. 2013.
Table 4.30. National total wood removal from the forest for different purposes, including energy in Ethiopia
Year Total wood removal (million m3) Year Total wood removal (million m3)
1993 78.48 2003 94.53
1994 80.77 2004 95.96
1995 82.53 2005 97.41
1996 83.65 2006 98.63
1997 85.50 2007 100.00
1998 86.53 2008 101.42
1999 88.24 2009 102.81
2000 89.30 2010 104.21
2001 91.28 2011 104.21
2002 92.60
Source: FAO 2015.
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Sustainable woody biomass yield
The total wood product demand in 2015, measured by the volume of wood consumed in
the country (production import-export) was around 130.3 million m 3 of roundwood
equivalent. Approximately
92.3 per cent of this is in the form of wood fuel and the rest is in the form of industrial
wood (MEFCC 2018). The annual volume of wood harvested for wood fuel was
around 120.4 million m3 of roundwood equivalent in 2015 (115.024 million m3 as
firewood and 5.408 million m3 for conversion into charcoal) (MEFCC 2018). The
sustainable supply of wood fuel from natural forests and woodlands is only 32.1 million
m3 of roundwood equivalent (MEFCC 2018). Harvest per hectare is not available.
Currently, more than 90 per cent of the domestic supplies of fuel wood come from diverse
forests (trees outside forests including woodlots) (Table 4.31).
Table 4.31. Estimate of wood fuel supply in Ethiopia
Forest type Estimated annual supply of fuel Proportion

wood in roundwood equivalent
(x106 m3)
Woodlots 6.6 5.48%
Natural forests and woodlands (sustainable supply) 32.1 26.66%
Peri-urban energy plantations 0.08 0.07%
Public plantations 0.07 0.06%
Area exclosures 1.64 1.36%
Woodfuel from waste 0.17 0.14%
Import 0.000279 0.00%
Unknown source (1) 79.74 66.23%
Total 120.40 100%
This is most likely the volume extracted from natural forests through unsustainable
(1)
harvest. Source: MEFCC 2017; MEFCC 2018.
Unsustainable extraction of wood from forests and woodlands for the purposes of
fuel wood and charcoal has contributed greatly to the loss of forest resources and to
widespread degradation and deforestation. This in turn has contributed to a sustainable
supply gap for the volume of fuel wood needed today (MEFCC 2018). The loss of acacia
woodland in the Central Rift Valley area is generally associated with charcoal production
and firewood extraction. Acacia species are the favoured sources for charcoal production
given their smooth combustion and better energy yield.
101
Map 4.16. Annual consumption of woody biomass by woreda (tons/yr)
Map 4.17. Annual natural sustainable supply of woody biomass by woreda (tons/ha/yr)
102
Total area of land for solid biomass used for energy purpose
Areas of planted forests have increased compared to previous decades in different
regions of Ethiopia. The total land area used to produce solid biomass for energy
purposes is an estimated at 972,000 ha (Table 4.32). The bulk of these plantation forests
are small-scale private plantations and woodlots. Accordingly, the solid biomass
production of these areas is increasing, and wood from these plantations is supplying the
national biomass fuel use today. The national estimate of yield supplied was 58.3 million
tons in 2000. However, the estimate for 2013 is 110.2 million tons. The near doubling is
caused by the fact that plantations have been supplemented by additional plantings
since 2000.
Table 4.32. Extent of forest plantations supplying the national biomass fuel use
Non-industrial
Per-urban energy
Regional state Industrial plantation small-scale private Total
planation
plantation
Oromia 78 800 27 800 26 700 133 300
Amhara 44 600 639 400 684 000
SNNPR 27 300 64 000 91 300
Tigray 39 700 23 700 63 400
Total 190 400 754 900 26 700 972 000
Source: Bekele 2011.
Solid biomass from degraded or contaminated land

Producing solid biomass on contaminated land could improve both the economic and
environmental outlook of bioenergy, as it would bring a positive economic return from
contaminated land without replacing food crops. A literature assessment was conducted
to identify any attempts or the possibility of biomass production on contaminated land in
Ethiopia; however, no information was found in this regard.

Analyses of forest and wood land cover change were conducted using secondary
data sources. A major change in land cover has occurred for the past many years.
Across the country, farmland is encroaching on the landscape at an alarming rate. In line
with this, a change in fuelwood consumption and an associated increase in deforestation
is leading to environmental challenges in the country.

Based on the above conclusion the following recommendations are presented:
 Land distribution and affordable energy sources are among the most
important development issues in Ethiopia. Planning and implementing an
appropriate strategy for land use for forestry and biomass energy utilization is
important. Dedicating land specifically to biomass production could increase
the amount of biomass available for energy generation and other
applications across the country.
 Establishment of a continuous land cover monitoring system is crucial to have
up-to-date and accurate trends in land-use change.
 Disseminating new efficient bioenergy technologies and implementing the
policies and research findings are valuable to achieve sustainable
development.
103
Future monitoring
The result of this indicator is based on secondary information from different sources that
provide a starting place in broadening the issue of land use and land-use change related
to bioenergy feedstock production in Ethiopia. We recommend further study based on
primary data combining household surveys within the next 5 to 10 years.
4.8.7 References
Agricultural Sample Survey (2007/08). Report on Livestock and Livestock Characteristics (Private Peasant
Holdings). Statistical Bulletin 417, Volume II, Addis Ababa.
Agricultural Sample Survey (2014/15). Report on Livestock and Livestock Characteristics (Private Peasant
Holdings). Statistical Bulletin 578, Volume II. Addis Ababa.
Bekele, M. (2011). Forest plantations and woodlots in Ethiopia. African Forest Forum 1,
52. Ethiopian National Energy Policy (2015). Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy.
Addis Ababa.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2001). Trees Outside forests: Towards
Rural and Urban Integrated Resources Management. Rome. ftp://ftp.fao.org/
docrep/fao/005/y1785e00.pdf.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2009). Eucalyptus in East Africa: the Socio-
Economic and Environmental Issues. Food and Agriculture Organization. Addis Ababa.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2010). Global Forest Resources Assessment
of 2010, Country Report Ethiopia. Rome. www. fao.org/forestry/ fra/fra2010/en/.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2015). Global Forest Resources Assessments. Rome.
Global Forest Research Assessment (2015). Terms and Definitions. Forest Resources Assessment
Working Paper 180.
Institute of Biodiversity Conservation (2005). National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Addis Ababa.
Kelemu, K. and Tadesse, W. (2010). Analysis of Eucalyptus role in the livelihoods of rural
households. In: G, L., Tadesse, W., Tolosana, E. and López, R. (eds.). Proceedings of the
Conference on Eucalyptus Species Management, History, Status and Trends in Ethiopia, 15th-17th
September 2010. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp. 53-61.
Lemenih, M. and Bekele, M. (2008). Participatory Forest Management Best Practices, Lesson Learnt and
Challenges Encountered: The Ethiopian and Tanzanian Experiences. Farm Africa, Ethiopia. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 66.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2016). The Contribution of Forests to National
Income in Ethiopia and Linkages with REDD+, Executive summary.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2017). Ethiopia forest sector review. Technical
Report. Focus on commercial forestry and industrialization.
Moges, Y., Eshetu, Z. and Nune, S. (2010). Ethiopian Forest Resources: Current Status and Future
Management Options in View of Access to Carbon Finances. A Report Submitted to Ethiopian Climate
Research and Networking and United Nations Development Programme. Addis Ababa.
Teketay, D. (2001). Deforestation, wood famine, and environmental degradation in Ethiopia’s highland
ecosystems: urgent need for action. Int. Conf. African Dev. Arch Pap. 3.
Wassie, A., Teketay, D. and Powell, N. (2005). Church forests in North Gonder administrative zone,
Northern Ethiopia. For. Trees.
104
4.9 Indicator 9. Allocation and tenure of land for new bioenergy production
4.9.1 Researcher(s)
Dr. Tatek Dejene (PhD)1 and Dr. Teshome Tesema (PhD) 2, Ethiopian Environment and
Forest Research Institute (EEFRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
1
4.9.2 Description
Percentage of land – total and by land-use type - used for new bioenergy production
where: (9.1) a legal instrument or domestic authority establishes title and procedures for
change of title; and (9.2) the current domestic legal system and/or socially accepted
practices provide due process and the established procedures are followed for
determining legal title.

Percentage

Land tenure has an important place in the economic, political, social and cultural history
of Ethiopia. It has long been the subject of debate among farmers, policy makers,
researchers and the public at large and is viewed not only as a source of livelihood, but
also as a source of political and economic power (Tesema 2008). Thus, obtaining relevant
and quantified data and information linked to land can be challenging. For this reason, it
was not possible to conduct a field assessment of indicator components 9.1 and 9.2. A
quantitative measurement of the indicator also was not possible due to shortage of data.
However, an in-depth review of relevant secondary sources was carried out on the
legislative framework related to land tenure and access to and on conflicts on land
associated with new bioenergy production, as summarized and presented in the sections
below. Furthermore, a concise description was made of legal systems linked to land
tenure, ownership and use related to solid biomass and biogas production.
4.9.5 Key findings

NATIONAL LEVEL
Legislative framework related to land tenure
A land tenure system is a product of historical and cultural factors. It comprises the
customary and legislative rights that individuals or groups have to land and related
resources, such as trees, minerals, pastures and water. Land tenure also reflects the
resulting social relationships (Kuhnen 1982), the possession rights associated with each
parcel of land (Zerga 2016) and the rules and regulations about holdings and use of land
in a society – all of which constitute the land tenure system (Bahru 1998). It includes
allocation, transfer, use and management. When land tenure is secure, land can be a
cornerstone for economic growth and an incentive for investment.
Each country has developed specific land tenure concepts that are based on historical
and current values and norms. These concepts, which have often been shaped by an
evolutionary process, determine the present tenure systems. In Ethiopia, land has been
the central means by which rural communities have been tied to their livelihoods, and
land tenure includes claims on land, with the level of enforcement ranging from national
laws to local village rules, supported in turn by national regulatory frameworks. The land
105
administration framework is dispersed in the legal documents of Ethiopia, which can be
divided into the following historical stages (as summarized in Table 4.33):
106
land tenure during the pre-1975 period, land tenure during the Derg regime and land
tenure during the Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary Front (EPRDF) regime.
Table 4.33. Historical development of land tenure in Ethiopia, pre-1975 to now
Period Reform Details

During this period, land was assumed to be an issue of power and
governance. The land tenure system varied from region to region due to the
diverse geographical and cultural settings and the different socio-political
Pre-1975 Land policy
events that occurred in different parts of the country. Common forms of land
tenure included communal (rist), grant land (gult), freehold or sometimes
referred to as private (gebbar tenures), church (samon) and state (maderia,
mengist) tenure regimes.
Full ownership land rights are in the hands of the state. Land
Derg regime Proclamatio
administration was vested in the then Ministry of Land Reform and
(1975 to n
Administration through Peasant Associations at the grassroots
1995)
levels.
EPRDF* regime The right to ownership land is exclusively given to the State and to the
Constitution
(1995 to now) peoples of Ethiopia.
*Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary Democratic Front
The current land tenure system

As a basic principle of the current land tenure system of Ethiopia, land property rights are
vested in the state and usufruct rights are given to farmers.
The Rural Land Administration Proclamation No. 89/1997 vested the regional
governments with the power of land administration. The regional governments enact laws
on land administration, land utilization, taxation and other tenure-related polices.
The Federal Rural Land Administration and Land Use Proclamation No. 456/2005 was
also enacted for the purpose of ensuring tenure security; strengthening property rights
of farmers; sustainably conserving and developing natural resources; establishing a land
database; and establishing an efficient land administration in the country. The re-
enactment of urban lands Proclamation No.
272/2002 provides the legal basis for temporary urban land leases for various investment
purposes.
Through Proclamation No. 89/1997, significant authority and responsibilities, including the
enactment of laws on land administration, land utilization, taxation and other tenure
related polices, for land administration were transferred to regional governments.
Furthermore, regional governments were given the authority to provide land certification
to improve land tenure security. Accordingly, the four regional states of Oromiya, Amhara,
Tigray and the SNNPR region have carried out land registration and issued land holding
certificates to rural landowners (farmers). A detail cadastral survey is also under way in
these regions, with the aim of providing landowners with land holding maps. This ongoing
initiative has helped rural communities to feel more secure about their land.
Because the current land tenure is constitutional, it is difficult to anticipate radical land
reform measures from the government in the foreseeable future. However, the ongoing
land certification process (issuing of land holding certificates), which is more
administrative, should continue to improve the tenure security of rural inhabitants. It
should be strengthened constitutionally and legally to provide proper value of
privatization so that farmers may sell their land.
107
BIOGAS
The construction of biogas digesters does not require much space (around 16 m2 for
the 6 m3 biodigester). The linkages between biodigester implementation and land tenure
can be illustrated by the impacts on forestry. Both biogas users and experts from different
offices believe that biogas has greatly reduced the use of firewood, contributing to
improvement in forest coverage. Survey respondents were asked to evaluate the forest
coverage in their locality in the past few years. A considerable number of respondents (63
per cent) believe that the forest coverage in their locality is increasing (National Biogas
Use Survey [NBUS] 2018).
The biggest increase in forest and bush coverage is reported in the Amhara and Tigray
regions and the lowest in Oromiya region. One reason for increasing forest coverage in
the localities is the shift in the use of alternative energy sources such as biogas, the
electricity grid and solar power. Even though the increase in forest coverage cannot be
fully attributed to the introduction of biogas technology, the biogas programme has
contributed meaningfully because a majority of biogas users have fully or partially shifted
from solid biomass to gaseous energy sources due to this programme.
The introduction of biogas technology has also strengthened area closure because users
of the technology have changed their free grazing to a cut-and-carry animal feeding
system. In the survey localities, the animals of biogas users spend day and night around
the homestead because biogas users need the dung (the major biogas input) around
their homes (MoWIE 2018).
SOLID BIOMASS
Land tenure and solid biomass production
According to the current constitution of the country, the right to ownership of land as well
as the natural resources is solely vested in the state and in the people of Ethiopia.
Accordingly, the natural forests have been owned by the state and administered by
regional concerned bodies after the decentralization of 1991. Natural forests, therefore,
are not available for private ownership by law. However, the new forest development,
conservation and utilization proclamation (542/2007), which is accompanied by the
country’s forest policy and strategy on forest development, provides the framework for
making fundamental changes to forest resource management. The new proclamation
allows for forests to be designated as either private, state, community or association
owned.
Categories of forest resources ownership are shown in Table 4.34.
Table 4.34. Categories of forest resources ownership and their total land area used in Ethiopia
Category of ownership Area (1 000 ha) % of total land area

Public plantation forests 190.4 0.2
Public natural forests 11 996.0 11.2
Joint forest management 300.0 0.3
Private plantation and woodlands 602.8 0.7
Community woodlots 152.1 0.2
In the last two decades, the commitment to empowering local communities and
decentralizing decision-making to local governments has been growing. A new
management system is now in place in which local people have defined control with
rights and obligations over forest resources, leading to more sustainable use. In this
regard, communities living in and around some forest areas have already shown interest
108
in and capability to manage the forests. However, the following limitations are
considered as shortfalls:
 Limited access to forest resources: Although the concept of forest conservation and
development is supported by the local communities, they are restricted to use only
non-timber
109
forest products such as coffee, honey, wild fruits, traditional medicinal plants and
mushrooms; bamboo, timber and other woody products are not allowed in and around
the forest areas. This has led to the degradation of forest lands through clearing,
overgrazing, cultivation on forest lands and forest land burning.
 Lack of access to collateral to get bank loans: In Ethiopia, the government provides
collateral loans to investment projects. However, in forestry there are no such
mechanisms to involve the private sector in plantations or related bioenergy
development sectors.
 Lack of forest land certification: The government is implementing a land certification

programme to improve the tenure security of rural inhabitants for their agricultural
production. However, such a certification programme is not available in forestry. Thus,
assuring tenure security in the full sense of privatization of forest lands is still
recognized as a shortfall.
Established legal procedures for acquiring land

Land administration is a system implemented by the state to record and manage rights
over land. In Ethiopia, all land is public property and belongs to the state. Land cannot be
bought, but it can be leased for a certain number of years. Regional governments are the
principal administrators and regulators of land, including the assignment and granting of
use-rights, and regional land-use planning and administrative authorities are responsible
for recording, documenting and administering use-rights. Securing land in rural Ethiopia
involves the concurrence of public authorities at some level: local (kebele or woreda),
regional or national.
The regional governments deliver land, based on the federal law and their own laws. The
required land is given to an investor within 60 days after receiving an application for
allocation of land for an approved investment. Most of the time, the lease is related to
urban land and landholdings up to 99 years, and payment within 10-99 years. However, if
rent is related to rural land and the landholdings have a shorter period than 99 years,
payment is on an annual basis for the whole contract period.
There are three procedural ways to acquire land, known by the people or the person
being advised by experts when needed:
1. When you know in which area you wish to acquire land, the regional investment
office can assign locations that are already prepared for different purposes.
2. When the specific location you have identified is owned by local farmers and
not yet prepared by the government, the regional investment office can decide
to negotiate with the farmers.
3. When the specific location you have identified as suitable is not one of the
locations especially assigned for investment by the regional states, the regional
investment office can write a letter to the local kebele about your land
application. You will be the one to conduct all further negotiations and you
yourself will sign the contract.
The Investment commission, in cooperation with the concerned regional government

entities, facilitates and follows up on the allocation of land for approved investments,
especially for foreign investors. Investors who intend to invest in forestry-related projects
are given priority to acquire land at a reduced lease price.
110
Table 4.35. Different rental prices of rural land for agricultural projects in different regional states
Regional state Minimum average price Maximum average price

(Birr/ha) (Birr/ha)
Amhara 14.21 79.37
BeniShangul 15.00 25.00
Gambella 20.00 30.00
Oromia 70.00 135.00
SNNP 30.00 117.00
Tigrai 30.00 40.00
Source: Dessalegne 2011.
Land disputes and conflicts

Weak customary institutions, population growth, frequent drought, resource
degradation, and encroachment or expropriation of rangelands are some of the causes
of conflicts and disputes of land in Ethiopia (Hundie 2006; Michael et al. 2005;
Rahmato and Asefa 2006). To some extent, disputes occur related to biomass fuel
collection from private lands or plantations. However, the constitution allows for the
resolution of disputes between individuals using customary laws and practices, which
may apply to land-related disputes. The state has generally ignored the administration
and adjudication of pastoralist tenure. While this has resulted in the loss of crucial
rangeland to crop cultivation, sometimes as a result of government expropriation, it has
meant a continuing role for clan-based tenure regimes (World Bank 1999; Crewett
et al. 2008).
The situation of smallholder farmers and rural communities

In Ethiopia land has been the centre of power and the source of the economy (Zerga
2016). Therefore, control over its ownership has been a political issue and interest of the
state. However, small land holdings with subsistence production have dominated the
farming system over the century (Aredo et al. 1995). The major challenge facing
smallholder farmers in Ethiopia is environmental degradation manifested in the form of
deforestation, which has a link to insecurity and tenure of land.
Apart from shortage of wood products, deforestation is becoming the main reason
for land degradation and the subsequent decline in agricultural productivity and the
resulting poverty observed among the rural communities. Efforts have been made to
avert poverty; however, it remains unresolved. Where appropriate, land consolidation,
exchanges or other approaches must be considered to help smallholder farmers improve
their holdings to sustain rural development in the country. Also, there should be
encouragement and facilitation of land banking practices to provide opportunities for
smallholder farmers as a group to acquire large areas of land for rural investments. The
practice will allow them to continue, and even increase, production in both agriculture and
bioenergy.
Incentives for solid biomass developments

The government of Ethiopia has allocated some plantations for community management
and offers various incentives for plantation development under different land tenure
systems (Table 4.36).
111
Table 4.36. Incentives for plantation development for solid biomass production in Ethiopia
Type of Outcomes and

Brief description Source and period Target group
incentive shortcomings
Encourage the
Long term leasing for land
Government and for private sector to
Direct to be used for plantation Private
25 years involve in planation
establishment investors
forestry
Farming Encourage the
Government and
Direct Free supply of seedlings communities farming
during plantation
and communities
season
urban dwellers to plant trees
Plant more trees
Free markets and pricing Private
Indirect Government due to market
policy investors in
value of
tree planting
trees
Opportunity to get loan Government and Private investors Encourage for tree
Direct
from banks credit in forestry planting
associations
Handling over of woodlot
Direct Government farmers
plantations to farmers
Sharing of revenue with Farming The forests are
communities from sale of communities in better conserved
Direct Government
forests products from and around the and more area
plantation forests forest coverage
Free from tax payment on Government, as long Private investors Motivate others to
Direct imports for forestry related as participate in the
activities they are involved in activity
the work
Other initiatives
A Sustainable Land Management (SLM) project has been undertaken in Ethiopia
since 2015 by the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (Emmanuel 2017). The
aim is to enable land users to boost the economic and social benefits from the land while
enhancing the functioning of the land through conserving and restoring forests, wetlands,
dry lands and mountains (Fafchamps et al. 2002; Emmanuel 2017). So far, appropriate
management measures such as terracing, pasture-land development and tree plantation
have been applied on around 390,000 hectares of degraded land.
Consequently, the knowledge and skills of local communities on SLM have improved, and
more than 500 local smallholder groups have established and are jointly managing land
using sustainable methods. The groups also have been receiving advice and institutional
support from trained experts from the respective districts in their vicinity and
communities. There is a need to scale up such practices to improve land tenure and rights
for sustainable land management and development in the country. This can be achieved
through interactions between smallholders and decision makers at the national,
regional, and local levels.

In Ethiopia, land has been the central means by which the rural community has been tied
to their livelihoods. Land tenure includes claims on land, with the level of enforcement
ranging from national laws to local village rules, supported in turn by national regulatory
frameworks. According to the current Constitution, the right to ownership of land as well
as of natural resources is solely vested in the state and in the people of Ethiopia. The type
of property right for 85 per cent of the population is usufructuary right (private user-
rights) on public land.
112
The average land holding size of farmers has been estimated at around 0.5 hectares; it is
reported to be diminishing with the ever-growing population and the accompanying
redistribution of land.
113
Although a quantitative assessment of the total land used for solid biomass
production was not undertaken, the qualitative assessment has provided interesting
information. Currently, the government of Ethiopia has allocated forests lands for
community management and several incentives for plantation development under
different land tenure systems. However, securing land for this purpose involves the
concurrence of different authorities at some level, indicating that there is a need to
improve the land administration systems.

Proper land tenure and allocation of land for solid biomass production is the basic
requirement for bringing sustainable bioenergy production into the picture. However, the
land belongs to the state. It cannot be bought, but it can be leased for a certain number
of years. Thus, policy and legal reform should ensure the security of land tenure for
smallholder farmers and rural communities.
Future monitoring
Modern bioenergy development is critical for Ethiopia to ensure energy security as well as
to contribute to poverty reduction and a climate-resilient green economy. Therefore, it
will be crucial to monitor the effect of land tenure and access on the sustainability of
bioenergy. For this study, secondary data sources (survey results) were employed. For
future monitoring, a broader sample of households in a higher number of regions should
be surveyed. In addition, better coordination and collaboration would be needed between
the related competent governmental agencies and ministries (Ministry of Water, Irrigation
and Energy; Ministry of Mines and Petroleum; Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Commission; Ministry of Agriculture, etc.) which can provide the needed information to
measure this indicator.
4.9.7 References
Aredo D. and Demake M. (1995). Ethiopian Agriculture: Problem of Transformation. Proceedings of
the Fourth Annual Conference on Ethiopian Economy. Addis Ababa.
Bahru, Z. (1998). A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn. Addis Abba.
Series 1, 12.
Bekele, M. and Kassa, H. (2012). Forest Policy, Strategies and Laws of Ethiopia: Opportunities and
Challenges to Developing the Sector ... – PowerPoint presentation. 23-24 July 2012. Addis Ababa.
http://nilebdc.wikispaces.com.
Crewett, W., Bogale, A. and Korf, B. (2008). Land Tenure in Ethiopia: Continuity and Change, Shifting
Rulers, and the Quest for State Control. CAPRI Working Paper No. 91. September.
Dessalegn, R. (2011). Land to Inverters: Large-scale Land Transfers in Ethiopia. Forum for Social
Studies. Available at:
https://theredddesk.org/sites/default/files/resources/pdf/Ethiopia_Rahmato_FSS_2011.pdf.
Elias, W. and Shabbir, H.G. (2018). Potential of bioenergy production in Ethiopia based on available
biomass residues. Biomass and Bioenergy 111, 77-87.
Fafchamps, M. and Quisumbing, A.R. (2002). Control and ownership of assets within rural Ethiopian
households. Journal of Development Studies 38(2), 47-82.
Hundie, B. (2006). Property rights among Afar pastoralists of Northeastern Ethiopia: Forms,
changes and conflicts. Presented at Survival of the Commons: Mounting Challenges and New
Realities, the Eleventh Conference of the International Association for the Study of Common
Property. Bali, Indonesia. June 19-23.
Kasimbazi, E. (2017). Land Tenure and Rights for Improved Land Management and Sustainable Development.
114
UNCCD | Global Land Outlook Working Paper | LAND TENURE AND
RIGHTS 3. Kuhnen, F. (1982). Man and Land. Saarbrücken and Fort
Lauderdale.
115
Michael, Y.G., Hagdu, K. and Ambaye, V. (2005). Addressing Pastoralist Conflict in Ethiopia: The
Case of the Kuraz and Hamer Sub-districts of South Omo Zone. African Peace Forum, Ethiopian
Pastoralist Research and Development Association, Interafrica Group, Saferworld.
National Biogas Users’ Survey (2018). National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia. Ministry of Water,
Energy and Electricity. Addis Ababa.
National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia (2015). Report on Biogas Users’ Survey. Ministry of Water,
Irrigation and Energy. Addis Ababa.
Rahmato, D. and Assefa T. (2006). Land and the challenge of sustainable development in Ethiopia:
Conference Proceedings. Forum for Social Studies. Addis Ababa.
Shapiro, B.I., Gebru, G., Desta, S., Negassa, A., Nigussie, K., Aboset G. et al. (2017). Ethiopia Livestock
Sector Analysis. ILRI Project Report. International Livestock Research Institute. Nairobi, Kenya.
SNV Netherlands Development Organisation (2018). National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia
(NBPE). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Tesema, T. (2008). The underlying causes and mitigation measures of deforestation: A critical
assessment of the Ethiopian forest policies and strategies. BOKU. Vienna.
World Bank (1999). Gender and Law: Eastern Africa Speaks. The World Bank Group Africa Region. Finding
No.
126. January.
Zerga, B. (2016). Land resource, uses, and ownership in Ethiopia: Past, present and future.
International Journal of Scientific Research Technology Engineering 2, 17-24.
4.10 Indicator 10. Price and supply of a national food basket
4.10.1 Researcher(s)
Hundessa Adugna1, Gemechu Kaba2 and Alemtsehaye Eyasu3, Ethiopian Environment and
Forest Research Institute, Addis Ababa
1
[email protected], 2 [email protected], 3 [email protected]
4.10.2 Description
(10.1) Effects of bioenergy use and domestic production on the price and supply of a
food basket, which is a nationally defined collection of representative foodstuffs, including
main staple crops, measured at the national, regional, and/or household level, taking into
consideration:
 Changes in demand for foodstuffs for food, feed, and fibre;
 Changes in the import and export of foodstuffs;
 Changes in agricultural production due to weather conditions;
 Changes in agricultural costs from petroleum and other energy prices; and
 The impact of price volatility and price inflation of foodstuffs on the national,
regional, and/or household welfare level, as nationally determined.

Tons; $; National Currency (Ethiopian Birr); and Percentage.

This indicator is aimed at measuring the impact of bioenergy use and its domestic
production on the price and supply of a representative food basket in the context of
relevant factors. It is particularly important in the case of the bioenergy crop production,
such as cassava, which is directly included in the staple food crops. Indeed, bioenergy
116
production could lead to a reduction in the domestic supply of staple crops available for
food. On the other hand, bioenergy production may contribute to an
117
increase in agricultural production, resulting in an increase in the domestic supply of
staple crops for food. In addition, bioenergy production may alter the demand for inputs,
such as fertilizers, that are used in the production of main staple crops, and therefore
their price.
In principle, the measurement of this indicator consists of two main steps. The first step is
the identification of the most significant food items in people’s diets to be included in the
food basket. The second step is the evaluation of the effects of bioenergy production and
domestic use on the price and supply of a nationally determined food basket. This can be
done with different levels of quantitative analysis, from discussions among experts up to
modelling.
In Ethiopia, the expected impact of solid biomass and biogas on the price and supply of a
national food basket is not evident since the biogas production in Ethiopia is from organic
waste (animal dung) and not from specific energy crops. But some reflections remain
relevant. They are proposed in the case of biogas, and specifically regarding how the
bioslurry generated by the biodigester could have an impact on the price of the food
basket of the households.
Various national data sets and reports were collected from different offices, and internet
facilities were used. The main sources of information are the surveys conducted on the
national biogas programme (National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia [NBPE] 2015;
Netherlands Development Organisation [SNV] 2018). These surveys refer to a case
study approach, collecting data in different woredas of four regions (Tigray, Amhara,
Oromia and SNNPR).
4.10.5 Key findings

NATIONAL LEVEL
The representative food basket of Ethiopia can be described as follows. The most
dominant food crops in the country are teff, maize, sorghum and wheat (Ethiopia Central
Statistical Agency [CSA] 2017). The Ethiopian diet consists chiefly of cereals (maize,
sorghum, teff), tubers and root crops (ensete, potatoes, sweet potatoes), pulses and oil
seeds. The national staple ‘injera’ is typically made from teff, which is grown in the
highlands, or sometimes from millet or sorghum. Despite a large livestock population,
dairy and meat supply is limited, with consumption of these products especially low in
rural areas, except in nomadic pastoralist districts (Somali and Afar) where milk is a major
component of the diet, consumed 4-5 days a week compared with 1.5 days on average
nationally (World Food Programme 2014).
BIOGAS
The bioslurry produced by the biodigester can have positive impacts on agricultural
production. According to the second round of surveys conducted by SNV on the national
biogas programme (SNV 2018), biogas users have reduced the use of chemical fertilizer
by 50 per cent. Taking into account the reduction in the use of fertilizer by biogas owners
as well as the increase in the cost of fertilizer over years, the average saving from the
cost of fertilizer for a farmer was 35 per cent (NBPE 2015).
At the household level, the use of the bioslurry as a fertilizer contributed to reducing the
price of the food by reducing the purchase of chemical fertilizer.
Most households use the slurry for garden vegetables such as onions, tomatoes,
118
peppers and potatoes (Table 4.37). Around 40 per cent of the survey participants also
indicted that they use the slurry for maize production. A large proportion of
households using the slurry have observed changes in their crop production: 54 per
cent for crops in general, 82 per cent for wheat, 74 per cent for vegetables; lower results
(6 per cent) were observed with chat growing (NBPE 2015).
119
In terms of use, around 67 per cent of the respondents apply the slurry directly to their
farms while fresh, while 57 per cent make compost first and apply it, and only 7 per cent
mentioned that they sell it (Table 4.38). The biggest use of the slurry is reported in SNNPR
where 95.6 per cent mentioned that they directly apply the liquid and 82.2 per cent make
compost out of it and apply it as fertilizer. On the other hand, respondents in Amhara
reported to sell slurry because biogas was promoted among people who are engaged
in cattle husbandry and cattle fattening in urban areas. This people do not have
farmland and tend to sell the slurry for others (SNV 2018).
Finally, biogas is becoming the main motivation for the increase in number of animals
(SNV 2018). Thirty-three per cent of respondents said that the number of animals in their
households has increased, with the highest number of households with increased
animals observed in SNNPR (52 per cent) followed by Amhara (37 per cent) and Tigray
(30 per cent) (Figure 4.19). The lowest reported increase in the number of animals is in
Oromia (11 per cent). Talking about the reasons for the increases, 34.8 per cent of
respondents mentioned the need for dung, 7.1 per cent mentioned the existence of
breeding opportunities, and 5.7 per cent mentioned the availability of grazing land and
water. On the other hand, 16.5 per cent of respondents mentioned that the number of
animals has decreased due to lack of animal feeds (SNV 2018).
Table 4.37. Type of crops grown using slurry and the change in production
Type of crop grown No. of households for whom No. of households with Percentage of
the type of crop changed change in production due households with
due to slurry to slurry production change
Vegetable 27 20 74%
Fruits 38 19 50%
Wheat 55 45 82%
Teff 46 26 57%
Coffee 15 6 40%
Barley 47 32 68%
Chat 22 2 9%
Source: NBPE 2015.
Table 4.38. Purpose of the bioslurry (%)
Slurry utilization Amhara SNNPR Oromia Tigray Total

Use it fresh as liquid organic fertilizer 58.5% 95.6% 58.3% 56.3% 67%
Make compost with it first, then use as 68.3% 82.2% 33.3% 43.8% 57%
fertilizer
Use it as fertilizer after it is solid and/or dry 70.7% 60.0% 8.3% 0.0% 35%
Sell it fresh and liquid to other people 29.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 7%
Source: National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia as described in NBPE 2015; SNV 2018.
120
Figure 4.19. Biogas impact on the number of animals (%)
Source: National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia as described in NBPE 2015; SNV 2018.

At the national level, no change in the domestic food markets caused by production of
biogas is observed in Ethiopia. This is normal: biogas production in Ethiopia is still limited
to some woredas in certain regions such as Tigray, Amhara, Oromia and SNNPR. In
addition, the biogas production is made from animal dung and not from a feedstock
specifically grown for energy purposes. In other words, the changes in the demand,
supply and prices of the national food baskets in Ethiopia are independent of the current
biogas production. Rather, they are driven by inflation and other factors.
However, at a household level, biogas production has a positive effect on crop

productivity in households that use the slurry as a substitute for chemical fertilizer.
Moreover, the cost of fertilizer used by households was reduced by 35 per cent
thanks to the use of the bioslurry resulting from biogas digesters for energy
production. This implies that the replacement of chemical fertilizers by slurry can help to
reduce the total costs of growing the main food basket. There is also good reason to say
that promoting biogas production may result in an increase in the number of livestock
owned by households participating in biogas production. But due to lack of animal feed
and fodder, it becomes difficult for them to greatly increase their livestock production.

There is high potential for biogas production in Ethiopia, because of the existence of large
numbers of livestock in the country. An effective policy is needed to promote the
installation of biodigesters and the production of biogas from organic waste available in
the country. The increase in societal awareness may increase biogas production along
with livestock production, at the expense of other less productive crops. This leads
farmers to become more productive. As the biogas sector continues to expand, these
issues should be closely monitored.
Although there is high potential for biogas production in the country, production currently
remains very minimal and is limited to some pilot woredas in four regional states. An
effective policy is needed to promote the installation of biodigesters and the production of
biogas from organic waste available in the country. This has a direct effect in increasing
the productivity of crops used in the staple food basket in the country. It also contributes
to a reduction in the cost of chemical fertilizer and its replacement by slurry from the
biodigester. The increase in livestock production is also very important in realizing the
sustainability of animal dung-based biogas production, given the high potential for
production due to the large presence of livestock in the country. It is important to
121
increase the availability of livestock fodder for the farmers.
122
Future monitoring
In Ethiopia, comprehensive economic data on the price and supply of the national food
basket are scarce. It would be very useful to develop this knowledge. Assessing the
impacts of bioenergy on the price and supply of the national food basket will become
essential as the bioenergy sector expands. Further guidance should be developed to
support the implementation of this indicator, especially in relation to the analysis and
interpretation of its results. This assessment is very skill and data intensive, and the use
of models such as the Aglink-Cosimo may be needed. This model is managed by the
Secretariats of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). It is used to generate
the OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook and policy scenario analysis. The capacities of
Ethiopia in using this model would need to be strengthened for future monitoring.
4.10.7 References
Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency (2017). Report on Area and Production of Major Crops, Agricultural
Sample Survey Volume I. Addis Ababa.
National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia (2015). Report on Biogas Users’ Survey (BUS). SNV
Netherlands Development Organisation. Addis Ababa.
National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia (2018). Presentation of Report on National Biogas Program of
Ethiopia. SNV Netherlands Development Organisation. Addis Ababa.
SNV Netherlands Development Organisation (2018). Report on National Biogas users' Survey, 2018.
Addis Ababa; National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia.
World Food Programme (2014). Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis (CFSVCA), Ethiopia.
Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency and World Food Programme. Addis Ababa.
4.11 Indicator 11. Change in income

Gemechu Kaba1, Hundessa Adugna2 and Alemtsehaye Eyassu3, Ethiopian Environment
and Forest Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
1
[email protected], 2 [email protected] and 3 [email protected].
4.11.1 Description
Contribution of the following to change in income due to bioenergy production:
(11.1) Wages paid for employment in the bioenergy sector in relation to comparable
sectors (11.2) Net income from the sale, barter and/or own consumption of bioenergy
products, including feed stocks, by self-employed households/individuals

(11.1) Local currency units per household/individual per year, and percentages (for share
or change in total income and comparison)
(11.2) Local currency units per household/individual per year, and percentage (for share
or change in total income)

Employment and wages in the bioenergy sector can be important drivers of rural and
social development. In addition, wage levels provide an important indication of the labour
conditions enjoyed by people employed in this sector in relation to comparable sectors. In
addition to wage income, self-employment is another important source of income that
can be associated with bioenergy production.
123
In addition to the analysis of wages (sub-indicator 11.1), a special focus was on the
assessment of the benefits associated with the own consumption of biogas and
modern biomass (sub-indicator 11.2). Secondary data collected from four regions of the
country (Oromia, Amhara, SNNPR and Tigray) were used, based on surveys of the sector.
Various study reports obtained from the internet, project documents and theses were
used.
4.11.4 Key findings

BIOGAS
The study covered four major regional states of Ethiopia: Tigray, Amhara, Oromia, and
SNNPR. These regions are home to roughly 70 per cent of the livestock and over 70
per cent of the human population (Mengistu et al. 2016).
Wages along the biogas value chain

In Ethiopia the actors involved in the biogas value chain are: biogas fundraisers /
providers, skilled masons, managers, technicians and extension staff (Netherlands
Development Organisation [SNV] 2007). The analysis was focused on masons, given their
important role in the success of the biodigester programme. One of the benefits of biogas
plant dissemination is maximizing the masons’ income. The masons’ income before
starting biogas installation was 300-500 birr per month.
However, the monthly income is maximized and it is 1,300-6,000 birr as shown in Table 4.39.
The amount of payment for masons to install a specified biogas plant in Ethiopia differs
from region to region. In Oromia and SNNPR, the biogas owners pay 1,114-1,739 birr
for masons depending on the volume of the plant (Table 4.40).
In Northern Ethiopia, the scarcity of wood fuel and associated problems are more severe.
The use of biogas technology has significant contributions in improving the lives of rural
people in these areas. It reduces the depletion of woody biomass through improving
the efficiency of energy use and energy substitutions (Mulu 2016). The principal
obstacle limiting the expansion and use of the technology by rural farmers is their
inability to afford the full cost of biogas installations. To overcome the problem,
government loans and subsidies are crucial and hence the masons are paid from the
subsidy by the government (Table 4.39). According to Rogers (1983), subsidies enhance
the speed and relative advantage of adoption. Subsidies lead to the adoption of
technologies by individuals who would not adopt otherwise.
124
Table 4.39. Source and amount of masons’ payment per region
Region Digester Source of payment (Birr) Total

(m3) Government Owner of digester
Tigray 4 2 000 - 2 000
6 2 400 - 2 400
8 2 600 - 2 600
10 2 800 - 2 800
Amhara 6 2 300 - 2 300
8 2 500 - 2 500
Oromia 6 2 360 1 114 3 474
8 2 360 1 419 3 779
10 2 360 1 739 4 099
SNNPR 6 2 200 1 114 3 314
8 2 200 1 200 3 400
10 2 200 1 400 3 600
Source: Yitayal 2015.
Table 4.40. Masons’ income before and after installing biogas plants
Mason code No. of digesters Income (Birr/month)

Before biogas After biogas
M1 30 300 6 000
M2 20 300 4 000
M3 12 300 2 400
M4 7 300 1 300
M5 5 500 1 335
M6 7 400-500 2 273
M7 7 400-500 2 273
M8 15 2 500 4 376
Source: Yitayal 2015.
Expenses saved by households

The benefits of domestic biogas are divided over multiple levels (micro, meso and macro)
of society and differ in the extent to which they can be translated in direct economic gains
(formal versus informal). Households gained direct benefits from domestic biogas through
the reduced use of traditional fuel sources, access to clean energy, reduced workload and
health improvement – all resulting in improved living conditions, from which women and
children particularly benefited, and also through improved soil fertility owing to the use of
quality bio-fertilizer and resulting in improved agricultural output (SNV 2007).
A study conducted in Amhara region indicated that before installation of biogas plant,
households used an average of 153.26 kg of chemical fertilizer annually in their
agricultural land with an annual expenditure of 1065.16 birr per household. After
installation of biogas, due to use of bioslurry fertilizer, the average household chemical
fertilizer consumption was reduced to 50 kg, or a saving of
103.26 kg of fertilizer per household (Zerhun 2015). This has an equivalent savings of
717.657 birr per household (Table 4.42). Biogas users have indicated overall that they
have experienced a significant decrease in the use of chemical fertilizer after installation
of biogas. So far, 682 birr in Tigray, 270 birr in Oromia and 300 birr in SNNPR have been
saved per owner and year (Yitayal 2015).
Sales of the bioslurry could also generate revenues. For example, two farmers in Oromia
have already started selling the slurry after making compost (Yitayal 2015). One sells it
125
for 15 birr per 25
126
kg of compost, which supplements his cattle fodder, and the other sells it for 100 birr per
container (the container is about equal to 70 kg). The latter has developed a surplus
income of 3,300 birr by selling on average 33 containers per month. A small number of
households, in Amhara, also sell the bioslurry and earn money from it; they are engaged
in cattle husbandry and cattle fattening in urban areas, and they do not have farmlands
and tend to sell the slurry for others (SNV 2018).
Regarding the economic comparison of wood fuels (firewood and charcoal) with biogas
energy, a cost-benefit analysis was conducted using payback period. Biogas users have
reduced their expenditure for firewood and charcoal by 45 per cent and 51 per cent
respectively compared to non- biogas users (Haftu and Abel 2016).
Table 4.41. Estimated annual benefits and costs attributed to biogas installation
Benefit and cost Annual benefits and costs in birr Average benefit or
2011 2012 2014 2015 cost in birr
Benefit from increased crop yield - 3 663 3 905 2 717 3 429
Benefit from reduced use of firewood - 180 168 78 142
Benefit from reduced use of charcoal - 1 152 576 439 723
Benefit from reduced use of kerosene 72 0 0 0 72
Total benefit 4 366
Initial investment cost 12 308 - - - 12 308
Annual cost of investment (12℅ interest, 25 years 1 569 1 569 1 569 1 569 1 569
Average operating cost 293 293 293 293 293
Total cost 1 862
Net annual social benefit per biodigester 2 504
Net annual private benefit per biodigester (minus 3 717
cost
supported by subsidy)
Source: Berhe et al. 2017.
Table 4.42. Income (birr) saving from purchasing expenditure
Type of resource Average resource saved due to Equivalent Per cent

installation of biogas plant in kg/year amount in birr
or l/year
1 Firewood 2 528 3 833 50.4%
2 Charcoal 324 1 243 16.4%
3 Dung cake 1 380 1 542 20.3%
4 Kerosene 21 266 3.5%
5 Chemical fertilizer 103.26 718 9.4%
Total 7 602 100%
Source: Zerhun 2015.
Charcoal
The past 15 years have seen a massive increase in the consumption of charcoal in all
regions from 48,581 tons/year in 2000 to 4,132,873 tons/year in 2013. The charcoal
production and marketing in Ethiopia has been informally organized and produced
(Geissler et al. 2013). The majority of informal charcoal producers are poor pastoral/agro-
pastoral and mixed farming households living in the dry lowlands of Ethiopia. These
households produce charcoal regularly as their main or additional source of income to
support their families (Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change 2016).
Bekele and Girmay (2013) also stated that the majority of charcoal producers in Ethiopia
are found to be among the poor of the rural population with little or no land to support
their livelihoods. With the exception of some women engaged in the retailing activity, in
the majority of cases the charcoal business appears to be dominated by younger men,
particularly landless youth.
127
Wages along charcoal value chain
Charcoal is among the most important and reliable cash income sources compared to
incomes from semi-subsistence crop and livestock activities, which are subject to
climatic and other calamities.
The main actors directly involved along the charcoal marketing chains include producers,
distributors/transporters, wholesalers, retailers and consumers (Figure 4.20). The
transporters, who come with light trucks, buy up to hundreds of sacks of charcoal to sell
to both retailers and directly to consumers. Their main sales are to retailers in major
urban areas. Charcoal retailers buy charcoal in a sack from charcoal depots or
transporters and sell in small retail shops to low-income consumers who are not able to
pay for a sack of charcoal. The price of charcoal is much higher when purchased in small
retail shops than in sacks. In some cases, consumers can buy directly from producers or
distributors; depot owners are also engaged in retailing charcoal. In addition to the local
market, there are reportedly also some illegal exports, mainly to Djibouti, Kuwait, Saudi
Arabia, Sudan and Somaliland (Bekele and Girmay 2013).
As the charcoal commodity is moved from the point of production through markets to
consumers, it incurs various costs: production, transport and other informal costs (e.g.,
bribes and payments to brokers, loading–unloading, and, in a few cases, payment by
producers to those who claim to have ownership rights over the trees). Thus, it is
problematic to accurately present the cost-benefit distribution of the business along its
chain. According to the recent national charcoal value chain assessment, most of the
charcoal produced in Ethiopia is traded and supplied to consumers through the following
channels:
 Channel 1: Illegal private producers – private vendors – urban consumers
 Channel 2: Illegal private producers – foreign smugglers – foreign market
 Channel 3: Licensed and permitted private/group producers – private
vendors – urban consumers
 Channel 4: Illegal regular household level producers – local vendors – local consumers
 Channel 5: Illegal irregular producers directly to roadside buyers or local consumers
Of these, Channel 4 – the illegal regular household level charcoal producer to local towns
– is the most frequent charcoal production-supply channel covering much of the charcoal-
producing regions in Ethiopia, mainly with pastoral/agro-pastoral and mixed farming
communities in the dry lowlands (Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change
2016). The distribution of income and profit sharing in the illegal charcoal production-
supply channel in Ethiopia is highly skewed towards the producers, who are earning
around 75 per cent (225 birr) of the total revenue per bag (Ministry of Environment,
Forest and Climate Change 2016).
128
Figure 4.20. Map of charcoal supply chain
Source: Designed by authors using data from Bekele and Girmay 2013.
Figure 4.21. Charcoal depots
Source: Bekele and Girmay 2013.
129
Location of the activity
Most charcoal coming to towns and cities is produced, transported and retailed illegally. It
is transported to urban centres using trucks, automobiles, camels and donkeys. A
charcoal inflow survey conducted in August 2012 into the city of Addis Ababa alone
showed an average of over 42,000 sacks of charcoal coming to the city each day
(Bekele and Girmay 2013). The acacia- dominated dry woodland and shrubland areas,
which cover over 60 per cent of the total landmass of Ethiopia, constitute the largest
source of wood for the bulk of charcoal coming to urban centres in the country (Food and
Agriculture Organization 2017). The bulk of charcoal comes from either acacia species
and/or the invasive species Prosopis juliflora through the eastern gate to Addis Ababa.
Gewane in Afar, Bilate in SNNPR, Langano and Borana in Oromiya, and Harshin in the
Somali regions are some of the major charcoal suppliers to towns and cities in each
region (Map 4.18).
Map 4.18. Main locations of charcoal production

BIOGAS
It is estimated that the income of some masons more than doubled thanks to the
biogas programme. The wages of the masons vary by region. In Tigray and Amhara,
masons are only paid from the subsidy by the government. In Oromia and SNNPR, the
biogas owners pay an additional amount of 1,114-1,739 birr to masons, depending on
the volume of the plant, as contract bases.
The income of households was measured based on cost savings such as savings on
wood fuel, charcoal, dung cake, kerosene and chemical fertilizer per year. Only a small
number of households sell the bioslurry. The biggest savings are associated with the
130
purchase of firewood, followed by fertilizer.
131
Given the high potential for domestic biogas plants – from 1.1 million to 3.5 million
households in the four regional states studied here (Eshete, Sonder and ter Heegde
2006) – the potential to promote better wages and savings at a household level is
high.

Better training of the masons and better information for the households with a
biodigester will contribute to increasing the wages and savings associated with
biodigesters. If households understand well the economic benefits of the biodigesters,
they will better maintain them and this will result in better and longer use of the
biodigesters.
Future monitoring
Monitoring the wages paid in the biogas sector and the savings at the household level
would be extremely useful to reinforce the development of the biogas programme and
promote the development of biodigesters.
CHARCOAL
Charcoal is a major income source for poor households in rural areas and is the primary
source of fuel in most urban areas of Ethiopia. Charcoal incurs various costs like
production, transport, taxation, bribes and payments to brokers, loading–unloading, and,
in a few cases, payment for ownership rights, etc. when it moves from the point of
production through markets to consumers. Thus, it is difficult to accurately present the
cost-benefit distribution of the business along its chain. Distribution of income and profit
sharing in the charcoal production-supply channel in Ethiopia is highly skewed toward the
producer (75 per cent of the total revenue/bag, which is 225 birr).
Charcoal turns out to be among the most important and reliable cash income sources
compared to incomes from semi-subsistence crop and livestock activities, which are
subject to climatic and other calamities.

Charcoal is particularly important as a means of generating income for some of the
poorest members of society. It also saves foreign exchange that would otherwise be
used to import fuel. A large number of people are employed in the various phases of the
charcoal value chain, including: collection and sizing of wood; preparation of charcoal
kilns; loading the wood into kilns and unloading charcoal after conversion; unloading,
bundling, packaging and transport; and marketing. Additional indirect employment is
generated by the activities that use charcoal.
Because millions of people depend on charcoal as a source of energy and income, and
charcoal is also the cause of environmental degradation, an institutional intervention
becomes mandatory to promote and regulate more environmentally friendly manners of
producing charcoal. To improve the conditions in the charcoal industry, first it would be
necessary to set the charcoal issue as an important and urgent policy agenda.
Future monitoring
Monitoring of the wages paid in the charcoal sector and the cost-benefits along the supply
chain would be extremely useful to reinforce the development of the charcoal sector.
4.11.6 References
132
Bekele, M. and Girmay, Z. (2013). Reading Through the Charcoal Industry in Ethiopia: Production, Marketing,
Consumption and Impact. Forum for Social Studies. Addis Ababa.
133
Berhe, M., Hoag, D., Tesfay, G. and Keske, C. (2017). Factors influencing the adoption of biogas
digesters in rural Ethiopia. Energy, Sustainability and Society 7(10), 1-11.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13705-017-0112-5.
Eshete, G., Sonder., K., and ter Heegde, F. (2006). Report on the Feasibility Study of a National
Programme for Domestic Biogas in Ethiopia.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2017). The Charcoal Transition: Greening
Charcoal Value Chain to Mitigate Climate Change and Improve Local Livelihoods. Rome.
Haftu, E. and Abel, O. (2016). Biogas as an alternative energy source and a waste management
strategy in Northern Ethiopia. Biofuels 7(5), 479-487,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2016.1163211.
Mengistu, M., Simane, B., Eshete, G. and Workneh, T. (2016). Institutional factors influencing the
dissemination of biogas technology in Ethiopia. Journal of Human Ecology, 55(1,2): 117-134.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2016.11907016.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2016). The Charcoal Industry Assessment of
Ethiopia: Policy and Institutional Restructuring for Sustainable Charcoal. Supported by Global Green
Growth Institute. Addis Ababa.
Mulu, G. (2016). Biogas Technology Adoption and Its Contributions to Rural Livelihood and Environment in
Northern Ethiopia: The Case of Ofla and Mecha Woredas. A Thesis Submitted to Center for
Environment and Development Studies. Addis Ababa University. Addis Ababa.
Rogers, E.M. (1983). Diffusion of Innovations. New York: The Free Press.
SNV Netherlands Development Organisation (2007). Ethiopia Biogas for Better Life. Brief
Programme Profile. Ethiopia Rural Energy Development and Promotion Centre. Addis Ababa.
Yitayal, A. (2015). Status and benefits of renewable energy technologies in the rural areas of
Ethiopia: A case study on improved cooking stoves and biogas technologies. International
Journal of Renewable Energy Development 4(2), 103-111. http://dx.doi.org/10.14710/ijred.4.2.103-111.
4.12 Indicator 12. Jobs in the bioenergy sector
Degnechew Genene1 and Buzayehu Desisa2, Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research
1
4.12.2 Description
Net job creation as a result of bioenergy production and use, total (12.1) and
disaggregated (if possible) as follows: (12.2) skilled/unskilled, (12.3) indefinite/temporary.
(12.4) total number of jobs in the bioenergy sector;
(12.5) percentage adhering to nationally recognized labour standards consistent with the
principles enumerated in the International Labour Organization (ILO) Declaration on
Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, in relation to comparable sectors

(12.1) Number and number per MJ or MW
(12.2) Number, number per MJ or MW, and
percentage (12.3) Number, number per MJ or MW,
134
and percentage
135
(12.4) Number and as a percentage of (working-age)
population (12.5) Percentages

The indicator applies to both the biogas and the solid biomass (fuel wood and charcoal)
pathways. Secondary data, literature review and expert assessments were used. This
indicator is closely linked to Indicator 21 on training and requalification of the workforce,
and to Indicator 13 on the activity of women and children.
The ILO fundamental principles and rights at work declares:

a) Freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining.
b) The elimination of all forms of forced or compulsory labour.
c) The effective abolition of child labour; and
d) The elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation
Generally, three categories of the total employed are distinguished (United Nations Department
of Economic and Social Affairs 2007):
 Wage and salaried workers (also known as employees);
 Self-employed workers that include self-employed workers with employees
(employers), self-employed workers without employees (own-account
workers) and members of producers’ cooperatives; and
 Contributing family workers (also known as unpaid family workers; note
this is a sub category of self-employed workers, separated on account of the
fact that the socioeconomic implications associated with this status can differ
significantly from other self- employed workers).
4.12.5 Key findings

BIOGAS
According to the Netherlands Development Organisation ([SNV] 2016), more than
2,000 masons have been trained nationwide in Ethiopia. In addition, masons have used
daily labourers during the biogas plant construction period, opening additional short-
term employment opportunities in the target localities. Nevertheless, there is a lack of
documented evidence to present the exact number of jobs created by the programme.
Jobs in management and finance have also been included accordingly.
Explanations of the jobs associated with biogas (Table 4.43) are as follows.
 Total energy produced by the working biodigesters (77 per cent of 22,166
biodigesters) is 388 * 106 MJ/yr.
 Total working population is 57,750,000, representing 55 per cent of the total
Ethiopian population of 105 million in 2017, as per the latest census
figures.
 Due to lack of specific information about the distinction between temporary and
indefinite jobs in biogas sector, sub-indicator 12.3 has not been calculated.
 Sub-indicator 12.4 requires the percentage of jobs generated in the biogas sector
that adhere to nationally recognized labour standards. These standards should be
consistent with the principles enumerated in the ILO Declaration on Fundamental
Principles and Rights at Work. Compliance with national labour standards the
bioenergy sector has to be placed in perspective with compliance levels in
comparable economic sectors (sub-indicator 12.5 in Table 4.44). According to
Ethiopian labour code, for any employee in a profession, in his/her religion, gender,
race and political views, no discrimination will be made among them; and
136
rights of all employees are respected and safeguarded. Therefore, it has been
considered that the employment generated in the biogas sector complies with
the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work.
 The number of net jobs created (2,813) in sub-indicator 12.1 represents the sum
of the total number of skilled/trained masons (2,161) and unskilled/daily labourers
(652); whereas the number of total jobs (3,171) in sub-indicator 12.4 represents
the overall employment generated in the sector, including skilled jobs, unskilled
jobs and jobs in management and finance.
Table 4.43. Direct jobs associated with the biogas production value chain, 2015-2018
Sub- Unit of Percentage

Measurement scenarios Quantity of jobs Jobs/MJ
Indicator(s) measurement share (%)
12.1 Net job creation Number 2 813 7.25*10-6 100%
Skilled jobs Number 2 161 5.57*10-6 76.82%
12.2
Unskilled jobs Number 652 1.68*10-6 23.18%
Indefinite jobs Number NA NA NA
12.3
Temporary jobs Number NA NA NA
Total jobs Number 3 171 8.17*10-6 -
12.4 Jobs in relation to total

% 0.00005491 - 0.005491%
working population
Jobs in compliance with

12.5 % 100% - 100%
ILO
Source: NBPE 2015; NBPE 2018; Zerihun 2015; Rai 2018; Seyoum 2018; SNV 2018.
FUEL WOOD
A number of job opportunities have been created in firewood sectors across the country.
The types of jobs included in Table 4.44 are: jobs in fuelwood plantation, harvesting,
transport, wholesalers, fuelwood retailing, fuelwood processing and
utilization/consumption. Jobs related to management systems and finance are also
included.
Moreover, people are organized and employed both formally and informally in business
activities related to fuelwood production to consumption. However, there are no specific
recorded data on the number of informal jobs in the sectorm and hence informal jobs
are not included in the computation of the indicator. More particularly, the
commercialization and formalization of wood fuel production and transport/marketing
provides the basis for wood energy as a value chain.
Naturally, options for the deliberate modernization of wood-energy value chains are most
prevalent in and around large centres of consumption (e.g., cities) with easy road access
to forest areas. These conditions are not met evenly across Ethiopia. According to
interview results, commercialization of wood fuels at present is highest in Tigray, Afar,
Amhara and in and around the capital, Addis Ababa.
The fuelwood harvesting process and its utilization as a source of energy is technically
unsophisticated. It follows two main alternatives: either (1) self-management by
smallholders, or (2) standing stock sales to wholesalers who carry out logging, de-barking
and buckling, and stacking for transport on their own charges. The second alternative has
been applied by Oromia and Amhara Regional Forest Enterprises, where the standing
stock is auctioned off, to be cut and disposed of by the winning applicants.
137
Some explanation of the jobs associated with the fuelwood value chain (Table 4.44) are as
follows:
 Total energy consumed from firewood is 1.87*1012 MJ.
 Total working population is 57,750,000, representing 55 per cent of the total
Ethiopian population of 105 million in 2017.
 The net jobs created (12,800) in sub-indicator 12.1 constitutes the total estimated
number of skilled jobs or a well-trained workforce (4,864) and unskilled/daily
labourer (7,936) in the fuelwood value chain; whereas, the number of total jobs
(13,250) in sub-indicator 12.4 represents the overall employment generated in
the sector, including skilled jobs, unskilled jobs and jobs in management and
finance.
 Informal jobs are not included in the computation of the indicator.
No detailed information is available on the conformity of the jobs with the ILO principles.
As a be reminder, in most areas of Ethiopia, urban households buy fuel wood from traders
and retailers; whereas rural households, particularly women and children are forced to
travel great distances and spend considerable time to collect fuel wood (see Indicator 13).
In that regard, the working conditions are not in compliance with the Ethiopian Labor
Proclamation Statement for restricting the job starting age and eliminating forced labour.
Therefore, when including the informal jobs in the sector, the ILO Declaration on
Fundamental Principles and Rights at work are not met.
Table 4.44. Direct jobs associated with the fuelwood value chain, 2014-2017
Sub- Measurement Units of Quantity of jobs Jobs/MJ Percentage

Indicator(s) scenarios measurement share (%)
12.2
Unskilled jobs Number 7 936 4.24*10-9 62.00%
Indefinite jobs Number 7 466 3.99*10-9 58.33%
12.3
Temporary jobs Number 5 334 2.85*10-9 41.67%
Total jobs Number 13 250 7.09*10-9 -
Jobs in relation to
12.4
total
% 0.0002294 - 0.02294 %
working
population
Jobs in compliance
12.5 % - - -
with ILO
Source: Central Statistical Agency [CSA] 2016; Ethiopia, Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity 2018; SNV 2016; Geissler et al.
2013.
CHARCOAL
In the Oromiya and Amhara regions, charcoal was the most widely used form of energy
followed by firewood. Marketing of forest products (including charcoal) in most regions of
Ethiopia relies on traveling wholesalers who purchase loads of poles and charcoal directly
from smallholders (roadside sales).
Charcoal production and marketing has always been almost entirely informally
organized and implemented by the private sector. The computed numbers of
employment in the sector include jobs in charcoal production transport, retailing and
consumption as well as management and finance.
Due to a lack of adequate data, the number of informal jobs in the charcoal value chain
were not included in the computation of the indicator. However, charcoal activities along
the market chain provide an estimated 380,847 permanent jobs and 905,918 seasonal
138
employment opportunities, amounting to a total of 1,286,765 people employed by the
industry (see Indicator 20). The main actors directly involved along the charcoal market
chain include tree owner, nursery owner, seed
139
collector, charcoaler, labourer, truck owner, loader, bag producer, wholesaler, stove
producer and stove retailer.
Some more explanations of charcoal production value chains are as follow (Table 4.45):
 Total energy consumed from charcoal is 1.66*1011 MJ.
 Total working population is 57,750,000, representing 55 per cent of the Ethiopian
population of 105 million in 2017.
 The net jobs created (8,450) in sub-indicator 12.1 comprises the total number of
skilled jobs or a well-trained workforce (2,740) and unskilled/daily labourers
(5,710) in the charcoal production and distribution sectors; whereas, the number
of total jobs (8,800) in sub- indicator 12.4 represents the overall jobs created in
the sector, considering trained/skilled jobs, unskilled jobs, jobs in management
and finance.
 Informal jobs are not included in the computation of the indicator.
Table 4.45. Direct jobs associated with the charcoal value chain, 2014-2017
Sub- Measurement Units of Quantity of Jobs/MJ Percentage

Indicator(s) scenario measurements jobs share (%)
12.2
Unskilled jobs Number 5 710 3.44*10-8 67.57%
Indefinite jobs Number - - -
12.3
Temporary jobs Number - - -
Total jobs Number 8 800 5.30*10-8
12.4 Jobs in relation to total
% 0.0001524 - 0.01524%
working population
Jobs in compliance
12.5 % - - -
with ILO
Source: CSA 2016; Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity 2018; SNV 2016; Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change 2016; Geissler et al. 2013.

The conclusions and recommendations for both pathways are integrated.

The biogas pathway is the source of new activity, particularly for masons, and more than
2,000 masons were trained to build the biodigesters. This may not always correspond to
the creation of new jobs, but it reinforces the availability of work for masons. The total
number remains very small compared to the total number of jobs in Ethiopia.
The solid biomass sector is the source of a large number of jobs. However, many of these
jobs are informal and unskilled, especially in rural areas.

The biogas and solid biomass sectors are the source of a large number of formal and
informal jobs in Ethiopia. A better knowledge of these jobs is essential to define relevant
policies related to sustainable bioenergy production and utilization, to improve the quality
of the jobs, and to define the required training activities (see Indicator 21).
Recommendations to improve the jobs of the sector include:
 Data regarding informal jobs should be assessed, and these jobs should be
recognized institutionally so that they can be converted and organized into
formal jobs. Training is extremely important in that sense (Indicator 21). For
example, charcoal pricing is subject to
140
individual negotiations, and improving the smallholders’ bargaining power would
contribute to the formalization of their jobs.
 Women and children contribute greatly to the firewood sector, but their activity
does not comply with the basic ILO principles. Recognition of this informal
activity would contribute to changing this situation.
 Detailed information by region is needed. Proper organizations should be
established at the regional and national levels to collect valid data for proper
implementation of the indicator.
 If the production of charcoal were banned, employment in the sector would
certainly shift into fuel wood. Therefore, improving and institutionalizing or
legalizing the charcoal sector is probably a more sustainable approach, including
strong training of charcoal producers (see Indicator 21) and the conversion of
informal jobs into formal.
Future monitoring
The development of the bioenergy sector should not only be viewed from the
environmental perspective. It also provides economic and social benefits, such as
employment. The number of jobs in the bioenergy sector is expected to grow, hence the
importance of monitoring employment in the sector, as well as the associated skill and
quality level. Specifically, assessment of the informal employment must be reinforced,
especially in the solid biomass sector.
For this purpose, an integrated and well-developed data collection process is required, as
well as evaluation and handling mechanisms involving regional and national institutions.
Currently, there is no central and responsible institution in charge of collecting national
statistics on employment in the bioenergy sector in Ethiopia. The assessment of
employment in the bioenergy sector can easily be incorporated in one of the national
surveys that will be conducted by either the Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity
(MoWIE) or the National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia (NBPE). Therefore, it is
recommended that various stakeholders such as GIZ, SNV Netherlands Development
Organisation, the Ethiopian Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission, the
Ethiopian Ministry of Health and the Ethiopian Ministry of Women and Children Affairs
work in collaboration with MoWIE and NBPE to develop a systematic and continual
generation of data on employment in the bioenergy sector with its appropriate handling
mechanisms.
4.12.7 References
Central Statistical Agency (2016). Welfare Monitoring Survey. Addis Ababa.
Ethiopia. In cooperation with the Ethiopian Ministry of Water and Energy. Supported by the European
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2016). The Charcoal Industry Assessment
of Ethiopia: Policy and Institutional Restructuring for Sustainable Charcoal. Addis Ababa.
Program, Ethiopia. Volume I: Situation. Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity (2018). Report on National Biogas Users’ Survey. Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy (2015). Report on Biogas Users’ Survey. Addis Ababa.
National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia (2018). Report of Coordination Units of National Biogas
Programme of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.
141
Rai, S. (2018). National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia (NBPE). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Seyoum, S. (2018). The Economics of a Biogas Digester, Livestock Economics Division ILCA, P.O. Box
5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/132634928.pdf.
142
SNV Netherlands Development Organisation (2018). Report on National Biogas Users’ Survey, 2018.
National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2007). Indicators of Sustainable
Development: Guidelines and Methodologies. Third edition. New York.
Zerihun, Y.A. (2015). The benefit of use of biogas energy in rural areas of Ethiopia. African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 9(4), 332-345. doi: 10.5897/AJEST2014.1838.
4.13 Indicator 13. Change in unpaid time spent by women and children
collecting biomass
Alemtsehaye Eyassu1, Hundessa Adugna2 and Gemechu Kaba3, Ethiopian Environment
and Forest Research Institute (EEFRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
1
[email protected], 2 [email protected], 3 [email protected]
4.13.2 Description
(13.1) Change in average unpaid time spent by women and children collecting biomass as
a result of switching from traditional use of biomass to modern bioenergy services.

Hours per week per household/ percentage

Secondary data, based on literature review, were used for the measurement of this
indicator. The focus was on the time saved thanks to the replacement of traditional
bioenergy (open fires) by modern bioenergy services as selected in the two pathways
(solid biomass used in improved cookstoves and biogas).The methodology aims at
comparing the time spent for cooking and other household activities before and after the
use of the biogas and the improved cookstoves.
4.13.5 Key findings

BUSINESS-AS-USUAL: THE USE OF TRADITIONAL BIOMASS
In Ethiopia, the household sector accounts for 90 per cent of the total energy consumed,
and most households (93 per cent) depend on traditional open fires (Manuye et al. 2018).
Female household members are primarily responsible for fuelwood collection and are the
primary cooks in the household: more than 90 per cent of firewood collection is
undertaken by women (ages 18-59) assisted by female children ages 6 to 17 years old;
male children of these same ages are also involved in fuelwood collection (Gwavuya et
al. 2012).
These tasks have been identified as unpaid work that is time demanding and crucial for
the survival of household members (Ferrant, Pesando, and Nowacka 2014). Since biomass
resources have been depleted over time, rural women are obliged to travel long distances
per day to the forest and to carry heavy loads of fuelwood on their backs, which is an
exhausting as well as physically challenging task (Amigun et al. 2012).
According to the World Bank (2014) as cited in Rebeca (2017), women and girls spend
two hours per day collecting fuel wood on average at the global level. This can reach six
143
hours in some countries,
144
depending on the availability of wood fuel, the deforestation rate, the trend of fuelwood
plantation in the area, management practices and the level of awareness of the
community.
In Ethiopia, nationwide, 53.3 per cent of households spend more than 7 hours a week
acquiring fuel for cooking and more than 15 minutes preparing the stove for each
meal (Padam et al. 2018).
BIOGAS
Time savings
Some scholars in Ethiopia have studied the role and burden of rural women in collecting
fuelwood and the issue of time saved by women and children collecting biomass, cooking
and cleaning cooking utensils due to switching from traditional biomass use to biogas.
Although the result varies among scholars, the general findings show the importance of
modern energy for saving time and reducing the workload of women and children.
Some of the findings are as follows:
 The majority of women are highly interested in and satisfied with the cooking aspect
of biogas, since biogas technology is simple, easier, quicker, cheap and locally
acceptable. In addition, the technology is easy to set up, use and manage
(Taleshani and Kia 2001).
 Using a biogas plant has the potential to substitute 2,208 kg and 3,319 kg of fuelwood
per year for the 4 m3 and 6 m3 biodigesters respectively (Gwavuya et al. 2012).
Similarly, 6,015 kg and 902 kg of dung cakes per year can be replaced by the 4 m 3
and the 6 m3 biodigesters respectively.
 According to Getachew (2016), thanks to the use of biogas technology, average

times taken for collecting biomass, cooking food, cleaning utensils were reduced by
0.6 hours, 12.8 hours and
3.1 hours per week respectively. According to Eshete, Sonder and ter Heegde (2006),
utilization of biogas decreases household workload by two to three hours per day
on average.
 Furthermore, the case studies done by Amare (2015) in Fogera district, in Amhara
regional state, revealed that since biogas is a quicker and clean cooking fuel, it
creates an opportunity for each household to save 185 minutes per day in the
time used for collecting fuel wood and cow dung (51 and 38 minutes), cooking (77
minutes) and cleaning utensils (19 minutes), in addition to decreasing the health
impacts and physical stress associated with fuelwood collection. This is close to the
findings of Rana, Thapa and Subedi (2015) that on average households using biogas
save 96 minutes per day for cooking as compared to traditional biomass users.
 The variation in time saved may relate to differences in the type and amounts of food
and in the means of preparation. For instance, in Ethiopia, cooking “Doro wete” takes
longer than cooking other foodstuff. Similarly, the time taken for cleaning cooking
utensils is determined by the type of food, cleaning material, amount of the soot
covering the pots and time needed for cooking. That is why the time saved per day
for cleaning cooking utensils – at 19 minutes – is far different from the findings of
Renwick, Subedi and Hutton (2007), which was 39 minutes per day.
145
Table 4.46. Average time saved before and after the adoption of biogas technology.
Amare Getachew (2016) Eshete et al. (2006)

(2015)
Activities Average time needed in Average time Average time Average time saved
minute /day saved saved minute per day due to
minute/day /day biogas
Before After
Fuel wood collection 76 25 +51 5 -
Cooking 240 164 +77 108 -
Cow dung collection 57 19 +38 -
Cleaning cooking utensil 54 35 +19 26 -
Total 428 243 +185 +139 +120 to 180
Source: Amare 2015; Eshete et al. 2016; Getachew 2016.
Although the technology has a great impact on workload reduction, implementing biogas
also incurs extra duties both for women and men in households. The use of biogas
increased women’s average time spent collecting dung, fetching water and feeding the
biogas digester:
 The utilization of biogas technology increased women’s average time spent fetching
water by 26 minutes per day (Amare 2015; Getachew 2016).
 Mixing dung and water adds an extra 15 minutes per day for women (Amare 2015).
In addition to other household activities, biogas adopters use an extra five minutes
per day for collecting dung, feeding the digester and making dung cake compared
with non-users (Getachew 2016).
Gender, violence and socioeconomic activities

Introduction of biogas technology reduces gender inequalities because both men
and women participate in biogas adoption training. Because men’s average time spent
for feeding the biogas digester and mixing water and dung increased, men contributed
to women’s workload reduction. In addition, since biogas stoves are easier to use, male
sons have also become more involved in cooking their breakfasts, feeding the biogas
digester and collecting dung (Getachew 2016).
Women have also suffered from risks related to fuelwood collection, such as gender-based
violence, wildlife attack and confine by guards as well as associated physical stresses.
This is confirmed by the national biogas users’ survey (2018), in which surveyed
households in the four regional states of Amhara, Oromia, Tigray and SNNPR identified the
negative impacts of fuelwood collection as being the extra work burden of biomass
collection (74 per cent), violence against women and girls (26 per cent) and children’s
delay from school (24 per cent). Interestingly, after the adoption of biogas in the study
area, more than 90 per cent of the surveyed biogas users confirmed that violence against
women and girls had decreased.
Biogas technology has contributed greatly to improving women participation in

socioeconomic activities. The time savings from biogas adoption allows women to
participate in agricultural production, income-generating activities and other community
development projects that help them to improve the social and economic status of the
community. In the survey results, 77 per cent of biogas users agreed on the positive
impact of biogas for women’s participation and empowerment in the study area
(Amhara, Oromia, SNNPR and Tigray).
146
Similarly, based on the results in the biogas user’s survey report (2015), the use of biogas
creates opportunities for women and girls to be involved in other productive activities (Figure
4.22).
Women’s use of time varies by region and is affected by a variety of factors such as
culture, socioeconomic status, number of family members, and exposure to and
availability of different
147
community development projects. Most of the surveyed households in Amhara and Tigray
regional states spend their saved time for agricultural purposes, which would contribute
greatly to increasing income and food security as a whole. Overall, women and girls are
not only affected by the burden of energy poverty, but they also benefit the most
compared to other family members when modern energy access is in place (Rewald
2017).
Interestingly, since children were also highly occupied with fuelwood collection, biogas
adoption created an opportunity for allocating extra time saved for education, playing
longer and washing clothes, which was not in place before biogas adoption. Therefore, the
installation of biogas empowers women and promotes girls’ education, narrowing the gap
in educational status between male and female children (Arthur, Baidoo and Antwi
2011).
Figure 4.22. The allocation of the time saved in each regional state of Ethiopia
Oromia AMHARA
Social
Recreatio Social work
n work Agricultur 26%
40% 39% al work
52% Studying
Agricultu
ral work 22%
21%
Source: Biogas Users’ Survey 2015.
FIREWOOD
Reducing the amount of fuel wood used for cooking is a key driver for the promotion of
improved cookstoves in Ethiopia. In addition to reducing the pressure on forestry, it
reduces women’s workload for cooking (Mamuye Lemma and Woldeamanuel 2018).
The Government of Ethiopia, together with non-governmental organizations, disseminate

different types of improved cookstoves. These cookstove differ in their fuel-saving
efficiency and therefore in the amount of time saved and forest preserved, as assessed
by Alemayehu (2015) (Figure 4.23).
148
Figure 4.23. Benefits of improved cookstoves
Source: Alemayehu 2015.

Conclusions and recommendations for both pathways are integrated.

In Ethiopia, 95 per cent of the population relies on traditional biomass (open fires) for the
source of energy. An estimated 53.3 per cent of households spend more than 7 hours a
week acquiring fuel for cooking and more than 15 minutes preparing the stove for each
meal. Over 90 per cent of firewood collection is undertaken by women and children.
Therefore, the use of biogas and improved cookstoves has the potential to reduce the
high demand for wood fuel and therefore the associated workload and time needed for
biomass collection and cooking. The time saved can be used for income-generating
activities and for improving the social status of the household in the community.
Detailed studies are available regarding the time savings associated with the use of
biogas for cooking (up to four hours per day); however, studies related to the time
savings associated with improved cookstoves are less precise. Other benefits relate to
gender-based violence and the role of women in socioeconomic activities. In other words,
switching from traditional use of biomass to biogas and improved cookstoves benefits
women and children and the community as a whole.
Polices to improve sustainability

The environmental, economic and social benefits of biodigesters and improved
cookstoves are numerous. It is essential to enhance their promotion with strong policies
and strategies, as described in the conclusion of this report. The time and workload saved
thanks to modern cooking solutions must be well emphasized and integrated in the
strategies, so that women and men better acknowledge this benefit. This would reinforce
the sustainability of the adoption of biodigesters and improved cookstoves.
Future monitoring of indicator

Alternative solutions for cooking such as biogas and improved cookstoves contribute
greatly to saving time and relieving local pressure on wood resources, in line with
minimizing the health and environmental impact. However, the change in time spent
collecting traditional biomass and cooking with open fires compared to modern cooking
solutions is not systematically studied, or studies are limited in magnitude. This results in
heterogeneous outcomes. More systematic studies, in different regions and at different
moments of time, are needed to gather primary data and better understand the dynamics
149
of cooking with different solutions and the associated time, workload and benefits.
150
Collaboration with universities and researchers is important for this purpose. This will
also contribute to understanding the dynamics of fuel and stove stacking.
4.13.7 References
Alemayehu, Y. A. (2015). Status and benefits of renewable energy technologies in the rural areas
of Ethiopia: A case study on improved cooking stoves and biogas Technologies. International
Journal of Renewable Energy Development 4(2), 103-111.
Amare, Z.Y. (2015). The benefits of the use of biogas energy in rural areas in Ethiopia: A case
study from the Amhara National Regional State, Fogera District. African Journal of Environmental
Science and Technology 9(4), 332-345.
Amigun, B., Parawira, W., Musango, J. K., Aboyade, A. O., and Badmos, A. S. (2012). An Aerobic Biogas
Generation for Rural Area Energy Provision in Africa. http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/31319.pdf.
Arthur, R., Baidoo, M. F. and Antwi, E. (2011). Biogas as a Potential Renewable Energy Source:
Ghanaian Case Study.
Eshete, G., Sonder, K. and ter Heegde, F. (2006). Report on the Feasibility Study of a National
Programme for Domestic Biogas in Ethiopia. SNV Netherlands Development Organisation. Addis
Ababa.
Ferrant, G., Pesando, L.M. and Nowacka, K. (2014). Unpaid Care Work: The Missing Link in the
Analysis of Gender Gaps in Labour Outcomes. Issues paper. https://www.oecd.org/dev/development-
gender/Unpaid_care_work.pdf.
Getachew, M. (2016). Biogas Technology Adoption and Its Contributions to Rural Livelihood and Environment in
Northern Ethiopia: The Case of Ofla and MechaWoredas. Ph.D Thesis. Addis Ababa University.
Gwavuya, S. G., Abele, S., Barfuss, I., Zeller, M. and Müller, J. (2012). Household energy economics in
rural Ethiopia: A cost-benefit analysis of biogas energy. Renewable Energy 48, 202-209.
Jacob, N. (2013). Promotion and use of improved cookstoves in the conservation of biomass
resources and biomass briquettes from solid wastes in the Gambia. ISESCO Journal of Science and
Technology 9(1), 17-26
Mamuye, F., Lemma, B., and Woldeamanuel, T. (2018). Emissions and fuel use performance of two
improved stoves and determinants of their adoption in Dodola, southeastern Ethiopia.
Sustainable Environment Research 28(1), 32-38.
Padam, G., Rysankova, D., Portale, E., Bonsuk Koo, B., Keller, S. and Fleurantin, G. (2018). Ethiopia. Beyond
Connections: Energy Access Diagnostic Report Based on the Multi-Tier Framework. World Bank. Washington,
D.C. https://www.esmap.org/node/170494.
Rana, S.A., Thapa, S. and Subedi, N. (2015). Impact of Biogas on Reducing Pressure on Forests and
Workload of Women in Terai Arc Landscape (TAL), Nepal.
Renwick, M., Subedi, P.S. and Hutton, G. (2007). A Cost-benefit Analysis of National and Regional
Integrated Biogas and Sanitation Programs in Sub-Saharan Africa. http://www.susana.org/docs. Accessed 20
April 2019.
Rewald, R. (2017). Energy and Women and Girls: Analyzing the Needs, Uses and Impacts of Energy on
Women and Girls in the Developing World. Oxfam Research Backgrounder Series.
SNV Netherlands Development Organisation (2015). Report on National Biogas Users’ Survey. National
151
4.14 Indicator 14. Bioenergy used to expand access to modern energy
services
Dr. Shasho Megersa1 and Buzayehu Desisa2, Ethiopian environment and forest research
institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
1
[email protected] and [email protected]
4.14.1 Description
(14.1) Total amount and percentage of increased access to modern energy services
gained through modern bioenergy (disaggregated by bioenergy type), measured in terms
of (14.1a) energy and (14.1b) numbers of households and businesses.
(14.2) Total number and percentage of households and businesses using bioenergy,
disaggregated into modern bioenergy and traditional biomass.

(14.1a) Modern energy services can take the form of liquid fuels, gaseous fuels, solid
fuels, heating, cooling and electricity. A change in access to each of these forms of
modern energy can be measured in MJ per year and this is preferable in order to allow
comparison of different forms of energy service, but each may also be measured in
appropriate units of volume or mass per year, which may sometimes be more convenient,
such as litres/year or MJ/year for liquid fuels, tons/year or MJ/year for solid fuels, etc.
(14.1b) Number and percentage
(14.2) Number and percentage

Secondary data, retrieved from official reports and literatures, were used. Where possible,
the different components of the access to modern energy services (electricity, cooking,
mechanical power for productive use) should be separated in the calculation. Since the
two pathways selected for Ethiopia are focused on energy for cooking, the indicator is
calculated for the access to modern cooking services.
The GBEP definition of modern energy services for cooking is based on two criteria:
energy efficiency and safety to human health. Where modern energy services rely on the
combustion of fuels, the fuels (whether solid, liquid or gaseous) must be burned in
efficient and safe combustion chambers, improved cookstoves, or fuel cells. Improved
cookstoves comprise closed stoves with chimneys, as well as open stoves or fires with
chimneys or hoods, but exclude open stoves or fires with no chimney or hood.
Improved cookstoves usually have energy efficiency higher than 20-30 per cent, and
their flue gases are released distant from their users.
4.14.4 Key findings

SUB-INDICATOR 14.1A
Total final energy consumption in Ethiopia was 42.15 Mtoe in 2016 (International
Energy Agency [IEA] 2018). Ninety per cent of the final energy was consumed by
households. Fuels from solid biomass (fuelwood, charcoal, animal dung and crop
residues) are the main energy sources for cooking. But most of them are used in a
traditional way as three-stone open fires and cannot be considered as modern energy
end-use. The question is therefore to assess the amount of fuelwood used for cooking
that can be considered as providing modern bioenergy services.
152
Improved biomass cookstoves
According to the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change ([MEFCC] 2018),
total consumption of biomass reached 100 million tons in 2013 (roundwood, branches,
leaves, charcoal as wood), and 140 million tons if residues and dung are added. Gaia
(2014) reported the number of households in Ethiopia to be 18,627,682 (77 per cent
rural and 23 per cent urban). The author also indicated that households used more
than 122 million tons of biomass, which is the same order of magnitude as MEFCC
(2018). This results in an average of more than 5,000 kg biomass fuel per household
per year (more than 7,000 kg if residues and dung are included).
On the other hand, a total of 9 million improved cookstoves were distributed to

households during GTP I (2011-2015) (Netherlands Development Organisation [SNV]
2018). It is also estimated that 11 million improved cookstoves were distributed in
Ethiopia by 2017. MIRT and Gonzie (for injera baking) and Tikikil and Lakech (for non-
baking services) were the most common stoves. Their thermal efficiencies were 15 per
cent, 15 per cent, 28 per cent and 38 per cent, respectively (SNV 2018) and they had an
average thermal efficiency of 24 per cent. According to the recommendations of the
Clean Cooking Alliance, only the Tikikil and Lakech stoves are considered sufficiently
efficient (more than 25 per cent) to be considered improved cookstoves. Tikikil and
Lakech stoves are still used by a limited part of the population.
In summary, only around an estimated 10 per cent of households use efficient stoves (for
baking), and penetration of other modern and clean cookstoves is well below 10 per
cent (SNV 2018).
According to Sustainability for All statistics, only 3.5 per cent of the population has access
to clean fuels and technologies for cooking ([SEforALL] 2018).
For this study, we assume an optimistic value of 10 per cent of households using
improved biomass cookstoves considered as modern cooking solutions. An average
energy efficiency of 28 per cent is considered for the improved biomass cookstoves,
which is a little bit optimistic, and 8 per cent for the other stoves. Considering a total
biomass consumption of 122 Mtons of fuelwood, a total of 3.75 Mtons/yr of fuelwood
(1299 ktoe/yr) is consumed by the households with improved cookstoves, and 118
Mtons/yr by the households without improved cookstoves (Table 4.47). This
corresponds to modern energy services of 364 ktoe/yr, taking into consideration the
efficiency of the stoves.
Table 4.47. Computation of Indicator 14 for solid biomass
1 PJ = 23.88 ktoe
1 GJ = 0.00002388 Ktoe
Households with modern Households without modern
biomass cooking solutions biomass cooking solutions
Mton biomass 122
Total households 18.6
Share 10% 90%
million households 1.86 16.74
efficiency of the stove 28% 8%
ton biomass/household/yr 2.02 7.06
ktoe biomass/household/yr(1) 0.000699 0.00245
Mton biomass/yr 3.75 118.25
ktoe biomass/yr(1) 1 299.81 40 943.91
ktoe energy service/yr(1) 363.95 3 275.51
ktoe energy services/household/yr(2) 0.000242 0.000242
(1)
Assumption: 14.5 MJ/kg wood
(2)
Heat available for cooking (produced by the stove)
153
Biogas
From the total of 22,166 biodigesters already distributed in the country (Rai 2018), only
77 per cent are functional and hence, 17,068 households are utilizing biogas as modern
energy. Each biodigester produces an estimated 2.83 m3 of biogas per day (Indicator 17),
and the efficiency of the biogas stove is 57 per cent. This results in a final energy
consumption of 9.3 ktoe/yr, equivalent to energy services of 5.3 ktoe/yr.
Table 4.48. Computation of Indicator 14 for biogas
Households with biogas

cooking solutions
million households with functional 0.017
biodigester
efficiency of the stove 57%
m3 biogas per household 2.8
m3 biogas/household/yr 1 033.0
ktoe biogas/household/yr (1) 0.0005427
million m3 biogas/yr 17.6
ktoe biogas/yr (1) 9.3
ktoe energy service/yr (2) 5.28
ktoe energy services/household/yr (2) 0.0003093
(1)
Assumption: 22 MJ/m3 biogas
(2)
Heat available for cooking (produced by the stove)
Electricity
The main energy resource used in electricity generation is hydropower. The electricity
power system of Ethiopia consumes 832 ktoe of hydropower (Yurnaidi and Kim 2018).
According to these authors,
38.7 per cent of electricity is consumed in the residential sector (35.8 per cent for lighting
and 1.32 per cent for cooking services). Hence, 11 ktoe of hydropower electricity is used
for household cooking services in the country.
Fossil-fuel services
According to SNV (2018) of the 36.4 Mtoe generated in Ethiopia in 2014, 8 per cent is for
petroleum. Yurnaidi and Kim (2018) showed further that 1.43 per cent of energy from
fossil fuel goes for residential cooking service. Hence, only about 41.6 ktoe used for
cooking services is from fossil fuel.
Synthesis
The access to modern cooking energy services is estimated at:
 364 ktoe for improved biomass cookstoves
 ktoe for biodigesters
 11 ktoe for electricity services
 42 ktoe for fossil fuel services
 Total: 1,168 ktoe
Cooking services with traditional cooking solutions represent 4,044 ktoe.
SUB-INDICATOR 14.1B
Improved biomass cookstoves
Around 11 million cookstoves had been distributed by 2017. However, as discussed
above, many of them cannot be considered as improved cookstoves given their low
efficiency. Based on SNV (2018), we assume that 10 per cent of households use improved
biomass cookstoves considered as modern cooking solutions according to the usual
definitions.
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Biodigesters
From the total of 22,166 biodigesters already distributed in the country (Rai 2018), only
77 per cent are functional, and hence 17,068 households utilize biogas as modern
energy. This represents less than 0.1 per cent of total households.
Electricity services
It has been reported that 42.9 per cent of the Ethiopian population had access to
electricity, broken down into 85.4 per cent of the urban population and 26.5 per cent of
the rural population. Assuming that the same rate applies to households (this assumption
neglects the different sizes of households in urban and rural areas), the number of
households with electricity is 8 million, or 3.3 urban households and 3.9 rural households.
Moreover, it is estimated that 4.1 per cent of households cook with electricity (Padam et
al. 2018). This low value is surprising given the low cost of electricity. The low reliability of
the grid, upfront costs of electric stoves and cultural factors are possible reasons below
these low values.
Synthesis
In total, 1.9 million households have access to modern cooking services and 8 million
households have access to electricity services. Ethiopian households with access to
modern energy could be estimated by summing households with access to bioenergy and
electricity, but this needs to consider that some households have access to both. Due to
the lack of data, we considered that half of the households with access to modern
cooking services also have access to electricity services, i.e., 0.95 million households.
This results in 8.9 million households with access to modern energy services (0.95 million
only modern cooking + 7.05 million only electricity + 0.95 million both).
It is interesting to note that the total number of households with modern cooking services
is less than the urban households with electricity access, which proves that many urban
households still do not have access to modern cooking services.
The percentage of households with access to modern energy through bioenergy is

calculated using the following formula and result obtained is 21 per cent (1.9/8.9).
SUB-INDICATOR 14.2
Based on the data provided for sub-indicator 14.1, the total number of households using
bioenergy is:
 Modern bioenergy services: 1.9 million (10 per cent)
 Traditional bioenergy services: 16.7 million (90 per cent)
 Total: 18.6 million

Only 10 per cent of households are estimated to have access to modern bioenergy
services, mostly through improved cookstoves. Around 43 per cent of households have
access to electricity, and 4 per cent of households cook with electricity. Less than 0.1 per
cent of households have a biodigester.
Policies to improve sustainability

155
Further expansion of biodigesters could help rural people in particular to gain access to
modern energy services. Many people have already gained exposure to the benefits that
could be obtained
156
by having biodigesters. The cattle population in Ethiopia is also very high and provides
dung as a feedstock for anaerobic digestion. For biogas to enhance access to modern
energy services, support is required from government policies, such as the National
Energy Policy. This would facilitate the development of the biogas market and the
application of advanced technologies so that biogas can be used in an efficient and safe
way. There are also alternative feedstocks for biogas production in the country, such as
agricultural residues, coffee husks, water hyacinth and fruit processing wastes. As a
result, bioenergy development and utilization in the country has a bright future.
The share of households using improved cookstoves is also found to be progressing. The
promotion of more-efficient and cleaner stoves, such as pellet stoves, should be
explored. Other interesting stoves are the thermo-electric generation stoves, providing
electricity capacity to charge a phone or a solar lamp – for example, ACE1 stoves
(https://africancleanenergy.com/), or Biolite stoves
(http://catalog.cleancookstoves.org/stoves/64), where excess heat is converted to
electricity.
With increasing household incomes, there will be a need for cleaner and more convenient
energy sources, such as LPG and electricity, instead of traditional energy sources. It is
necessary to conduct deeper studies to understand the problems associated with
promoting bioenergy and how to simplify bioenergy production in the country. This
needs close follow-up by the responsible persons. Appropriate energy policies should also
be in place to facilitate efficient use of bioenergy. There is also a need for strong
coordination and cooperation among local and international institutions in order to carry
out these studies successfully.
Future monitoring
Future monitoring of bioenergy utilization in Ethiopia should focus on overcoming data
gaps and making available updated data. Institutional relationships also should be
smoothed out and organized.
The specific energy needs for injera baking stoves deserve more analysis. Injera stoves
consume a significant amount of cooking energy per household, but specific data on
those stoves are not available. The analysis of fuel and stove stacking (several fuels and
stoves used for cooking) also deserves deeper analysis in order to understand how to
reduce the parallel use of clean and unclean cooking solutions.
Finally, the new multi-tiered approach proposed by the World Bank to measure energy
access is of high interest for a detailed monitoring of energy access (Padam et al. 2018. It
reports the access to modern energy cooking solutions according to six attributes
(efficiency, exposure to pollution, convenience to gather and prepare the fuel and stove,
safety, affordability and fuel availability).
4.14.6 References
Gaia Association (2014). Holistic Feasibility Study of a National Scale-Up Program for Ethanol Cookstoves
and Ethanol Micro Distilleries in Ethiopia. Assessment of Cooking Energy in Households, Commercial Enterprises
and Social Institutions in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.
International Energy Agency (2018). Total primary energy supply of Ethiopia in 2018.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2018). Review of Policies and Strategies
Related to the Clean Cooking Sector in Ethiopia, Strengthening the Enabling Environment for Clean Cooking
Project. Final report. Addis Ababa.
157
Padam, G., Rysankova, D., Portale, E., Koo, B.B., Keller, S. and Fleurantin, G. (2018). Ethiopia, Beyond
Connections, Energy Access Diagnostic Report Based on the Multi-Tier Framework, World Bank.
Washington,
D.C. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/372371533064359909/pdf/Ethiopia-Beyond-
connections- energy-access-diagnostic-report-based-on-the-multi-tier-framework.pdf.
158
SNV Netherlands Development Organisation (2018). Review of policies and strategies related to the
clean cooking sector in Ethiopia, strengthening the enabling environment for clean cooking project, Final
Report. Addis Ababa.
Sustainable Energy for All (2018). Country statistics of Ethiopia.
https://www.se4all-africa.org/seforall-in- africa/country-data/ethiopia/.
Yurnaidi, S. and Kim, S. (2018). Reducing biomass utilization in the Ethiopia energy system: A national
modeling analysis. Energies 11, 1745; doi:10.3390/en11071745.
4.15 Indicator 15. Change in mortality and burden of disease attributable to

indoor smoke
Biruk Gobena1 and Mohammed Berhanu2, Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research
1
[email protected] and [email protected]
4.15.2 Description
(15.1) Change in mortality and burden of disease attributable to indoor smoke from
solid fuel use, and (15.2) Changes in these as a result of the increased deployment of
modern bioenergy services, including improved biomass-based cookstoves.

Percentages

A review of available studies in Ethiopia was conducted to better understand the effects of
smoke on health as well as the role of biogas on health improvement. Data on household
air pollution related to biogas and solid fuel from Ministry of Water, Irrigation and
Energy (MoWIE), and Netherlands Development Organisation (SNV-Ethiopia) reports
were particularly useful. Data from the World Health Organization and regional studies
were also used. These data mainly emphasize the benefits of the biodigesters and miss
data associated with improved cookstoves.
4.15.5 Key findings

THE CURRENT SITUATION
According to the report of the Ministry of Health, 1,262,908 (5 per cent) cases of acute
upper respiratory infections and pneumonia in 2010/11 may have been linked to
household and outdoor air pollution. Due to high concentration of household air
pollution in Ethiopia, the national estimates of the burden of diseases such as acute lower
respiratory infection and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases is high (Institute for
Health Metrics and Evaluation 2014).
A recent World Health Organization report states that air pollution (household and
outdoor) is the single largest environmental risk factor for premature death in Ethiopia,
and household air pollution due to burning of solid fuels is responsible for over 65,000
premature deaths and more than 3.1 million disability-adjusted life-years per year
(Beyene et al. 2018). The deaths attributed to indoor air pollution are mainly due to lower
respiratory tract infections (36,144 cases in 2016), with the greatest impact in the first six
159
days of life. Household air pollution is also a risk factor for chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease, lung cancer and cardiovascular disease in adults and may be a risk
160
factor for diseases such as tuberculosis and various adverse birth outcomes (World
Health Organization [WHO] 2018). That is more than 150 deaths per day, with more
than 90 per cent of them occurring in children under five years of age (Ministry of Water
and Energy [MoWE] 2013). At the global level, 3.8 million people die prematurely in 2016
because of inhaling smoke from kitchens (WHO 2019).
Figure 4.24. Numbers of deaths attributable to indoor air pollution in 2016 in Ethiopia
Source: Beyene et al. 2018.
Table 4.49. Estimates of burden of disease attributable to solid fuel use in Ethiopia
Diseases or cases attributable to solid fuel use Number of cases

ALRI deaths (<5 years) 50 320
COPD deaths (≥ 30 years) 6 140
Total deaths 56 460
Total DALYs 1 790 800
Percentage of national burden of disease 4.9
Notes: ALRI = Acute Lower Respiratory Infections, COPD = Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, DALY = Disability-
Adjusted Life Year Source: MoWE 2013.
In most Ethiopian households, cooking is done indoors and often during the night,
creating a very smoky environment. This significantly affects women and children
because they stay up longer than other household members and routinely spend
more than four hours a day in the kitchen (MoWE 2013).
In poorly ventilated kitchens that use biomass fuels and unimproved stoves in Ethiopia,
women are heavily exposed (Worku et al. 2016) to smoke for prolonged periods of
time (often 1-3 hours).
Around 91 per cent of women in rural areas in Ethiopia are estimated to be involved in
cooking. Cooking exposes women and their young children to household air pollution
andassociated health problems such as acute lower respiratory infections (Sanbata 2012).
Particularly in rural areas, the unavailability of ventilation, overcrowding and family
members’ sharing of spaces in the house with domestic animals raise people’s
exposure to diseases (Worku et al. 2016).
In most rural settlements, dining, living and cooking are done in the same room
(MoWE 2013). Almost 40 per cent of households cook in the housing unit where they live,
while around 47 per cent use a separate building, and around 1 household in 10 (12 per
cent) cooks outdoors (Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency 2017). This seriously affects
161
people’s health, causing acute respiratory diseases and eye infections.
162
BIOGAS
A substantial number of biogas owners in SNNPR have indicated that they are highly
satisfied with the health benefits of biogas, while the health benefits indicated by users
in Tigray and Amhara region were lower (SNV 2015). The reason for the lower
satisfaction in Amhara is fuel stacking, which limits the benefits on health. This is
discussed below.
Table 4.50. Health benefit satisfaction rate with biogas plant
Satisfaction level
Region Not satisfied (%) Partially satisfied (%) Fully satisfied (%)
Amhara 5 59 36
SNNPR 3 - 97
Oromia 6 8 86
Tigray 17 8 75
Source: SNV 2015.
The main source of cooking energy before biogas was firewood, which is the most
frequently used means of energy before installation of biogas. In SNNPR and Amhara,
almost all survey participants indicated that they used firewood. In Oromia region,
charcoal was the most widely used form of energy followed by firewood before biogas
installation. National energy consumption data indicate that 80 per cent of household
energy use is from firewood (SNV 2015).
The use of biogas has also led to a reduction of smoke in kitchens. Nationally, 20 per cent
of respondents stated that smoke is completely avoided. When considered regionally, 55
per cent of survey participants indicated reduction to a greater extent, while 22 per cent
of respondents indicated only some reduction. Overall, there is an indication that
household pollution has been controlled at some level throughout the regions as a result
of installation and use of biogas as a source of household fuel. As reported by 6 per
cent of biogas users in Amhara region, the main advantages from using biogas
compared to conventional fuel is that it causes less smoke so that it improves
household air quality (SNV 2015).
The Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy ([MoWIE] 2018) has tried to assess the extent
of smoke reduction due to the use of biogas, and the health impacts. Most of the biogas
users believe that the smoke has been reduced and their health situation is improving.
Around 19 per cent believe that smoke is completely avoided, while 38 per cent reported
significant reduction in the smoke and health-related impacts. Regarding the occurrence
of some smoke-related diseases, 67.9 per cent of the biogas users believe that eye
disease was reduced, 57.9 per cent believe respiratory diseases were reduced, and 62.9
per cent believe cough was reduced.
An important aspect that must also be considered is the use of fuel interchangeably, or
fuel and stove stacking. Most biogas users found that they continue to use wood, dung or
charcoal even after the installation of biogas. They may use different fuels
interchangeably due to shortage of energy caused by leakage of gas at fittings, improper
biodigester feeding practice, as well as the dish preparation culture, such as baking injera
and the coffee ceremony, for which the biogas fire outlet is not user friendly. Significantly,
large number of users in Amhara (80 per cent) indicated they always use these items to
complete household fuel requirements, as shown in Table 4.51. This considerably limits
the health benefits of cooking with biogas.
163
Table 4.51. Use of wood, dung or charcoal for cooking after biogas
Practice Amhara SNNPR Tigray Oromia

Always use wood, dung or charcoal stove as well as biogas 80% 10% 15% 8%
Sometimes use wood, dung or charcoal stove 20% 88% 82% 79%
Fully cook with biogas 0 2% 3% 13%
Total 100% 100% 100% 100%
Source: SNV 2015.
According to the study done by MoWIE (2018), overall, 88 per cent of biogas users
have observed significant improvements in the health conditions of their family
members since they began using biogas energy. Higher levels of overall improvements in
health conditions are observed in almost all surveyed regions, where the majority of
respondents are satisfied with improvements in the health situation of their household
members as a result of using biogas technology (MoWIE 2018).
IMPROVED BIOMASS COOKSTOVES

The use of improved cookstoves contributes to more efficient combustion and therefore
less polluting smoke. No precise data were obtained for this report. Moreover, it is
important to remember that improved biomass cookstoves are considered
insufficient to meet the WHO guidelines on household air pollution (WHO 2014).
The only cooking options that meet WHO guidelines at point-of-use are based on
natural gas / biogas, LPG, electricity, ethanol and solar; the highest-performing
advanced biomass stoves usually burn pellets.

Household air pollution due to the burning of solid fuels is responsible for over
65,000 premature deaths and more than 3.1 million disability-adjusted life-years
annually in Ethiopia. Diseases such as acute lower respiratory infection and chronic
obstructive pulmonary diseases can be linked to household air pollution. Children under
five years of age are particularly affected. The reduction in smoke in the kitchens of
households cooking with biogas was clearly observed in user surveys. About 19 per cent
of the households report that smoke is completely avoided, while 38 per cent report
significant reductions in the smoke and health-related impacts. Overall, 88 per cent of
respondents have observed significant improvements in the health conditions of their
family members since they began using biogas energy. Improved cookstoves also
contribute to reducing smoke.
The WHO considers improved biomass cookstoves to be insufficient to guarantee safe

levels of household air pollution. Only cooking with natural gas / biogas, LPG, electricity,
ethanol, solar, and the highest-performing advanced biomass stoves (usually burning
pellets) permits the required low levels of pollution.

The Government of Ethiopia has a plan for energy sector development that recognizes
the need to address household energy demands and reduce the devastating health,
social and environmental impacts that arise from existing traditional energy sources and
technologies. In particular, biogas technology offers an opportunity to address health
conditions for women and children greatly by reducing household air pollution, increase
gender equality by freeing up time spent on fuelwood collection, and provides
commercial opportunities for local entrepreneurs in poor rural areas (MoWE 2013).
164
Given the number of cattle in Ethiopia, the potential of biodigesters is very high; it
reaches more than 3.5 million units (Eshete, Sonder and ter Heegde 2006). Biogas can
play an important role in
165
reducing household air pollution from cooking, as well as the associated health risks. It is
very important to disseminate information about the adverse health effects of household
air pollution, especially for women and children, from the use of solid fuels and especially
traditional biomass in inefficient stoves without chimneys or hoods. To promote the use of
biogas, awareness should be raised, both among decision makers and the general
population, about the benefits of this technology and the important role it can play in
mitigating the adverse health effects.
Furthermore, it would be important to train biogas masons and cattle farmers on the
construction and maintenance of anaerobic digesters and on the management of the
digestate, to ensure that such digesters function correctly and efficiently and that their
potential benefits can be fully exploited, including in terms of reduced household air
pollution and reduced exposure to the pathogens contained in cattle manure. Also,
regular refreshment training should be offered for biogas users on the maintenance and
operation of biogas plants to increase the efficiency of the plants so that users obtain
enough energy for cooking. The development of more advanced biomass cookstoves
would be needed to guarantee lower levels of household air pollution.
More generally, the role of the Ministry of Health should be increased in the strategies to
promote clean cooking solutions in Ethiopia, for example through an inter-ministerial
committee.
Future monitoring
In Ethiopia, nationally representative data on health, particularly respiratory diseases, are
very limited, and health data related to household smoke are even scarcer. This may be
because collecting health data is expensive, and distinguishing the causal effect of smoke
on health is complex. Gathering evidence on the causal effects of biogas consumption on
health is challenging, as it would require long-term, costly studies based on a large
sample of households. The effects of biogas use should be isolated from those of multiple
other factors affecting the health of household members. However, there is adequate
evidence regarding the negative health impacts of exposure to household air pollution
due to the use of solid fuels and especially traditional biomass and stoves, and thus the
positive effects of a transition to biogas are obvious.
In order to measure this indicator in the future, surveys and epidemiological studies on
wood fuel use and the incidence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease should be
conducted. These should last for the minimum number of years that allows for the
detection of changes in mortality and burden of diseases attributable to household
smoke among a sample of households in different regions of the country. Another
data source that might be useful in monitoring health problems and diseases related to
fuel use is hospitals. Using this data, we could compare the incidence of diseases such
as respiratory infections in areas with a high proportion of households using biogas
and other areas, with similar environmental and socioeconomic conditions, with a low
proportion. In this study, however, we were not able to obtain such data from hospitals,
and to undertake this survey.
Detailed analysis of the use of fuel interchangeably (fuel and stove stacking) and the
impacts on household air pollution also deserves more attention.
4.15.7 References
Beyene, G.E., Kumie, A, Edwards, R. and Troncoso, K. (2018). Opportunities for Transition to Clean
Household Energy: Application of the Household Energy Assessment Rapid Tool: Ethiopia. World Health
166
Organization.
Geneva. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/311280.
Esthete, G., Sonder, K. and ter Heegde, F. (2006). Report on the Feasibility Study of a National
Programme for Domestic Biogas in Ethiopia. SNV Netherlands Development Organisation. Addis
Ababa.
Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency (2017). Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey 2016.
https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR328/FR328.pdf.
167
Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (2014). Global Burden of Diseases Database. University of
Washington. Seattle, WA.
Ministry of Water and Energy (2013). National Programme for Improved Household Biomass
Cookstoves Development and Promotion in Ethiopia. Version 8. Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy (2018). Report on National Biogas Users’ Survey. Addis Ababa.
Sanbata H. (2012). Indoor Air Pollution and Acute Respiratory Illness Among Children from Household fuel
use in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Addis Ababa University. Addis Ababa. 98.
SNV Netherlands Development Organisation (2015). Report on Biogas Users’ Survey (BUS). National
Worku T., Araya A., Frank G., Alemayehu W., Mehari W., Abera K. et al. (2016). Indoor and
outdoor air pollution-related health problem in Ethiopia: Review of related literature.
Ethiopian Journal of Health Development.
World Health Organization (2014). WHO Guidelines for indoor air quality: Household fuel
combustion. https://www.who.int/airpollution/guidelines/household-fuel-combustion/en/.
World Health Organization (2019). Mortality from household air pollution.
https://www.who.int/gho/phe/indoor_air_pollution/burden/en/. Accessed 27 May 2019.
4.16 Indicator 16. Incidence of occupational injury, illness and fatalities

Mohammed Berhanu1 and Biruk Gobena2, Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research
1
[email protected]. 2 [email protected]
4.16.1 Description
(16.1) Incidences of occupational injury, illness and fatalities in the production of
bioenergy relation to comparable sectors.

Percentages

There is very limited information available on the incidence of occupational injury, illness
and fatalities along biogas, firewood and charcoal use in Ethiopia, as well as for related
sectors as whole. This may be due to a number of factors such as the scarcity of official
reports, the lack of mandatory reporting schemes, and the absence of disaggregated
statistics for bioenergy specific occupations. However, review of the limited investigation
available on this aspect is presented from which preliminary lessons and
recommendations can be drawn.
4.16.4 Key findings

Data concerning occupational injury, illness and fatalities that relate directly to the
bioenergy sector in Ethiopia are lacking, as any relevant data are not disaggregated from
other sectors. In the country, less concern for occupational safety is observed, for which
low enforcement could be the major indicator. As in a report by the Ministry of Labour and
Social Affairs (2015), in Ethiopia official data on accidents and injuries that relate to work
are reported in aggregate and are for government developmental organizations only.
There are no discrete figures for the agriculture sector or for the bioenergy sector
(biogas and solid fuel).
168
The major risks that should be mentioned in the process of biogas production are
explosion and fire (Sanja and Vesna 2013). In comparison to biogas, there are many risks
associated with the production and use of charcoal. Fire accident is a common risk
related to producing and using charcoal. The major risks related with charcoal production
specifically are burn, puncher, exposure to smoke, dust and particulate matter, eye
disease, and miscarriage. The risks related to charcoal use are headache, dizziness,
comma, unconsciousness, convulsion and even death.
However, it is hard to find information about the sector’s injuries, illness and fatalities
specifically. The available compatible information for this specific indicator was referred
from the survey conducted by SNV in 2015 and MoWIE in 2018.
 According to the survey, the case of fire accidents has been reduced by 98 per cent
upon evolving biogas use as energy source; however, it would be misgeneralization to
deduct that the biogas introduction alone resulted in avoided fire accidents.
According to MoWIE (2018), 52.6 per cent of users believe that fire-related injuries
were reduced, with 23.3 per cent saying they were significantly reduced and 29.3 per
cent saying they were reduced.
 Before the installation of biogas, firewood was the major source of energy for 86.5
per cent of the respondents, while dung is mentioned as source of energy by
38.9 per cent. During discussions with biogas owners, the discussants
mentioned that firewood and dung collection has multiple negative impacts on the
families particularly for girls and women who are primarily responsible for such tasks.
Extra work burdens, violence and children’s delay from school are mentioned as
some of the negative impacts. The survey also noted that the burden on children and
women, and violence against girls and women, were major problems faced during
firewood collection, as mentioned by 74 per cent and 26 per cent of respondents
respectively (Table 4.52 and Table 4.53).
Table 4.52. Major problems and disadvantages people face while collecting firewood
Problems and disadvantages Region Total

Amhara SNNPR Oromia Tigray
Children and women Count 41 47 21 38 147
had extra burdens % 76% 96% 48% 75% 74%
Girls and women Count 19 15 12 6 52
were % 35% 31% 27% 12% 26%
exposed to abuse
and violence
Source: MoWIE 2018.
Table 4.53. Occupational injuries encountered by the biogas user family during firewood collection
Occupational injuries Region Total

encountered Amhara SNNPR Oromia Tigray
Injuries while Count 15 18 5 1 39
collecting and % 28% 37% 11% 2% 20%
carrying wood
Exposed to wild Count 16 15 3 1 35
animal attacks % 30% 31% 7% 2% 18%
Source: MoWIE 2018.

169
As material available for this specific indicator is scarce, the review mainly relied on a
survey conducted within the SNNPR, Tigray, Oromiya and Amhara regions of the country,
which showed
170
that solid fuels were widely applied energy sources in those regions. In relation to this
indicator the major risks highlighted by the survey were accidental fires and fire-related
injuries, which were reduced following the introduction of biogas. In addition, exposure to
violence and attack prevailed, especially for women and children while collecting
firewood. No specific risks associated with charcoal production were mentioned.

Energy as well as health policies should include a clear mention of the mandatory
character of reporting of illnesses, injuries and fatalities that occur while working in the
bioenergy value chain in both private and governmental organizations. Inter-ministerial
dialogue on this issue, particularly among the three most relevant ministries (i.e., Health,
Energy and Labor) is relevant to come up with a clear description of the problem and
better problem alleviation.
Future monitoring
Given the lack of official data on the matter, it is recommended to establish a nationwide
long-term monitoring programme on occupational illnesses, injuries and fatalities
disaggregated for the bioenergy sector. The programme should survey historic, if
available, as well as current information, and collect data on injuries, illnesses and
fatalities for future monitoring, which may last at least 10 years.
4.16.6 References
Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (2015). National Occupational Health Hazard 2013-2014 Report.
Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy (2018). Report on National Biogas Users’ Survey.
Addis Ababa. Sanja, S. and Vesna, N. (2013). Risk analysis in a biogas production plant,
CDQM 16, 28-37.
SNV Netherlands Development Organisation (2015). Report on Biogas Users’ Survey (BUS). National
4.17 Indicator 17. Productivity
Dr. Shasho Megersa1 and Getachew Desalegn2, Ethiopian Environment and Forest
Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
1
4.17.2 Description
(17.1) Productivity of bioenergy feedstocks by feedstock or by
farm/plantation (17.2) Processing efficiencies by technology and
feedstock
(17.3) Amount of bioenergy end product by mass, volume or energy content per hectare
per year (17.4) Production cost per unit of bioenergy

(17.1) Tons/ha per year
(17.2) MJ/ton
(17.3) Tons/ha per year, m3/ha per year or MJ/ha per
171
year (17.4) $/MJ (Birr/m3) ($/m3)
172
This indicator focuses on the productivity of the land used to produce bioenergy, as well
as the overall economic efficiency of the production. It focuses on supply rather than
distribution and end- use.
Secondary data, retrieved from official reports and literatures, were used for both the
biogas and solid biomass pathways. As regards biomass, the publications from the
National Forest Sector Development Program of Ethiopia (NFSDP) and its 10-year
programme (2017-2025) and the recent Ethiopian Forest Sector Review technical report
were particularly useful.
4.17.5 Key findings

BIOGAS
Productivity
Biogas digesters being promoted and distributed to households in Ethiopia are mainly
dependent on manure feedstocks. According to Tucho and Nonhebe (2015), there are
more than 54 million head of cattle in Ethiopia. Bond and Templeton (2011) reported an
average amount of 700 kg of dry dung per cattle per year. This results in production of
37.8 million tons of dry dung per year in the country. Unfortunately, cattle in Ethiopia are
mostly range fed, and around 40 per cent of the dung produced is not accessible for
collection. Hence, the total accessible annual dry dung is 22.68 million tons.
Moreover, since biodigesters are in principle distributed to households with at least four
head of cattle (Mengistu et al. 2016), the corresponding annual dung production of
the household is estimated to be at least 2,800 kg of dry dung per year per
household.
Agricultural residues and coffee processing wastes are the two other potential and
competitive feedstocks for biogas production in Ethiopia. The total potential supply of
agricultural residues in Ethiopia is about 22.4 million tons per year (Chala et al. 2018).
Ethiopia is the fifth largest coffee producer in the world. Bickford (2019) indicated
increased annual coffee production in Ethiopia, which was expected to reach 441,000
metric tons in 2019/2020 (435,000 tons in 2018/2019). Sime et al. (2017) estimate that
for every 2 kg of coffee beans produced, approximately 1 kg of husk is generated.
Therefore, 220,500 tons of coffee husks could be produced in 2019/20 and could
theoretically be used for biogas production.
To date, cattle dung is the main biogas feedstock used for biogas production in the
country and hence only the biogas amount from this feedstock is estimated here.
Processing efficiency
The most frequently distributed biodigesters in the National Biogas Programme of
Ethiopia (NBPE) is the 6 m3 biodigester known as SINIDU, a Nepalese model (Kamp and
Forn 2016). It represents 89 per cent of all biodigesters distributed (Ministry of Water,
Irrigation and Electricity [MoWIE] 2018). The programme, through its NBPE-I, NBPE-II and
NBPE+ implementations, has already distributed a total of 22,166 biodigesters (Rai 2018).
According to Seyoum (2018), around 2.83 m3 of biogas is produced by this biodigester
type per day, using 45 kg of dry dung. With the assumption that 1 m3 of biogas has
a calorific value of 22 MJ, the production of each biodigester reaches 1,384 MJ/ton of dry
dung per day (2.83/0.0045 x 22).
Amount of biogas volume per year

173
A total of 22,166 biodigesters were already distributed to different regions of the country
(Rai 2018). This corresponds to a daily producing capacity of 62,730 m3 biogas per
day or 22,582,721 m3 of biogas per year, assuming the most frequent size of the
biodigester (6 m3). However, the household survey outcome of MoWIE (2018) revealed
that only 77 per cent of the distributed biodigesters are
174
functioning due to lack of maintenance, change in farming practices, lack of water and
lack of interest. The highest functionality rate in observed in SNNPR and the least in
Tigray (Figure 4.25). As a consequence, biogas production is estimated at only 48,302 m3
per day or 17,630,205 m3 per year in the country.
Figure 4.25. Functionality rate by region
Source: MoWIE 2018.
Biogas production cost

The calculation is proposed for a 6 m3 biogas digester. The cost assumptions are described in
Table
4.54 (Fox 2018). Two levels of biogas production are considered (high and low). The
resulting cost of biogas production is 0.9 to 2.1 birr/m3 (0.0014 to 0.0032 $/MJ) taking into
account the government subsidy, and 1.2 to 2.8 birr/m 3 (0.0018 to 0.0043 $/MJ) without
the government subsidy (Table 4.54). This considers no labour cost and no discount
rate.
Table 4.54. Cost of biogas production
Inputs
Subsidy 6 000 birr
Investment before subsidy 17 340 birr 867 birr/yr
Investment after subsidy 11 340 birr 567 birr/yr
Lifetime 20
O&M, share of investment 2% 347 birr/yr
Biogas production (high) 2.83 m3/day 1 033 m3/yr
Biogas production (low) 1.2 m3/day 438 m3/yr
Results
Annual cost w/o subsidy 1 214 birr
Annual cost with subsidy 914 birr
High biogas production
Cost biogas w/o subsidy 1.2 birr/m3 0.0018 $/MJ
Cost biogas with subsidy 0.9 birr/m3 0.0014 $/MJ
Low biogas production
Cost biogas w/o subsidy 2.8 birr/m3 0.0043 $/MJ
Cost biogas with subsidy 2.1 birr/m3 0.0032 $/MJ
SOLID BIOMASS
Productivity
Productivity of plantations depends on site/land productivity (quality), seed sources
(genetic potential) and management. Land productivity is primarily determined by
175
rainfall, topography and
176
drainage pattern, influencing water availability and the length of the growing season.
However, moisture limitation in drier areas can be overcome by irrigation, which greatly
increases productivity because of a high level of radiation and good soils (Moges, Eshetu
and Nune 2010). In brief, productivity will depend on the tree/shrub species type;
species-site matching; silvicultural management practices; and energy conversion and
utilization technologies. Wood fuel / solid biomass in Ethiopia is produced from natural
forests (natural high forests, woodlands and area exclosures) and plantations
(industrial and woodlots) owned by the government, private actors and
communities.
Mean annual increment or productivity reaches 2.01 m3/ha/year for natural forests, 12.5
m3/ha/year for industrial plantations and 15 m3/ha/year for woodlot plantations (Ministry
of Environment, Forest and Climate Change [MEFCC] 2018a). The average national mean
annual increment of all forests estimated would be 9.7 m 3/ha/year. The productivity of
public plantations on a tree species basis has been Eucalyptus (54 per cent of all species)
at 18 m3/ha/year, while cypress, pines and acacia species produce 13 m3/ha/year.
The current estimated mean annual increment of 12.5 m³/ha/year for industrial
plantations is low compared to the potential growth of about 46 m³/ha/year for Eucalyptus
stands and 33 m3/ha/year for conifer stands when planted and managed on productive
sites (MEFCC 2018a).
The total annual sustainable productivity (yield) in 2017 was 32,171,470 m3/year for
natural forests of Ethiopia, 2,362,913 m3/year for industrial plantations and 12,225,855
m3/year for woodlot plantations (MEFCC 2018a) with a total amount of 46,760,238
m3/year, where about 92.3 per cent of the total yield (an amount of 43,159,700 m3/year)
was used as fuel wood (firewood and charcoal).
The 10-year (2017-2025) national forest sector development programme of Ethiopia has
planned establishment of forests and tree resources (7.2 million ha with a mean annual
increment of 20 m3/ha/year in five-year rotation) combined with the distribution of
energy-saving cookstoves that can address the existing wood fuel demand and
supply gap by the year 2025 (MEFCC 2018c).
Moreover, sustainable management of existing natural forests and woodlands will
contribute to the achievement of filling the wood fuel supply gap, while the forest cover of
the country will reach 30 per cent of the total landmass by 2025 (MEFCC 2018c).
177
Processing efficiencies
Each type of bioenergy has a specific energy content (Table 4.55).
Table 4.55. Energy content of biomass fuels
Fuel type Kcal/kg MJ/kg

Fuel wood (17% mc dry basis, 14.5% wet basis, 1% ash) 3 700 15.5
Branches, leaves and litter (17% mc dry basis, 14.5% wet basis, 1% 3 700 15.5
ash)
Roots (17% mc dry basis, 14.5% wet basis, 1% ash) 3 700 14.3
Charcoal (5.25% mc dry basis, 5% wet basis, 4% ash) 6 900 29
Saw dust (11% mc dry basis, 10% wet basis, 1% ash) 4 040 18.6
Agri-residue (11% mc dry basis, 10% wet basis, 5% ash) 3 585 15
Maize stalk (11% mc dry basis, 10% wet basis, 5% ash) 3 585 15
Dung (15% mc dry basis, 13% wet basis, 22.5% ash) 3 300 13.8
Comparison with fossil fuels
Electricity 860 3.6 MJ/kwh
Kerosene 10 300 43
Diesel 10 300 43
LPG 10 300 45
Source: Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project [WBISPP] 2005a; WBISPP 2005b; Guta 2012.
As regards charcoal, its production with traditional earth-mound kilns incurs considerable
losses, entailing four or five times as much energy input as would be required for burning
wood directly (MEFCC 2018b). Charcoal conversion rates from wood are between 12-
15 per cent for small experienced producers (Table 4.56) and 25 per cent for larger
experienced producers (WBSIPP 2005a). Earth-mound kilns of around 4-7 m3 capacity
have been used throughout the country with a very low conversion efficiency (8-12 per
cent), probably because of the small size of the kiln as well as the wood not being dried
out properly due to fear of being caught by the forest authorities.
Table 4.56. Common charcoal production technologies used and conversion efficiency
No. Production Type of Average yield Average Conversion % of users of

technique wood used (charcoal weight of efficiency in the
production) of 1 m3 of weight (%) techniques
1 m3 of wood wood (kg
(kg charcoal) wood)
1 Traditional earth- Dry/Semi-dry 62 430 14.4% 41.5%
mound kiln
2 Traditional earth- Wet 48 > 600 < 8.0% 14.0%
mound kiln
3 Traditional earth Dry/Semi-dry 50 487 10.3% 34.1%
pit-kiln
4 Traditional earth Wet 25 > 600 < 4.1% 10.4%
pit-kiln
5 Average - - - 12.6% 100%
Source: MEFCC 2016.
Amount of bioenergy per hectare

In the case of firewood, the amount of bioenergy per ha is reflected in the productivity,
described above. In the case of charcoal, the productivity depends on the productivity of
the wood used for charcoal production; assuming a conversion efficiency of 12.6 per cent,
the productivity of charcoal per ha is eight times less than the productivity of the wood
used for charcoal production.
Production costs
Firewood and charcoal prices are different from production costs. For example, prices may
include margin benefits. However, due to the lack of more detailed data on production
178
costs, prices are used here as a proxy for production costs.
179
The gross production value of logs/roundwood was $74/m³ in 2013 (MEFCC 2017). The
fuelwood selling price was 240 birr/m³ (around $8/m3), and the charcoal selling price was
1,840 birr/m³ (around $63/m3) in 2013 (MEFCC 2017).
According to MEFCC (2018b), the NFSDP, Pillar 2 (Sustainable production and value
chains) cost- benefit analysis projection for the year 2017-2025, with the right
interventions and policy adjustments the fuelwood harvest cost per m3 from established
commercial plantations with a mean annual increment of 22 m3/ha/year will be $5, and
the selling price per m3 of fuelwood will be $21.5. In addition, fuelwood and bamboo
culms harvest cost per m3 from improved management of existing public industrial
plantations and bamboo (highland and lowland) resources with a mean annual increment
of 5.7 m3/ha/year will be $5, and the selling price per m3 of fuelwood and bamboo will be
$12.6 (MEFCC 2018b).
A few words on the bamboo resources

Bamboo is a fast-growing, short rotation and high-yielding perennial grass with versatile
uses for socioeconomic development and environmental protection, which makes bamboo
important as an alternative to and supplement to wood in the country.
The two indigenous bamboo species in Ethiopia are Yushania alpina (Arundin alpina) K.
Schum (Arundinoideae), and Oxytenanthera abyssinica (A. Rich.) Munro (Bambusoideae).
They amount to 519,124 ha (MEFCC 2018a). According to a recent remote sensing-
based inventory conducted by INBAR – Tsinghua University, Ethiopia has a total of
14,744.63 km2 or 1.47 million ha of bamboo (INBAR 2018 cited in Environment,
Forest and Climate Change Commission 2019).
Bamboo grows to its full height and diameter within one growing season of 2-3 months’
time. It has a short rotation life and maturity age of around 3-7 years for construction
and furniture purposes and can be harvested in 3-5 years versus 10-50 year rotations for
most softwood and hardwood tree species. Bamboo attains an annual biomass increment
of 10-30 per cent versus 2-5 per cent for trees (Ahmad and Kamke 2003; Sastry 2004;
Bowyer et al. 2005).
In the north-western plantation bamboo forests of Ethiopia, the total biomass ranged from
65-117 tons/ha in dry weight basis with above-ground total dry weight of 56-99 ton/ha
(Mulatu and Fetene 2012 cited in Mulatu, Alemayehu and Tadesse 2016a). In a natural
bamboo forest of Masha, southwestern Ethiopia, total above-ground biomass was in the
range of 51-110 tons/ha (Embaye 2003; LUSO Consult 1997). The increment or biomass
of less than one-year old plants investigated ranged from 6-26 tons/ha in north-western
Ethiopia plantation forests and 8.6 tons/ha in Masha natural bamboo forest in south-
western Ethiopia (Mulatu, Alemayehu and Tadesse 2016a).
In addition, 23 different bamboo species recently introduced in Ethiopia are under

adaptability studies (Mulatu, Alemayehu and Tadesse 2016b). These species have
been tested for their adaptability and growth performance in different locations, where
some of them adapted and others are still under investigation. Businesses are being
established to process bamboo, make value-added products and market these
products in Ethiopia and abroad. However, powder-post beetle damage has been a
serious problem for the bamboo and bamboo-based culm products in handcrafts,
furniture industries and construction sectors.
180
BIOGAS
The theoretical and accessible annual dry dung production in Ethiopia is 22.68 million
tons. Agricultural residues and coffee processing wastes are the two other potential and
competitive feedstocks for biogas production in Ethiopia. However, cattle dung is now the
main biogas feedstock used for biogas production in the country; this is the focus of this
indicator. The most frequently distributed biodigesters in the National Biogas Programme
of Ethiopia is the 6 m3 biodigester known as SINIDU. It produces around 2.83 m3 biogas
per day, or 1,384 MJ/ton of dry dung per day. A total of 17,388,695 m3 per year of biogas
production is reported, taking into consideration that only 77 per cent of all biodigesters
work. The total cost of biogas production is 0.9 to 2.1 birr/m3 (0.0014 to 0.0032 $/MJ)
considering the government subsidy, and 1.2 to 2.8 birr/m3 (0.0018 to 0.0043 $/MJ)
without the government subsidy, depending on the biogas production level.
The analysis shows that biogas may be an effective option to replace fossil fuels and
other less efficient and sustainable biofuels. Even if the cost of biogas production itself is
low, the cost of building biogas digesters is high compared to the revenues of the
households. Therefore, policies should be adopted to help the participating individuals,
families and private sectors gain access to the necessary capital to build digesters.
Moreover, a better understanding of the causes of non- functionality of some
biodigesters needs to be developed.

Biogas in Ethiopia is still underutilized despite the supporting and promotion
programme. Beyond the expansion of biodigester distribution, resulting in more biogas
produced in Ethiopia, the overall productivity of the biodigesters can be increased
through better use practices but also through the use of different potential feedstocks
such as food processing and agricultural wastes.
Future monitoring
Obtaining data on biogas in Ethiopia is difficult but crucial for the expansion of the sector.
Specifically, monitoring the productivity and the production costs are important to
identify how to improve the quality of the biodigesters at each stage, from building to
use, and how to select the best feedstocks to guarantee the highest productivity at the
smallest cost. Systematic surveys must be implemented, specifically in the context of the
National Biogas Programme, and the data must be systematically analyzed, organized
and shared with the different stakeholders.
It is also important to remember that biogas production can provide many

socioeconomic benefits, which should also be monitored. Some of these benefits are:
new job opportunities, use of renewable energy sources from materials that would
otherwise be disposed of, reducing the quantity of imported kerosene and other energy
sources, and the generation of digestate reduces the use of inorganic fertilizers. These
benefits deserve to be monetized and internalized in the computation of the
production costs.
SOLID BIOMASS
The annual sustainable productivity/yield of natural forests in Ethiopia in 2017 was
181
around 32 million m3/year, of industrial plantations was around 2.4 million m3/year and of
woodlot plantations was around 12.2 million m3/year, for a total amount of 46.8 million
m3/year. Around 92 per cent of the total mean annual increment, i.e., 43.2 million
m3/year, was used as fuel wood (firewood and charcoal). The mean annual increment or
productivity of natural forests has been 2.01 m3/ha/year,
182
of industrial plantations has been 12.5 m3/ha/year and of woodlot plantations has been 15
m3/ha/year (MEFCC 2018a). The average national mean annual increment of all forests
estimated would be 9.7 m3/ha/year. The average wood-to-charcoal conversion efficiency
is around 12.6 per cent.

Firewood and charcoal prices are different from production costs. However, due to the
lack of detailed data, prices are used here as a proxy of the production costs. The
fuelwood selling price was 240 birr/m³ (around $8/m3), and the charcoal selling price was
1,840 birr/m³ (around $63/m3) in 2013.
The decline of supplies from natural forests and the increasing demand for wood products
will encourage farmers / tree growers and investors to cultivate an increasing number of
fast-growing, high-yielding and short-rotation trees such as Eucalyptus, Acacia sp.,
Grevillea, cypress and pines. Increasing productivity of the available land by selecting the
best (fast-growing, high-yielding and short-rotation) trees combined with good
silvicultural and management practices are recommended solutions. Increasing the
productivity of charcoal conversion kilns is also crucial; strategies for this purpose are
presented in other indicators, such as Indicator 24 on training.
Inter-industry linkage (clustering and integration) of industries to be strategically located

with respect to the distribution of the forest resource base is paramount. For example, it
would be relevant to cluster a sawmill with an enterprise exploiting the by-products
(branches, leaves and twigs;, off-cuts; and sawdust) and other non-timber forest
products. This will help to maximize utilization products and create job opportunities for
local communities near forests. This incldes planting fast-growing, high-yielding and
short-rotation tree/shrub species while establishing fuelwood and commercial plantations
for the purpose of improving the supply of fuel wood and charcoal as well as saw logs
and other forest products.
The Ethiopian forest policy and strategy (2007), and the recent forest proclamation
number 1076/2018, encourage farmers / out growers, communities and private investors
to grow, manage and utilize forests for their different products including fuel wood and
charcoal. It is believed that the policy and proclamation provisions will help to bring
fuelwood plantations that will contribute to fill the fuelwood demand gap in the
country.
Future monitoring
Getting data on firewood and charcoal production in Ethiopia is difficult since a large part
of this production is informal. This information, however, is crucial in order to understand
all of the drivers behind the productivity of the pathway, and to identify the best
practices and the best feedstocks. Well-targeted surveys and studies would help better
know the practices of charcoal producers and the best species to increase the
productivity of the pathway.
4.17.7 References
Ahmad, M. and Kamke, F.A. (2003). Analysis of Calcutta bamboo for structural composite materials:
surface characteristics. Wood Sci Technol 37, 233-240.
Bickford R. (2018). Coffee Annual Report of Ethiopia. GAIN Report Number: ET1904. US
Department of Agriculture Foreign Agricultural Service, Global Agricultural Information Network.
https://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Coffee%20Annual_Addis
%20Ababa_Ethiopia_5-29- 2019.pdf.
183
Bond, T. and Templeton, M.R. (2011). History and future of domestic biogas plants in the developing
world.
Energy Sustain Dev. 15, 347-54. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.esd.2011.09.003.
184
Bowyer, J., Howe, J., Guiller, P. and Fernholz, K. (2005). Bamboo Flooring. Environmental Silver Bullet or Faux
Savior? Dovetail Partners, INC.
Chala, B., Oechsner, H., Latif, S. and Müller, J. (2018). Biogas potential of coffee processing waste in Ethiopia.
Sustainability 10, 2678; doi: 10.3390/su10082678.
Embaye, K. (2003). Ecological Aspects and Resource Management of Bamboo Forests in Ethiopia.
Doctoral thesis. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Short Rotation
Forestry, Uppsala.
Ethiopia Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission. (2019). Ethiopia Bamboo
Development Strategy and Action Plan (2019-2030). Addis Ababa.
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (2018). A proclamation to provide for the public-private
partnership.
Federal Negarit Gazetta of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, No. 1076. Addis Ababa.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2011). The Global Bio-energy Partnership
Sustainability Indicators for Bio-energy. First edition. Rome.
Forest Policy (2007). Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Policy and Strategy. Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Addis Ababa.
Fox, R.B.S. (2018). Cost benefit analysis of small-scale biogas system development in Ethiopia.
PowerPoint presentation. https://slideplayer.com/slide/13014511/.
Guta, D.D. (2012). Assessment of biomass fuel resource potential and utilization in Ethiopia:
Sourcing strategies for renewable energies. International Journal of Renewable Energy Research
2(1).
Kamp, L.M. and Forn, E. (2016). Ethiopia’s emerging domestic biogas sector: Current status,
bottlenecks and drivers. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 60, 475-488. doi:
10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.068.
Kassa, M. and Ewnetu, Z. (2014). The Importance of Forestry in Ethiopia and the Need for Investing in
the Sector to Meet National Goals and International Commitments. Unpublished report. Addis Ababa.
LUSO Consult (1997). Study on Sustainable Bamboo Management. Commissioned by GTZ. Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
Mengistu, M.G., Simane, B., Eshete, G. and Workneh, T.S. (2016). Institutional factors influencing
the dissemination of biogas technology in Ethiopia. J Hum Ecol. 55(1,2), 117-134.
Ethiopia: Policy and Institutional Restructuring for Sustainable Charcoal. Supported by Global
Green Growth Institute. Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2017). Ethiopia Forest Sector Review.
Technical Report. Focus on Commercial Forestry and Industrialization. Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2018a). National Forest Sector Development
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2018b). National Forest Sector Development
Program, Ethiopia. Volume II: Program Pillars, Action Areas and Targets. Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2018c). National Forest Sector Development
Program, Ethiopia. Volume III: Synthesis Report. Addis Ababa.
Moges, Y., Eshetu, Z. and Nune, S. (2010). Ethiopian forest resources: Current status and future
management options in view of access to carbon finances. Literature review. Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity (2018). Report on National Biogas Users’ Survey, 2018.
185
Mulatu, Y., Alemayehu, A. and Tadesse, Z. (2016a). Biology and Management of Indigenous Bamboo
Species of Ethiopia. Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute. Addis Ababa.
186
Mulatu, Y., Alemayehu, A. and Tadesse, Z. (2016b). Bamboo Species Introduced in Ethiopia: Biology,
Ecology and Management Aspects. Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute. Addis
Ababa.
Rai S. (2018). National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia (NBPE). Addis Ababa.
Sastry, C. (2004). Bamboo and Human Development. Development express. Canadian
International Development Agency, Policy Branch. Canada Communication Group.
Canada.
Seyoum, S. (2018). The Economics of a Biogas Digester. Livestock Economics Division ILCA. Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia. https://core.ac.uk/ download/ pdf/132634928.pdf.
Sime, W., Kasirajan, R., Latebo, S., Abera, M., Mohammed, A., Seraw, E. et al. (2017). Coffee husk
highly available in Ethiopia as an alternative waste source for biofuel production. International Journal
of Scientific & Engineering Research 8(7), 1874-1880.
Tucho, G.T. and Nonhebe, S. (2015). Bio-wastes as an alternative household cooking energy source in
Ethiopia.
Energies 8, 9565-9583; doi: 10.3390/en8099565.
Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project (2005a). A National Strategic Plan for the
Biomass Energy Sector. Forest Resources of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.
Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project (2005b). Manual for Woody Biomass
Inventory. Addis Ababa.
4.18 Indicator 18. Net energy balance
Degnechew Genene1 and Abraham Dilnessa2 , Ethiopian Environment and Forest
Research Institute (EEFRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
1
4.18.2 Description
Energy ratio of the bioenergy value chain with comparison with other energy sources,
including energy ratios of: (18.1) feedstock production; (18.2) processing of feedstock
into bioenergy; (18.3) bioenergy use; and/or (18.4) life cycle analysis.
4.18.3 Measurement unit (s)

Ratios

The indicator provides a basis for identifying the most energy-efficient ways to produce
bioenergy among a given set of options and may be used to choose appropriate
technologies, feedstocks and practices. Among others, the indicator takes into
consideration the energy inputs required by the production and the utilization of
bioenergy at different stages of the value chain: the more energy consumed during the
bioenergy life cycle, the less energy is available to meet other energy needs.
The Net Energy Ratio for each step of bioenergy production value chain has been
calculated as follows:
Net Energy Ratio =

Whereas, Total Energy Input = ∑ All energy required at each stage of production
187
A net energy ratio greater than one for a given bioenergy feedstock indicates that its
production is sustainable from an energy perspective: the quantity of energy that the
bioenergy can provide is higher than the amount of energy needed for its production.
It is also possible to calculate the Net Energy Balance:

Net Energy Balance = Total Energy Output – Total Energy Input
Secondary data, literature review and appropriate estimation have been used for both
pathways in Ethiopia. Assumptions used for this indicator are the same as for Indicators 1
and 4, also based on life cycle analysis. As regards solid biomass, calculation considers
two types of feedstocks: Eucalyptus globules and invasive Prosopis juliflora species. In
Ethiopia, P. juliflora is an aggressive and the most invasive species in arid and semi-arid
areas, and in pastoral areas. It has invaded large acreage of rangelands (Mehari 2008;
Mehari 2015). Due to adequate resource availability and accessibility, its fast growing
rate, high energy content and high yield in small area of land, P. juliflora is
recommended for utilization as fuel wood and charcoal. Similarly, Acacia decurrens is
also used for charcoal production in most areas of Ethiopia.
4.18.5 Key findings

BIOGAS
Basis of calculation for energy balance
The Overall System Boundary for calculation of the net energy balance is as follows:
Figure 4.26. Biogas production and utilization process flow diagram
Electricity
input = 0.00
A B C
W Feedstock Feedstock Y
Biogas Z
X utilization
production and processing
collection phase phase Output
Input energy (fresh cow’s (anaerobic energy
(energy digester (energy
content of content
fresh cow’s of
biogas
produce
The following data are considered in the analysis:

 Lower heating value of fresh cow’s dung = 1.15 MJ/kg (Mehari 2015)
 1 kg of fresh cow’s dung = 0.04 m3 biogas= 0.92 MJ biogas/kg
 1 m3 of biogas = 22 MJ energy
 Efficiency of biogas cookstove = 57 per cent (best case)
 Biogas losses due to leakages = 1 per cent (Indicator 1)
Feedstock production and collection (system boundary ‘A’ in fig. 1)

Since no energy consumption occurs in the collection and delivery of the fresh cow’s
dung to the anaerobic digester, the Net Energy Ratio does not apply and the Net
Energy Balance of feedstock collection could be considered as equivalent to the lower
188
heating value (LHV) of the fresh cow’s
189
dung, 1.15 MJ/kg. However, since fresh cow’s dung is a waste, this sub-indicator is not
really relevant.
Feedstock processing (fresh cow’s dung) into bioenergy (system boundary ‘B’ in fig. 1)
Since the energy consumption input of the anaerobic digester and distribution of the
biogas to the end users is zero, the Net Energy Ratio does not apply and the Net Energy
Balance is 0.92 MJ/kg of fresh cow’s dung
Biogas utilization (system boundary ‘C’ in fig. 1)

From the literature review, the efficiency of biogas stoves was found to be around 32 per
cent, 44 per cent and 49 per cent for perfectly uncontrolled, semi-controlled and
controlled conditions, respectively (Barfuss et al. 2013). In Ethiopia, the biogas cookstoves
were found to deliver an efficiency of up to roughly 57 per cent in the semi-controlled test
(Tumwesige et al. 2014). In general, the uncontrolled conditions better reflect the real
conditions of use of the stoves, while the controlled conditions reflect a best case. The
indicator is calculated for this best case, in a consistent manner with the other
indicators.
The output energy at utilization level is calculated as follows, for an input of 0.04 m3 of
biogas, i.e., the gas produced by 1 kg of dung (the unit of kg dung is kept for comparison
purposes along the full chain):
 Output energy (Z) = (Total energy per 0.04 m3 input) x (Distribution efficiency) x
(Cookstove efficiency) = 0.92 MJ/kg dung x 0.99 x 0.57 = 0.52 MJ/kg dung
 Net Energy Ratio = Output energy/Input energy = (Z/Y) = (0.52/0.92) = 0.56.
 This also represents the losses estimated by 0.99 x 0.57.
 Net Energy Balance = Lost energy (distribution and energy conversion) = 0.92-
0.52 = 0.40 MJ/kg dung.
Life Cycle Assessment

The synthesis of the previous analysis concludes that the life cycle assessment energy
balance is 0.3267 MJ/kg of dung since there is no energy consumption during
feedstock production and feedstock processing.
Table 4.57. Summary of results of Indicator 18 for the biogas pathway in Ethiopia
Sub-
Measurement scenarios Unit Results
indicators
Energy content of fresh cow’s dung A MJ/kg dung 1.15
18.1 Energy input for feedstock production (cow’s B kWh/kg dung 0
(feedstock dung)
production) Energy input for collection of fresh cow’s dung C MJ/kg dung 0
Net Energy Balance A-(B+C) MJ/kg dung 1.15
Net Energy Ratio A/(B+C) Ratio NA
Biogas yield per kg dung D m3/kg dung 0.04
18.2 Energy input for biogas production E kWh/kg dung 0
(feedstock Energy output from biogas F MJ/kg dung 0.92
processing) Net Energy Balance F-E MJ/kg dung 0.92
Net Energy Ratio F/E Ratio NA
Energy input, equivalent to energy losses G MJ/kg dung 0.52
18.3 (combustion
(bioenergy + distribution)
utilization) Net Energy Balance F-G MJ/kg dung 0.40
Net Energy Ratio G/F Ratio 0.56
18.4 (life Net Energy Balance Synthesis MJ/kg dung 0.565
cycle)
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FUEL WOOD
Assumptions

Basic density of fuel wood = 500 kg/m3

Energy content of fuel wood (air-dried) = approximately 14.5 MJ/kg or 7,250 MJ/m3

Energy content (lower heating value LHV) of Eucalyptus globulus feedstock =16.9 MJ/kg

Energy content (LHV) of Prosopis juliflora wood = 17.03 MJ/kg. Energy content
(lower heating value LHV) of Acacia decurrens feedstock = 3700 kcal/kg = 15.48
MJ/kg (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [FAO] 2001).


Transportation: 0 km to rural households (89 per cent of the consumption), 70 km
to urban households (11 per cent of the consumption), by platform truck (12 t,
diesel); consumption is calculated in Indicators 1 and 4. Considering the average
for rural and urban and the same assumption as in indicators 1 and 4: 2.23
MJ/t.km x 70 km x 11% = 17 MJ/t = 0.017 MJ/kg.
Table 4.58. The net energy balance for production and utilization of 1 kg fuel wood in Ethiopia in 2014,
considering the average of urban and rural areas
Sub-indicator Measurement scenarios Units Results

Eucalyptus Prosopis Acacia
globulus juliflora decurrens
18.1 Energy content of fuel A1 MJ/kg 16.90 17.03 15.48
(feedstock wood
production) Energy input for B1 MJ/kg 0.00 0.00 0.00
collection
of fuel wood
Net Energy Balance A1-B1 MJ/kg 16.90 17.03 15.48
Net Energy Ratio A1/B1 Ratio NA NA NA
18.2 Energy content of fuel A2 MJ/kg 16.90 17.03 15.48
(feedstock wood
processing Energy input for
and processing and B2 MJ/kg 0.017 0.017 0.017
transport) transport of fuel wood of
wood
Energy Balance A2-B2 MJ/kg 16.883 17.013 15.463
Net Energy Ratio A2/B2 Ratio 994.117 1 001.76 909.588
Traditional cookstove (thermal efficiency 10%)
18.3a Energy content of fuel A3 MJ/kg 16.90 17.03 15.48
(bioenergy wood
utilization) Energy input, B3 = A3 x (1-
equivalent to energy thermal MJ/kg 15.21 15.33 13.93
losses efficiency)
(combustion)
Net Energy Ratio A3/B3 Ratio 1.11 1.11 1.11
18.4a (partial Net Energy Balance MJ/kg NA NA NA
life cycle*) Net Energy Ratio Ratio 1.11 1.11 1.11
Improved cookstove (thermal efficiency 20%)
18.3b Energy content of fuel A4 MJ/kg 16.90 17.03 15.48
(bioenergy wood
utilization) Energy input, equivalent B4 = A4 x (1-
to energy losses thermal MJ/kg 13.52 13.63 12.38
(combustion) efficiency)
18.4b (partial Net Energy Balance MJ/kg NA NA NA
life cycle*) Net Energy Ratio Ratio 1.25 1.25 1.25
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CHARCOAL
Assumptions
 Energy content (lower heating value LHV) of Eucalyptus globulus feedstock = 16.9 MJ/kg
 Energy content (lower heating value LHV) of Acacia decurrens feedstock = 3,700 kcal/kg
= 15.48 MJ/kg
 Energy content (average) of Eucalyptus charcoal = 6,860 kcal/kg = 28.70 MJ/kg
(Macksuel, Myla and Carlos 2018)
 Energy content (LHV) of Prosopis juliflora charcoal = 27.72 MJ/kg
 Energy content of Acacia decurrens charcoal = 27.20 MJ/kg
 Higher heating value (HHV) of charcoal = 32.33 MJ/kg with a standard deviation of 0.47
MJ/kg;
 No mechanical collection or logging
 Kiln efficiency = 17%
 Transportation: to kilns 5 km / from kilns to users 200 km. The energy
consumption is calculated as in Indicators 1 and 4.
To kilns: 2.23 MJ/t.km x 5 km / 1,000 = 0.011 MJ/kg wood.
Kilns to households: 2.23 MJ/t.km x 200 km / 1,000 = 0.446 MJ/kg charcoal.
 Cookstove thermal efficiency: 10% traditional and 28% improved
 Share of cookstoves in the market: 80% traditional, 20% improved
Table 4.59. Net energy balance for production and utilization of charcoal in 2014
Sub-indicator Measurement Units Results

scenarios Eucalyptus Prosopis Acacia
globulus juliflora decurrens
18.1 Energy content of fuel A1 MJ/kg wood 16.90 17.03 15.48
(feedstock wood
production) Energy input for B1 MJ/kg wood 0.00 0.00 0.00
collection of fuel wood
Net Energy Balance A1-B1 MJ/kg wood 16.90 17.03 15.48
Net Energy Ratio A1/B1 Ratio wood NA NA NA
Energy input for A2 MJ/kg wood 0.011 0.011 0.011
transport of fuel
wood
(5 km)
Energy losses in the B2 MJ/kg wood 12.19 12.31 12.27
conversion to B2 MJ/kg charcoal 71.7 72.5 72.2
charcoal (17%)
Energy input for C2 MJ/kg charcoal 0.446 0.446 0.446
transport of
charcoal (200 km)
Energy content of D2 MJ/kg charcoal 28.70 27.72 27.20
charcoal
Energy Balance D2-(B2+C2) MJ/kg charcoal -43.446 -45.2 -45.446
Net Energy Ratio D2/(B2+C2) Ratio 0.397 0.38 0.37
Traditional cookstove (thermal efficiency 10%)
18.3a Energy content of A3 MJ/kg charcoal
(bioenergy charcoal 28.70 27.72 27.20
utilization) Energy input, B3 = A3 x (1- MJ/kg charcoal 25.83 24.94
equivalent to energy thermal 24.48
losses (combustion) efficiency)
Net Energy Balance A3-B3 MJ/kg charcoal 2.87 2.77 2.72
18.4a (life Net Energy Balance A3-B3- MJ/kg charcoal -69.276 -70.2 -69.926
cycle) (B2+C2)
Net Energy Ratio A3/(B3+B2+C Ratio 0.29 0.28 0.28
2)
192
Table 4.59 (cont’d)
Improved cookstove (thermal efficiency 20%)

18.3b Energy content of A4 MJ/kg charcoal
(bioenergy charcoal 28.70 27.72 27.20
utilization) Energy input, B4 = A4 x (1-
equivalent to energy thermal MJ/kg 22.960 22.176 21.76
losses (combustion) efficiency)
18.4b (life Net Energy Balance A4-B4- MJ/kg -66.40 -67.40 -67.21
cycle) (B2+C2)
Net Energy Ratio A3/(B4+B2+C Ratio 0.30 0.29 0.55
2)

BIOGAS
The biogas value chain does not include any energy consumption. However, energy
losses occur at the level of biogas distribution (1 per cent) and at the level of the thermal
efficiency of the stove (33 per cent for uncontrolled stoves; the efficiency could be as high
as 57 per cent). Moreover, the production of the biodigester represents also a potential of
efficiency improvement in order to produce more biogas per quantity of dung (0.04
m3 biogas/kg dung/day).

The construction and installation of functional and productive biodigesters should be
enhanced across the country. Several specific recommendations, such as a better
training and even the certification of the masons, or the capacity-building of the users,
are presented in other indicators, they are not repeated here. Cookstoves of highest
efficiency should be promoted. This includes the capacity-building of the users (how to
cook efficiently with biogas).
Monitoring
A better knowledge of the productivity of the biodigesters and the efficiency of the stoves,
including information at the regional level, would help in identifying how to improve the
quality of the biodigesters and therefore their productivity.
SOLID BIOMASS
The main losses occurring in the solid biomass value chain concern the conversion
of wood into charcoal (efficiency of 17 per cent for the traditional kilns) and the losses
associated with the stoves (low efficiency of 10 per cent to 20 per cent). The energy
consumed for transport remains limited compared to the energy lost in energy
conversion. Because of the losses associated with carbonization, the firewood pathway
provides a better net energy balance.

The most important improvement potential concerns the carbonization technology: a
more efficient carbonization than the traditional ones is needed (i.e., earth-mound and
earth-pit). Firewood and charcoal cookstoves with highest efficiency should also be
fabricated and promoted.
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Future monitoring
For Indicator 17, a better knowledge of the firewood and charcoal value chain is crucial in
order to understand all the drivers behind the energy balance of the pathway, and to
identify the best practices and the best feedstocks. Regional and national bioenergy
institutions need to work in collaboration to develop and design such a monitoring
system.
4.18.7 References
Amare, Z.Y. (2015). The benefits of the use of biogas energy in rural areas in Ethiopia: A case
study from the Amhara National Regional State, Fogera District. African Journal of Environmental
Science and Technology 9(4), 332-345. doi: 10.5897/AJEST2014.1838.
Barfuss, I., Gwavuya, S., Abele, S. and Müller, J. (2013). Biogas Production vs. Dung Combustion as
Household Energy in Rural Ethiopia. University of Hohenheim, Institute for Agricultural Engineering in
the Tropics and Subtropics, Germany.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2001). Plantations and Wood Energy.
Rome. Macksuel, F.S., Myla, M.F. and Carlos, R.S.J. (2018). Characteristics of wood and charcoal
from Eucalyptus
clones. Floresta Ambient 25(3). http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/2179-8087.035016.
Mehari, Z.H. (2008). Invasion of Prosopis juliflora and (SW.) DC Rural Livelihoods. The Case of Afar
Pastoralists at Middle Awash Area of Ethiopia. MSc. Thesis. Norwegian University of Life Science,
Oslo.
Mehari, Z.H. (2015). The invasion of Prosopis juliflora and Afar pastoral livelihoods in the Middle
Awash Area of Ethiopia. Ecological Processes 4(13), doi: 10.1186/s13717-015-0039-8.
Ethiopia. Final report. Supported by Global Green Growth Institute. Addis Ababa.
Tumwesige, V., Fulford, D. and Davidson, G.C. (2014). Biogas appliances in Sub-Sahara Africa.
Biomass and Bioenergy. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2014.02.017.
4.19 Indicator 19. Gross value added
Hundessa Adugna1, Alemtsehaye Eyasu2 and Gemechu Kaba3 Ethiopian Environment and
Forest Research Institute, Addis Ababa
1
[email protected], 2 [email protected] and 3 [email protected]
4.19.2 Description
(19.1) Gross value added per unit of bioenergy produced and as a percentage of gross
domestic product

US$/MJ, Birr/MJ and Percentage

BIOGAS
In Ethiopia, bioenergy is a relatively new sector and consequently comprehensive
economic data on gross value added by this energy sector are scarce. Data collected by
the National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia and SNV in different woredas of four regions
194
(Tigray, Amhara, Oromia and SNNPR) were used. Review of key documents, interviews
and discussions with experts of different institutions was done in order to explore all the
necessary data available. Various study reports including those
195
obtained from internet facilities, project documents, articles, etc. were also used. The
institutions from which different sets of data was collected were the Ministry of Mines,
Petroleum and Natural Gas, the National Biogas Programme for Ethiopia, the Ethiopian
Electric Power Corporation, the Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency (CSA), the Ethiopian
Petroleum Agency, the Transport Division at the Ministry of Transport, the Ministry of
Agriculture, the Universal Rural Electric Access Program, the Ethiopian Rural Energy
Development and Promotion Centre and others.
SOLID BIOMASS
Data from the joint study of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(MEFCC) and the United Nations Environment Programme were considered (United
Nations Environment Programme [UNEP] 2016). Moreover, a review of key national
documents and discussions with experts from different institutions linked to this energy
sector was done, in order to collect all the necessary data used in the study. The data
were obtained mainly from institutions such as the Environment, Forest and Climate
Change Commission of Ethiopia (the then Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change), the Bureaus of Environment, Forest and Climate Change of different regions,
and others. Various national reports including those obtained from internet facilities,
national and regional project documents were also used in the analysis.
4.19.5 Key findings

BIOGAS
Breakdown of the costs
According to the National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia (NBPE), households having a
minimum of four head of cattle can adequately feed at least the minimum recommended
domestic digester size (4 m3) (Mengistu 2016). The biogas digester is reasonably priced
compared to other energy sources. The average cost of a biodigester as per 2018 figures
ranges from 13,888 birr ($473) to 21,719 birr ($740) for the 4 m3, 6 m3, 8 m3 and 10
m3 sizes.
The 6 m3 is the most popular size; its average cost is 16,366 birr ($558). The breakdown
of the cost of the 6 m3 biodigester is (NBPE 2018):
 construction materials = 36 per cent (5,892 birr);
 pipes, fittings, appliances, etc. = 23 per cent (3,764 birr);
 and labour cost= 41 per cent (6,710 birr).
In Ethiopia, the cumulative installations of anaerobic digesters until September 2018

reached 22,166. The share of regional states was Amhara 33 per cent, Oromia 25
per cent, SNNPR 19 per cent, Tigray 23 per cent and New Regions 0.3 per cent (NBPE
2018). The outcome household survey (Netherlands Development Organisation [SNV]
2018) revealed that 77 per cent of biogas plants were functional, with variation among
surveyed regions. The survey report stated that around 90 per cent of biodigesters
installed in SNNPR were functional followed by 81 per cent reported from Amhara region
respondents. Biodigesters distributed and installed in Oromia and Tigray regional states
were functional at 72 per cent and 65 per cent, respectively.
Gross value added of biogas value chain

Biogas production in Ethiopia is at the household level. There is no industry-level
production of biogas energy in the country. Therefore, the study focused on the
household-level production and gross value added. The gross value added per unit of
bioenergy at household level was measured using the data from Table 4.60.
196
On average, an anaerobic digester with a volume of 6 m3 generated value-added from
savings on fuel and fertilizers of 10,290 birr ($365). According to the result from Table
4.61, the gross value
197
added per unit of biogas produced in Ethiopia is 0.45 birr/MJ of biogas fuel ($0.016/MJ).
Thus, the total gross value added generated by the 22,166 anaerobic digesters currently
in operation at household level was estimated at 175.62 million birr ($6.23 million).
In addition to the above result, the results of the survey conducted by SNV show
that biogas users have reduced the use of fertilizer by 50 per cent. Thus, taking into
account the increase in the cost of fertilizer and the reduction in use of fertilizer by biogas
owners, the average savings from the cost of fertilizer for a farmer nationally was 35 per
cent. Biogas users have indicated overall that they experienced a significant decrease in
use of chemical fertilizer following installation of biogas digester. The decrease in the
national average use of fertilizer was from 146 kg to 60 kg, or a 65 per cent decline
(NBPE 2015).
Table 4.60. Gross value added from biogas (1)
2018
No. Content Unit Birr $
1 Cost savings per anaerobic digester / year Birr/$ 11 850.00 420.00
Saving charcoal Birr/$ 3 600.00 128.00
Saving firewood Birr/$ 1 500.00 53.00
Saving kerosene Birr/$ 4 050.00 143.00
Saving electricity Birr/$ 2 400.00 85.00
Selling organic fertilizer Birr/$ 300.00 11.00
2 Benefit from increased crop yield Birr/$ 2 717.00 96.00
3 Operation cost of biogas per anaerobic digester / Birr/$ 2 966.00 105.00
year
4 Maintenance cost Birr/$ 1 311.00 46.00
5 Gross value added per anaerobic digester Birr/$ 10 290.00 365.00
Number of anaerobic digesters in the country
6 Number of plants 22 166 22 166
(functional biogas plants = 77% of total
biodigesters)
7 Gross value added of biogas produced Birr/$ 175 619 430.00 6 229 455.00
m3/year 17 630 230 17 630 230
8 Total biogas production at household level (2)
MJ/year 387 865 060(3) 387 865 060
9 Gross value added per unit of biogas produced Birr/$/MJ 0.45 0.016
(1) Construction costs were not included in the secondary data used for this indicator. The analysis is made after the
construction of the biodigester. As a reminder, the cost of the biodigester is covered by the governmental subsidy in some
regions of Ethiopia. (2) The average daily production of biogas is 2.83 MJ/m3, as used in other indicators.
(3) It is calculated as 22,166 biodigesters x 0.77 in use x 2.83 m3 biogas /day x 22 MJ/m3 x 365 days = 387.865 million MJ/year
Source: Computation using data obtained from Gaddisa 2011; NBPE 2018; SNV 2018.
Percentage of gross domestic product

The gross value added from all biodigesters in Ethiopia at the household level was
estimated at 176 million birr ($6.23 million) in 2018. The GDP in Ethiopia was about
2,366 billion birr ($83.84 billion) in 2018 (https://www.statista.com). Therefore, the gross
value added of biogas production accounts about 0.0074 per cent of the country’s
GDP in 2018.
SOLID BIOMASS
Some dynamics of the sector
Charcoal production and marketing in Ethiopia have always been almost entirely
informally organized. The majority of informal charcoal producers are low- to middle-
income or pure pastoral/agro-pastoral and mixed farming households living in the dry
lowlands of Ethiopia (Geissler et al. 2013). Most charcoal coming to towns and cities is
198
produced, transported and retailed illegally. It is transported to urban centres using
trucks, automobiles, camels and donkeys. A charcoal inflow
199
survey into Addis Ababa alone showed on average over 42,000 sacks of charcoal coming
to the city each day (MEFCC 2016a).
The main actors directly involved along the charcoal marketing chains include producers,
distributors/transporters, wholesalers, retailers and consumers. The transporters who
come with light trucks buy up to hundreds of sacks of charcoal and sell to both retailers
and directly to consumers. Their main sales are to retailers in major urban areas. The
price of charcoal is much higher when purchased in small retail shops than in sacks. In
some cases, consumers can buy directly from producers or distributors; depot owners are
also engaged in retailing charcoal (Bekele and Girmay 2013). According to the same
report, distribution of income and profit sharing in the illegal charcoal production-supply
channel in Ethiopia is highly skewed towards the producers, who are earning around 75
per cent of the total revenue per bag (MEFCC 2016a).
Percentage of gross domestic product

Wood fuel is the most important forest product consumed in Ethiopia, with average
wood fuel consumption per capita of 1.35 m³/year. The GDP contribution of wood fuel
consumed annually is estimated at $5,858 million (MEFCC 2016b), which is about
39,072.86 million birr per year at PPP3 of 2013 (UNEP 2016), accounting for around 4.5
per cent of the GDP of that year. The gross value added from wood fuel (charcoal and
firewood) increased to $6,419 million (46,827 million birr), accounting for the same
share of Ethiopian GDP of 2013-14 (Table 4.61).
Based on the result of a joint study from the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change of Ethiopia (MEFCC) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP
2016), it is estimated that the gross value of rural wood fuel production in 2015 was 34.2
billion birr, which is very similar to the Forest Sector Review’s (MEFCC 2017) estimate of
35.5 billion birr for 2013. The findings estimate the costs to be equal to 3.4 per cent of
gross production, giving a figure of 33.5 billion birr for value- added. The Forest Sector
Review’s estimate of 1.35 m3 of wood fuel production per capita in 2013 (95 per cent
firewood and 5 per cent charcoal) has been adopted as the basis for valuation, since it
better reflects overall national conditions.
Table 4.61. Value added of wood fuel production
Value added Share of GDP

Year Million birr Million $ Percent
2011-12 30 855 4 781 4.1%
2012-13 39 078 5 858 4.5%
2013-14 46 827 6 419 4.5%
Source: UNEP 2016.
The annual volume of wood harvested for wood fuel was around 120.4 million m 3 of
roundwood equivalent in 2015 (115.0 million m3 used as firewood and 5.4 million m3
for conversion into charcoal) (MEFCC 2017). This is about 60.2 billion kg of wood fuel
consumed in the same year.
Assuming that one kilogram of fuel wood generates an average of around 14.5 MJ energy,
the wood fuel consumed in the country in 2015 generated about 873 billion MJ/year. The
gross value of rural wood fuel production (60.2 billion kg) in 2015 is 34.2 billion birr. The
resulting gross value added per unit of energy produced from solid biomass (wood fuel) in
Ethiopia is 0.0392 birr/MJ of biogas fuel ($0.0059/MJ).
200
3
As cited in the report on “The contribution of forests to national income in Ethiopia and linkages with REDD+, United Nations
Environment Programme” the purchasing power parity of birr to US dollar was 6.670 in 2013. This figure is extracted from
the World Bank Report.
201
Table 4.62. Gross value added from solid biomass (charcoal and firewood)
Content Unit 2015
Total wood fuel production m3 120.4 million
Total wood fuel production kg 60.2 billion
Average energy production MJ/kg 14.5
Total energy production MJ/year 873 billion
Gross value added birr 34.2 billion
birr 5.127 billion
Gross value added per unit of energy produced birr/MJ 0.0392
$/MJ 0.0059
Source: Computation using data obtained from UNEP 2016; MEFCC 2017.

BIOGAS
The gross value added from the value chain across all levels of biogas production at the
household level for all biodigesters installed in Ethiopia was estimated to be 176 million
birr ($6.23 million), while the country’s GDP in the same year was about 2,366 billion birr
($84 billion). As a result, the gross value added from biogas production in the country
accounts for about 0.0074 per cent of the GDP in 2018.

Currently, the biogas produced at the household level is used only in some parts of the
country, benefiting some 180,000 rural people. A significant surplus potential of biogas
feedstock is available, especially at the farm level. According to the National Biogas
Programme of Ethiopia, around 1.1 million households are potential users of dung-based
biodigesters. Using this biogas feedstock to cook is important, but it would also be
important to supply the energy to the grid. This would increase the gross value added
from biogas production and the contribution of the sector to the country’s GDP.
Therefore, power generation from biogas should be adequately supported in the context
of sectoral policies at the national level.
Future monitoring
Collecting primary data for measuring the indicator at the household level is a challenge
due to the lack of financial and time budgets to obtain the information required in this
analysis. In the future, sample surveys and pilot studies should be undertaken to
monitor the sustainability of the sector. Continuous monitoring of the biodigesters
(how many biogas digesters work, how much biogas is produced) and of the use of
biogas (amount of consumption, the proportions in which households use biogas) and
other energy sources in Ethiopia.
SOLID BIOMASS
The gross value added from the value chain across all levels of wood fuel (charcoal and
firewood) production at the national level in Ethiopia was estimated to be $5,858 million
(39,073 million birr) in 2013, accounting for around 4.5 per cent of the GDP of the year.
The gross value added from wood fuel (charcoal and firewood) increased to $6,419
million (46,827 million birr), accounting the equal share of the Ethiopian GDP of
2013-14.

The promotion of the use of improved cookstoves is crucial to increase energy efficiency
and sustainability. This would contribute to the gross value added of Ethiopia.
202
Future monitoring
Due to a lack of fully fledged information and national data on forest resources in
general and on wood fuel production in particular, analysis in this sector is a big
challenge. In the future, national surveys and different pilot studies should be
conducted to monitor the sustainability of the sector.
4.19.7 References
Bekele, M. and Girmay, Z. (2013). Reading Through the Charcoal Industry in Ethiopia: Production,
Marketing, Consumption and Impact. Forum for Social Studies. Addis Ababa.
Gaddisa, B. (2011). Biogas Production System Design for Condominium and Its Feasibility. A thesis
submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Addis Ababa University in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Energy Technology. Addis Ababa University.
Addis Ababa.
International Energy Agency (2013). People Relying on Traditional Use of Biomass for Cooking. Paris.
Mengistu, M. (2016). Biogas Technology Adoption and Its Contributions to Rural Livelihood and Environment in
Northern Ethiopia, the Case of Ofla and Mecha Woredas. Addis Ababa University. Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2016a). The Charcoal Industry Assessment of
Ethiopia: Policy and Institutional Restructuring for Sustainable Charcoal. Supported by Global Green
Growth Institute. Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2016b). Ethiopia’s Forest Level Submission to UNFCCC.
Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2017). Technical Report. Ethiopia Forest
Sector Review. Focus on Commercial Forestry and Industrialization. Addis Ababa.
National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia (2015). Report on Biogas Users' Survey (BUS). SNV
Netherlands Development Organisation. Addis Ababa.
National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia (2018). Presentation of Report on National Biogas Program of Ethiopia.
Presented by Saroj Rai, Team Leader, National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia. SNV Netherlands
Development Organisation. Addis Ababa.
SNV Netherlands Development Organisation (2018). Report on National Biogas Users’ Survey.
National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia. Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity. Addis Ababa.
United Nations Environment Programme (2016). The Contribution of Forests to National Income in
Ethiopia and Linkages with REDD+. Nairobi.
4.20 Indicator 20. Change in consumption of fossil fuels and traditional use of
biomass
Gemechu Yadeta, Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research institute (EEFRI), Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia [email protected]
4.20.2 Description
(20.1) Substitution of fossil fuels with domestic bioenergy measured by energy content
(20.1a) and annual savings of convertible currency from reduced purchases of fossil fuels
(20.1b)
(20.2) Substitution of traditional use of biomass with modern domestic bioenergy
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measured by energy content.
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(20.1) MJ per year and/or MW per year
(20.2) MJ per year

The use of locally produced biomass for bioenergy can displace the consumption of fossil
fuels and/or traditional use of biomass for energy, which would have significant positive
impacts on the economic development and energy security of a country or region.
The required data was obtained from both national and international statistics.
4.20.5 Key findings

BIOGAS
Substitution of fossil fuel by biogas (20.1)
Biogas contributes to replacing the use of fossil fuel (kerosene) consumed for lighting at
the household level. About 3.2 per cent of the biogas produced is used for lighting, and
this replaces kerosene (Teweldee et al. 2017).
The annual production of biogas was estimated to be 17,630,230 m3, or 387,865,060

MJ/year, assuming that the average calorific value of biogas is 22 MJ/m³.
Therefore, the amount of biogas used for lighting from the total biogas consumption of
Ethiopia is equivalent to 3.2 per cent x 17,630,230 m3/yr = 564,167 m3 of biogas. This
replaces 338,500 litres of kerosene annually, equivalent to 14,555 MJ/year assuming that
the average calorific value of kerosene is 43 MJ/m³ and that 1 m 3 of biogas replaces 0.6
litres of kerosene (National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia [NBPE] 2015). The price of 1
litre of kerosene is 16.35 birr. Therefore, the annual savings is 5,534,481 birr
($204,074 per year).
Substitution of traditional biomass by biogas (20.2)

Assuming that 96.8 per cent of biogas is consumed for cooking, a total of 17,066,062 m3
of biogas is used for cooking substituting firewood annually. This replaces 102,396 tons of
firewood (with open fires) annually, considering that 1 m3 of biogas can replace 6 kg of
firewood (with open fires) (NBPE 2015). 1 kg of firewood with open fires can generate
around 1.5 MJ of final energy services (NBPE 2015). So, 102,396 tons of firewood can
generate 154,594,564 MJ/yr. This is the amount of energy (in cooking energy services)
saved by substituting firewood with biogas.
SOLID BIOMASS
Solid biomass for cooking does not replace fossil fuels. Therefore, sub-indicator 20.1 does not
apply.
According to national forest sector development data, the annual consumption of wood
is 115 million m3 as firewood and 5.4 million m3 as charcoal (MEFCC 2018). Thus, the
total annual solid biomass energy (firewood and charcoal) consumption of Ethiopia is
120.4 million m3.
Average firewood consumption is higher in rural households at 4,600 kg/year per

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household compared to urban households, which use an average of 3,400 kg/yr per
household (Guta 2014). The average firewood consumption at the scale of Ethiopia,
considering the share between the urban and rural population (20.6 per cent and 79.4
per cent respectively) is therefore 4,353 kg/household.
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An average household saves around 575 kg of wood per year using the Mirt stove
and 300 kg using the Tikikil stove. Around 1.375 million households currently have
sustainable access to improved cookstoves in Ethiopia (GIZ/EnDev 2015). The minimum
firewood saved using improved cookstoves is 300 kg/household.
The firewood saved thanks to these stoves is as follows:

300 x 1.375 = 412.5 thousand tons of firewood per year.

BIOGAS
The annual production of biogas was estimated to be 17,630,230 m3 in 2018. Of this, 3.2
per cent is used for lighting and replaces kerosene. This is equivalent to 338,500 litres of
kerosene annually, or 14,555 MJ/year. The annual savings is 5,534,481 birr ($204,074
per year).
Assuming that 96.8 per cent of biogas is consumed for cooking, a total of 17,066,062 m 3
of biogas is used for cooking. This replaces 102,396 tons of firewood (with open fires)
annually, considering that 1 m3 of biogas can replace 6 kg of firewood (with open
fires) (NBPE 2015).

Not all of the biogas produced is used for lighting or cooking. Some biogas is released
inadvertently through leakages and improper management, and a proportion is also
flared or vented. To avoid leakages and the associated methane emissions,
improvements should be made in the technology used for anaerobic digesters. Along with
the development of appropriate technologies, policies should be put in place to promote
investments in power generators, including cogeneration.
Future monitoring
To monitor and synthesize data such as digester size, biogas technology and labour
indicators, the Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity along with the National
Biogas Programme of
Ethiopia should set up official statistical data monitoring on biogas from livestock at the
central and local levels.
SOLID BIOMASS
Total wood (firewood and charcoal) consumption of Ethiopia was 120.4 million m 3
in 2018 according to National Forest Sector Development data. An estimate 412.5
thousand tons of firewood was saved by using improved cookstoves.

The main challenge for solid biomass energy sources is the lack of accounting for
bioenergy products not traded in formal markets or for trade in off-grid rural areas.
Charcoal production and marketing has always been almost entirely informally organized
and implemented by the private sector. Prior to 1993, the state-owned Construction and
Fuelwood Production and Marketing Enterprise (CFPME) had in theory the monopoly for
charcoal production and marketing. In practice a great proportion of charcoal was
produced and marketed “illegally” outside the state monopoly. After 1993 CFPME wound
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down its operations and was finally disbanded.
208
Future monitoring
The government of Ethiopia should enact policies that facilitate formal trading or markets
for solid biomass. Further research on improved charcoal cookstoves should be
done.
4.20.7 References
Energizing Development Ethiopia (2015). GIZ/EnDev National Report on Improved Cook Stoves (ICS).
Addis Ababa.
Guta, D.D. (2014). Effect of fuel wood scarcity and socio-economic factors on household bio-based
energy use and energy substitution in rural Ethiopia. Energy Policy 75, 217-227.
Report. Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity (2013). National Report on Biomass Energy of Ethiopia.
Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity (2018). Report on National Biogas Users’ Survey. Addis
Ababa. National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia. (2015). Report on Biogas Users’ Survey (BUS).
Addis Ababa.
National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia (2018). Surveys conducted on biogas users in rural
residents of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.
Tewelde, G., Rahwa, G., Grmanesh, A. and Lemlem S. (2017). Biogas plant distribution for rural
household sustainable energy supply in Africa. Energy and Policy Research 4(1), 10-20, doi:
10.1080/23815639.2017.1280432.
4.21 Indicator 21. Training and requalification of the workforce

Abraham Dilnesa1 and Fikermariam Haile2, Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research
Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
1
4.21.2 Description
(21.1) Share of trained workers in the bioenergy sector out of total bioenergy workforce.
(21.2) Share of re-qualified workers out of the total number of jobs lost in the bioenergy sector.

Percentage (per year)

The indicator gives information on the skills and training provided to the bioenergy
workforce. It also reflects the ability of these workers to be re-employed by the bioenergy
or other sectors, or requalified if they lose their jobs in the bioenergy sector.
The analysis in Ethiopia refers only to sub-indicator 21.1. A high importance was given to
the capacities and skills of the workers to properly do their jobs in the bioenergy sector.
This is crucial to the quality of the technologies and uses of bioenergy.
Sub-indicator 21.2 was not measured, because there are no documented files on
requalified workers if they lose their jobs in the bioenergy sector.
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The information was collected from secondary data, official statistics and interviews.
The number of trained workers covers any worker that has received any training for
activities in the bioenergy sector including in a workshop, training course, certification
programme, or that received a degree from a technical school or higher education
institution in biogas and in wood fuel and charcoal in relation to improved cookstoves.
4.21.5 Key findings

BIOGAS
Overview
The National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia (NBPE) offers a package that includes orientation
and technical training, as well as a subsidy that covers one-third of the upfront capital
investment costs (United Nations Economic Commission for Africa 2015).
For the successful implementation of a new programme involving new technology and
new approaches, such as the NBPE, the provision of training was indicated to be a key
requirement (Ethiopian Rural Energy Development and Promotion Centre and
Netherlands Development Organisation [SNV] 2008). Consequently, diverse training,
such as mason training, biogas users’ training on how to operate and do minor
maintenance, bioslurry utilization training, supervisor training, refresher training for
masons and supervisors, and biogas technician training were given to the different groups
of actors involved in the implementation of the NBPE.
According to key informants from the NBPE and SNV Addis Ababa sources in 2019,
more than 2,000 masons were trained and 319 experts who have degrees and diplomas
in 381 wordas are working on biogas nationwide. Over 26,000 farmers took part in training
activities on biodigesters in eight regions (Amhara, Oromia, SNNPR, Tigray Afar, Benishangul-
Gumuz, Ethio-Somali and Gambella). In Ethiopia, under SNV programmes, 9,300 job
opportunities were created until 2017 (Teune 2019). A deeper analysis is provided
below.
Masons
According to key informants from the NBPE and SNV Addis Ababa sources in 2019, m ason
training was a priority requirement for the implementation of the programme. The total
number of masons trained by the NBPE is 2,162 in the four regions where biogas
technology was first introduced: 1,007 in Amhara, 345 in Oromia, 345 in SNNPR and 465
in Tigray. Of these, 715 masons are active, until the baseline cut-off date of March
2017. In the four new programme regions where biogas technology has been
introduced recently, 27 masons were trained: none in Afar, 12 in Benishangul-Gumuz, 15
in Ethio Somali, and none in Gambella. Three masons are still active. In total, only 33 per
cent of the trained masons are still active (Sak business and personal development
2018).
It is difficult to maintain trained masons within the NBPE, because they do not work
exclusively on biodigester construction and are usually attracted to other construction
activities where they can find larger profit margins (Kamp and Bermúdez 2016).
The masons are rarely grouped as local micro-enterprises. However there is consensus
at the regional and federal level to leverage entrepreneurship.
Measuring the skills of the masons and the effectiveness of the trainings definitely needs
independent research. However, as a proxy, the skills of the masons can be reflected in
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the quality of the biogas installations. According to Mengistu (2016), surveyed biogas
adopters were asked whether the masons were skillful in constructing the biogas plants.
While 86 per cent were skillful, the remaining 14 per cent were not skillful. The following
pictures of biogas installations can also
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substantiate the existence of skill gaps with some masons. Some biogas plants have
been constructed at improper sites, with dome casts high above the ground level, and a
few biogas plants have toilet seats where the PVC pipes protrude above the concrete
surface.
Biogas construction enterprises

The total number of biogas construction enterprises (BCEs) established is 75, out of which
5 (7 per cent of the total) are qualified BCEs with proper offices and minimum
organizational shape and resource to conduct their biogas business. Amhara, Oromia,
SNNPR and Tigray regions have established 35, 21, 7 and 12 BCEs respectively.
However, it was also reported that individual masons were considered as BCEs. Out of the
total BCEs established, the number of active BCEs operating currently are 19, and these
BCEs have business plans. The remaining 51 BCEs are not active. There is no BCE
established in the four new programme regions (Afar, Benishangul-Gumuz, Ethio-Somali
and Gambella) where biogas technology is being introduced recently (Sak business and
personal development 2018).
Appliance producers and importers

The availability of appliance producers and importers of appliances to biodigesters and
biogas cookstoves are important indicators of the private sector development. According
to key informants from the NBPE in 2019, the total number of appliance producers in the
country is above 13, and all received formal training from SNV. They produce biogas
stoves, biogas lamps and accessories, dome pipes, dung mixers, water drains, gate
valves, etc. But they produce few types of accessories. The main reasons for production
of few types of appliances are the lack of technical knowledge and skills by the
manufacturers, and the limited demand for the appliances. There are three importers
engaged in biogas business, based in Addis Ababa, one of which imports items, once
selected through a tender process. The main appliance items being imported are ball
valve, PVC tap, open/close valve, mud shower, mantle, pressure meter, connector, focus
cover and glass holder (Zerihun 2014).
Biodigester users
According to Kellner, it is common that due to lack of knowledge and awareness, biogas
users do not exploit the full potential of biogas plants (Kellner 2014). Bad habits such as
irregular or insufficient feeding of the biodigester greatly hinder biogas production.
Bioslurry utilization is poorly taught to biogas users by masons, although extension
officers from the Ministry of Agriculture could perform this task. Training is very much
effective for proper use of bioslurry (Araya 2014). But not all users have a clear
understanding of the proper management of bioslurry, only 27 per cent of respondents
received training on the use and management of bioslurry, and the remaining 73 per cent
did not receive training (Yalemtsehay and Teshome 2016).
Figure 4.27. Dung stored in the inlet pit for later use has become dry
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Source: Mengistu 2016.
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Biogas user training is neither given uniformly to all biogas user households nor across all
biogas programme implementing regions. In Amhara Region, user training is being given
only to the head of biogas user household, dominantly men. In Tigray Regional State, user
training was given more often to three members of a biogas user household
(Mengistu 2016).
Other barriers are the high illiteracy rate and the large number of mother tongues in
Ethiopia which makes training of masons, technicians and users more difficult. This
problem is exacerbated by the fact that within Ethiopia more than 80 different mother
tongues exist (Kamp and Bermúdez 2016).
SOLID BIOMASS
Forestry’s contribution to employment generation is not well documented; however,
people profit from forestry employment through firewood and charcoal collection.
Fuelwood production is by far the largest employment generator accounting for nearly 50
per cent of the total forestry employment (Million 2001). No comprehensive employment
data were found for the wood fuel subsector. It is reported that more than 276,300 jobs
in this subsector have been created, but it was not specified whether these involved full-
time or part-time employment (Bekele 2011).
Charcoal makers had never received any type of skills training to improve their efficiency
and had never been approached to use better technology to reduce wastage during
charcoal production. Currently, the charcoal activities along the market chain provide a
total of 380,847 permanent jobs and 905,918 seasonal employment opportunities,
amounting to a total of 1,286,765 people directly employed by the industry; with around 4
dependents per employee, the total beneficiaries could rise to around 5.4 million. The
main actors directly involved along the charcoal market chains include tree owner,
nursery owner, seed collector, charcoaler, labourer, truck owner, loader, bag producer,
wholesaler, stove producer and stove retailer (Bekele and Girmay 2013).
According to data from the National Improved Cookstove Programme (NICSP), more than
15 million improved cookstoves were disseminated between 2005 and 2016. Of these, 27
per cent were closed mud stoves such as the Awramba, while 21 per cent were Mirt
stoves, 14 per cent Lakech, 6 per cent Tikikil, 5 per cent Upesi and 1 per cent other stoves
(Energypedia 2018). Several training activities related to these activities were
organized:
 The UK Department for International Development (DFID) disseminated over 15,000

Mirt stoves and trained over 110 producers and installers, and over 30 stove
production units were set up and running in 16 towns in the four targeted
regions, namely Amhara, Oromia, SNNPR and Tigray, by the end of the project
in March 1997 (MEGEN POWER Ltd [MGP] 2008).
 According to GIZ, from 1998 to 2008, 370 Mirt stove producers in 230 towns in
four regions including Amhara, Oromia, SNNPR, and Tigray took training. The project
set up and supported the establishment of a total of 339 Mirt stove production
entrepreneurs. Of this total number of project-supported producers, 36 per cent are
women. The analysis of the study on 34 producers (10 per cent of total number of
producers) indicated that 65 per cent of them were unemployed before they joined
Mirt business (MGP 2008).
 According to records kept by the Sustainable Utilization of Natural Resources (SUN)

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Energy Project Head Quarters in Addis Ababa to 2007, a total of 339 producers were
trained between 1998 and 2007. With regard to producers’ regional distribution, 50
per cent of them are located within Oromia National Regional State. The remaining
34 per cent and 16 per cent are located in Amhara and Tigray Regional States
respectively. Overall, averages of 4.6 persons were working in each of the Mirt
stove production workshops (MGP 2008).
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 The GIZ-SUN project has organized and conducted several capacity-building activities
in terms of awareness creation and technical training in anticipation of engaging
interested stakeholders in the stove dissemination business. Technical stove
production training was given to over 300 persons. Two workshops for awareness
creation were also held, where over 160 representatives from 130 organizations
participated (MGP 2008).
 EnDev Ethiopia focuses on market development and capacity-building of local and

public stakeholders via trainings for producers to improve their technical, business
and marketing skills and technology development improving stove designs
(Dagnew and Rzehak 2015). More than 650 small-scale producers of energy-
efficient cookstoves established their business in 310 districts in seven regions.
These producers have sold about 1.2 million improved cookstoves (mostly Mirt and
Tikikil stoves, for baking and cooking respectively) since 2006 (Energising
Development Partnership [EnDev] 2018).
 World Vision Ethiopia (WVE), with financial support from World Vision Australia
and Standard Bank, is implementing an Energy-efficient Cookstoves (Mirt and Tikikil)
Scale Up Project in several rural areas in Oromia (10 area development
programmes ADPs and SNNPR (2 ADPs). In this project, training were given to over
50,000 people cooperatives in development and improved cookstoves
manufacturing, 290 cooperatives with 49,170 members were established, innovative
financing were given to 2,473 women-owned enterprises, and 25 Mirt improved
cookstove producers cooperatives were set up and established with full-fledged legal
status. These producers cooperatives, in addition to providing employment
opportunities for more than 300 rural people, have produced and sold 49,170
Mirt improved cookstoves in less than three years (WVE 2016).
 The Ethiopian Energy Authority (EEA) carried out, side by side, large-scale
recruitment, training and capacity-building programmes to build a strong energy
sector institution. The EEA conducted energy sector studies and implemented
dozens of renewable energy development projects and programmes including
cookstoves, solar PV-based rural electrification, biogas, a woody biomass inventory,
new fuels (charcoal and briquettes) production and marketing (Netherlands
Development Organisation [SNV] 2018).
 According to Water, Education, Economic Empowerment, Medical Care and Alliance

([WEEMA] 2016), training was given on Gonzye and Mirt clean cookstoves for
community utilization in the Tembaro worda clean cookstove project. Sixty-one
potters were trained to produce high-quality clean cookstoves, and four staff from the
local Water and Energy Office participated in the training to increase their own
knowledge and ability to provide ongoing support to the potters cooperatives. Some
clean cookstoves produced by the trainees are purchased by WEEMA and
distributed to selected members in the community to benefit their household health
and financial stability, as well as promote sales and utilization in the wider
community (WEEMA 2016).
 SNV Ethiopia, in its Strengthening Enabling Environment for Clean Cooking Sector of
Ethiopia (SEECCS) project, took the initiative and supported the revision and
development of the Clean Cook Stove and Clean Cooking Solution, Performance
Requirements and Test Methods (ES 6085: 2019) document. This ES 6085: 2019 is
applicable to cookstoves used for cooking/baking in domestic, small-scale enterprise
and institutional applications. The standard is expected to transform the clean
216
cooking sector through enhancing economies of design such as innovation, product
and service quality, production and delivery. These collectively improve cooking
safety, human health and protection of the environment (SNV 2019).
217
 Even though Ethiopia has done a lot on human capacity, there are some
barriers and constraints for development of training on improved cookstoves. The
Regional Energy Agencies employ a large crew of hundreds of energy experts
throughout their portfolios and all the way down to zones and woredas. However,
they very often face skill and technical capacity constraints, including a lack of
engineers. At lower administrative levels (woredas) frequent staff turnover is
reported in several woredas. Moreover, some woreda energy experts complain about
issues pertaining to human resources management in general and lack of
training opportunities and deployment to tasks that do not fall under their job
description (SNV 2018).
Despite all these activities, the lack of locally developed and adapted technologies that fit
with local conditions, and the lack of practical training experiences remain important
barriers, among others, to the development of the sector (Ministry of Water and Energy
2012). Some ideas to improve the situation are provided in the conclusions and
recommendations.

Training is a key factor for the sustainability of the production, adaptation and adoption of
new technologies like biodigesters and improved cookstoves to ensure their
sustainability. Training must therefore involve producers, developers, sellers and users. It
is also vital for the development of the private sector. However, training must be well-
thought and well-organized to get the expected results, and the bioenergy sector must
develop sufficiently in parallel in order to guarantee the retention of the workers in the
sector.
BIOGAS
Ethiopia has reached strong achievement in the biogas sector in the last 20 years. Close
to 2,200 masons were trained in the eight regions where biodigesters were and are being
introduced. Around 26,000 users were also trained on biodigesters. However, 33 per cent
of the biodigesters are not working properly due to the poor design and construction
of the biogas installations and the inappropriate operation and maintenance by the
users (Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity 2018). This lack of basic skills of biogas
masons and users is clearly the result of inappropriate or insufficient training (Mengistu
2016).
Moreover, the lack of technical training for biogas appliances producers and for biogas
construction entrepreneurs is a barrier to the rapid development of the sector. At the
same time, it is difficult to maintain trained masons in the sector (around one-third of the
trained masons are still active in the biogas sector) since they do not work exclusively on
biodigester construction and are usually attracted by other construction activities where
they can find larger profit margins and bigger volumes of work.

Some of the recommendations to reinforce the sustainability of the sector through training are:
 Develop state agencies to provide training and awareness on biodigesters.
 Involve more systematically the private sector and the NGO community in the
construction of the biodigesters. Provide them with sufficient support and regular
training activities (not only one training).
 Reinforce the activities related to Training of Trainers (TOT) in the sector of the
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construction and supervision of the biodigesters.
 Pay special attention to the training and awareness of masons and users in rural
areas with high illiteracy rates and many different mother tongues. Training
activities must be well adapted to these specific conditions.
219
 Implement a certification process of trained masons, users and extension workers.
 Involve universities in the training.
 Provide on the spot intensive maintenance training to a few – e.g., three –
educated, wise and committed farmers per rural kebele.
 Provide solid training and practical demonstrations to the users in order to
ensure proper storage and utilization of the bioslurry. This could contribute to
enhanced agriculture activities.
Future monitoring
Many biogas digesters are not functional due to lack of monitoring and follow-up,
technical problems, reduced cattle size and shortage of water. It is physically difficult to
inspect every biogas digester constructed. Therefore, the skilled mobile team randomly
selects some per cent of plants to be visited every month. Appropriate forms and
questionnaire should be developed to record information on the biogas digesters
visited. Based on the report of this team, actors should discuss the problems with the
biogas digesters and suggest necessary repair works. The mobile team technicians also
identify masons, users and companies that require refreshment training. The institutions
should take responsible for monitoring the overall training activities that should be
implemented through annual plans and reports. They should disseminate a monitoring
programmers’ system on biogas plant users’ skills, masons’ construction skills, and experts’
maintenance skills so as to fill the gap in training.
SOLID BIOMASS
Many different training activities on improved cookstoves have been developed in
Ethiopia by many different partners. Over 51,000 people and 1,300 small-scale
enterprises are trained to manufacture and distribute stoves in the country. However,
several limits are identified: lack of training and maintenance facilities, inadequate
technology development and adaptation capacity, weak technical expertise, limited
participation of the private sector, insufficient participation of the ministries in the training
on production and dissemination, lack of coordination among stakeholders and lack of
well- coordinated training for all elements of the supply chain.

Ethiopia’s current charcoal production, largely based on inefficient carbonization
processes, is a threat to both the local (forestry) and global (climate) environment. The
lack of awareness, training and education largely contributes to this situation. In contrast, if
skilled communities and private practitioners grew trees for charcoal and harvested trees
through proper management plans, the sector would become much more sustainable.
Some of the recommendations to reinforce the sustainability of the sector through training are:
 Develop a strong training plan and easy-to-use manuals for charcoal producers
covering: good charcoal production practices, including improved kilns; methods of
sustainable harvesting and field management of tree resources (tree and shrub species,
optimal tree management, rotation periods); rules for a good marketing of their products.
Many charcoal producers could easily be reached through community-based groups
producing charcoal. The existing energy centres, through which farmers are trained,
are important platforms that could be empowered for community technical capacity-
building.
 Implement a wood fuel certification process that, among other things, ensures that
220
charcoal is produced from sustainably managed forests. Implement also a cookstove
certification process to
221
guarantee the quality of the stoves. Any certification process requires solid training of
all stakeholders, from decision makers to producers.
 Encourage farmers to form Community Forest Associations that coordinate the

sourcing of seeds and seedlings, planting, management, awareness creation, and
monitoring of charcoal production as a cash crop. Inform and train the local
communities to plant trees to replace the old ones or the harvested ones.
 Establish a modern laboratory for cookstove testing and development.
 Implement training and education of the end-users, including the use and
maintenance of the stoves.
 Document past achievements and experience by collecting, organizing and

analyzing data and information; this would include charcoal producer surveys and
household energy surveys, to estimate and document the quantitative and
qualitative impacts of the projects, to better understand the actual patterns of use
and preferences for future improved cookstoves.
 Build training and research institutions for clean and efficient cooking solutions to
help raise awareness of stakeholder health, economic, environmental and gender
benefits and the creation of job opportunities.
 Use the media to create public awareness. The country has a wide range of media
celebrities such as those in music and drama, public gatherings such as in churches, and
community meetings (Eder). All of these could serve as important channels for reaching
producers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers with messages on topics ranging from
forest management to efficient use of charcoal.
Future monitoring
The government should have experts who monitor the production, standards and
performance of improved cookstoves. Standardization and testing of the fuel-related
performance of improved cookstoves requires qualified experts. The actors should follow
up on the sustainability and effectiveness of the training. Since the country has few
experts, annual monitoring surveys are required to collect critical information on year-to-
year trends in end-user characteristics, such as technology use, fuel consumption and
seasonal variations. There should be written protocols for use of the instruments, sample
field monitoring questionnaires, data collection forms and spreadsheet templates for
entering and evaluating the data.
4.21.7 References
Araya, H. (2014). Interview with Hailu Araya, Ecological Organic Agriculture. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Series 1, 12.
Bekele, M. and Girmay, Z. (2013). Reading Through the Charcoal Industry in Ethiopia: Production,
Marketing. FSS monograph No. 9. Addis Ababa.
Dagnew, D. and Rzehak, N. (2015). Improved Cook Stoves. Energising Development (EnDev) Ethiopia.
https://energypedia.info/images/8/80/Improved_Cookstoves_in_Ethiopia_%28EnDev%29.pdf.
Energising Development (2014). Ethiopia Improved Cook Stove. Energising Development.
https://energypedia.info/images/8/80/Improved_Cookstoves_in_Ethiopia_%28EnDev%29.pdf.
Energising Development Partnership (2018). Country Project Ethiopia.
222
https://endev.info/images/9/9a/Factsheet_EnDev_Ethiopia_EN.pdf.
223
Energypedia (2018). Ethiopia Energy Situation. https://energypedia.info/wiki/Ethiopia_Energy_Situation.
Ethiopian Rural Energy Development and Promotion Centre and SNV Netherlands Development
Organisation (2008). National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia: Programme Implementation
Document. Addis Ababa.
Kamp, L.M. and Bermúdez Forn, E. (2016). Ethiopia’s emerging domestic biogas sector: Current
status, bottlenecks and drivers. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 60, 475-488.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.068.
Kellner, C. (2002). Manual for the Construction of a BioDigester, “LUPO” Design. Edition for Ethiopia.
MEGEN POWER Ltd (2008). Impact Assessment of Mirt Improved Biomass Injera Stoves Commercialization
in Tigray, Amhara and Oromiya National Regional States.
https://energypedia.info/images/c/c5/Mirt_impact_assessment_rpt_final.pdf.
Melaku, B, Yibeltal, T. and Motuma, T. (2015). The Charcoal Industry Assessment of Ethiopia: Policy
and Institutional Restructuring for Sustainable Charcoal. Supported by Global Green Growth Institute.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. Addis Ababa.
Mengistu, M.G. (2019). Biogas Technology Adoption and Its Contributions to Rural Livelihood and
Environment in Northern Ethiopia: The Case of Ofla and Mecha Woredas.
http://etd.aau.edu.et/bitstream/handle/123456789/3866/Mulu%20Getachew.pdf. Accessed 22
March 2019.
Million, B. (2001). Forestry Outlook Studies in Africa Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Water and Energy (2012), Scaling-Up Renewable Energy Program, Ethiopia Investment Plan
(Draft Final). Addis Ababa. https://www.oecd.org/env/cc/TADELE_FDRE%20Ethiopia%20Scaling%20-
%20Up%20Renewable%20Energy%20Program%202012.pdf.
Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity (2018). Report on National Biogas Users’ Survey. Addis Ababa.
Sak business and personal development plc. (2018). Biogas Dissemination Scale-up Programme
(NBPE+), Programme Baseline Study Report. Unpublished.
SNV Netherlands Development Organisation (2018). Review of Policies and Strategies Related to the
Clean Cooking Sector in Ethiopia. Final Report. Strengthening the Enabling Environment for Clean Cooking.
Addis Ababa. http://www.snv.org/public/cms/sites/default/files/explore/download/eth-seeccs-
review_of_policies_and_strategies_final_report.pdf.
SNV Netherlands Development Organisation (2019). National Standardization Council Endorsed Clean
Cooking Solution Standard. http://ww.snv.org/update/national-standardisation-council-endorsed-clean-
cooking- solution standard.
Teune, B. (2019). Capability Statement – Clean Cooking and Heating. SNV Netherlands
Development Organisation. http://www.snv.org/public/cms/sites/default/files/explore/download/
snv_flyer_cookstoves_conference_final. pdf. Accessed 18 May 2019.
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (2015). Inclusive Green Growth in Ethiopia: Selected
Case Studies.
Water, Education, Economic Empowerment, Medical Care and Alliance (2016). Clean
cookstoves. https://www.weema.org/weema-wednesday/2016/9/30/clean-cookstoves.
World Vision Ethiopia. (2016). Easing Women’s Life With Energy Efficient Cook Stoves.
https://www.wvi.org/sites/default/files/Coock%20Stove%20Megazine%20May %2019%202016.pdf
Yalemtsehay, D. and Teshome, S. (2016). Socio economic and environmental benefits of biogas
slurry. Journal of Environment and Earth Science 6(11). https:
//pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6560/37534357fc8f702c72739b15d4601804ef95.pdf.
Zerihun, D. (2014). Studies on Prospects and Challenges of Uptake of Domestic Biogas Technology (The case
of SNNPR, Ethiopia). A Thesis submitted to Indira Gandhi National Open University in partial
fulfilment of the requirement for the degree in Master of Arts in Rural Development. Addis
Ababa.
224
4.22 Indicator 22. Energy diversity
Dr. Shasho Megersa1 and Kedir Jemal2
1
Ethiopian environment and forest research institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
[email protected]
2
Ethiopian Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
[email protected]
4.22.2 Description
(22.1) Change in diversity of total primary energy supply due to bioenergy

Index (in the range 0-1)
MJ bioenergy per year in the Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES)

The contributions of biogas and solid biomass to energy diversity have been analyzed
together. Data on TPES of Ethiopia is based on the Energy Balance of the International
Energy Agency. The Herfindahl Index (HI) was calculated using the following formula.
Where: Si = Share of energy sources in TPES, n = Number of energy sources in TPES. The
HI can range from 0 to 1. HI = 0 when n = ∞, HI = 1 when n = 1 (only one source of
energy in TPES, S = 100 per cent). Therefore, a smaller index, closer to 0, indicates
higher energy diversity.
4.22.5 Key findings
The total primary energy supply of Ethiopia reached 51.54 Mtoe in 2016 (International
Energy Agency 2018). Biofuels and waste include traditional uses of biomass (open
fires), modern uses of solid biomass (improved cookstoves), biogas and bioethanol.
Specific consumption levels are as follows:
 About 449 ktoe of biomass is used with improved cookstoves (Indicator 14).
 The annual production of bioethanol from sugar factories was 128,165,000 litres
in 2014, equivalent to 65 ktoe (1 m3 bioethanol = 0.51 toe) (Shanko 2014). Since
more recent data is not available, the same amount was considered in 2016.
 17,388,695 m3 biogas is produced annually from the working installed digesters,
equivalent to 7 ktoe (Indicator 17).
To assess the contribution of modern bioenergy to the diversity and security of the
energy supply in Ethiopia, the country’s Herfindahl Index was calculated in two cases: (1)
with modern bioenergy as part of the TPES and (2) without modern bioenergy, assuming
that the modern bioenergy is replaced by traditional bioenergy (Table 4.63).
225
Table 4.63. Herfindahl Index of the country with and without modern bioenergy
With modern bioenergy Without modern bioenergy

Primary
Primary
Source of energy energy S S2 S S2
energy (ktoe)
(ktoe)
Biofuels and 47 048 47 048
waste
Biomass
46 452 0.9028 0.8151 47 048 0.9129 0.8334
(traditional)
Biomass
(improved 449 0.0087 0.0001 - - -
cookstoves)
Bioethanol 65 0.0013 0.0000 - - -
Biogas 7 0.0001 0.0000 - - -
Hydro,
950 0.0184 0.0003 950 0.0184 0.0003
geothermal,
solar)
Petroleum 3 265 0.0634 0.0040 3 265 0.0634 0.0040
Coal 272 0.0053 0.0000 272 0.0053 0.0000
Sum 51 806 HI 0.8195 51 806 HI 0.8378
The Herfindahl Index reached 0.8195 with modern bioenergy, compared to 0.8378
considering only traditional bioenergy. The contribution of the total modern energy to the
energy diversity remains very small. The contribution of biogas to the diversity is
insignificant. The country is still highly dependent on the utilization of traditional biomass
energy sources; in summary, there is a low modern bioenergy share in a poorly
diversified energy supply.

There is no single indicator for energy security: availability, accessibility, adequacy,
affordability of energy are interrelated aspects associated with energy security. The
GBEP approach is to look at how potential interruptions to energy supply can be
minimized, using a risk management approach based on the diversity of the energy
supply: the higher the number of bioenergy sources, the more diversified and secure
the mix of supply.
For this purpose, the Herfindahl Index was used for measuring the contribution of
bioenergy to the diversity of the energy supply in Ethiopia. The Herfindahl Index with
modern bioenergy reaches 0.8195; it reaches 0.8378 without considering the modern
bioenergy in the TPES. These results indicate 1) the low diversity of the energy supply of
Ethiopia (high value of Herfindahl Index); and 2) the very limited contribution, although
positive, of modern bioenergy to the diversity and security of the energy supply due to
the low levels of energy supply by biogas, solid biomass used in improved
cookstoves, and bioethanol.

The high dependence of the energy supply on traditional biomass is risky for different
reasons, including energy security. The modern bioenergy potential has not been fully
exploited so far in Ethiopia. Biogas and bioethanol production have started only recently
and are expected to grow in the future. This, combined with an accelerated penetration
of improved cookstoves and improved practices to produce charcoal, will contribute to a
higher diversity and therefore a higher energy security in Ethiopia. In other words,
higher penetration of modern bioenergy will clearly contribute to the energy diversity
226
and therefore the energy security of the country.
227
Future monitoring
Assessing the diversity of the bioenergy sources in the energy supply of Ethiopia is useful
to measure the benefits of promoting modern bioenergy in the country. A complementary
approach could be to measure energy diversity at the household level, where fuel and
stove diversity, in other words, fuel and stove stacking, are strategies used by households
to guarantee the energy and cooking security of the households.
4.22.7 References
International Energy Agency (2018). World Energy Balances 2018. OECD Publishing.
Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/world_energy_bal-2018-en (Ethiopia).
Shanko, M. (2014). Target Market Analysis: Ethiopia’s Small Hydro Energy Market.
https://www.giz.de/static/themen_umleitung/index.html.
4.23 Indicator 23. Infrastructure and logistics for distribution of bioenergy
Dr. Shasho Megersa1 and Kedir Jemal2
1
Ethiopian environment and forest research institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
[email protected]
2
Ethiopian Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
[email protected]
4.23.2 Description
(23.1) Number and (23.2) capacity of routes for critical distribution systems, along with
(23.3) an assessment of the proportion of the bioenergy associated with each.

(23.1) Number
(23.2) MJ, m3, or tons per year; or MW for heat and power
capacity (23.3) Percentage

Since the biodigesters utilize the cattle dung nearby, and biogas produced by the
biodigesters is used by the households engaged in the activity, there is no need to
transport the feedstocks or the biogas outside the household. Therefore, Indicator 23 and
its subcomponents are not fully relevant for the biogas pathway in Ethiopia. The analysis
is rather focused on the access to the biodigester technology to help understand the
challenges associated with the technology itself and the location of the biodigesters.
The distribution routes for firewood and charcoal are roads. Therefore, the indicators, as
defined, are not fully relevant. Instead, the analysis focused on a more general
assessment of the production areas and routes of charcoal and firewood production.
Appropriate data/information were extracted from official reports, literature and

interviews with experts.
228
4.23.5 Key findings
BIOGAS
Current and future localization of infrastructure
Higher cattle populations are found in four regional states (Oromia, Amhara, SNNPR and
Tigray) of Ethiopia. These are the states where more biodigesters were distributed. For
future development, Oromia and SNNPR have higher potential. In addition to having more
head of cattle, the regions also have huge lignocellulosic resources such as sawdust,
coffee waste, grasses, fruit wastes, etc., which are also usable as modern bioenergy
sources.
Design of biodigesters
Although there is no challenge with the logistics of biogas distribution, some difficulties
exist regarding the local availability of technology and expertise to build the
biodigesters, which could limit development of the infrastructure. Two common
biodigester designs were installed in the country: SINIDU and SINDU 2008 (SAK 2018).
SINIDU was the first design promoted and installed in the country, since the beginning of
the Africa Biogas Partnership Programme. As a result, as of March 2017, almost 97 per
cent of biodigesters were the SINIDU type, while the remaining 3 per cent were
SINIDU 2008. Only three black-cotton soil digesters were installed in Oromia. As a
relatively improved design, SINIDU 2008 has been rolled out in the country, and all
recent installations were of this design type. There are different models available in
other developing countries that could give better yield and are easier to handle.
SOLID BIOMASS
The need for transport: geographical correspondence between production and supply of firewood
and charcoal
The total consumption of wood in Ethiopia is estimated to be 105.2 million tons in 2012.
Oromiya, Amhara and SNNPR regional states consume 37 per cent, 23 per cent and 25
per cent of the total wood respectively (Biomass Energy Strategy Ethiopia [BESE] 2013).
A total of 116 million m3 of firewood was produced in 2013. The highest wood fuel use
occurs around and to the east of Lake Tana in the Amhara region. High amounts of
wood fuel are found along the Hareghe highlands and on either side of the Rift Valley
in the SNNPR and Oromiya regions (BESE 2013).
The comparison of Map 4.19 and Map 4.20 shows the need for firewood to be transported
between some of the regions.
229
Map 4.19. Annual natural sustainable supply of woody biomass by woreda (tons/ha/yr)
Source: Biomass Energy Strategy Ethiopia 2013.
Map 4.20. Annual total wood fuel consumption by woreda (tons/yr)
The total consumption of charcoal in Ethiopia is estimated to be 5.7 million tons in 2012.
The main charcoal production areas are Amhara (East Gojam, West Gojam, Agew zone
and Gonder), Afar, Oromiya (Borena and Rift valley areas), SNNPR (Omo and Segen
areas), Benishangul-Gumuz, and the Ethiopian Somali and Gambella regions. The main
charcoal-consuming areas are in the Afar and Somali regions in the lowlands, and in the
eastern Oromiya, Amhara and Tigray regions in the highlands.
Ethiopia also illegally exports charcoal to Sudan, Djibouti, Somaliland and even the Middle
East via Somaliland. The comparison of Map 4.21 and Map 4.22 shows the need for
firewood to be transported between some of the regions.
230
Map 4.21. Main locations of charcoal production areas in Ethiopia
Map 4.22. Annual total charcoal consumption by woreda
231
Logistics for charcoal production
Charcoal production and marketing have always been almost entirely informally
organized and implemented by the private sector. In practice a great proportion of
charcoal is produced and marketed illegally. In total, there were an estimated 164
producer units in Ethiopia in 2016 (Table 4.64).
Table 4.64. Common wood sources for charcoal production by producer type in 2016
No. of
Production channel / Type of Main sources of wood for charcoal Production volume per
No producer
charcoal producer unit making year per producer
units
Kebele/community natural 4 000 to 7 120 bags for
Illegal organized large-scale
forests, state forests, big
1 producers (Lords) in W. 41 urban centres
woodlands, community
Tigray, NW Amhara, Afar, 2 500 to 3 000 bags
watersheds + trees on
Borana, Somali foreign
land leased for investment
trades
Licensed commercial charcoal
Wood purchased from
2 producing enterprises or 7
private plantation and
groups in W. Gojam and
wood sellers 3 300 to 11 500 bags
Awi zone
Specially permitted commercial Wood/forest cleared for big state
3 charcoal producing development projects (sugar 5
cooperatives factories, dams)
(Wolkait Tigray)
Most regular individual Kebele/community forests,
and household-level communal rangelands, state
4 68 800 to 2 046 bags
regular large- scale forests, woodlands including
producers /farmers and wood
agro-pastoralists from protected areas
Irregular household-level small- State forests, national parks and
5 40 103 to 570 bags
scale sporadic producers conservation areas
6 Few household-level producers Own plantation / farm land 3
Total 164 10 703 to 24 236 bags
Source: Charcoal Industry Assessment of Ethiopia.
Charcoal and firewood transport

Land transport is the main route for delivering charcoal and firewood from the production
areas to end users either within the region or from one region to another in the country
and neighbouring countries in the case of charcoal (Sudan, Djibouti and Somaliland). Both
the charcoal and firewood production transport continue by trucks (Isuzu FSR), big trucks
and local transport to different regions and neighbouring countries (Table 4.65).
Different producers use different means of transport/routes to deliver their charcoal to

buyers. Charcoal transporters and smugglers in different production-supply channels ship
varying volumes of charcoal per trip with different frequencies of transport and charge
different fees per bag of charcoal.
A charcoal transporter who transports charcoal with a big private euro-truck (lorry) from
large-scale illegal producers in Mille/Amibara woreda in the Afar region to Mekelle city in
the Tigray region covers some 500 km per single trip. The quantity of charcoal
transported by this carrier in a single trip is 1,400 bags, each weighing around 34 kg. With
an average transport charge of 16.50 birr/bag/trip, the transporter earns a gross income
of 23,100 birr per trip. With average frequency of two trips per month, this transporter
delivers some 33,600 bags of charcoal from Afar to Mekele in a year.
Similarly, a charcoal transporter with a private Isuzu truck transporting charcoal from
232
licensed producers in Faggeta-Lekoma in Awi zone (Amhara region) to Addis Ababa
covers some 461 km per single trip. The average load of transport per trip is 300 bags,
each weighing 25-30 kg, and the average frequency of transport per month is eight single
trips. This amounts to an average delivery
233
total of 28,800 bags of charcoal per year per transporter. With an average transport charge of 8
birr/bag/trip, the transporter earns an estimated gross income of 3,000 birr per trip.
A public transport minibus or small truck that transports charcoal from Abramo 01 in
Assossa-zuria woreda to Assossa town covers 17 km and carries a maximim of 10 bags of
charcoal per trip. With an average transport frequency of 16 times per month, this
transporter delivers a total of 1,920 bags of charcoal to local charcoal markets at Assossa.
Charging 10 birr/bag/trip, the transporter earns an estimated gross income of 100 birr
per trip.
234
Table 4.65. Means of charcoal transport and quantity transported per trip by producer category
No. Production Charcoal Destination Dis- Means of Average Frequency Trans- Total Quantity of People
channel source/ centre tance transport quantity of port charge of transport em-
production in km transported transport charge transport per year ployed
area per trip per month per bag /trip per trip
1 Organize Mille or Mekelle, 500 Rented big l 1 400 2 16.50 23 100 33 600 2
d Amibara, Afar Tigray trackers
private Yabello, Addis 570 Rented FSR 450 2 18.00 8 000 10 800 3
large Borana Ababa,
scale zone Adama,
producer Hawassa
s (Lords) Harshin, Jijiga Dire dawa 250 Rented FSR 430 2 15.10 6 500 10 320 2
2 Licensed FaggetaLeko, Addis Ababa 461 Rented 300 8 10.00 3 000 28 800 2
private/cooper Awi, Amhara Isuzu
ative Ambo-mesk, Bahir Dar 17 Rented 250 2 5.00 1 250 6 000 2
producers Mecha, Gojam Isuzu
3 Regular Humbo, Shashemen 135 Isuzu 50 12 10.00 500 7 200 2
househol Wolaita e from
d zone, Arba
producer Minch
s
Regular Bena- Arba-minch 150 Isuzu or 30 15 15.00 225 5 400 2
househol tsemay, other
d large- South passing by
scale Omo, trucks
producers SNNPR
Regular Jogir, Nekemte 47 Isuzu or 30 4 5.00 150 1 440 2
household/ Gimbi, other
medium- West passing by
scale Wollega, trucks
producers Oromia
4 Household Abramo 01, Assossa 17 Minibus or 10 16 10.00 100 1 920 1
small-scale Assossa-zuria town Bajaj
producers Gongom Delo 14 Bajaj/Motor 2 4 30 60 96 1
Household/in a, Delo- Mena or rented
di vidual Mena, town, animal-back
small-scale Bale zone Bale
producers zone
Gol, Mizan 26 Own 2 4 - - 96 -
Semen town, labour or
Bench Bench donkey
back
18
8
Source: Charcoal Industry Assessment of Ethiopia 2016.
18
8
BIOGAS
The three subcomponents of the indicator are not fully relevant for the biogas and solid
biomass pathways given the nature of the distribution infrastructures: production and
consumption of biogas at the same place, and land transport of firewood and charcoal.
However, diversifying energy sources and transit routes for energy supplies remains
fundamental for energy security.
As regards biogas, although there is no challenge with the logistics of biogas distribution,
some difficulties may emerge due to the limited local availability of technology and
expertise to build the biodigesters, which could limit the development of the
infrastructure. Two common biodigester designs, SINIDU and SINDU 2008, were
installed in the country.

With regard to biogas, increased diversity of the potential feedstocks, and the
reinforcement of users’ knowledge about the different feedstocks that can be used in the
biodigesters, would increase the sustainability of the digesters. Promotion of the
technology and expertise to build the biodigesters would also facilitate the development
of infrastructure in different regions of the country. Moreover, the promotion of larger
biodigesters, supported by private investors, deserves more exploration. This would
create other types of distribution and infrastructure challenges (collection of the dung, for
example), but it might generate more positive impacts.
SOLID BIOMASS
The main production areas of firewood occur around and to the east of Lake Tana in
Amhara region. High amounts of wood fuel use are found along the Harerghe highlands
and on either side of the Rift Valley in the SNNPR and Oromiya regions. The potential
charcoal production areas in Ethiopia are Amhara (East Gojam, West Gojam, Agew zone
and Gonder), Afar, Oromiya (Borena and Rift valley areas), SNNPR (Omo and Segen
areas), Benishangul-Gumuz, and the Ethiopian Somali and Gambella regions.
In Ethiopia, charcoal production and marketing has always been almost entirely informally
organized and implemented by the private sector. In practice a great proportion of
charcoal is produced and marketed illegally. Charcoal production and marketing continue
to be legally ill-defined.
Land transport is the main route for delivering charcoal and firewood from the production
areas to end users either within the region or from one region to another in the
country and neighbouring countries in the case of charcoal. Both the charcoal and
firewood production transport continue by trucks (Isuzu FSR), big trucks and local
transport to different regions and neighbouring countries.

There is currently no national policy/strategy for charcoal production, distribution and use
in Ethiopia. Charcoal producers are informally organized, and they illegally produce and
distribute charcoal. This leads to the unsustainable use of forest and to lost revenues for
the country. In addition, the existing check point to control the illegal distribution of
charcoal does not provide a consistent control. To alleviate these problems, capacity-
189
building of the producers, sellers and distributers is needed, and the establishment of
strong national policies and strategies is crucial. The charcoal producers, distributers and
exporters should become legalized and certified. The establishment of a strong check
point is also needed, with strict law enforcement to control the
190
illegal distribution of charcoal. Legally organized exports of charcoal would also
contribute to reducing the negative environmental impacts and increasing government
revenues.
Future monitoring
This information on the supply and routes of firewood and charcoal is crucial to better
understand the dynamics of the wood and charcoal markets and therefore apply
appropriate measures. The creation of a legal market will contribute to better
understanding of the quantities and routes of these feedstocks.
4.23.7 References
Ethiopia National Energy Policy (2013). Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy. Addis Ababa.
Ethiopian Forest Sector Review Technical Report (2017). Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change. Supported by World Bank. Addis Ababa.
Ethiopia. Policy and Institutional Restructuring for Sustainable Charcoal. Supported by Global Green Growth
Institute. Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2017). Annual Report. Addis Ababa.
4.24 Indicator 24. Capacity and flexibility of use of bioenergy
Degnechew Genene, Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute (EEFRI), Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia, [email protected]
4.24.2 Description
(24.1) Ratio of capacity for using bioenergy compared with actual use for each significant
utilization route. (24.2) Ratio of flexible capacity which can use either bioenergy or other
fuel sources to total capacity.

Ratios

Unused or flexible capacity in using bioenergy (biogas, fuel wood and charcoal)
contributes to overall energy security and can be considered as an aim for infrastructural
development in bioenergy utilization. A high degree of flexibility in the use of bioenergy
can translate into a rapid increase in bioenergy consumption under favorable
economic conditions.
The ratio indicates the level of capacity for using bioenergy compared to the actual
utilization. Assessing the ratio of flexible capacity that can use either bioenergy or other
fuel sources to total capacity provides information on the flexibility of utilization systems
to switch between bioenergy and other fuel sources.
191
Secondary data, literature review and interviews with energy experts were used. Actual
data on the current level of utilization of both biogas and solid biomass (i.e., fuel wood
and charcoal) were collected and organized. The collected data were analyzed, and the
potential use of bioenergy across Ethiopia was computed accordingly. The involvement of
and discussion with experts of the National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia (NBPE), the
Ethiopian Ministry of Energy, Irrigation and Electricity, GIZ, SNV and other stakeholders
was considered as a key step to obtain data on the national perspective for practical
implementation of Indicator 24 in Ethiopia, as well as to assess the national- level
capacity and flexibility of use of bioenergy for the selected bioenergy pathways.
Two approaches are proposed to assess the ratio of capacity for using bioenergy (24.1):
 The first approach assesses the potential to extend the installed capacity of
biodigesters and improved biomass cookstoves to new households, compared
to the current situation.
 The second approach relies on the concept of fuel stacking: the households with a
biodigester or with improved cookstoves usually continue using traditional ways of
cooking. The approach aims at measuring the magnitude of fuel stacking, and
therefore, the potential of increasing the use of modern cooking solutions with
bioenergy in the households already using those solutions but in a partial manner
only.
4.24.5 Key findings

BIOGAS
The ratio of capacity based on the number of households with and without
biodigesters is 48 per cent, assuming a potential of 45,400 households with
biodigesters (Table 4.66). This potential represents the possibility of the current
households having biodigesters. The value also increases over time proportionally with
adequate resource availability and with accessibility to feedstock (i.e., fresh cow’s
dung) for biogas production and utilization.
The ratio of capacity based on fuel and stove stacking shows that around 67 per cent of
the meals are cooked with other cooking methods (firewood, charcoal, etc.). This
illustrates the potential to increase the use of the biodigesters in the households already
cooking with biogas, under the condition that the quantity of biogas produced each day
is sufficient.
The ratio of flexible capacity is assessed based on the capacity of the households to cook
with several fuels or stoves, in addition to the biogas stove. It is considered that 100 per
cent of the households with biodigesters have other cooking methods in parallel
(firewood, charcoal, etc.). In other words, the ratio of flexible capacity is 100 per cent (all
households can use another cooking method if needed).
192
Table 4.66. Ratio of capacity of the biogas pathway
Items Year
2015 2016 2017 2018
Approach 1: Increase the number of households with biodigesters
Current households with biodigesters (1) a 12 938 15 491 18 480 22 166
Potential households with biodigesters b 40 500 42 000 43 200 45 400
Ratio of capacity a/b 0.32 0.37 0.43 0.48
Approach 2: Increase the use of the biodigesters by households already having a biodigester
Number of meals cooked with biogas per c 3 3.5 5 7
week
Number of meals cooked with other fuels per d 18 17.5 16 14
week
Ratio of capacity c/(c+d) 0.143 0.167 0.238 0.333
(1)
More details in section 3 of the report (description of the pathway)
Source: National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia [NBPE] 2015; Rai 2018; Seyoum 2018; Netherlands Development
Organisation [SNV] 2018; Ethiopia, Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity 2018.
SOLID BIOMASS
On the supply level, the sustainable supply of wood fuel is estimated to be 32.1 million
m3/yr, and the remaining production (79.7 million m 3/yr) is sourced from unsustainable
extraction (Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change 2018). In other words,
the ratio of capacity for sustainable solid biomass is 28 per cent.
On the utilization side, a similar approach is used as in the case of biogas, focusing on the
use of improved cookstoves. The ratio of capacity is 8 per cent for improved cookstoves
(Table 4.67), in other words, the potential to increase the use of improved cookstoves is
very high. The number of households with improved cookstoves decreased in 2014 and in
2016. This is due to fuel stacking or switching of fuel utilization into biogas, fuel wood
(i.e., open fire) and charcoal in different regions of Ethiopia, particularly, in Oromia region,
SNNPR and Benishangul-Gumuz region.
The ratio of capacity based on fuel and stove stacking shows that around 71 per cent of
the meals are cooked with other cooking methods, mostly open fires; this illustrates the
potential to increase the use of the improved cookstoves in the households already
having improved cookstoves.
The ratio of flexible capacity is also assessed based on the capacity of the households to
cook with several fuels or stoves, in addition to the improved cookstove. It is considered
that 100 per cent of the households with an improved cookstove have other cooking
methods in parallel (firewood, charcoal, etc.). In other words, the ratio of flexible
capacity is 100 per cent.
Table 4.67. Ratio of capacity of the solid biomass (fuel wood and charcoal) pathway
Year
Items 2013 2014 2015 2016
Approach 1: Increase the number of households with improved cookstoves
Current households with improved cookstoves a 1 687 520 1 514 429 1 606 942 1 494 145
Potential households with improved cookstoves b 18 124 650 18 343 315 18 521 680 18 764 122
Ratio of capacity a/b 0.093 0.082 0.087 0.079
Approach 2: Increase the use of the improved cookstoves by households already using an improved cookstove
Number of meals cooked with improved c 2.5 3.5 5 6
cookstoves
per week
Number of meals cooked with other fuels or d 18.5 17.5 16 15
stoves
(not improved) per week
Ratio of capacity c/(c+d) 0.119 0.167 0.238 0.286
Source: Gaia Association 2014; Geissler et al. 2013; Ethiopia, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change 2017.
193
The first calculation of the ratio of capacity is based on the number of households using
modern bioenergy cooking solutions compared to the estimated potential; this ratio
reaches 48 per cent for biogas, assuming a potential based on number of current
households with a biodigester, and 8 per cent for solid biomass.
The second calculation of the ratio of capacity is based on fuel and stove stacking. In the
households with a biodigester, around 67 per cent of the meals are cooked with other
cooking methods (firewood, charcoal, etc.). In the households already cooking with an
improved cookstove, around 71 per cent of the meals are cooked with other cooking
methods, mostly open fires. These two results illustrate the high potential to increase the
use of the modern bioenergy solutions after the initial adoption by households.
However, fuel and stove stacking also positively contributes to the ratio of flexible
capacity: households with biodigesters or improved cookstoves have the possibility to
cook with other fuels and stoves if needed. This contributes to energy and cooking
security. However, this flexibility hides the fact that the alternative solutions are often not
modern bioenergy solutions, such as open fires.

The analysis raises the following question: Is fuel and stove stacking good or bad? It is
usually considered bad when households use an improved cookstove and continue
cooking with open fires for some food, because the indoor pollution remains high in this
case. But at the same time, fuel and stove stacking gives flexibility to the households, and
this is good: if there is a problem with the biodigester, for example, the household still can
cook with another option. This gives some energy security to households. In other words,
fuel and stove stacking is not necessarily bad, and clean cooking policies may want to
promote primary and secondary clean cooking solutions rather than trying to promote
only one primary cooking solution.
Future monitoring
Improving the availability of data on fuel and stove stacking is key for a good quality
assessment of this indicator and for the definition of relevant clean cooking policies. It is
essential to understand why households cook with different fuels and stoves in order to
identify the clean cooking solutions better adapted to their needs and preferences.
4.24.7 References
Gaia Association (2014). Assessment of Cooking Energy in Households, Commercial Enterprises and Social
Institutions in Ethiopia.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2017). Dissemination of Improved Cook Stoves
in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.
Program, Ethiopia. Volume I: Situation. Addis Ababa.
Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity (2018). Report on National Biogas Users’ Survey, 2018.
194
National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia (2015). Report on Biogas Users’ Survey. Ministry of Water,
Irrigation and Energy. Addis Ababa.
Rai, S. (2018). National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia (NBPE). Addis Ababa.
Seyoum, S. (2018). The Economics of a Biogas Digester. Livestock Economics Division ILCA. Addis Ababa.
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/132634928.pdf.
National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia. Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity. Addis Ababa.
195
5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions
5.1.1 Biogas pathway

Household-level biogas production was started a few decades ago in Ethiopia and is still
considered to be in an infant stage. As of 2018 a total of 22,166 biodigesters had been
built at the household level (Indicators 14 and 17), where cattle manure is used as the
main feedstock. This distribution was achieved mainly through the financial and technical
support of SNV-Ethiopia in collaboration with the National Biogas Programme of Ethiopia
(NBPE). Unfortunately, this figure accounts for 0.63 per cent of the high scenario
estimation of biogas production potential of the country, indicating that biogas
production in Ethiopia is still far behind what it has to be.
Of the four sizes of biodigesters distributed by the NBPE, the predominantly used digester
is the 6 m3 one (89 per cent of all biodigesters). The use of the other three types of
biodigesters for biogas generation is insignificant. The anaerobic digesters widely used in
Ethiopia are the fixed-dome shaped digester and the float drum digester types. The fixed-
dome digesters (68 per cent functioning) are better than the floating drum digesters (16
per cent functioning) from an operational perspective. At the country level, only 77 per
cent of the installed biodigesters are operating (Indicator 17), possibly due to technical
problems, water shortage, feed shortage, absence of management (abandonment) and
lack of interest. The large distance to a water source is one of the root causes for those
non-functional biogas digesters (Indicator 5).
From the currently operating biodigesters, households are producing around 17.6 million
m3 of biogas per year (Indicator 17). The produced biogas has been mainly used for
household services such as cooking (>90 per cent) and lighting (3.2 per cent) (Indicator
20). This replaces firewood used for cooking and kerosene used for lighting
(Indicators 14 and 20) and increases the energy flexibility and security of households
(Indicators 22 and 24). Despite its infant stage of development and the low number of
biodigesters built in Ethiopia compared to other countries such as Vietnam (45,000
biodigesters), the attempts made so far have had significant socioeconomic and
environmental implications in society.
The majority of the Ethiopian population resides in rural parts of the country and is
dependent on traditional energy sources. Hence, the likelihood of the more vulnerable
social groups (women and children) to be exposed to toxic gases from the combustion of
traditional biomass is very high (Indicator 4). In Ethiopia, according to recent World Health
Organization reports, every year 60,000 people lose their lives because of indoor air
pollution, and 90 per cent of the incidences occur in children under five (Indicator 15).
Based on the survey done by SNV (2013), in Ethiopia, in comparison to solid fuel use, a
significant portion of biogas users have indicated that they were fully satisfied with the
benefits that biogas has brought them. Local air pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions
per unit of useful energy from biogas are lower than in the reference case based on
traditional biomass; they are also lower than in the case of solid biomass (Indicators 1 and
4). Therefore, the biogas digesters installed in Ethiopia have contributed greatly to the
socioeconomic and public health of households and nearby communities.
Based on the existing number of biodigesters reported above, the amount of energy
196
produced is estimated at 17.6 million of m3 of biogas per year (387,865,060 MJ/yr)
(Indicator 20). Considering that around 3.2 per cent is used for lighting, this is equivalent
to 338,500 litres of kerosene, and it
197
could represent $204,074 in annual savings from avoided kerosene purchases (Indicator
20). On the other hand, 412.5 thousand tons of firewood per year (Indicator 20) can be
saved through the use of biogas as a means of energy for similar duties.
A reduction of expenditure for firewood (45 per cent) and charcoal (51 per cent) was
reported for biogas users compared to non-biogas users (Indicator 11). Beyond the energy
use of the biogas, the use of the digestate as a biofertilizer has also economic implications
for households since it can replace chemical fertilizer. Considering the total number of
biodigesters built, the bioslurry that remains is invaluable. Since the Ethiopian soil is
characterized by low soil quality in a large part of the landmass (Indicator 2), and given
the potential of biodigesters, a huge amount of digestate can be collected and used for
soil quality amendment. This will improve the productivity of the soil and the quantity of
crops harvested (Indicator 10). As a result the household income would be improved.
Construction of biogas digesters in the country has also generated demand for some
skilled masons and technicians. More than 2,000 masons were trained by the
National Biogas Programme in the country (Indicator 21). In addition, 2,800 formal jobs
were reported as having been created as a result of biogas production; informal jobs are
not included (Indicator 12). Having technical know- how of the field is crucial to obtain
the expected benefits from biogas production.
The following barriers to the adoption of biogas and to its efficient production and use
have been reported in Ethiopia: lack of coordination among institutions and stakeholders,
inadequacy of highly skilled biogas technicians and workforce, weak private sector
interest to invest in digester production or biogas production, limited awareness about
biogas and digestate use in the society, open grazing of cattle and scattered dung
rendering the collection of manure difficult, distance of water sources, and lack of
economic and financial resources.
Finally, it can be concluded that implementation of the Global Bioenergy Partnership’s

sustainability indicators in Ethiopia helped in examining the development of the biogas
sector. Calculations indicated that a significant amount of biogas is being produced in
Ethiopia. Biogas may be a competitive option to replace traditional energy sources for
cooking. However, the use of biogas technology is challenged by critical factors such as
the cost of construction, amount of dung collected, free grazing of cattle causing dung
collection difficult, and lack of awareness on the use of alternative feedstocks.
Hence, revising the biogas implementation strategy and crafting inclusive biogas policy is
important. In particular, adopting different types of biogas digesters with reduced
implementation cost, developing an integrated strategy on fodder and dung productivity,
practicing stationary cattle rearing and awareness creation for diverse biogas feedstocks
are essential. In effect, the shift from traditional energy sources for cooking to biogas
technology helps to implement the key pillars set in the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs).
5.1.2 Solid biomass pathway

In Ethiopia, similar to many other developing countries, solid biomass fuel is used by a
large share (more than 92 per cent) of the population (Indicator 20). However, the
biomass resources are still used in their most rudimentary, unmodified form, with very
low technologies and efficiency of thermal conversion (Indicators 17 and 18). A
significant share of rural and urban households still uses traditional and inefficient
biomass and charcoal cookstoves, despite the encouraging success of the Ethiopian
198
government in dissemination and adoption of improved cookstoves.
Around 65 per cent of the fuel wood is freely harvested from wet and dryland forests
(Indicator 8). Around 35 per cent comes from trees on-farm, private woodlots, community
forests and some from
199
industrial plantations. Most of the freely harvested woody biomass originates from forest
resources that are fragile shrublands, parklands and wildlife sanctuaries (Indicators 2, 7
and 8). High forests,
on-farm trees, private and community woodlots, community and private plantations are
also sources of biomass fuel. The woody biomass originating from the freely accessed and
vulnerable resources supports the cooking energy needs of around 87 per cent of
poor rural households. On the other hand, most of the solid biomass coming from
on-farm trees, woodlots and community forests is supplied and sold to urban
households.
The current productivity of woodlots and plantations is very low when compared to their
potential. Specifically, the mean annual increment for industrial and woodlot plantation is
around 12.5 m³/ha/year and 15 m³/ha/year respectively, with an overall national average
mean annual increment of around 9.2 m³/ha/year. In particular, the current estimated
productivity of industrial plantations is low in comparison with the optimal growth (46
m³/ha/year) for Eucalyptus stands, and growth of conifer (33 m³/ha/year).
Consequently, the Ethiopian government developed and approved a 10-year (2017-

2025) National Forest Sector Development Program (NFSDP) to narrow and eliminate
the demand and supply gap not only in biomass fuel but also in other forest products by
increasing utilization efficiencies and the establishment of sustainably managed trees and
forest resources (Indicator 3). However, the current challenges of sustainable biomass
resources supply remain tough and the outcomes of the NFSDP are yet to be seen
and proved. Consequently, and in the short term, the severe exploitation pressure on
shrublands and the illegal extraction of woody biomass from parklands and sanctuaries
will continue strongly unabated, so as to meet the ever-widening demand and supply gap
in fuel wood, charcoal and other alternative uses.
The high rate of rural poverty and the lack of strong means of income generation pressure
rural livelihoods to depend more and more on the meager nearby natural resources,
particularly free- access biomass. While the use of biomass fuel is justified to be strongly
promoted, such free access, if not open access, to delicate ecosystems is very much
prone to the “tragedy of commons”, with far- reaching catastrophic consequences for the
country’s biodiversity.
The problems are further aggravated because most of the natural forests and parklands
are owned by the local and federal governments. Constitutionally, the right to land
ownership is an authority solely vested to the state, and citizens have only user rights,
with no other legal claims (Indicator 9). Generally, land tenure and ownership are
contentious issues in Ethiopia, being one of the root causes for the ongoing public
upheaval and unrest. Allocation of new land area for bioenergy production is a
formidable task that is yet to be introduced and reinforced in terms of adequate policies,
implementation procedures and government priorities (Indicator 9).
The data related to the effects on the national food basket, changes in income and jobs
associated with woody biomass cultivation, management and utilization are insufficient
(Indicators 10, 11 and 12). However, given the country’s high rates of rural and urban
youth unemployment, it is clear that the sector can play a decisive role in the creation
and maintenance of job opportunities, provided that there is adequate land allocation for
fuelwood tree cultivation; if there is also a strong sustainable management and utilization
programme for woodland and shrublands. Assessments of Indicator 5 also support the
possibility of irrigated cultivation of fuelwood trees owing to the
country’s adequate endowment with renewable water resources. Promoting plantation
development and sourcing the woody biomass from them enables reduction of
200
professional injuries coming from wildlife and gender violence occurring during biomass
collection from remote shrublands and woodlands (Indicator 16).
201
The traditional and inefficient process of converting woody biomass into charcoal
generates high greenhouse gas and non-greenhouse gas toxic emissions (Indicators
1 and 4). The greenhouse gas emission per unit of useful energy produced by
traditional biomass is 60 per cent higher than that of the biomass improved cookstoves,
showing strong evidence for the need to enhance the government’s improved
cookstove programme (Indicator 1).
Production of charcoal using traditional earth-mound kilns incurs considerable losses,

entailing five- to ten-fold as much energy input as would be required for direct burning of
wood. The biomass conversion takes place in the open and in remote areas, polluting a
wide expanse of land and threatening both human health (Indicator 16) and wildlife and
biodiversity (Indicator 7). Biodiversity is impacted both in terms of resource depletion
(Indicator 3) and increment of eco-toxicity. Large- scale use of traditional cookstoves has
multi-dimensional and manifold impacts on resource use and productivity (Indicators 3, 8,
17 and 19), human health (Indicator 15) and biodiversity (Indicator 7) arising from the
significant inefficiencies and excessive emissions.
Charcoal is predominantly produced, transported and marketed illegally. Illegality has

hampered and diminished the contribution of charcoal in the creation of competent rural
job opportunities (Indicator 12) and strong rural income generation (Indicator 11) for many
pastoral, agro-pastoral and mixed farming households living in impoverished dry lowlands.
It has further hampered the development of cost-effective and safe logistics for charcoal
transport and distribution (Indicators 16 and 23). Marketing of woody biomass and
charcoal in most regions of Ethiopia, as a result, relies on traveling wholesalers (single
actors) who purchase loads of poles and charcoal directly from smallholders (roadside
sales). In terms of flexibility, stove and fuel stacking, usual in households, contributes to a
higher flexibility of the households; however, it also means that traditional biomass
remains present in the household, and that the improved cookstove is not used for all
meals (Indicator 24).
Several fatalities and impacts on human health are reported as outcomes of toxic
emissions from the use of biomass burning at home, which renders household pollution.
The toxic emissions particularly affect vulnerable members of households, including
children under five years, and with complications lasting throughout adult life. This
obligates prioritizing the reduction and elimination of toxic emissions, owing to the
more than 92 per cent of population using biomass fuel on daily basis (Indicator 15).
Nonetheless, solid biomass is a major income source for poor households in rural areas
and is the primary source of fuel and construction in most urban areas of Ethiopia. For
instance, charcoal incurs various costs like production, transport, taxation, bribes and
payments to brokers, loading–unloading, and, in a few cases, payment for ownership
rights etc. when it moves from the point of production through markets to consumers
(Indicator 11).
In summary, although the current state of the solid biomass sector in Ethiopia is
unsustainable, the country’s high dependency on solid biomass might be an indicator
of the need to focus on this resource as a potential energy and economic sector. Most of
the biomass is coming from areas that either have low biomass productivity or are
classified as nationally conserved forest areas and protected wildlife sanctuaries. On top
of this, the biomass energy conversion technologies have low efficiency, and their
application generates several toxic pollutants and an excess of greenhouse gas
emissions.
Henceforth, the afforestation programmes should work aggressively to narrow the

supply and demand for solid biomass. Moreover, developing an integrated strategy
202
that focuses on the controlled use of exotic invasive species such as Prosopis juliflora
and other potential woody biomass is essential. Because invasive species are causing
ecological and economic problems, planning to utilize the resource in regulated way is
critical. Consequently, the efforts made to use this biomass as an energy source would
fix the ecological problem profoundly.
203
5.2 Recommendations and future monitoring for bioenergy pathways
Production and utilization of biogas and modern forms of solid biomass hold many
opportunities for Ethiopia, including reduced reliance on fossil fuels, increased employment
and other benefits. Yet, there are also downsides or important risks such as deforestation
and degradation of soil quality.
Implementing the GBEP Sustainability Indicators provides the possibility of monitoring the
actual developments in this area and to take action if needed. The appropriate
implementation of the GBEP sustainability programme enables the government to collect
information on sustainability issues in the bioenergy sector, to analyze the information
and use it for the design, development, steering and implementation of policies related to
sustainable bioenergy production and utilization.
Quantifying, benchmarking, monitoring and improving the sustainability of bioenergy

sources in Ethiopia is highly complicated. This is associated with the heterogeneity of the
resource (which comes mostly from fragile ecosystems), the inconsistent source-to-
market value chain, decisions made in the absence of reliable scientific data, the lack of a
strong database, and the prevalent severe poverty conditions. These all are on top of the
confounded situation with regard to the domain of the bioenergy sector.
Historically, bioenergy policies, programmes and projects (research and development) in
Ethiopia have been administered inconsistently among multiple and different sectors
such as rural development; water, irrigation and energy; agriculture and natural
resources ministries that rendered ineffectiveness and inefficiency. As a matter of these,
the probability and the realistic experience show the absence of an adequate level of
communication and coordination between these sectors, which would create effective
synergy and avoid duplication of efforts. Therefore, the first strategic issue that is
strongly recommended to be addressed is the establishment of a lasting institution and
framework for setting unified goals and national priorities, creating effective
partnership and synergy, and maintaining smooth working communication among
partners across sectors.
Regardless of the order of the procedure, once the problems of bioenergy institutional
arrangements are fixed, the next step would be to work on the legal and policy domain of
the sector. As an elucidatory example, devising strategies to access land resources for the
sustainable production of biomass fuel feedstock (Indicators 8, 9 and 23) has to be dealt
with within the Ethiopian political and economic framework. This task requires multi-
sector (with the government) and multi-stakeholder engagement and amicable
negotiation (Indicator 8). Hence, the existing multi stakeholder working group (MSWG)
formulated at the federal and regional level need to be consolidated and
strengthened by involving other relevant stakeholders such as academia and
research institutions.
It is also strongly recommended to establish a triple helix innovation that should be

created by concerned sectors (such as the Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Commission; Ministry of Water, Electricity and Energy, Ministry of Agriculture; Ministry of
Innovation and Technology), research institutes (the Ethiopian Environment and Forest
Research Institute) and academia dealing with bioenergy and biorefinery (Science and
Technology Universities, Institute of Technologies; Wondogenet College of Forestry and
Natural Resources), bioenergy producing and processing communities and industries
both in urban and rural areas.
The triple helix innovation provides a conducive environment to reinforce the effective
driving forces helping to revolutionize the wasteful and traditional energy harnessed from
204
biomass, for the improvement of the biomass and charcoal cookstoves. The outcome will
be improvements in indicators 1, 3, 4, 15, 17 and 18. This will further simplify the
assurance of sustainability of the biomass energy sector through an appropriate and
innovative method of tracking and certification,
205
which prompts the use of blockchain technology. Blockchain technology enables
real-time authentication of the origin of biomass products, ownership of land
resources, monitoring and follow-up, and it could improve many indicators (for
example, 1, 3, 4, 8, 9 and 18).
Moreover, capacity development of both humans and institutions for sustainable

biomass cultivation, management and utilization should be at the heart of the bioenergy
programme of Ethiopia. In addition, it would help to carry out periodic monitoring and
evaluation of the sustainability of the GBEP indicators. For most GBEP indicators tested in
Ethiopia, secondary data sources were used. Additionally, a wider scope of primary data
analysis on all indicators such as emission value, water quality value, actual prices of
inputs, and other parameters of both bioenergy pathways for the future should be made
through collection over wider geographic coverage and larger survey sizes.
The application of the indicators to other bioenergy pathways, such as liquid biofuels, would
be also of interest. Currently in Ethiopia, there is no institution collecting bioenergy data
for the implementation of the GBEP Sustainability Indicators program, and hence
strengthening coordination among regional and national government’s institutions will
play a great role in the improvement of indicator implementation. An Internet-based
platform for bioenergy data collection and handling would be useful to facilitate
information sharing among regional and national bioenergy experts in the country.
Linking rural villages with decentralized modern biomass and other synergistic renewable
energy investments (like solar, wind and mini-hydropower) is essential to reach the
remote rural sector. For this purpose, building the capacities of collective actions, rural
institutions and other stakeholders for decentralized renewable energy, particularly
biomass energy, and awareness rising is critical.
Enhancing public-private cooperation on modern renewable energy and promoting
the dissemination of energy-saving technologies are important policy measures.
Furthermore, developing energy infrastructure for modern biomass fuel generation is
invaluable.
Creating conducive investment opportunities and businesses for private investors

engaged in biomass fuel as well as identifying proper means of facilitating financial
resources for decentralized biomass-based energy investments (e.g., linking with carbon
financing) are also indispensable.
Smoothening the market for renewable fuels and assuring the sustainability of supply
and the adoption of appropriate renewable energy technologies is crucial. Policy
measures should thus target technological innovation both from the demand perspective
and from the supply side to ensure sustainable production and utilization of biomass
resources that can cater to energy security.
Finally, bioenergy appliances are not locally available and are imported from abroad,
raising the cost of bioenergy utilization, and they need to be produced locally and made
available with lower prices. Similarly, efficient bioenergy conversion equipment should be
made available. Digestate application technologies should be promoted for the
replacement of inorganic fertilizers. The government has to keep subsidizing the cost of
biogas production until the sector grows and is able to stand by itself. It is important to
encourage the ongoing standardization effort of the Ethiopian government with regard
to developing and issuing national performance standards for cookstoves. However, this
effort alone is not adequate if it is not done in parallel with the creation of effective
regulatory enforcement mechanisms.
206
The Global Bioenergy Partnership (GBEP) project provides technical assistance to
government officialS and expertS in Ethiopia and Kenya to aSSeSS the sustainability
of their bioenergy sectors and build their capacity for long-term, periodic monitoring
of these sectors. Work is structured around the application and interpretation of the
24 indicators to assess the environmental, social and economic impacts of bioenergy
production and use. Results from the indicators can be used to inform the decision-
making process.
The GBEP Indicators were developed in a collaborative process, led by the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, which currently hosts the GBEP
Secretariat.
United Nations Environment

Programme 1 Rue Miollis, 75015
Paris, France
www.unep.org
ISBN 978-3-948393-00-7

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SUSTAINABILITY OF

BIOGAS AND SOLID

based on a decision by the German Bundestag

Results and recommendations from implementation of the

1 Implementation of the GBEP Sustainability Indicators for bioenergy in Ethiopia....................1

2 Country context and energy overview...................................................................................8

3 Description of the selected bioenergy pathways.................................................................19

Fekadu Beyene (Prof.)

The GBEP developed indicators relevant to the economic themes of sustainability,

The development of the indicators was informed by relevant international processes

1.2 Implementation of the GBEP indicators in different countries

As of mid-2019, the GBEP indicators have been implemented in a number of countries

In each application, countries collected information regarding the performance of their

1.3 Application of GBEP indicators in Ethiopia

2.1 Overview of Ethiopia

Figure 2.1. Ethiopian gross domestic product (GDP)

2.3 Agriculture and livestock

2.4.1 Resources and supply

The annual production of electricity is around 11,000 gigawatt-hours mainly generated

2.4.2 Energy indicators

Table 2.2. Ethiopian energy indicators for 2016

Parameter Value Unit Parameter Value Unit

2.4.4 Energy balance

Production 0 0 0 0 0 895 70 47 048 0 0 48 013

Source: IEA World Energy Balances 2018. Available at: https://www.iea.org/statistics/?

Furthermore, the green growth strategy stipulates measures to be taken to mitigate

Sustainable development and energy policies

Status of liquid biofuels

Developing bioethanol plants related to existing and upcoming sugar manufacturing

3.1.1 Supply and conversion

Map 3.1. Annual total dung consumption by wereda

Source: Geissler et al. 2013.

Types and capacity of digesters and stoves

Figure 3.1. Drawing of the SINIDU biogas digester

Source: Personal communication with Mr. Sisay Girma (NBPE).

Capacity of Number of Capacity of Number of

3.1.2 Policies and programmes applied to biogas pathway

The first stage (2008-2013)

Figure 3.2. Biogas potential (digesters) of some regions of Ethiopia

In 2010, during an intermediate revision of the National Biogas Programme, it was

Average cost of biodigester (6 m3) 7 519 14 000 birr

Actual 98 30 731 1 641 2 511 3 150 8 161(1)

Source: Kamp and Forn 2016.

The second stage of the NBPE (2014-2017)

Data source: Rai 2018.

Current and future developments

The main implementers

3.1.3 Challenges and opportunities to biogas development

Despite the promising impacts of biogas development, the implementation of a domestic

Figure 3.4. Functionality rate by region (%)

Source: Rai 2018.

3.2 The solid biomass (fuel wood and charcoal) pathway

Source: National REDD+ Secretariat, MEFCC 2018.

Mean annual Annual yield

Agriculture and animal residues

Teff Chaff 3 017.5 4 420.6 9 39 785.4

Charcoal production in Ethiopia, particularly from acacia woodland timber species, is

Map 3.3. Main locations of charcoal production

Source: Geissler et al. 2019.

Figure 3.5. Earth-mound charcoal production