Learning and Memory

PSYCORE-INPSY
INTRODUCTION TO
PSYCHOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

to your sixth module!

KARL MICHAEL M. VALDULLA, CHRA

Course Instructor/Professor

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY

SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE

Gen. Luna St. Guitnangbayan I, San Mateo, Rizal No part of this module may be reproduced,
Tel. No. (02) 997-9070
www.smmc.edu.ph distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any
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© San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved

MODULE SIX:
LEARNING AND MEMORY
“Develop a passion for learning. If you do, you will never cease to grow.”
Anthony J. D’Angelo

SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA
 © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved
© San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved

MODULE SIX

LEARNING AND MEMORY

INTRODUCTION
Learning and memory are two ways of thinking about the same thing: both are
neuroplastic processes; they deal with the ability of the brain to change its
functioning in response to experience.

Learning deals with how experience changes the brain, and memory deals
with how these changes are stored and subsequently reactivated. Without
the ability to learn and remember, people would experience every moment as
if waking from a lifelong sleep—each person would be a stranger, each act a
new challenge, and each word is incomprehensible.

WHAT IS LEARNING?
Learning refers to a change in behavior, which results from experience. This
change can be long-lasting, but may or may not be permanent. Behavioral learning
falls into three general categories: classical conditioning, operant conditioning,
and observational learning.

Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning, also sometimes referred to as Pavlovian conditioning, is
probably the most well-known theory of learning. It was accidentally discovered by
Russian physiologist Ivan P. Pavlov, after conducting research on the digestion of dogs. He noticed that dogs appeared
to know when it was time for them to be fed. He confirmed this with a simple set-up, using five basic variables:
unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned
response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

An unconditioned stimulus (US) is a stimulus or trigger that leads to an automatic response. If a cold breeze
makes you shiver, for instance, the cold breeze is an unconditioned stimulus; it produces an involuntary response—
the shivering.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

An unconditioned response (UR) is an automatic response or a response that occurs without thought when
an unconditioned stimulus is present. If you smell your favorite food and your mouth starts watering, the
watering is an unconditioned response.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A neutral stimulus (NS) is a stimulus that doesn't initially trigger a response on its own. If you hear the sound
of a fan but don't feel the breeze, for example, it wouldn't necessarily trigger a response. That would make it a
neutral stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that was once neutral, or didn't trigger a response, but now leads
to a response. If you previously didn't pay attention to dogs, but then got bit by one, and now you feel fear every
time you see a dog, the dog has become a conditioned stimulus.

SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA
© San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved

Conditioned Response (CR)

A conditioned response (CR) is a learned response or a response that is created where no response existed
before. Going back to the example of being bit by a dog, the fear you experience after the bite is a conditioned
response.

Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

• When the dog was presented with meat, it
would salivate. The meat is the unconditioned
stimulus (US) and the salivation is the
unconditioned response (UR).
• When the dog was made to hear a bell sound,
the dog made no reaction. The bell is the neutral
stimulus (NS).
• But when the bell was heard each time prior to
feeding, the dog learned to salivate just by
hearing the bell. The bell is now the conditioned
stimulus (CS) and the consequent salivation is now
the conditioned response (CR).
• An association is established between the bell
and the meat, the conditioned stimulus (CS) and
the unconditioned stimulus (US) respectively.

Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning which was first
describe by behaviorist Burrhus F. Skinner that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant
conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that
behavior.

Components of Operant Conditioning

There are several key concepts in operant conditioning. The type of reinforcement or punishment that is used can have
an effect on how the individual responds and the effect of conditioning. There are four types of operant conditioning
that can be utilized to change behavior: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and
negative punishment.

Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of
reinforcers. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

Positive Reinforcers
Positive reinforcers are favorable events or
outcomes that are presented after the behavior.
In positive reinforcement situations, a response or
behavior is strengthened by the addition of praise
or a direct reward. If you do a good job at work
and your manager gives you a bonus, that bonus
is a positive reinforcer.

Negative Reinforcers
Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a
behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.

SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA
© San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved

For example, if your child starts to scream in the middle of a restaurant, but stops once you hand them a treat,
your action led to the removal of the unpleasant condition, negatively reinforcing your behavior (not your
child's).

Punishment in Operant Conditioning

Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it
follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both of these cases, the behavior decreases.

Positive Punishment
Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an unfavorable event or
outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Spanking for misbehavior is an example of punishment
by application.

Negative Punishment
Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome is
removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a child's video game following misbehavior is an example of
negative punishment.

Observational Learning (Social Learning Theory)

The focus of the Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura is that learning occurs within the social context. It states
that people learn from each other, by observational learning, imitation and modeling. This is exemplified by the fact
that children behave much like their parents and teenagers dress like their peers.

Core Concepts of Social Learning Theory

There are three (3) core concepts at the heart of social learning
theory:
(1) First is the idea that people can learn through observation.
(2) Next is the notion that internal mental states are an
essential part of this process.
(3) Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something
has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a
change in behavior.

Key Factors for Social Learning Success

It is important to note that not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Why not? Factors involving both the
model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and steps must also
be followed. The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling process: attention, retention,
reproduction, and motivation.

Attention
In order to learn, you need to be paying attention.
Anything that distracts your attention is going to
have a negative effect on observational learning. If the
model is interesting or there is a novel aspect of the
situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full
attention to learning.

Retention
The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a
number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.

SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA
© San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved

Reproduction
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to actually perform the behavior
you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement.

Motivation
Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that
has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation.

WHAT IS MEMORY?
Memory refers to the psychological processes of acquiring, storing,
retaining, and later retrieving information. There are three major
processes involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding
Encoding is the first stage of memory and involves the initial
processing of information entering the memory system.
During encoding, sensory information from the environment is
transformed into a form that can be stored in the brain.

Consolidation
Consolidation is the process of stabilizing and organizing encoded information for long-term storage. During
consolidation, encoded information is linked to existing memories. This helps to determine where the new
information belongs and solidifies the memory.

Storage
Storage refers to the process of keeping the information in our memory so that we can access it at a later
time. When we store information in our memory, we are essentially creating a mental representation of that
information. This mental representation can be in the form of a picture, a sound, or a feeling.

Retrieval
Retrieval is the process of recalling or accessing stored information when needed. During the retrieval process,
the brain runs through encoding, consolidation, and storage of the memory repeatedly. With each run-through,
retrieval gets easier. The retrieval stage protects memories from being lost. The oldest and most retrieved memories
are the most resilient.

THREE TYPES OF MEMORY

While several different models of memory
have been proposed, the stage model of
memory is often used to explain the basic
structure and function of memory. Initially
proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and
Richard Shiffrin, this theory outlines three
separate stages or types of memory: sensory
memory, short-term memory, and long-
term memory.

Sensory Memory
Sensory memory is a very brief memory that allows people to retain impressions of sensory information after
the original stimulus has ceased. It is often thought of as the first stage of memory that involves registering a
tremendous amount of information about the environment, but only for a very brief period.

SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA
© San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved

Echoic Memory
Also known as auditory sensory memory, echoic memory involves a very brief memory of sound a bit like an
echo. This type of sensory memory can last for up to three to four seconds.

Iconic Memory
Also known as visual sensory memory, iconic memory involves a very brief image. This type of sensory memory
typically lasts for about one-quarter to one-half of a second.

Haptic Memory
Also known as tactile sensory memory, haptic memory involves the very brief memory of a touch. This type of
sensory memory lasts for approximately two seconds.

People only pay attention to certain aspects of this sensory memory. Attending to sensory memory allows some of
this information to pass into the short-term memory.

Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory, also known as primary memory or active
memory, is the capacity to store a small amount of information
in the mind and keep it readily available for a short period of
time. Most of the information kept in short-term memory will be
stored for approximately 20 to 30 seconds, or even less. Some
information can last in short-term memory for up to a minute, but
most information spontaneously decays quite quickly, unless you use
rehearsal strategies such as saying the information aloud or mentally
repeating it.

Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory refers to the transfer of information from short-term memory into long-term storage in order
to create enduring memories. This type of memory is unlimited in capacity and stable—lasting for years or even a
lifetime. Short-term memories can become long-term memories through a process known as consolidation. Long-
term memory is usually divided into two types: explicit memory and implicit memory.

Explicit Memory
Explicit memory, also known as declarative memory, include all of the memories that are available in
consciousness. It allows people to bring information into conscious awareness. Explicit memory can be further
divided into two categories: episodic memory and semantic memory.

Episodic Memory
Episodic memories are memories from an individual’s life
events and experiences. They are concerned with when and
where an event occurred, and how it relates to the individual.

Semantic Memory
Semantic memories are the factual and conceptual knowledge
people have about the world.

Implicit Memory
Implicit memories are memories that are mostly unconscious. It allows people to perform actions without
needing to consciously recall how to do them.

SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA
© San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved

Procedural Memory
Procedural memories involve memories of body movement and how to use objects in the environment.
Procedural memories are automatically retrieved for the execution of procedures involved in both cognitive
and motor skills. This enables task performance without the need for conscious control or attention.

FORGETTING
Forgetting, also sometimes referred to as disremembering, is the loss or change in information that was previously
stored in short-term or long-term memory. It can occur suddenly or it can occur gradually as old memories are lost.
While it is usually normal, excessive or unusual forgetting might be a sign of a more serious problem. There are four
basic explanations for why forgetting occurs: decay theory, interference, encoding failure, and motivated
forgetting.

Decay Theory
According to this theory, a memory trace is created every time a new memory is
formed. Decay theory suggests that over time, these memory traces begin to fade
and disappear. If the information is not retrieved and rehearsed, it will eventually
be lost.

One problem with this theory, however, is that research has demonstrated that even
memories which have not been rehearsed or remembered are remarkably stable
in long-term memory.

Interference
Sometimes people forget due to a phenomenon known as interference. Some memories compete and interfere
with other memories. When information is very similar to other information that was previously stored in
memory, interference is more likely to occur. There are two basic types of interference: proactive interference and
retroactive interference.

Proactive Interference
Proactive interference is when an old memory makes it more difficult or impossible to remember a new
memory.

Retroactive Interference
Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with your ability to remember
previously learned information.

Encoding Failure
Sometimes, losing information has less to do with forgetting and more to do with the fact that it never made it
into long-term memory in the first place. Encoding failures sometimes prevent information from entering long-
term memory.

Motivated Forgetting
Sometimes, people may actively work to forget memories, especially those of traumatic or disturbing events or
experiences. Painful memories can be upsetting and anxiety-provoking, so there are times people may desire
to eliminate them. There are two basic forms of motivated forgetting: suppression and repression.

Suppression
Suppression is consciously trying to forget or not think about painful or unwanted thoughts.

Repression
Repression involves unconsciously blocking painful or unwanted thoughts.

SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA