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This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
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Date of publication xxxx 00, 0000, date of current version xxxx 00, 0000.
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Engineering and Technology

Applications of Control Co-Design: A
Survey
JOSEFREDO GADELHA DA SILVA1 (Member, IEEE) , THALITA NAZARÉ1 (Member, IEEE),
MATHEUS COSTA1 , MÁRCIO J. LACERDA (Senior Member, IEEE)2 , and ERIVELTON
NEPOMUCENO1 (Senior Member, IEEE)
1
Centre for Ocean Energy Research, Department of Electronic Engineering, Maynooth University, Ireland, email: [email protected],
[email protected], [email protected]
2
Centre for Communications Technology, School of Computing and Digital Media, London Metropolitan University, London, UK
(email:[email protected])
Corresponding author: Josefredo Gadelha da Silva (e-mail: [email protected]).
*****This publication has emanated from research conducted with the financial support of Science Foundation Ireland under Grant
number 21/FFP-P/10065 and for Maynooth University via a John and Pat Hume Doctoral (WISH). Erivelton Nepomuceno was supported
by Brazilian Research Agencies: CNPq/INERGE (Grant No. 465704/2014-0), CNPq (Grant No. 425509/2018-4 and Grant No.
311321/2020-8) and FAPEMIG (Grant No. APQ-00870-17).

ABSTRACT Control-inspired design, as the name suggests, involves drawing inspiration from control
theory to design other engineering systems. Engineers may use the principles of feedback control to design
systems that can adapt and self-correct in response to changing conditions. This technique is known
as Control Co-design (CCD), and it focuses on the redesign of dynamics and subsystem interactions.
CCD offers several benefits, such as improved performance, reduced design time and cost, and increased
reliability, and has been applied to a variety of areas. In this paper, we present a review of 197 articles
related to CCD and highlight the main topics of its applications, such as renewable energy, vehicular and
aircraft control systems and communication systems in control. We delimit the applications of CCD in
the field of engineering, providing an introductory understanding of this topic and presenting the main
works developed in this field in recent years, as well as discussing the tendencies and benefits of CCD. The
paper offers an in-depth conceptualisation of CCD. A theoretical example is provided to illustrate CCD’s
application in a Hybrid Wind-Wave Platform (HWWP), detailing the interaction between aerodynamic and
hydrodynamic design domains and their control challenges, along with discussions on simultaneous and
nested CCD formulations.

INDEX TERMS Control Co-design, Control Parallel Engineering, Renewable Energy, Networked Control
Systems, Vehicular Control Systems

I. INTRODUCTION sequential approach. It basically means, that the controller

usually is the last step developed in a project.
N engineering control system, designing a controller in-
I volves selecting a fitting control approach, analysing the
system’s dynamics, and determining the controller’s param-
A novel approach considers the optimisation of both the
system and the controller from the initial design stages. Op-
eters. The controller’s design should take into account vari- timising the control system and the physical system together
ous factors such as the system’s stability, performance, and could result in enhanced system performance and increased
robustness to uncertainties and disturbances. Proportional- efficiency. Additionally, it could lead to a reduction in the
integral-derivative control (PID), model predictive control cost of system realisation as the new system could be less
(MPC) and adaptive control are some commonly used control complex, require fewer resources and be more reliable. This
strategies. The controller’s design plays a crucial role in approach is known as control co-design (CCD) and has been
determining the system’s response and performance under compared to the traditional approach across a variety of
various operating conditions, and usually is designed in a control technique sub-areas, including state space [1], robust

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Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

control [2], PID [3], fuzzy control [4, 5], MPC [6, 7] event- In the first review [26], Pao, Pusch, and Zalkind deliver
triggered control (ETC) [8, 9], among others. Thus, CCD a summary of the latest advancements in CCD for wind
refers to an approach for designing and optimising control turbines (WT), covering design goals and limitations, the
systems that consider the interplay between the control sys- critical role of modelling for precise performance forecast-
tem and the physical system it regulates. ing, and how control mechanisms are seamlessly incorpo-
The historical development of CCD has evolved through rated through CCD. A particular focus is on refining design
several key phases, each marked by significant advances parameters to lower the Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE). It
in theory and methodology [10]: During the 1980s and also addresses advanced control techniques such as baseline
1990s, the groundwork for integrated design methods was control, peak shaving, individual pitch control, and floating
laid, characterised by Control Structure Interaction (CSI) and feedback. These control methods are adeptly into the CCD
the ongoing Multidisciplinary Design Optimisation (MDO) framework. The document further investigates the present
[11]. Initial research into CCD began to gain traction in the and future of modelling codes and software tools for CCD in
late 1990s and early 2000s, focusing on the development wind turbines, highlighting the significance of open-source
of theories and methods that often relied on unidirectional platforms and the exciting prospects for advancements in
design coupling and Linear Quadratic Regulator/Gaussian automation, machine learning, and artificial intelligence to
(LQR/G) control strategies. However, these early models make the CCD process more efficient. Additionally, it con-
could not fully address complex plant design considera- siders the potential for extending CCD to optimise wind farm
tions. More recently, Direct Transcription (DT), which is a layouts and to facilitate the integration with other forms of
class of discretize-then-optimise optimal control methods, renewable energy. However, the referred work limits itself
was incorporated into the CCD formulation [12]. Then, the only to the world of wind turbines.
CCD theory was revised to cater to bi-directional problem- In the second paper [27], Lu and Guo review advancements
solving, which enhanced the robustness and applicability of in control and scheduling co-design for NCS, focusing on
the method [13]. various scheduling schemes: static, dynamic, and random.
Recent applications of CCD include drones [14], edge They discuss challenges such as communication constraints
computing [15], microfluidic biochips [16–18], cyber secu- and propose solutions like event-triggered communication
rity [19], robotics [20, 21], system decarbonization [22], and transmission power control. They also highlight hy-
electric vehicles [23, 24], among others. This elucidates the brid scheduling techniques, address communication issues
enormous range of works developed and how CCD has found like packet dropouts, design practical communication pro-
numerous applications in various fields in recent years. tocols, explore computation-control co-design, and develop
In [25] a strategic vision for the future of control systems application-specific designs for systems like vehicular net-
was outlined, identifying several key sectors where these works, as topics for future research. The review empha-
systems could significantly influence outcomes in the coming sises the need for innovative approaches to enhance system
years. It suggests that adopting co-design and model reduc- efficiency and robustness against disturbances and cyber-
tion techniques could promote advancements, emphasizing attacks. However, the review once again encompasses only
collaborative efforts in design processes and streamlined the specific field of NCS.
modelling as essential steps toward progress in this field. Torngren et al. [28] compares different tools for CCD,
One area of vast application and increasing interest is aiding in understanding their capabilities, limitations, and
renewable energy, with emphasis on technologies involving unique features. It also evaluates whether the tools are ori-
offshore energy generation, which is an emerging field with ented towards analysis or synthesis, facilitating the selection
great potential for development and is discussed in this paper. of the most suitable tool for specific applications. This foun-
Another example of a field with many co-design applications dational work laid the groundwork for subsequent advance-
is communication in control systems (networked control sys- ments in the field, although more recent studies are necessary.
tems (NCS)), embedded systems in automobiles and aircraft, In the present work, unlike previous reviews, we address
as well as in others electrical and mechanical frameworks, the control codesign theme more broadly, elucidating each
which we also discuss in this paper. However, the application field of application and highlighting the main commonalities,
is not restricted to these areas, instead, the technique has divergences, and advantages of CCD in each of these fields.
been applied to a wide variety of other systems, showing its The motivation for writing this new review article stems from
numerous benefits. Nevertheless, There is a lack of works that the distinctiveness of its references compared to previous
summarise this range of different applications. reviews. A thorough comparison of the citations reveals that
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, only three reviews this latest review incorporates 124 references not previously
have been written on CCD: The first one addresses the explored in earlier works. This significant divergence high-
Control Co-Design of Wind Turbines [26], a second review lights the progression of research and the necessity of a
focuses on Control and Communication Scheduling CCD for new paper summarising advancements in the research topic.
Networked Control Systems (NCS) [27], and the last one Thus, this work delimits the applications of CCD in the field
[28] explores the various tools available for control co-design of engineering and technology, providing an introductory
applications. understanding of this topic and also presenting the main
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Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

works developed in this field in recent years, allowing one different and simpler strategy of control and achieve better
to understand the variety of applications and the benefits that results in the project objectives. Thus, co-design is defined as
these applications have experienced through CCD. an emerging field that aims to integrate control engineering
The novelty of this article lies in its interdisciplinary with other design disciplines such as mechanical, electrical,
approach, rather than focusing on a single field as previous and software engineering. The author argues that CCD has
reviews have done. Additionally, it charts the evolution of the potential to revolutionise the engineering industry by im-
CCD theory and methodologies, demonstrating how they proving the efficiency and effectiveness of the design process.
have matured to address dynamic challenges across various According to Garcia-Sanz, CCD is usually delimited
engineering and technological domains. The survey eluci- by co-optimisation, co-simulation, and control-inspired
dates strategic visions for future control systems, emphasiz- paradigms, as shown in Figure 1. Co-optimisation involves
ing the impact of CCD on sectors such as renewable energy optimising both the control system and the physical system
and vehicular control systems, and highlights the potential simultaneously, rather than optimising them separately as
advancements achievable through collaborative design pro- in traditional design processes. This approach can lead to
cesses. improved system performance and reduced design time. Co-
The contributions of this paper are summarised as follows: simulation is another technique that involves simulating both
• The paper offers an in-depth conceptualisation of CCD, the control system and the physical system together, allowing
drawing on a range of works from the literature to engineers to test and optimise the system as a whole. This ap-
provide a nuanced understanding (Section II). proach can help identify potential issues and improve system
• The role of CCD in renewable energy systems is ex- performance. Control-inspired design, as the name suggests,
plored in detail, with a focus on its application to float- involves drawing inspiration from control theory to design
ing offshore wind turbines and wave energy converters, other engineering systems. For example, engineers may use
including the challenges faced and progress made (Sec- the principles of feedback control to design systems that can
tion III). adapt and self-correct in response to changing conditions.
• An analysis of CCD in NCS is provided, particularly Control co-design is more suitable for systems with
its integration within control engineering to address high dynamic coupling, therefore, it is not common to en-
constraints such as network delays and packet dropouts counter applicability in non-complex systems in the litera-
(Section III). ture. Therefore, some examples of CCD applied to systems
• CCD’s application in the automotive and aerospace with high dynamic complexity include satellites [30], control
sectors is examined, with highlights on innovations in of vehicular platoons [31–34], vehicular suspension [35],
vehicular platoons and active suspension systems (Sec- robotics [36, 37], and aircraft [38, 39]. The methodology
tion III). has gained significant attention within the wind and hydro-
• The paper extends its exploration of CCD to include kinetic systems research programs funded by the Department
applications in other domains, such as robotic arms, of Energy’s Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA-
building energy systems, and complex mechanical sys- E) [40]. Figure 2 highlights the potential areas to apply
tems, showcasing its versatility (Section III). control co-design according with ARPA-E initiative.
• A theoretical example is provided to illustrate CCD’s The CCD approach can be summarised by three model-
application in a Hybrid Wind-Wave Platform (HWWP), based strategies: iterative, simultaneous, and nested [41, 42].
detailing the interaction between aerodynamic and hy- The iterative approach optimises the plant design by initially
drodynamic design domains and their control chal- keeping the control design fixed. It then optimises the control
lenges, along with discussions on simultaneous and design based on the selected plant design, and this process is
nested CCD formulations (Section IV). repeated until convergence is achieved or the design objec-
• The significance of the findings from the reviewed liter- tives are satisfied. The simultaneous approach encompasses
ature is discussed, summarising the trends, advantages, all dynamic system-control interactions within a single op-
challenges, and potential of CCD across the various timisation model. The nested approach, often known as bi-
domains covered (Section IV). level optimisation, consists of an outer optimisation loop
• Finally, the authors offer a summary of the insights responsible for selecting optimal system parameters. Within
garnered from the survey, emphasizing the impact of this loop, there is an inner optimisation loop that determines
CCD on engineering design and proposing directions the optimal control for each feasible system configuration
for future research (Section V). chosen by the outer loop. In contrast to the sequential ap-
proach, any of these co-design methods solve the system
II. CONTROL CO-DESIGN: INITIAL CONCEPTS and control design optimisation concurrently, incorporating
Garcia-Sanz [29] presents the Wright brothers and Charles bidirectional coupling. As a result, they offer system-level
Brush as the pioneers of CCD. Their revolutionary projects, optimally guarantees for the designs.
the first heavier-than-air powered aeroplane and the first Although several well-developed approaches in control
successful automatic wind turbine, respectively, showed how exist with a huge range of applicability, these approaches
a redesign in the structure of a general plant can lead to a sometimes do not consider the optimisation of subsystems.
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1
Control Co-design Formal mathematical method
Multivariable constrained optimization
Mathematics
(CCD) 2
Nonlinear models
Low/Mid-fidelity models
i1. System objectives 1
lity Metrics, Performance
4 i4. Real-data F orm
a
A2 Economics, Survivability
Resiliency, Controllability
Lab/full-scale Co- Lifespan, Enviromental
experiments
Real-time Optimization
Offline i2. Components pre-design 2
Analisys
Model Validation Sub-systems, interaction
A
1,2 A
2,3
A i3. Physics-based models 3
5 i5. Case studies Control 1,2,3
Co- Physics, economics, control
Operation and
extreme cases inspired Simulation
O&M, installation, materials
High/Mid/Low-fidelity
System states
Standards paradigms
Engineering
1
A1 ty Disc A3
3
ivi Computer Science
reat ov
ery
C
Design of mechanisms
Multi-physics simulation
Sensors, actuators, networks
Optimization algorithms
Dynamics & Control design
Data-based, Machine learning
Physics-based models, frequency/time domains
High/Mid/Low/Mixed-fidelity models
Reduced-order models, Low and Mid-fidelity models

FIGURE 1: Control Co-Design areas: control-inspired paradigms, co-optimisation, co-simulation. First area (A1) proposes
new design solutions based on a practical engineering understanding of dynamics and control. Second area (A2) uses a formal
mathematical methodology with nonlinear low/mid-fidelity models and multi-variable constrained optimisation theory. Finally,
third area (A3) uses multi-scale, multi-physics, high/mixed-fidelity dynamic models in an iterative simulation process. Source:
Adapted from [29] (open access).

CL1, Objectives:
Definition: Concurrent Control Engineering for CL2, O1.-To incorporate concurrent control engineering
Optimal System Design (Control Co-design). Control Co-design Program(s) CL3, design philosophy in the energy sector.
For dynamic systems in the energy sector. ... O2.-To develop computer tools to facilitate the control
co-design phylosophy.
O3.-To develop new energy solutions and products that
For systems that involve bolth: Design Dynamics
were not achievable otherwise.

Area 1 Area 2 Area 3

(1) Electro-mechanical Systems (2) Network Systems (3) Bio/Nuclear/Thermal

-Mechanical structures -Waste water, Fresh water
-Aerodynamics (1.3) Electric airplane -Topology design (2.3) Farms
-Municipal/Industrial waste
-Hydrodynamics -Distributed resources
(1.4) Sailboats Wind/Solar Farms -Biological systems
-Electrical generators -Location of connections of
Wave/Tidal Farms -Chemical processes
-Power electronics subsystems
-Nuclear reactors
-Variable inputs & outputs -communications delays
-Batteries
-Buildings (3.1) Water (3.2) Other
(1.1) Wind (1.2) Hydro-kinectic (2.1) Grid (2.2) Traffic Water Treatment Plants Buildings
Offshore Floating WT Tidal Energy Grid Topology Inter-Vehicle Distance Control Digesters Batteries
Offshore Bottom-fixed WT Stream Energy Micro-Grids Intelligent Traffic Control Desalination
Onshore WT Wave Energy Distributed Generators Road Congestion Control
Wind Farms Hybrid Systems Distributed Storage
Control concepts: Limitations (Bode), Frequency resp., Root locus, Robust., MIMO.
Flying WT Wave, Tidal Farms Distributed Damping
Optimization tech.: Simultaneous, Lagrange-based, AI, ML.

(a)Principles (b)Metrics (c)Scenarios (d)Targets (e)Methods Co-simulation: Iterative, Nested/Bi-level.

FIGURE 2: Potential areas to apply control co-design. Systems that possess substantial dynamic characteristics and involve the
interaction of mechanical, electrical, aerodynamics, and hydrodynamics subsystems are ideal candidates for control co-design
optimisation. Source: Adapted from [40] (open access).

On the other hand, CCD focuses on the redesign of dynamics designed as a sequential process, where the best control
and subsystem interactions. Frequently, control systems are strategy is chosen, applied, and the controller is designed

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Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

only after the system has been modelled. In this new strategy, conclusion of the importance of CCD, where the design of
a sequential approach can still be applied, but the control the controller is conceived in parallel with the full system.
problem is considered from the first steps of the project to
achieve better results and a more suitable control system. A WecOptTool v0.1.0
key aspect of this strategy is to identify how the dynamics User inputs Data Classes Solvers

of subsystems interact in a specific case study and establish Geometry

a simplification of these interactions, meaning that each Cost
Power Take Off Device
interaction is optimised to increase controllability, energy Proxy
Hydrodynamics
consumption, general performance, and lead the system to Kinematics Solver

the desired state.

Optimal Control
An example of co-design is presented in [43], where the Solver
authors indicate that a common approach to modelling non- 1. Proportional
2. Complex - Conjugate
Pick
Controller
One
linear systems is by using linear approximation and adding 3. Pseudo - Spectral

nonlinear terms. In this paper, the authors suggest a more Power,

Sea States Resource Velocity
suitable linear approximation to model a wave energy con-
verter (WEC) and a power take-off (PTO) by applying a Objective Function
co-design strategy. Then, the authors show how the math- Adjusts Optimisation
Inputs Routine
ematical parameters of the new model allow for a better
understanding of the system and how it is possible to alter
the design to achieve higher overall performance in terms of FIGURE 3: Schematic of data flow used in [44] to determine
energy conversion in the WEC. Generally, a CCD solution an optimal control co-design. The flow from left to right de-
applies the same strategy of altering the design formulation fines the necessary user inputs, how those inputs are mapped
and modelling to allow for better understanding of a real to the solvers to determine an optimal design. The system is
system. Then, by changing those parameters, simulating the subject to constraints that reflect a real environment, and the
results of the model, and choosing the best parameters based measurement of the outputs determines the parameters for
on the best results, changes can be proposed to the real the optimisation process. These parameters are then fed back
system. The final effect of these changes is that they can into the system, which operates on the geometry. As a result,
allow for better control of a complex system. the system is redesigned until it reaches an optimal point.
However, it is important to highlight that a theoretical Source: Redrawn from [44] (open access).
approach does not always match with physical realisation.
Both the control strategy and the design parameters must be In summary, the traditional approach often results in sub-
analysed with a real application overview. In other words, optimal control systems that do not fully exploit the capabili-
physical constraints must be considered, and the most suit- ties of the mechanical or electrical system. Control co-design,
able control method must be determined for real applications. on the other hand, offers several benefits, such as improved
Example of this approach is described by Coe et al. [44], performance, reduced design time and cost, and increased
where the authors illustrate an optimisation process for a reliability. However, there are challenges that need to be
WEC, shown in Figure 3. In that paper, an experimental WEC addressed to fully realise the potential of CCD, such as the
called "WaveBot" was proposed, and the co-design process need for interdisciplinary collaboration and the development
was elucidated by varying some parameters of the WEC of new design tools and methodologies. Nevertheless, CCD
such as the outer radios, the maximum PTO force exerted has the potential to significantly improve the way we design
in the WEC, and the maximum PTO stroke (the maximum and build complex systems.
displacement position of the WEC). The authors proposed
a case study with three approaches: first, a comparison of III. DISCUSSION
three control types (Complex Conjugate Control, Propor- Some articles elucidate methods of optimisation and ap-
tional Damping, and Pseudo-Spectral controllers) using the proach the general theory of control in a manner that al-
same WEC design; second, by proposing an objective func- lows a comparison between control techniques applied alone
tion that evaluates the relation between the average generated and together with CCD. In these articles, the author some-
power and the WEC volume (and, consequently, the outer times utilises benchmark systems to demonstrate the effi-
radios); and finally, a multi-objective design approach where, cacy of CCD, but usually approaches the theme in a more
in addition to the parameters considered in the previous case, general way. Examples include CCD applied to stochastic
the PTO stroke was also considered, and only a Pseudo- systems [45, 46], control systems with time delay [47],
Spectral controller was employed. The authors highlight how switching control systems [48, 49], educational approaches
physical constraints must be designated to the parameters in control [50], scheduling control models [51–53], opti-
in the theoretical model to achieve realistic outcomes. They misation [54–56], robust control [57–60] and MPC tech-
also show how one objective function delimited in that paper niques [61, 62]. On the other hand, the majority of articles are
was strongly tied to the chosen controller, leading to the applied to specific fields, which allows for more specific cat-
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egorisation due to the huge number of articles in these fields. in a turbine, the length, and slimness of the blades, the shape,
This section discusses and summarises the main works in five and angle of the blades, the direction of the turbine (upwind
areas, namely: renewable energy systems, communications or downwind) and the aeroelastic adaptivity of the system.
in control systems, vehicular and aircraft systems and other The results show that reducing the mass of the rotor by 25%
mechanical and electrical systems. represents a reduction in the LCOE by 7%. The previous
modifications, combined with longer blades, lead to achiev-
A. RENEWABLE ENERGY ing the 25% total reduction in LCOE. Also, it was noticed
Due to the great potential of offshore wind and wave energy, that increasing the rotor size by the same rating generation
these types of energy have experienced significant research can contribute to a reduction in the LCOE. Furthermore, there
and practical implementation in recent years. However, the is a trade-off between using a lower axial induction rotor with
majority of wind and wave energy potential is associated bigger and slimmer blades (leading to a reduction in LCOE)
with areas that are more than 60 meters deep in the ocean, and the power generation.
making fixed-bottom wind turbines and structures unsuitable
while floating platforms are more appropriate. One of the Wec geometry
problems with floating offshore wind/wave platforms is the
Mooring system
control of motion and its impact on energy generation and the Wec array layout
configuration
structure’s stability, which constitutes a 6-degree-of-freedom
Storage
control problem. Due to the intrinsic complexity of both PTO constraints
technology
types of energy, they have been investigated under the co- Parameter
design approach. Furthermore, the dynamics of waves and Still selection
water
winds are nonlinear and time-varying, and the alteration of Wec
level
Specification of the
speed and direction produces a high degree of uncertainty parameter value
Sea states
that leads to difficulties in prediction and forecasting. This
Mooring
results in complexity in the control strategy. Update parameter
system Control design
value
The literature is rich in applications of CCD for re-
newable energy. Most examples consider floating offshore
wind turbines (FOWTs) [63, 64], wave energy converters Overal Optimal No
System?
(WECs) [65, 66], ocean kites [67], and ocean current tur-
bines [68]. Some studies applied to FOWTs consider the
control of variable-speed, yaw, and tuned mass damping. Yes

On the other hand, WEC control focuses on maximising the

power conversion ratio. The objectives of the co-design ap- FIGURE 4: Paradigms of control co-design applied to a
proach usually aim to increase energy efficiency, reduce the WEC. Source: Elaborated by the authors.
weight of structures, increase energy capture, and minimize
the LCOE [69–71]. Sundarrajan et al. [71] proposes an open-loop CCD
For example, Figure 4 shows the paradigms of control methodology for FOWTs using linear parameter-varying
co-design applied to a WEC. The design of the WEC, (LPV) models. The LPV models are used to capture the
including its geometry, mooring system configuration, and nonlinear and time-varying dynamics of the FOWT system,
storage technology, is considered alongside constraints from and the co-design approach optimises the control design and
the Power Take-Off (PTO) system. The CCD process begins system parameters simultaneously. The proposed method-
with parameter selection, which is then specified and applied ology is demonstrated on a 5 MW FOWT model, and the
in the control design of the WEC. If the result is not the results show improved performance compared to a conven-
overall optimal system, the parameter values are updated, and tional controller design. The results show that it is possible
the process iterates. The control design is influenced by sea to improve the performance and reduce the structural loads
states, WEC geometry, and the mooring system, underlining of FOWTs. It also demonstrates that the LPV-based CCD
the importance of a holistic design approach that considers approach can effectively mitigate the impact of environmen-
the dynamic interactions between the WEC’s physical design tal disturbances and reduce the fatigue loads on the FOWT
and its control system. This integrative approach aims to structure.
optimise the performance and efficiency of the WEC by Usually, control strategies consider non-causalities by es-
aligning the control strategies with the structural and oper- timating future incoming waves. However, Bacelli and Coe
ational aspects from the outset. [43] present another strategy based on a simple PI controller
Pao et al. [70] apply co-design to reduce the LCOE by or a broader feedback resonating (FBR) to approximate the
25% for a 13 MW wind turbine energy generation system. non-causal complex conjugate control of a limited frequency
Starting from a well-known turbine, the authors demonstrate range. Instead of approaching the problem of maximisation
the impact of modifying the design or configuration of some of power through the typical approach, where mechanical
key components of the system, such as the number of blades power is tentatively maximised, this paper focuses on pre-
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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3412416

Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

senting a method that combines the intrinsic mechanical achieve a more flexible and interactive electricity system.
impedance of the system with the dynamic model of the Meanwhile, Gambier et al. [78] emphasise the importance
PTO. While common approaches could lead to net negative of co-design in optimising the operation of integrated water
absorption of power, where more power is dissipated than and energy systems, specifically in a European project. The
absorbed due to the effects of reactive power, the method authors were able to develop an integrated control system that
presented in this paper prevents the referred effect by taking optimises the operation of a combined hydroelectric power
into consideration the intrinsic characteristics of the power and water supply system.
takeoff, i.e., the losses in the PTO. The result is a mathemati-
cal modelling of the PTO using the maximum power transfer B. COMMUNICATIONS IN CONTROL SYSTEMS
approach, where the mathematical parameters of the model This section provides an overview of several recent articles in
could easily indicate how to modify the design of the PTO to the application of CCD for networked and wireless systems,
achieve higher overall performance in the amount of energy highlighting their contributions to the field and discussing
conversion problem. how they relate to one another. The study of NCS and com-
Some articles discuss CCD approaches for wind turbines, munication control has seen an increase in interest recently.
with a focus on improving system reliability and perfor- According to Zhang and Hristu-Varsakelis [79] and Zibao
mance. The authors in [72] focus on improving wind turbine and Ge [80], one of the most important factors in ensuring
performance by finding an optimal balance between tower the effectiveness and stability of NCS is the co-design of
thickness and blade pitch control. The authors develop a communication and control strategies. It has been found that
model-based optimisation algorithm that accounts for wind designing resilient control strategies with modulation and
turbine dynamics and constraints, such as fatigue and load scheduling control tasks are particularly effective ways to
limits. Through simulation studies, they demonstrate that boost the efficiency and dependability of NCS. An illustra-
their co-design approach can lead to significant improve- tion of a control loop for use in communication systems can
ments in power output and reduction in structural loads, be found in Figure 5.
compared to existing designs. Cui et al. [73] propose a CCD According to Zhao and Ji [81], an innovative method called
framework for horizontal axis wind turbines. The approach model-reference scheduling and CCD with two routes has
utilises models to optimise the control design and ensure been developed as a way to maximise both the scheduling
operation under various conditions. In contrast, the article by of control tasks and the design of control strategies at the
Du et al. [74] focuses on the co-design of rotor blades for same time. The authors propose a two-path model-reference
FOWTs. The proposed approach considers both aerodynamic scheduling and CCD framework. In this framework, the
and structural performance to optimise the rotor blade design communication network is divided into two paths: a direct
and control system. path for high-priority control tasks and a relay path for low-
Both papers [75] and [76] exemplify the use of CCD priority control tasks. The authors suggest using the direct
to optimise the design of hydrokinetic turbines in order to path for high-priority control tasks. The authors demonstrate
maximise power output. The first article proposes to opti- that the suggested method may achieve greater performance
mise the design of the turbine blades and control system in comparison to conventional methods by taking into ac-
by emphasising the hydrodynamics and structural mechanics count the trade-off between control performance and com-
of the system, using open-loop optimal control to maximise munication restrictions.
power output. In contrast, the second article focuses on CCD Resilient CCD with modulation has also been shown to in-
by adjusting the buoyancy of the turbine. The authors use a crease networked control system reliability [82]. The referred
nested optimisation strategy that considers both the spatial paper presents a model reference scheduling CCD framework
and temporal dynamics of the system. In both cases, CCD with modulation schedules control tasks based on the modu-
was essential for improving the performance of hydrokinetic lation scheme to improve communication failure resilience.
turbines and making them more economically viable. It also Simulations and experiments prove the strategy works. In
allowed for more efficient and effective control of the turbine, addition, scheduling strategy design frameworks have also
leading to increased power output and making them more been presented to handle cyber-physical systems (CPS) with
competitive and viable for widespread use. non-negligible propagation delay [83]. The propagation de-
Finally, two other different applications for co-design are lay in the communication network may considerably impact
in the possibility of decarbonization and in the optimisation the performance and stability of NCS, hence the authors
of a system for the production of water and electricity. Ilić suggest a scheduling strategy design approach that accounts
and Carvalho [77] highlight the importance of co-design in for it. The suggested framework offers a systematic way
enabling the integration of flexible and interactive electricity to designing scheduling techniques that reduce propagation
services, which is essential for decarbonizing the energy delay’s influence on system performance.
sector. The authors argue that traditional hierarchical con- A developing area called cooperative control of CPS at-
trol systems are not suited for the integration of distributed tempts to maximise the effectiveness and performance of
energy resources and demand-side management. Therefore, CPS by coordinating the activities of many actors. The in-
the development of co-design methodologies is necessary to tegration of sensing and control in industrial cyber-physical
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Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

Computer system
Main Controller

Controller 1 Controller 2 (...) Controller N

Plant 1 Plant 2 Plant N

Actuator Sensor Actuator Sensor Actuator Sensor

Controlled Process Controlled Process Controlled Process

...
Plant i

FIGURE 5: A wireless communication network-controlled computer system for controlling N plants. This computer system
acts as a remote controller, providing each plant with a control input upon the arrival of sensor data. It can incorporate either a
single main controller or N individual controllers for N distinct plants. Source: Elaborated by the authors.

systems (ICPS) has been significantly aided by edge comput- Another crucial consideration while developing edge sens-
ing technologies [84]. Furthermore, there are several aspects ing and control algorithms for the ICPS, is observability.
of CCD in the context of CPS and ICPS cooperative control, Observability is often taken for granted as a need for later
such as: sensing and control systems in current works. Yet, it gets
• Resource allocation: The DRUID-NET framework was increasingly difficult to explicitly meet the observability re-
suggested by Dechouniotis et al. [85] for allocating edge quirement in sensing architecture as the network size in-
computing resources in dynamic networks. The frame- creases. An observability guaranteed method (OGM) for
work includes methods from graph theory, machine edge sensing and CCD has been suggested as a solution to
learning, contemporary control theory, and network the- this problem [15].
ory in addition to dynamic modelling of resources, Several studies have been published that use diverse
workload, and networking environment. To provide methodologies to investigate various elements of networked
clearly stated Quality of Service (QoS) measures, the stabilisation and system stability. In this context, we separate
authors seek to create unique resource allocation al- three articles that help to understand how CCD can be used
gorithms that explicitly take service differentiation and in multi-input systems. First, Chen et al. [88] suggested
context-awareness into account. a networked stabilisation strategy for multi-input systems
• Scheduling: Choosing the time and sequence of var- across shared channels with scheduling/CCD. The authors
ious agents’ activities inside a cooperative system is suggested a unique co-design technique that optimises the
known as scheduling. A dynamic scheduling and CCD scheduling of data packets and the control input simul-
technique based on binary sequences was put out by taneously, with the goal of minimising network-induced
Wen et al. [86] in their paper for CPS. In this method, delays and improving system stability. In a related work,
scheduling choices are represented as binary sequences, Srazhidinov et al. [89] investigated the stability of discrete-
and control algorithms and scheduling decisions are col- time single-input single-output (SISO) systems employing
laboratively designed to maximise system performance. multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO). Furthermore, Chen
• Decision-making: For probabilistic Boolean control net- et al. [90] addressed the stability of networked multi-input
works, Acernese et al. [87] developed a model-free self- systems via a common bus. The authors introduced a col-
triggered CCD technique. The method makes use of a laborative optimisation approach with the goal of reducing
self-triggered mechanism that decides when to update network-induced delays and improving system stability.
the control choices, as well as a model-free control
strategy that updates control decisions based on system 1) Wireless Systems
measurements. The authors demonstrated that even in In order to solve the communication and control require-
the face of uncertainties and disruptions, the suggested ments of wireless edge industrial systems, the article [91]
technique may provide the desired system behaviour. suggests a co-design method. The author makes the case that
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 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3412416

Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

conventional designs that treat communication and control as several papers. For instance, the authors of [99] concentrate
distinct issues can result in unstable operations. As shown by on the creation of a resilient architecture that can manage
various case studies, the suggested co-design method takes wireless channel uncertainties in CPS, and they demonstrate
both communication and control requirements into account how their method can maintain system performance even in
at the outset, which improves performance and stability. The the presence of sizeable wireless channel uncertainties.
same is true for Ma et al. [92], who propose a smart actuation Figure 6 highlight the differences between a common
framework that combines edge computing, wireless connec- architecture of CPS in the form of a networked control system
tivity, and machine learning to enhance the performance of and a redesign architecture proposed by Kim et al. [99]. In
end-edge industrial control systems. The authors contend that Figure 6a the system consists of N physical systems and
centralised control, which is what traditional control systems N controllers. The physical systems periodically transmit
rely on, can be ineffective and prone to failure because of sensed data to their respective controllers through a wireless
network congestion, delays, or other problems. Additionally, network. Each controller operates with a specific sampling
they offer a case study of a smart actuation system for a period denoted by Sn , which determines the frequency at
robotic arm to show how their method works in practise which the sensed data is sampled and transmitted. The net-
by cutting down on control latency and enhancing system work introduces a delay, denoted by dn , in each feedback
stability. loop. S and V are respectively the set of the sampling periods
The topic of rate selection in wireless control systems and the network parameters such as contention window size
is discussed by Saifullah et al. [93] in their paper titled and re-transmission count. The network setup, encompassing
“Near Optimal Rate Selection for Wireless Control Systems” network topology and the number of nodes, is captured by
in a related article. The authors suggest a nearly ideal rate the variable δ. The control performance of each physical
selection algorithm that considers both the system’s control system is evaluated using a control cost function Jn , which
requirements and the communication channel’s features. The considers its sampling period, network delay, and packet
suggested technique employs a combined optimisation strat- loss probability. In contrast, Figure 6b presents a switching
egy to choose the ideal rate that maximises control perfor- architecture for the PHY data rate rn (ε). The values of S and
mance while requiring the fewest amount of communication V must be carefully adjusted based on rn (ε). Thus, once the
resources. Through simulations and experiments, the authors data rate is determined according to the channel condition,
explain how their strategy is effective and how it outperforms S and V are switched to appropriate values to satisfy both
current rate selection methods. the network and control performance. A cost function is
Chen et al. [94], employing MIMO transceivers with pure employed to minimise S and V in order to optimise the
fading subchannels, established a majorization criterion for system’s performance. The proposed architecture and opti-
the stabilizability of MIMO systems. The authors demon- misation technique offer a promising approach to enhance the
strated how a MIMO transceiver with only fading subchan- robustness of these systems in the presence of unpredictable
nels can be used to create a MIMO stabilizable system. wireless channel conditions. The W-Simplex method, as used
For wireless sensor networked control systems (WSNCS), by Kim et al. [100], provides a robust network and CCD
communication and CCD were examined in [95]. The au- strategy for CPS when facing wireless channel uncertainties.
thors provided a design framework for the WSNCS that Similar to this, [101] proposed a CCD method and trans-
includes a routing algorithm and the best possible power mission power scheduling for wireless sensor networks.
allocation. The scheduling-event-control co-design issue for Chang’s research concentrated on the development of ultra-
hybrid event-time-triggered networked control systems was reliable and low-latency communication (URLLC) for real-
addressed in [96]. They put forth a scheduling technique that time control in wireless control systems [102]. The authors
considers both communication resource usage and control Wang et al. [103] also use URLLC to packetized predictive
performance. control, a control method that makes use of predictive models
A utilisation-based schedulability study for wireless to enhance system performance. The suggested scheme’s
sensor-actuator networks (WSANs) was created by Ismail packet structure, scheduling algorithm, and error control
et al. [97]. The suggested method can guarantee that the techniques are all covered in detail. To assess how well the
necessary control tasks are finished by the deadlines while scheme performs in various circumstances, including those
accommodating the limitations on communication resources. with varied packet sizes and channel conditions, the authors
El-Din Mady et al. [98] also describes the key elements also run simulations.
of the suggested approach, such as the user interface, the Lastly, five more articles investigate other facets of this
optimisation algorithms, and the WSAN design model. The technology, such as transmission control, power distribution,
strategy is shown to be beneficial in raising a building’s and communication QoS planning. The performance and
energy efficiency and comfort levels by the authors’ presen- dependability of wireless control systems are improved by
tation of a case study. the authors’ investigations into techniques for optimising
In the context of wireless networks, where communica- these characteristics.
tion channels are frequently susceptible to different sorts • He et al. [104] suggest a co-design approach for wireless
of uncertainty and interference, CCD has been the focus of control systems that takes into account both the trans-
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Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

nication delay and jitter, while maintaining dependable

communication to ensure the system’s reliability.
Physical Physical
System ... System • Proposing a co-simulation method for the design and
testing of wireless control systems, Björkbom et al.
[108] present a method that integrates communication
and control simulation tools, allowing for the evaluation
Network of system performance under varying communication
F(s,V, ) conditions.
The 19 papers that are included in this section show the
broad range of uses for CCD in wireless systems. By taking
into account the particular characteristics of wireless com-
munication channels and the dynamics of control systems,
...
Controller Controller
the solutions suggested in these articles seek to enhance the
performance of wireless control systems. The suggested tech-
niques can be used in a variety of fields, including robotics,
(a) Overall structure of CPS in the form of a networked industrial automation, and transportation systems.
control system.
Cyber Physical 2) Networked Systems
r + y Networked Control Systems (NCS) are systems in which the
- Controller Plant
y sensors and the actuators communicate with the controller
S
through a network. Figure 7 provides a illustration of a
Decision Logic typical NCS and its 4-layers architecture. The articles in this
.. .. Sensing section explore various aspects of NCS design, including en-
. . y
ergy awareness, uncertainty, constraints, and fault tolerance,
highlighting the opportunities and challenges in this area.
De Castro et al. [109] and Wang et al. [110] discuss how
V
Monitor Network much energy is used by the communication network. In
[109], the authors propose a joint optimisation framework
Network that reduces the amount of energy used by the communi-
cation network while meeting the performance requirements
(b) A resilient architecture that can adaptively tune the
network and control parameters against wireless channel of the control system. They construct a sufficient condition
uncertainty. for the stability of the overall system using the Lyapunov-
based control technique. While [110] lays out the necessary
FIGURE 6: Comparison between a common architecture
criteria for the exponential mean square stability of a single
for networked control systems and an redesign architecture
plant, it also suggests a scheduling-and-control co-design
proposed by Kim et al. [99]. Source: Redrawn from [99]
process that can stabilise the entire set of plants with a
(open access).
specified transmission energy budget and guaranteed system
performance.
Two papers by Basit et al. collectively underscore the crit-
mission and control facets. By dynamically altering the ical importance and evolving complexity of ensuring robust,
transmission rate in response to the needs of the control secure, and efficient operation NCS. The first one [111],
system, this technology seeks to decrease communica- addresses the distributed state and unknown parameter esti-
tion overhead and enhance control performance. mation problem for discrete-time nonlinear systems that have
• Hong et al. [105] concentrate on multi-agent coordina- known linear dynamics and unknown nonlinearities, sub-
tion with second-order dynamics and suggest an adap- ject to deception attacks. They introduce a neural-network-
tive communication and CCD strategy that considers the based unified estimation framework that estimates the un-
dynamics of the system. known nonlinear function alongside the system state and
• Xie et al. [106] propose an optimal power allocation unknown parameters. The framework leverages a dynamic
method for relay-assisted wireless packetized predictive event-triggered strategy to alleviate resource consumption,
control systems, which aims to minimise the power con- ensuring stability through uniformly ultimately bounded er-
sumption while maintaining the control performance. ror.
• Chang et al. [107] present the fourth article titled “Dy- The second one [112], addresses the specific challenges
namic Communication QoS Design for Real-Time Wire- posed by denial-of-service (DoS) attacks on distributed state
less Control Systems”, which introduces a new approach estimation, proposing a novel dynamic event-triggered ap-
for designing QoS in real-time wireless control systems. proach. This method not only ensures robust estimation un-
The proposed technique focuses on reducing commu- der malicious attacks but also significantly reduces network
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Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

Reception
Energy-Aware
Source-Coding

Controller
MAC
MAC + Power

Node
Network Plant
Management
Decoding
Physical layer Transmission
Control law
Data link layer computing
Application layer
Network layer

FIGURE 7: Illustration of the four layers of the NCS (Physical, Data Link (MAC), Network and Application) on a control block
diagram of a NCS, according to [109]. The Physical layer performs the radio modulation of the digital data. The Data Link
(MAC) layer defines how to use and share the transmission medium. The Network layer routes the data through the network.
Finally, the Application layer concerns the source encoding and decoding, and computes the control law. Source: Elaborated
by the authors.

communication overhead. While the first paper explores in use.

broader aspects of NCS operation and efficiency, the second We can reference Dai et al. [117], Zhao [118], Cao et al.
one presents a novel framework for addressing joint state [119], Peng and Yang [120], Aibing et al. [121] to eval-
and unknown input estimation (JSUIE) in nonlinear systems uate the effects of communication delays on the system’s
compromised by DoS attacks and stochastic disturbances. It performance. The authors in [117] suggest a switching sys-
proposes an improved dynamic event-triggered mechanism tem model that captures the uncertainty in the delays and
to conserve network resources and reduce unnecessary trans- demonstrate how to simultaneously construct the control
missions, a crucial consideration under DoS attack condi- and scheduling methods. This method, which is based on
tions. the average dwell time technique, produces a controller that
A technique for dual scheduling and quantized control for ensures the closed-loop system’s exponential stability. For
NCS with communication limitations is presented by Lu and NCSs with random delays, Zhao [118] suggests a model
Zhou [113]. The authors suggest a scheduling technique that reference scheduling and CCD methodology. This method
chooses each sensor-controller pair’s optimal communication is based on a switching system model that accounts for the
schedule, as well as a quantized controller architecture that delays’ time-varying nature. As Cao et al. [119] addresses the
ensures performance and stability within the specified com- issue of H∞ reliable control for networked jacket platforms
munication limitations. On the other hand, Zhihong et al. against earthquakes and stochastic actuator faults. They pro-
[114] discusses information scheduling-based fault-tolerant vide the necessary conditions for the stability of the closed-
control of NCS. They suggest using a fault-tolerant controller loop system using the Lyapunov-based method, and they
that can recover from communication failures by using a lin- perform numerical simulations to evaluate the efficiency of
ear matrix inequality-based design technique. The approach their strategy. Finally, co-design strategies for event-triggered
is based on scheduling information exchange between the communication are put out in [120] and [121]. Aibing et al.
controller and the sensors. [121] approach’s focuses on fault-tolerant control based on
The co-design of model-dependent scheduling and control fault diagnosis observer, while Peng and Yang [120] ap-
for NCS is investigated in Zhao and Ji [115] and Zhao proach focuses on H∞ control. In NCS, both papers seek
et al. [116]. A co-design strategy that takes into account to increase control performance while minimising data trans-
the medium access constraint and the system model for mission.
scheduling and control design was proposed in [115]. With Communication constraints, such as limited bandwidth
the suggested approach, performance and communication and sample rates, must be taken into account in the control
expense are better balanced. Ultimately, a generalised model design process to achieve optimal system performance. The
reference scheduling and CCD technique for NCS with guar- article by Sun and Wu [122] focuses on the co-design of
anteed performance was presented in the work [116]. The scheduling and control for NCS with bandwidth constraints.
approach is founded on a generalised model reference control The authors suggest a strategy for optimising the perfor-
framework that takes into account the scheduling and control mance of NCS with constrained bandwidth resources that
design jointly. The authors demonstrate that the suggested takes both scheduling and control design features into ac-
strategy can perform more effectively than the ones already count. They provide a complete framework that uses schedul-
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Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

ing, feedback management, and limits on communication systems available for different models, each with a unique
to meet goals for system stability and performance. Similar architecture based on the project’s needs. Due to the high
to this, Li et al. [123] examine the co-design of sample degree of dynamic coupling between subsystems, vehicle and
rate scheduling and optimum control for NCS. To enhance aircraft systems are excellent candidates for CCD experimen-
the overall performance of the system, they recommend a tation. Figure 8 shows the resume of applications in vehicle
joint optimisation strategy that takes into account both the and aircraft systems. The following section highlight the
scheduling of the sample rate and the control design. The main articles on CCD applications for vehicles and aircraft
authors stress how crucial it is to incorporate communication systems.
restrictions into the control design process in order to get the
best possible system behaviour.
A more recent study by [124] focuses on the feedback Vehicular and Air Vehicles/ Aircraft Systems
linearization (FBL) regime of communication and control in
the age of loop-oriented wireless networked control systems.
The trade-off between communication expense and control Aircraft / Aerial Vehicles
effectiveness under the FBL regime is taken into account by
the authors’ unique approach. They examine the impact of Vehicular Quadrotor
information age on control performance and create a collab-
orative optimisation approach that takes both communication
and control design goals into account. Platoon control Efficiency of engines
Ultimately, in their discussion of real-time control in future
wireless networks, Zhao et al. [125] emphasise the signifi-
cance of communication-control co-design. To create effec- Suspensions Avionic flexibe structures
tive and dependable wireless networked control systems, they
point the significance of integrating communication and con- Batteries Aerial communication
trol aspects. They give a cogent explanation of the challenges
and opportunities in this field. Furthermore, they discuss
the implications of communication-control co-design in the FIGURE 8: Resume of vehicular and air vehicles/aircraft
context of future wireless networks and present pertinent applications. Source: Elaborated by the authors.
research findings. The authors in [126], on the other hand,
concentrate on CCD for NCS and static-dynamic hybrid Several papers are concerned with the problem of vehic-
communication scheduling. They give a thorough overview ular platoon control and connected vehicles [133–137]. Guo
of their suggested strategy, which combines static and dy- and Wen address the challenges of communication schedul-
namic scheduling techniques to enhance the performance ing and control in a platoon of vehicles in Vehicular Ad-
of networked control systems’ communication and control. hoc Networks (VANETs) [133]. The framework proposed
They go over the benefits and drawbacks of their method and by the authors considers the communication latency and
offer tips on how to use it in real-world situations. the transmission reliability of wireless communication chan-
In general, all the articles that were presented in this sec- nels and uses a scheduling algorithm to optimise the com-
tion offer useful information in the field of communication munication scheduling of vehicles in the platoon. Another
CCD. These articles highlight the necessity for integrated ap- approach presented in [134] describes the CCD of vehicle
proaches that take into consideration both the communication platoons in Long-Term Evolution Vehicle-to-Vehicle (LTE-
and control aspects of NCS in order to create systems that are V2V) networks. The study proposes a new communication
reliable and efficient. There are additional articles available topology assignment algorithm, which considers both the
on the internet that discuss this subject, and references to communication range and the vehicle’s speed, and a CCD
those studies can be found here [127–132]. method based on linear quadratic regulation (LQR) and
Kalman filter. On the other hand, Ge et al. aim to enhance
C. VEHICULAR AND AIR VEHICLES/AIRCRAFT the efficiency and reliability of vehicle platooning through
SYSTEMS dynamic event-triggered communication scheduling [135].
The level of information circulation in the electro-electronic The proposed approach adopts a distributed architecture,
circuits of new vehicles has increased, resulting in greater where each vehicle communicates with its neighbours to ad-
software complexity and a need for more processing capacity. just the event-triggered sampling period and obtain the latest
Some specific functions require smaller processors, in addi- state information. In addition, Xiao and Xie demonstrate the
tion to a control centre. To handle this complexity, vehicles application of a new methodology in vehicle platooning by
and aircraft utilise embedded microprocessed systems that using a stochastic Lyapunov function and a generalised Itô’s
are designed exclusively for the control and operation of formula [136]. They discuss the problem of feedback stabil-
a specific model, integrating the operation of various sub- isation over stochastic multiplicative input channels in the
systems. As a result, there is a wide range of electronic continuous-time case and guarantee the exponential stability
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Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

of the closed-loop system with high probability, even in the large flexible space structures [143]. The system is modelled
presence of unknown multiplicative noise. using a finite element method to model the structure and
Another example of co-design is for the application in a a modal approach to model the dynamics. Key variables
vehicular system with active suspension. Through co-design, are identified using a sensitivity analysis, and control laws
Haemers et al. [138] demonstrate the effectiveness of the are synthesised using LQR and a PID controller. Finally,
proposed approach in mitigating the effects of uncertainties simulations are performed to evaluate the performance of
and non-linearities in the hardware and control parameters the designed control laws. The proposed methodology is
for an active car suspension system. The results show that the demonstrated on a case study of a flexible space structure.
optimised active suspension system can provide up to a 46% Jaddivada et al. [144] focus on the development of an
reduction in the maximum body acceleration and up to a 34% energy modelling and control approach with the goal of
reduction in energy consumption, compared to a conven- enhancing the stability and efficiency of engines used in
tional passive suspension system. Sundarrajan et al. [139] use air vehicles. They stress the significance of engine stability
an active suspension case study to compare the effectiveness and efficiency in minimising fuel consumption, emissions,
of nested and simultaneous CCD methods for mechatronic and maintenance expenses. The proposed approach involves
systems. It was shown that both nested and simultaneous creating a dynamic energy model that considers the engine’s
CCD methods can result in high-performance. However, physical characteristics, such as airflow, combustion, and
the simultaneous method tends to be more computationally heat transfer, and employing MPC algorithms to optimise
efficient, while the nested method provides more flexibility engine performance. The authors present simulation out-
in terms of control design. The authors also highlight the comes that demonstrate the effectiveness of the suggested
importance of understanding the underlying assumptions and approach in improving engine stability and efficiency, as well
limitations of each method when choosing a co-design ap- as reducing emissions and fuel consumption.
proach. Finally, Li et al. [145] present a design and implementation
Cui et al. [140] and Cui and Wang [141] describe the appli- approach for aerial communication using directional anten-
cation of co-design to address the issue of fast-charging and nas, with a focus on learning control in unknown commu-
cycle life performance of Lithium-Ion batteries as enablers of nication environments. The authors first design a directional
electric vehicles. They discuss the challenges associated with antenna system based on the needs of aerial communication,
fast-charging and its impact on the battery cycle life. The including the antenna structure, feeding network, and control
authors propose a co-design framework that integrates the circuit. They then develop a learning-based control algorithm
control system design and the battery pack design to improve using a neural network to optimise the antenna direction and
the overall performance of the battery system. Their aim is the transmit power in real-time. The algorithm is trained
to achieve a balance between fast-charging and battery cycle using simulations and tested in a real-world environment
life by optimising the battery pack design and control algo- using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) equipped with the
rithms. The proposed approach takes into consideration the directional antenna system. The experimental results show
uncertainties and variability in battery characteristics, such that compared with the traditional control method, the pro-
as capacity degradation and ageing effects. Therefore, while posed learning control method can achieve higher through-
both articles focus on enhancing the performance of lithium- put, lower bit error rate, and better signal-to-noise ratio in
ion batteries, the first one emphasises a balance between unknown communication environments. The directional an-
fast-charging and cycle life through CCD, while the second tenna system also effectively suppresses interference signals
one highlights a reliability-based approach that considers and improves the communication performance.
uncertainties and variability in battery characteristics.
Regarding aircraft’s systems, the author in [142] presents D. OTHER MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
a model-fidelity-based decomposition framework for hierar- Some articles approach the classical problem of controlling a
chical CCD, which is applied to a case study of a quadrotor pendulum or a set of pendulums. In [146] Tsai and Malak
UAD. The proposed framework involves a systematic ap- employed two benchmark problems, namely a single and
proach to decompose a control system into multiple levels a double inverted pendulum on a cart, which are nonlinear
of control, where each level has a different model fidelity. systems, to introduce a new approach for designing an MPC
The higher levels use more abstract models, while the lower feedback controller utilising parametric optimisation. The
levels use more detailed models. The co-design problem is approach involves tuning a set of parameters to trade-off
formulated as a multi-objective optimisation problem, where between the accuracy of the approximation and the compu-
the objective is to simultaneously optimise the performance tational cost. Another paper of these authors [147] utilises
of each level of control and the overall performance of the a state-parameterised nonlinear programming control (sp-
system. The results show that the proposed approach achieves NLPC) to design nonlinear feedback controllers and eluci-
better performance than traditional approaches in terms of dates the technique through an example of controlling a dou-
both closed-loop performance and computation time. Finally, ble inverted pendulum. The sp-NLPC approach circumvents
the method is also compared with other CCD methods. the limitations of other methods that require making strong
Alazard et al. propose a methodology for avionics CCD of assumptions about model form, such as linearity, and online
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Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

optimisation processes. Peng and Han [148] presents an L2 building systems such as air conditioning (HVAC), heating
CCD method, which involves jointly designing an event- and ventilation.
triggered transmission scheme and the controller parameters Hormozabad and Soto [149] propose an approach to use
to optimise the control performance. The proposed approach a neural dynamic model to capture the complex nonlinear
aims to reduce the number of transmissions between the behaviour of controlled rocking steel braced frames and their
controller and the plant while maintaining satisfactory con- interactions with the building structure. This model is then
trol performance. The effectiveness of the method is demon- utilised to design a performance-based control strategy that
strated through an example of an inverted pendulum. optimises the structural response to seismic loading while
ensuring occupant safety. The authors utilise a co-design
Nested (Bi-level) Optimization framework that considers the interdependence between the
structural design, control design, and performance objectives.
Exchange of information
The effectiveness of this approach is demonstrated through
between plant and controller
numerical simulations of a multi-story building structure
subjected to different earthquake scenarios.
System Design Control Design Vercellino et al. [150] introduce a CCD optimisation tech-
Optimization Optimization nique for natural gas power plants that include carbon capture
and thermal storage. The authors utilise a thermodynamic
model to simulate the behaviour of the power plant and
New iteration: formulate a dynamic optimisation problem that jointly op-
update parameters timises both the plant design parameters and control inputs.
Through a case study of a natural gas power plant with carbon
Simultaneous Optimization
capture and thermal storage, the proposed approach is shown
to be effective in achieving significant economic savings and
System Design reducing emissions.
Objective
Watt et al. [151] aimed to apply an integrated struc-
ture/control optimisation methodology to the BIOMASS
Control Design earth observation mission. The authors emphasised the sig-
Objective nificance of simultaneous optimisation of the spacecraft’s
structure and control system to enhance its performance and
System optimization and the setting of
control objectives occur concurrently. efficiency. Their proposed approach utilised a coupled model
of the spacecraft’s structure and control system, where the
FIGURE 9: Two different CCD approaches that provide structure was modelled using the finite element method, and
system-level optimally guarantees according to Bhattacharya the control system was modelled using a linear quadratic reg-
et al. [42]. Source: Elaborated by the authors. ulator. The study’s findings revealed that the integrated struc-
ture/control optimisation approach could considerably en-
Bhattacharya et al. [42] present a methodology that uses hance the spacecraft’s performance, such as reduced weight,
Bayesian optimisation to co-optimise the control parameters improved stability, and better pointing accuracy.
of a building’s chiller plant and energy management sys- Regarding electrical systems, Wu et al. [152] proposed
tem. Figure 9 illustrated the difference between a nested an electrothermal-control co-design methodology for a dual
and a simultaneous co-design approaches discussed by the inverter system utilised in heavy-duty traction applications
authors. The iterative approach enhances the design of the concerning electrical systems. The authors emphasise the
plant by initially maintaining a fixed control design. It then significance of considering the thermal effects on the system
proceeds to optimise the control design based on the chosen due to the susceptibility of silicon carbide (SiC) devices to
plant design, and this process continues until convergence thermal stress and failure. The co-design approach proposed
is achieved or the design objectives are met. However, like by the authors comprises thermal-aware optimisation of the
the sequential approach, the iterative approach does not offer power module layout, heat sink design, and cooling strategy,
guarantees for system-wide optimally. On the other hand, as well as the control algorithms for the inverter system.
the simultaneous approach considers all dynamic interactions Finozzi et al. [153] propose a parametric sub-structuring
and system-control relationships within a unified optimisa- model for large space truss structures. The authors use a
tion model. The proposed approach takes into account the finite element model to represent the structure and develop
interdependence of the subsystems of the plant and pro- a sub-structuring approach that can capture the coupling
vides a unified framework for CCD. The effectiveness of between the structural and control parameters. Ning et al.
the methodology is demonstrated through a case study of a [154] propose an approach for inverse kinematics and plan-
commercial building, showcasing significant energy savings ning CCD for a redundant manipulator used in precision
while ensuring occupant comfort. Furthermore, the authors operations. The authors use a dynamic model of the manipu-
discuss the potential of the approach to be extended to other lator and develop a co-design methodology that co-optimises
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Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

the manipulator’s design parameters and control inputs. Wu relative to each other, combined with MPC to collectively
and Zhou [155] present a CCD methodology for actively adapt the blades pitch angle. In this context, designing WT
controlled lightweight structures used in high-acceleration control solely based on a decoupled aerodynamic model
precision motion systems. All the three articles demonstrate of the turbine could result in suboptimal control. However,
how a co-design approach can optimise both the control a more precise model that considers the coupling between
input and structural design parameters to achieve the desired multiple domains is warranted. For instance, the waves at
performance. the platform’s base could be regarded as disturbances in the
Other general examples of CCD are given by Alazard system.
et al. [156] and Nash et al. [157]. In the first article, the
authors propose a model that simplifies the analysis and Design domain A
design of complex mechanical systems by breaking them Aerodynamic
winds
down into smaller subsystems that can be interconnected given

in a modular way. The article presents the mathematical Other Domains

framework of the model and shows how it can be used Mechanical /
Coupling: Optimisation problem:
to derive the equations of motion for mechanical systems, Structural

such as spacecraft and robots. The second article focuses on Electrical

a receding-horizon MPC framework that optimises control Electronic

performance while handling uncertainties and disturbances Control
in system dynamics. The authors conduct a thorough analysis
of the proposed method, including stability and performance
guarantees, and validate its effectiveness through simulations to define
waves
of several benchmark control problems. The article also high- Design domain B:
Hydrodynamic
lights the potential of the proposed approach to be applied in
real-world control problems, including those in the aerospace
and automotive industries. FIGURE 10: An illustration of the various domains within
a hybrid wind-wave platform. The interaction between these
IV. RESULTS domains is assessed based on the degree to which changes in
A. A THEORETICAL EXAMPLE AND CCD one domain affect the others. A simultaneous CCD approach
FORMULATIONS would consider multiple domains to optimise at the same
Let’s consider an example, as the one depicted in Figure time. Source: Elaborated by the authors.
10, and analyse it in two design domains: aerodynamic (xA )
and hydrodynamic (xB ). As discussed in previous sections, Also, in an HWWP, it is of interest to the designer that
a HWWP exemplifies a typical application of CCD due to control is applied to the WEC. In an exclusive context of
the number of subsystems composing it and the dynamic the domain xB , the objective would be to use, for example,
interference between them. The challenge of coupled dy- impedance matching control to maximise energy capture by
namics relates to how alterations in one domain affect the the WEC. However, considering the aerodynamic domain
other. If the design in domain A influences domain B, an now, where the same objective of energy maximisation ap-
optimal design for domain B could be contingent on the plies to the WT, the interaction between these two controls
choices made in domain A. In practice, one might design can be negative. The optimal control for one domain may
the best WT by focusing solely on aerodynamic aspects, but not be optimal for the system as a whole. A reformulation
the overall system performance would likely be suboptimal could be to consider a multi-objective optimisation problem
because the wave interactions at the floating platform’s base now, in which not only the maximisation of WEC energy is
could significantly impact performance. considered, but also the stabilisation of the platforms, thus
In this example, a hypothetical scenario with various wind also influencing the generation of energy by the wind turbine.
conditions of relatively high average speed is contemplated, An approach could, therefore, be to first find an opti-
leading to a control problem centred on adjusting the pitch mal design considering domain A, and then to find the
angle of the blades to maintain turbine operation within a optimal design solution xBopt for domain B. The strength
specific range of nominal and consistent power. A typical of the coupling between the domains can be measured by
∂xBopt
CCD approach would involve considering alterations in the ∂xA , which quantifies how sensitive the optimal value of
physical parameters of the wind turbine in conjunction with the design variable in the hydrodynamic domain xBopt is to
controller application. The potential efficiency of modifying changes in the design variable in the aerodynamic domain
the turbine’s physical parameters over solely focusing on xA . A nonzero value indicates that there is a coupling effect
controller design, as observed in previous sections, is no- between the two domains; changes in one domain influence
table. An optimisation scenario might entail determining the the outcomes or optimal values in the other. The strength of
optimal radius of the wind turbine rotor, the curvature of the this effect is indicated by the magnitude of the derivative: a
blades, and the cone angle at which the blades are positioned larger absolute value suggests a stronger coupling.
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Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

Similarly, the interplay between plant and controller de- tem’s dynamics and constraints. A simultaneous approach,
sign parameters can be measured by Equations 1 and 2, which with xc := u, utilising the PMP, can be described as follows:
quantify, respectively, how strongly a change in a controller ∗

∂H
∗
parameter influences the choice of a physical parameter of λ̇ = − ,
∂ξ
the plant, and vice versa.  ∗
∂H
0= ,
∂u
∂xPopt ∗
(1) 0 = µT C ,

∂xC ∗
0 = νT ϕ ,


µ∗ ≥ 0, ν ∗ ≥ 0,
∂xCopt  ∗
(2) ∂M ∂ϕ (4)
∂xP 0= λ+ + νT ,
∂ξ ∂ξ t0
 ∗
∂M ∂ϕ
In a sequential approach, each subdomain depicted in Fig- 0= λ− − νT ,
∂ξ ∂ξ tf
ure 10 would undergo independently, with the control design  ∗
being the final step. In a CCD simultaneous approach, both ∂M ∂ϕ
0= + νT
the plant and controller would undergo optimisation simul- ∂xp ∂xp t0
taneously. The decision of how many domains to consider Z tf 
∂L ∂f ∂C
∗
in the optimisation problem is left to the designer. Herber + + λT + µT dt,
t0 ∂xp ∂xp ∂xp
and Allison [158] compared the conventional nested CCD
formulation with a simultaneous one. where, the rate of change of the adjoint variables λ∗ indi-
The simultaneous approach is usually formulated as a non- cates how the shadow prices of state variables evolve over
linear dynamic optimisation problem, represented by Equa- time, reflecting the sensitivity of the objective function to
tion 3. changes in these variables. Thecondition for the optimality
∗
of control actions, 0 = ∂H ∂u , ensures that the Hamil-
tonian is minimised with respect to the control variables,
Z tf signifying the most cost-effective direction for system con-
min Ψ = L (t, ξ, xc , xp ) dt trol. Conditions involving Lagrange multipliers µ∗ and ν ∗
xp ,xc t0
for path constraints become zero whenever the constraints
+ M (ξ (t0 ) , ξ (tf ) , xc , xp ) ,
are inactive, enforcing adherence only when necessary. The
subject to: (3) non-negativity of the Lagrange multipliers aligns with the
ξ̇ − f (t, ξ, xc , xp ) = 0, principle that constraints should not incentivise the violation
C (t, ξ, xc , xp ) ≤ 0, of physical or operational limits. The transversality con-
ditions at the initial and final times, t0 and tf , relate to
ϕ (ξ (t0 ) , ξ (tf ) , xc , xp ) ≤ 0,
how the optimisation problem’s boundary conditions affect
the adjoint variables, ensuring the system’s initial and final
the equation integrates system design (physical parameters, states optimally align with the objective function’s goals.
denoted by xp ) and control strategy (control parameters, Additionally, the last condition integrates the effects of de-
denoted by xc ). The objective is to minimise the cost function sign decisions on the system’s performance over the entire
Ψ, which typically represents the total expected cost over planning horizon, ensuring that the chosen design optimally
a time horizon from t0 to tf , including the running cost balances the objective function against the system dynamics
L(t, ξ, xc , xp ) and the terminal cost M (ξ(t0 ), ξ(tf ), xc , xp ). and constraints.
The system dynamics are given by ξ˙ = f (t, ξ, xc , xp ), which On the other hand, a nested co-design approach would
must be zero (the dynamics constraint), ensuring that the involve addressing a problem where each overarching phys-
proposed trajectories ξ are physically feasible according to ical parameter is optimised, and during each iteration of this
the system’s dynamics. The path constraint C(t, ξ, xc , xp ) ≤ optimisation problem, the controller would also be optimised,
0 ensures that the state and control variables meet certain albeit constrained by the current value of the physical pa-
conditions at all times (like safety or operational constraints). rameter. Put differently, an outer loop would optimise the
The boundary condition ϕ(ξ(t0 ), ξ(tf ), xc , xp ) ≤ 0 ensures plant values, while an inner loop would optimise the con-
that the initial and final states of the system satisfy certain troller. Equation 5 outlines the plant’s outer loop optimisation
specified conditions, which could be related to state values or process, whereas Equation 6 delineates the inner loop for
conservation laws. optimal control.
Pontryagin’s Minimum Principle (PMP) [159], in Equa- minxp ψ (xp )
tion 4, provides a framework for determining control laws u subject to: ϕo (xp ) ≤ 0 (5)
that minimize the objective function while satisfying the sys- F (xp ) ≤ 0
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Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

where, ϕ0 are constrains dependent on the plant design by penalising complexity. The distinction is made between
and F (xp ) other outer loop constraints, and ψ the optimal sparse and dense architectures, considering the number of
objective function. atomic subsystems in a controller. A single atomic subsystem
is defined as a controller with a single actuator. Given the
minΨ x†p , xc


xc
trade-offs between closed-loop performance, maintenance,
and implementation costs, the necessity of approximating
subject to: ξ̇ − f t, ξ, xc , x†p = 0


(6) an optimal controller with fewer subsystems is highlighted.
C t, ξ, xc , x†p ≤ 0


They propose a "Regularisation For Design" framework that
ϕi ξ (t0 ) , ξ (tf ) , xc , x†p ≤ 0 employs these regularisation functions for controller synthe-


sis, based on convex optimisation problems.
here x†p is a candidate plant design, ϕi are the constraints of
ϕ, and gi are the inner-loop constraints. Each interaction of B. METADATA
Equation 5 is associated with an interaction of Equation 6. This section demonstrates the current trends in the implemen-
In the aforementioned example, by using a nested ap- tation of the theme by visually showcasing the state of the art.
proach, for each iteration of the optimisation of the WT, Furthermore, we present the timeline of applications across
one would identify the optimal multi-objective control law different areas where CCD has been utilised.
for the WEC, taking into account both WT and WEC power Figure 11 presents the classification of the number of
maximisation and overall platform stabilisation. Conversely, publications by area over the years. It can be seen that the
in the simultaneous approach, the WEC controller and the highest number of publications on the topic is in the year
WT plant would be optimised together. A Pareto diagram 2021, with emphasis on the area of CCD applied to vehicular
result at the end of the process could determine the better systems, on that year, followed by renewable energy systems.
solution, considering both controller and physical design. In Between 2011 and 2021, the topic has shown a predomi-
a practical, real-world implementation, the goals often en- nantly upward trend, meaning there is a tendency for the
compass both maximising energy efficiency and minimising number of applications for CCD to increase over the years.
costs. Unlike, Figure 12 demonstrates which areas the applica-
For further understanding, with an example applied to a tions are predominant in, without categorising the number
WT, refer to [160]. In the referenced work, Cui, Allison, and of articles per year. Thus, it can be noticed that there is a
Wang explore the integration of Reliability-Based Design highlight on the area of communication in control systems,
Optimisation (RBDO) with co-design approaches. Co-design including wireless and networked systems. Applications in
methodologies have historically been applied deterministi- these areas represent, collectively, 39.06% of all publications.
cally, neglecting the impact of uncertainties on system per- Publications addressing CCD applied to vehicular systems
formance. This study introduces a framework that combines added to applications in aircraft and aerial vehicles represent
co-design with RBDO to ensure that optimal system designs 13.70% of the total publications. Another highlight is in the
satisfy reliability constraints under parameter uncertainties. field of renewable energies, where works applied to the co-
The authors present a comparative analysis of different prob- design of wind turbines, WECs, and other renewable energy
lem formulations and solution strategies for reliability-based generation subsystems represent 10.15% of the publications.
co-design. We evaluated the keywords that were most frequently
Once more, Allison and Herber [161] approach the topic repeated in the portfolio of articles. The main keywords are
of co-design in a general manner by introducing the concept shown in Figure 13, highlight again for networked systems
of Multidisciplinary Dynamic System Design Optimisation and also for nonlinear systems. Additionally, we referenced
(MDSDO) and highlighting the importance of models that the articles in important subcategories, as shown in Table
precisely capture system dynamics and offer design flexi- 1. As an article can belong to multiple categories, if it ad-
bility. They argue that dynamic systems, particularly those dresses more than one category, it will appear in all relevant
with active and autonomous features, necessitate integrated categories. For example, an article discussing CCD applied
design strategies that consider multidisciplinary interactions to the communication subsystem of a vehicle control will
and dynamic behaviours. The authors point out that conven- be included in both communication systems in control and
tional MDO approaches, mainly tailored for static systems, vehicular systems categories.
are inadequate for the distinct challenges posed by dynamic
system design. They review the existing MDO approaches C. COMMENT
and also highlight the necessity of integrating RBDO and As previously discussed, considering that having a plant
CCD. with dynamically coupled subsystems is a prerequisite for
Other approaches have also been presented, such as the applying CCD, the technique can be applied to any system.
one by Matni and Chandrasekaran [54], which is centred It means that there are no significant limitations for the
on the co-design of architecture and control laws by en- application of CCD considering the area.
hancing controller synthesis with convex regularisation func- So far, we have highlighted the numerous advantages of
tions. These functions aim to simplify controller architectures using CCD. However, it is worth noting the limitations and
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Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

FIGURE 11: Number of articles published over the years by application area. Source: Elaborated by the authors.

FIGURE 12: Predominant areas of application of CCD. Source: Elaborated by the authors.

the need to apply the technique from the perspective of limitations but do not typically mention any disadvantages
achievable systems. This means that it is essential to consider of CCD. However, to the best knowledge of the authors, it
the physical limitations of a real system. Furthermore, we is important to consider that there may be some possible
have elucidated that CCD usually leads to better system disadvantages to applying CCD. One disadvantage is that,
performance, which can result in a simpler system. However, since it involves understanding the dynamics of multiple
it is necessary to observe that the opposite can also be true. subsystems, it could require an interdisciplinary approach,
In aiming to achieve better system control, applying CCD can which could mean the necessity of involving multiple do-
result in more complex systems. mains and stakeholders. Another disadvantage is the potential
for increased complexity in the system. Additionally, the
The articles evaluated in this paper usually mention the
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Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

TABLE 1: References categorised by sub-areas

Area Reference
5G / 6G [3, 102, 162–166]
Aircraft systems [38, 39, 142–145, 167, 168]
Carbon emission [22, 77]
[3, 4, 6, 9, 15, 32, 33, 58, 61]
[62, 65, 79–83, 86, 88–97]
Communication in control systems [99–103, 105–109, 117]
[120–132, 136, 145, 148]
[169–172]
Control algorithms [14, 33, 85–87, 142, 148]
[154, 157, 173, 174]
Control co-design concepts [29, 41, 44, 47, 54]
[158, 160, 161, 175]
Control fuzzy [4, 5, 45]
Cyber security [19, 176]
FIGURE 13: Main keywords. Source: Elaborated by the Drone [14]
Edge computing [15, 84, 85, 92, 177, 178]
authors. Electric motors [5, 20, 23, 35, 68]
Energy consumption [103, 105, 106, 109, 129]
Event-triggered control [4, 6, 8, 9, 119, 130, 179–183]
[148, 169–171, 184–191]
CCD process may be resource-intensive, requiring significant Fault tolerant control [57, 85, 114, 121]
time, effort, and financial investments. Hence, it is crucial to [169, 192, 193]
Harmonic task scheduling [51]
consider these potential disadvantages to determine whether HVAC systems [38]
CCD is an appropriate approach for a particular project or Inverted pendulum [146–148]
application. Inverters [152]
Micro-fluid biochips [16, 17, 194–196]
Despite mentioning the disadvantages, we strongly en- Microgrids [18, 38, 77]
courage the application of the CCD technique for various [6, 7, 19, 22, 34, 53]
types of systems, combined with various control techniques. Predictive control [55, 61, 62, 83, 92, 103]
[105, 106, 146, 147, 157, 195]
As shown in the discussions section, there are numerous ad- [52, 57, 58, 65, 79–83]
vantages to applying simultaneous control, in which the con- Networked control systems [27, 87, 111, 112, 126, 179]
troller and the controlled system are cohesively redesigned [113–124, 129, 197]
[148, 162, 172, 179, 198–204]
to obtain optimal performance. Further, It was shown that Renewable energy [43, 44, 63–76, 78, 205–209]
applying CCD with a specific control technique often proves Robotics [20, 21, 36, 91, 169, 178]
to be more advantageous than applying the control technique Robust control [30, 57–59, 72, 157, 192]
Sample-data control systems [56, 101, 134, 148]
alone. Satellites [30]
Since there are numerous examples of systems that apply Space mission platforms [151, 153]
CCD, it is difficult to establish a requirement or even a trend Stabilisation of batteries [22, 39, 110, 140, 141, 210]
Stochastic systems [46, 47, 60, 119, 136, 169]
for future areas of application. However, as the results have Thermal systems [2, 142, 150, 152, 157]
shown, it is evident that complex systems involving countless [3, 7, 23, 24, 31–35]
subsystems are the ideal candidates for CCD application. Vehicular systems [60, 133–141, 144]
[170, 191, 211, 212]
This is the case for systems that fit into the categories Wave energy converters [43, 44, 65, 66, 68, 69, 205]
highlighted in the previous section. Therefore, we encourage, Wind turbines [63–65, 70, 71, 73, 74, 72]
for example, the investigation of integrating machine learning [3, 31, 32, 85, 91–95, 126]
Wireless systems [97–100, 102–109, 125, 127]
and artificial intelligence techniques together with control [162–166, 213, 214, 198, 199]
system design. Another option would be to investigate the
redesign of already established energy generation or compu-
tational systems, such as electric motors, wind turbines, and control systems. Moreover, it encourages interdisciplinary
embedded systems for generation systems, for the purpose of dialogue during the design of such systems. The continuous
exploring potential benefits. development and implementation of CCD hold significant
potential for addressing the challenges posed by modern
V. CONCLUSION complex systems and improving the overall performance of
We have conducted a thorough study that demonstrates the control systems.
significance of CCD as a critical approach for developing This work demonstrated the numerous advantages of using
control systems that cater to the requirements of modern CCD, as well as drew attention to possible limitations and
complex systems. This approach enables the integration of disadvantages. We categorised the various studies found in
expertise from multiple domains and stakeholders, resulting the literature, discussed their implications, and summarised
in the creation of more efficient, reliable, and optimised them in an elucidating way. Thus, this work is a powerful
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Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

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Gadelha et al.: Engineering Applications of Control Co-Design: A Survey

and analysis of hybrid battery packs for electric racing MARCIO J. LACERDA received his Ph.D. de-
cars. IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrifica- gree in Electrical Engineering from the School
of Electrical and Computer Engineering (FEEC),
tion, pages 1–1, 2023. University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil, in
[213] Jie Cao, Xu Zhu, Sumei Sun, Petar Popovski, Shao- 2014. From 2012 to 2013, he was a Visitor at
han Feng, and Yufei Jiang. Age of loop for wire- the Laboratoire d’ Analyse et d’ Architecture des
less networked control system in the finite block- Systèmes, Toulouse, France. From 2014 to 2015,
he was with FEEC, as a Postdoctoral Associate,
length regime: Average, variance and outage probabil- and from 2015 to 2016, he was with the Aerospace
ity. IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, Engineering and Mechanics Department, Univer-
pages 1–1, 2023. sity of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA, as a Postdoctoral Associate. He was
[214] Rajeev Alur, Alessandro D’Innocenzo, Karl H. Jo- a professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal University
of São João del-Rei, UFSJ, Brazil until 2023, when he was appointed as
hansson, George J. Pappas, and Gera Weiss. Modeling Reader in Control Engineering and Cyber-Physical Systems at the School
and analysis of multi-hop control networks. In 2009 of Computing and Digital Media at London Metropolitan University. He is
15th IEEE Real-Time and Embedded Technology and a member of the IEEE CSS Conference Editorial Board and the IEEE CSS
Applications Symposium, pages 223–232, 2009. Technology Conference Editorial Board. He serves as an Associate Editor
for the Journal of Control, Automation and Electrical Systems and IEEE
Latin America Transactions. He also served as a Guest Editor for the Journal
of the Franklin Institute, Special Issue on “High Fidelity LPV systems under
constraints.” His main research interests include constrained control, LPV
systems, and cyber-physical systems.

JOSEFREDO GADELHA DA SILVA joined

Centre for Ocean Energy Research (COER) in
2023 as a PhD student, his research is focused
on “control strategy for simultaneous stabilisation
and wave energy harvesting for a floating offshore
wind/wave platform”. He is from Brazil and holds
a degree in Electrical Engineering, he graduated
from the Federal University of São João del-Rei
(UFSJ, 2015–2020). He is also finishing his MBA
in Business Management at University of São
Paulo (USP, 2022 – 2023). Previously worked in industry in the automotive
and the energy sectors.

ERIVELTON NEPOMUCENO received his

B.Eng. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical Engi-
neering from the University of São João del-Rei
(UFSJ, 2001) and the Federal University of Minas
Gerais (UFMG, 2005), respectively. He was an
THALITA NAZARÉ graduated from the Federal Associate Professor at the Federal University of
University of São João del-Rei (UFSJ), Brazil, São João del-Rei until 2021, when he was ap-
with bachelor’s (2019) and master’s (2021) de- pointed as Assistant Professor at the Center for
grees in Electrical Engineering, focusing on con- Ocean Energy Research and Department of Elec-
trol and modelling of non-linear and chaotic sys- tronic Engineering at Maynooth University. He
tems. In 2021, she worked as a temporary lec- was a visiting Research Fellow at the Technological Institute of Aeronautics
turer at the Electrical Engineering Department at in Brazil (2005), Imperial College London (2013/14), Saint Petersburg
UFSJ. In 2022 Thalita was awarded the Women Electrotechnical University in Russia (2019), and at City, University of
in STEM (WISH) Hume Fellow Scholarship and London (2020/21). Dr. Nepomuceno is a Senior Member of IEEE and
joined COER to commence her PhD studies focus- elected Secretary of the IEEE Technical Committee on Nonlinear Circuits
ing on CCD for wave energy converters, and offshore hybrid platforms. Her and Systems. He has been elected coordinator of the Technical Committee
researches interest also includes Green Algorithm, Chaotic Systems, Control on System Identification and Data Science for the Brazilian Association of
and Modelling Systems, Computer Arithmetic and Systems Identification. Automatic Control. He is Deputy EiC of IEEE Latin America Transactions,
and he serves as Associate Editor for IEEE Transactions on Circuits and
Systems II: Express Briefs, Journal of Control, Automation and Electrical
Systems, and Mathematical Problems in Engineering. His research interests
include analysis, modelling, and control of circuits, systems and networks,
computer arithmetic, system identification, intelligent systems, chaos, and
MATHEUS COSTA graduated in electrical engi- cryptography.
neering from the Federal University of São João
del-Rei in 2022. In 2023 he began his PhD at
the Centre of Ocean Energy Research (COER) at
Maynooth University. His previous research expe-
riences include convolutional neural networks for
image classification, power electronics and rein-
forcement learning.

30 VOLUME X, 2023

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