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TOPIC 4

IMPLEMENTING AN INFORMATION SYSTEM


An effective System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) should result in a high quality system that
meets customer expectations, reaches completion within time and cost evaluations, and works
effectively and efficiently in the current and planned Information Technology infrastructure.
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model which includes policies and
procedures for developing or altering systems throughout their life cycles.
SDLC is used by analysts to develop an information system. SDLC includes the following
activities −
 requirements
 design
 implementation
 testing
 deployment
 operations
 maintenance
Phases of SDLC
Systems Development Life Cycle is a systematic approach which explicitly breaks down the
work into phases that are required to implement either new or modified Information System

Feasibility Study or Planning


 Define the problem and scope of existing system.
 Overview the new system and determine its objectives.
 Confirm project feasibility and produce the project Schedule.
 During this phase, threats, constraints, integration and security of system are also
considered.
 A feasibility report for the entire project is created at the end of this phase.
Analysis and Specification
 Gather, analyze, and validate the information.
 Define the requirements and prototypes for new system.
 Evaluate the alternatives and prioritize the requirements.
 Examine the information needs of end-user and enhances the system goal.
 A Software Requirement Specification (SRS) document, which specifies the software,
hardware, functional, and network requirements of the system is prepared at the end of
this phase.
System Design
 Includes the design of application, network, databases, user interfaces, and system
interfaces.
 Transform the SRS document into logical structure, which contains detailed and complete
set of specifications that can be implemented in a programming language.
 Create a contingency, training, maintenance, and operation plan.
 Review the proposed design. Ensure that the final design must meet the requirements
stated in SRS document.
 Finally, prepare a design document which will be used during next phases.
Implementation
 Implement the design into source code through coding.
 Combine all the modules together into training environment that detects errors and
defects.
 A test report which contains errors is prepared through test plan that includes test related
tasks such as test case generation, testing criteria, and resource allocation for testing.
 Integrate the information system into its environment and install the new system.
Maintenance/Support
 Include all the activities such as phone support or physical on-site support for users that is
required once the system is installing.
 Implement the changes that software might undergo over a period of time, or implement
any new requirements after the software is deployed at the customer location.
 It also includes handling the residual errors and resolve any issues that may exist in the
system even after the testing phase.
 Maintenance and support may be needed for a longer time for large systems and for a
short time for smaller systems.
ROLE OF SYSTEM ANALYST
The system analyst is a person who is thoroughly aware of the system and guides the system
development project by giving proper directions. He is an expert having technical and
interpersonal skills to carry out development tasks required at each phase. He pursues to match
the objectives of information system with the organization goal.
Main Roles
1. Defining and understanding the requirement of user through various Fact finding
techniques.
2. Prioritizing the requirements by obtaining user consensus.
3. Gathering the facts or information and acquires the opinions of users.
4. Maintains analysis and evaluation to arrive at appropriate system which is more user
friendly.
5. Suggests many flexible alternative solutions, pick the best solution, and quantify cost and
benefits.
6. Draw certain specifications which are easily understood by users and programmer in
precise and detailed form.
7. Implemented the logical design of system which must be modular.
8. Plan the periodicity for evaluation after it has been used for some time, and modify the
system as needed.
Attributes of a Systems Analyst
The following figure shows the attributes a systems analyst should possess −

INFORMATION GATHERING TECHNIQUES


The main aim of fact finding techniques is to determine the information requirements of an
organization used by analysts to prepare a precise SRS understood by user.There are various
information gathering techniques –
1. Interviewing
Systems analyst collects information from individuals or groups by interviewing. The analyst can
be formal, legalistic, play politics, or be informal; as the success of an interview depends on the
skill of analyst as interviewer.
It can be done in two ways −
 Unstructured Interview − The system analyst conducts question-answer session to
acquire basic information of the system.
 Structured Interview − It has standard questions which user need to respond in either
close (objective) or open (descriptive) format.
Advantages of Interviewing
 This method is frequently the best source of gathering qualitative information.
 It is useful for them, who do not communicate effectively in writing or who may not have
the time to complete questionnaire.
 Information can easily be validated and cross checked immediately.
 It can handle the complex subjects.
 It is easy to discover key problem by seeking opinions.
 It bridges the gaps in the areas of misunderstandings and minimizes future problems.
2. Questionnaires
This method is used by analyst to gather information about various issues of system from large
number of persons.
There are two types of questionnaires −
 Open-ended Questionnaires − It consists of questions that can be easily and correctly
interpreted. They can explore a problem and lead to a specific direction of answer.
 Closed-ended Questionnaires − It consists of questions that are used when the systems
analyst effectively lists all possible responses, which are mutually exclusive.
Advantages of questionnaires
 It is very effective in surveying interests, attitudes, feelings, and beliefs of users which
are not co-located.
 It is useful in situation to know what proportion of a given group approves or disapproves
of a particular feature of the proposed system.
 It is useful to determine the overall opinion before giving any specific direction to the
system project.
 It is more reliable and provides high confidentiality of honest responses.
 It is appropriate for electing factual information and for statistical data collection which
can be emailed and sent by post.
3. Observation
This is a method of gathering information by noticing and observing the people, events, and
objects. The analyst visits the organization to observe the working of current system and
understands the requirements of the system.

Advantages
 It is a direct method for gleaning information.
 It is useful in situation where authenticity of data collected is in question or when
complexity of certain aspects of system prevents clear explanation by end-users.
 It produces more accurate and reliable data.
 It produces all the aspect of documentation that are incomplete and outdated.
FEASIBILITY STUDY
Feasibility Study can be considered as preliminary investigation that helps the management to
take decision about whether study of system should be feasible for development or not.
 It identifies the possibility of improving an existing system, developing a new system,
and produce refined estimates for further development of system.
 It is used to obtain the outline of the problem and decide whether feasible or appropriate
solution exists or not.
 The main objective of a feasibility study is to acquire problem scope instead of solving
the problem.
 The output of a feasibility study is a formal system proposal act as decision document
which includes the complete nature and scope of the proposed system.
Steps Involved in Feasibility Analysis
The following steps are to be followed while performing feasibility analysis −
 Form a project team and appoint a project leader.
 Develop system flowcharts.
 Identify the deficiencies of current system and set goals.
 Enumerate the alternative solution or potential candidate system to meet goals.
 Determine the feasibility of each alternative such as technical feasibility, operational
feasibility, etc.
 Weight the performance and cost effectiveness of each candidate system.
 Rank the other alternatives and select the best candidate system.
 Prepare a system proposal of final project directive to management for approval.

Types of Feasibilities
1. Economic Feasibility
 It is evaluating the effectiveness of candidate system by using cost/benefit analysis
method.
 It demonstrates the net benefit from the candidate system in terms of benefits and costs to
the organization.
 The main aim of Economic Feasibility Analysis (EFS) is to estimate the economic
requirements of candidate system before investments funds are committed to proposal.
 It prefers the alternative which will maximize the net worth of organization by earliest
and highest return of funds along with lowest level of risk involved in developing the
candidate system.
2. Technical Feasibility
 It investigates the technical feasibility of each implementation alternative.
 It analyzes and determines whether the solution can be supported by existing technology
or not.
 The analyst determines whether current technical resources be upgraded or added it that
fulfill the new requirements.
 It ensures that the candidate system provides appropriate responses to what extent it can
support the technical enhancement.
3. Operational Feasibility
 It determines whether the system is operating effectively once it is developed and
implemented.
 It ensures that the management should support the proposed system and its working
feasible in the current organizational environment.
 It analyzes whether the users will be affected and they accept the modified or new
business methods that affect the possible system benefits.
 It also ensures that the computer resources and network architecture of candidate system
are workable.
4. Behavioral Feasibility
 It evaluates and estimates the user attitude or behavior towards the development of new
system.
 It helps in determining if the system requires special effort to educate, retrain, transfer,
and changes in employee’s job status on new ways of conducting business.
5. Schedule Feasibility
 It ensures that the project should be completed within given time constraint or schedule.
 It also verifies and validates whether the deadlines of project are reasonable or not.
SYSTEM DESIGN
System design is the phase that bridges the gap between problem domain and the existing
system in a manageable way. This phase focuses on the solution domain, i.e. “how to
implement?”
It is the phase where the SRS document is converted into a format that can be implemented and
decides how the system will operate.
In this phase, the complex activity of system development is divided into several smaller sub-
activities, which coordinate with each other to achieve the main objective of system
development.
SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION
Implementation is a process of ensuring that the information system is operational. It involves −
 Constructing a new system from scratch
 Constructing a new system from the existing one.
Implementation allows the users to take over its operation for use and evaluation. It involves
training the users to handle the system and plan for a smooth conversion.

A. TRAINING
The personnel in the system must know in detail what their roles will be, how they can use the
system, and what the system will or will not do. The success or failure of welldesigned and
technically elegant systems can depend on the way they are operated and used.
Training Systems Operators
Systems operators must be trained properly such that they can handle all possible operations,
both routine and extraordinary. The operators should be trained in what common malfunctions
may occur, how to recognize them, and what steps to take when they come.
Training involves creating troubleshooting lists to identify possible problems and remedies for
them, as well as the names and telephone numbers of individuals to contact when unexpected or
unusual problems arise.
Training also involves familiarization with run procedures, which involves working through the
sequence of activities needed to use a new system.
User Training
 End-user training is an important part of the computer-based information system
development, which must be provided to employees to enable them to do their own
problem solving.
 User training involves how to operate the equipment, troubleshooting the system
problem, determining whether a problem that arose is caused by the equipment or
software.
 Most user training deals with the operation of the system itself. The training courses must
be designed to help the user with fast mobilization for the organization.
Training Guidelines
 Establishing measurable objectives
 Using appropriate training methods
 Selecting suitable training sites
 Employing understandable training materials
Training methods
1. Instructor-led training
It involves both trainers and trainees, who have to meet at the same time, but not necessarily at
the same place. The training session could be one-on-one or collaborative. It is of two types −
Virtual Classroom
In this training, trainers must meet the trainees at the same time, but are not required to be at the
same place. The primary tools used here are: video conferencing, text based Internet relay chat
tools, or virtual reality packages, etc.
Normal Classroom
The trainers must meet the trainees at the same time and at the same place. They primary tools
used here are blackboard, overhead projectors, LCD projector, etc.

2. Self-Paced Training
It involves both trainers and trainees, who do not need to meet at the same place or at the same
time. The trainees learn the skills themselves by accessing the courses at their own convenience.
It is of two types −
3. Multimedia Training
In this training, courses are presented in multimedia format and stored on CD-ROM. It
minimizes the cost in developing an in-house training course without assistance from external
programmers.
4. Web-based Training
In this training, courses are often presented in hyper media format and developed to support
internet and intranet. It provides just–in-time training for end users and allow organization to
tailor training requirements.

B. Conversion
It is a process of migrating from the old system to the new one. It provides understandable and
structured approach to improve the communication between management and project team.

Conversion Plan
It contains description of all the activities that must occur during implementation of the new
system and put it into operation. It anticipates possible problems and solutions to deal with
them.It includes the following activities −
 Name all files for conversions.
 Identifying the data requirements to develop new files during conversion.
 Listing all the new documents and procedures that are required.
 Identifying the controls to be used in each activity.
 Identifying the responsibility of person for each activity.
 Verifying conversion schedules.
Conversion Methods
The four methods of conversion are −
 Parallel Conversion
 Direct Cutover Conversion
 Pilot Approach
 Phase-In Method
Method Description Advantages Disadvantages
Provides fallback when
new system fails. Causes cost overruns.
Parallel Old and new systems are used
Conversion simultaneously. Offers greatest security New system may not
and ultimately testing of get fair trail.
new system.
Forces users to make No fall back if
Direct New system is implemented and new system work problems arise with
Cutover old system is replaced Immediate benefit from new system
Conversion completely. new methods and Requires most careful
control. planning
Pilot Supports phased approach that Allows training and A long term phasein
Approach gradually implement system installation without causes a problem of
unnecessary use of
resources.
whether conversion
across all users Avoid large goes well or not.
contingencies from risk
management.
Provides experience and
Working version of system line test before
implemented in one part of implementation Gives impression that
Phase-In organization based on feedback,
When preferred new old system is erroneous
Method it is installed throughout the
and it is not reliable.
organization all alone or stage by system involves new
stage. technology or drastic
changes in performance.
File Conversion
It is a process of converting one file format into another. For example, file in WordPerfect format
can be converted into Microsoft Word.
For successful conversion, a conversion plan is required, which includes −
 Knowledge of the target system and understanding of the present system
 Teamwork
 Automated methods, testing and parallel operations
 Continuous support for correcting problems
 Updating systems/user documentation, etc.
Many popular applications support opening and saving to other file formats of the same type. For
example, Microsoft Word can open and save files in many other word processing formats.
POST-IMPLEMENTATION EVALUATION REVIEW (PIER)
PIER is a tool or standard approach for evaluating the outcome of the project and determine
whether the project is producing the expected benefits to the processes, products or services. It
enables the user to verify that the project or system has achieved its desired outcome within
specified time period and planned cost. PIER ensures that the project has met its goals by
evaluating the development and management processes of the project.

Objectives of PIER
The objectives of having a PIER are as follows −
 To determine the success of a project against the projected costs, benefits, and timelines.
 To identify the opportunities to add additional value to the project.
 To determine strengths and weaknesses of the project for future reference and appropriate
action.
 To make recommendations on the future of the project by refining cost estimating
techniques.
The following staff members should be included in the review process −
 Project team and Management
 User staff
 Strategic Management Staff
 External users

SYSTEM MAINTENANCE / ENHANCEMENT


Maintenance means restoring something to its original conditions. Enhancement means adding,
modifying the code to support the changes in the user specification. System maintenance
conforms the system to its original requirements and enhancement adds to system capability by
incorporating new requirements.
Thus, maintenance changes the existing system, enhancement adds features to the existing
system, and development replaces the existing system. It is an important part of system
development that includes the activities which corrects errors in system design and
implementation, updates the documents, and tests the data.

Maintenance Types
System maintenance can be classified into three types −
 Corrective Maintenance − Enables user to carry out the repairing and correcting
leftover problems.
 Adaptive Maintenance − Enables user to replace the functions of the programs.
 Perfective Maintenance − Enables user to modify or enhance the programs according to
the users’ requirements and changing needs
METHODS OF SOFTWARE ACQUISITION
Evaluating Software Alternatives
Examine software alternatives and select an overall strategy for the proposed system to prepare
for the transition to the systems design phase.
1. Custom Developed Software
Some businesses consider that their processing requirements are specific to their own
organization and they have the application software developed specifically.

2. In-house Development – Employing programmers and analysts and setting up an internal IT


group

3. Contract an External Software – The company could use the services of a computer bureau or
software house, especially if it is a small organization which couldn't afford
a fulltime development team.
The resultant software is known as Custom-developed or Tailor-made Software since it exactly
fits the requirements of the organization, just as a tailor-made suit exactly fits the purchaser.
Advantages of Custom Developed Software
The advantages of this type of applications software development is that the resultant program
will exactly fulfill the processing requirements.
Reasons for In-House Developing
1. Satisfy Unique Business Requirements
No commercially available software package can meet their unique business requirements.
2. Minimize Chances in Business Procedures and Policies
3. While installing a new software package almost always requires some degree of change in
how a company does business If the installation of a purchased package will
be too disruptive, then the organization might decide to develop its own software instead.
4. Meet Constraints of Existing Systems: Any new software installed must work with
existing systems. Ensure that the new system will interface with
the old system.
5. Meet Constraints of Existing Technology: Another reason to develop software in-house is
that the new system must work with existing hardware and legacy systems
6. Develop Internal Resources and Capabilities: Many firms feel that in-house IT resources and
capabilities provide a competitive advantage because they can respond quickly when
business problems or opportunities arise.

Purchasing a Software Package


A commercially available software package could satisfy system requirements as it takes Lower
Cost, Less Time to Implement, Proven Reliability and Performance

Acquisition of Computer Equipment – Technical Feasibility


The three main options for acquisition of computer hardware are buying, leasing, or
renting it. There are advantages and disadvantages that ought to be weighed for each of the
decisions, as shown in the table illustration below. Some of the more influential factors to
consider in deciding which option is best for a particular installation include initial versus long-
term costs, whether the business can afford to tie up capital in computer equipment, and whether
the business desires full control of and responsibility for the computer equipment.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Cheaper than leasing or renting
over the long run
 Initial cost is high
 Ability to change system
 Risk of obsolescence
Buying  Provides tax advantages of
 Risk of being stuck if choice was wrong
accelerated depreciation
 Full responsibility
 Full control

 Company doesn’t own the system when lease


 No capital is tied up
expires
 No financing is required
Leasing  Usually a heavy penalty for terminating the
 Leases are lower than rental
lease
payments
 Leases are more expensive than buying
 No capital is tied up
 No financing is required  Company doesn’t own the computer
Renting  Easy to change systems  Cost is very high because vendor assumes the
 Maintenance and insurance are risk (most expensive option)
usually included
Buying implies that the business itself will own the equipment. One of the main determinants of
whether to buy is the projected life of the system. If the system will be used longer than four to
five years (with all other factors held constant), the decision is usually made to buy. Notice in the
example in illustration below that the cost of purchase after three years is lower than that of
leasing or renting. As systems become smaller, more powerful, and less expensive, and as
distributed systems become more popular, more businesses are deciding to purchase equipment.
Leasing, rather than purchasing, computer hardware is another possibility. Leasing equipment
from the vendor or a third-party leasing company is more practical when the projected life of the
system is less than four years. In addition, if significant change in technology is imminent,
leasing is a better choice. Leasing also allows the business to put its money elsewhere, where it
can be working for the company rather than be tied up in capital equipment. Over a long period,
however, leasing is not an economical way to acquire computer equipment.
Renting computer hardware is the third main option for computer acquisition. One of the main
advantages of renting is that none of the company’s capital is tied up, and hence no financing is
required. Also, renting computer hardware makes it easier to change system hardware. Finally,
maintenance and insurance are usually included in rental agreements. Because of the high costs
involved and the fact that the company will not own the rented equipment, however, renting
should be contemplated only as a short-term move to handle nonrecurring or limited computer
needs or technologically volatile times.

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