Storage Devices

Primary Storage Devices

• Also known as main memory or internal memory, primary storage is the

computer's immediate memory where data and instructions are stored
temporarily for quick access by the CPU.
• Examples:
• RAM (Random Access Memory): Volatile memory used for storing data that is actively
being used or processed.
• Cache Memory: High-speed memory located close to the CPU, used for frequently
accessed data.
• ROM (Read-Only Memory): Non-volatile memory used to store firmware and essential
instructions for system boot-up.
• Characteristics:
• Faster access speed compared to secondary storage.
• Volatile (data is lost when power is off), except for ROM.
• Limited in size and typically more expensive per unit of storage.
Secondary Storage Devices

• Also called external memory or auxiliary storage, secondary

storage holds data and programs not currently in use, making it
permanent until deleted.
• Examples:
• Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) and Solid State Drives (SSDs): Used for
general long-term storage.
• Optical Discs (e.g., CD, DVD): Commonly used for data distribution and
backups.
• USB Flash Drives: Portable storage for transferring files.
• Magnetic Tapes: Often used for archiving large amounts of data.
• Characteristics:
• Slower access speed than primary storage.
• Non-volatile (retains data even when power is off).
• Typically larger in capacity and less costly per unit of storage.
• In summary, primary storage is fast and temporary, mainly for current
operations, while secondary storage is permanent and provides bulk
storage for long-term data retention.
Random Access Memory (RAM)

• Random Access Memory (RAM) is a type of volatile memory that temporarily holds data and
instructions that the CPU needs to access quickly while a computer is running. It plays a crucial role in
determining the speed and performance of a system by allowing the CPU to rapidly retrieve and execute
instructions without waiting for slower storage devices.
• Key Characteristics of RAM
• Volatile Memory: RAM is volatile, meaning it only retains data while the computer is powered on. Once
the power is turned off, all data in RAM is erased. This is why unsaved work can be lost if a system shuts
down unexpectedly.
• Random Access: In RAM, data can be accessed in any order, making it "random access." This allows
the CPU to access data at high speeds without needing to read sequentially, unlike some storage
media.
• Temporary Storage: RAM holds the data that the system is actively using or processing. When you
open an application, it loads from secondary storage (like an HDD or SSD) into RAM for fast access.
• Data Transfer Speed: RAM has a very high data transfer speed, typically measured in megabytes per
second (MB/s) or gigabytes per second (GB/s), and directly influences the overall speed and
responsiveness of the system.
Types of RAM
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM):
• Most common type of RAM used in computers and other devices.
• DRAM stores data using capacitors that need constant refreshing to retain data, as capacitors tend to lose charge
over time.
• Used for main memory in computers due to its lower cost and higher density, though it is slower than some other
types.
• Static RAM (SRAM):
• Faster and more reliable than DRAM, as it uses transistors to store bits without the need for refreshing.
• SRAM is used mainly for cache memory (close to the CPU) due to its high speed but is more expensive and takes up
more space than DRAM.
• Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM):
• Operates in sync with the system clock, allowing for coordinated data transfer.
• Enhances speed by synchronizing data transfer with the CPU clock cycles.
• Includes variations like DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate SDRAM), DDR2, DDR3, DDR4, and DDR5, with each new
generation providing faster speeds and lower power consumption.
• Graphics RAM (GDDR):
• A type of specialized RAM used in graphics cards for handling the large amounts of data required for rendering
graphics.
• Variants like GDDR5, GDDR6, and GDDR6X provide high data bandwidth for demanding tasks such as gaming and
video editing.
How RAM Works
• When you open an application or file, your computer copies the
necessary data from the storage drive (e.g., SSD or HDD) to the
RAM. The CPU can then quickly access this data from RAM while
processing tasks. Once you close the application or file, the data
is cleared from RAM to free up space for other tasks.
Importance of RAM in Computing
• Performance: RAM is essential for ensuring a computer's speed
and performance. Systems with more RAM can handle more
complex tasks and run multiple applications smoothly.
• Efficiency: Efficient RAM usage can significantly improve
productivity, as data-intensive applications (like video editing
software) require large amounts of RAM.
• Gaming and Graphics: High-speed and large-capacity RAM is
crucial for gaming and graphic rendering, where quick access to
large files is necessary for smooth visuals.
Read-Only Memory (ROM)

• Read-Only Memory (ROM) is a type of non-volatile memory used

in computers and other electronic devices to store firmware and
system-critical data. Unlike RAM, data stored in ROM remains
even when the computer is turned off, as it is designed to be read
but not written to in normal operation. ROM is essential for storing
the instructions that a computer or device needs to start up and
perform basic operations.
Key Characteristics of ROM
• Non-Volatile Memory: ROM retains its data even when the power is turned off, making it
ideal for storing permanent data such as firmware.
• Pre-Programmed Data: ROM is generally written or programmed during the manufacturing
process, with data that does not need frequent updates. For instance, it stores the
bootloader or BIOS in computers, which is essential for initiating the startup process.
• Read-Only: As the name suggests, data in ROM is typically read-only, which means it can’t
be easily modified or erased. However, some modern types of ROM allow for limited
reprogramming or updates.
• Permanent Storage: ROM stores the fundamental code necessary to run basic hardware
initialization and control routines, often referred to as firmware, which is crucial for device
functionality.
Types of ROM
• Masked ROM (MROM):
• The earliest type of ROM, in which data is hardcoded during the manufacturing process.
• Once manufactured, data cannot be modified, making it completely unchangeable.
• Used in applications where data does not need updates, like simple embedded devices.
• Programmable ROM (PROM):
• Can be programmed once after manufacturing.
• Special equipment, known as a programmer, is used to write data to PROM. Once programmed, data cannot be changed.
• Often used in applications where custom firmware or configurations need to be set only once.
• Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM):
• Can be erased and reprogrammed multiple times using ultraviolet (UV) light.
• Contains a quartz window through which UV light can be shined to erase the data.
• Once erased, it can be reprogrammed with new data. EPROMs are typically used in environments where firmware updates might
be needed but are infrequent.
• Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM):
• Similar to EPROM, but data can be erased and reprogrammed electrically, without needing UV light.
• Allows for easier updates than EPROM, as it does not require special equipment for erasing.
• Commonly used for storing configuration settings in various devices.
• Flash Memory:
• A modern and widely used type of EEPROM that allows for high-speed, high-capacity data storage and can be rewritten
thousands of times.
• Used in USB drives, SSDs, and memory cards due to its large storage capacity and reprogrammability.
• Allows block-wise erasing and reprogramming, making it faster and more flexible than standard EEPROM.
How ROM Works
• ROM is organized into an array of memory cells, each representing
a bit (0 or 1). Each memory cell in ROM is permanently set during
the manufacturing process or through programming in the case of
programmable types (like PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, or flash).
Since ROM is primarily used for reading, data access is fast and
highly reliable.
Applications of ROM
• Firmware Storage:
• ROM stores firmware in computers, mobile phones, and other electronic
devices. Firmware provides low-level control for the device's specific
hardware.
• Boot Process:
• In computers, ROM contains the BIOS or UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface),
which is essential for booting the system and loading the operating system from
secondary storage.
• Embedded Systems:
• Many embedded systems use ROM to store the program code, as these systems are
often designed for specific tasks that do not require frequent updates.
• Consumer Electronics:
• ROM is used in devices like calculators, washing machines, and digital clocks, which
require stable, pre-programmed instructions to operate.
• Microcontrollers:
• In microcontrollers, ROM holds the instructions for controlling devices in various
applications, from household appliances to industrial machinery.
Advantages of ROM

• Data Stability: Since ROM is non-volatile, data remains intact without

a power supply, ensuring crucial instructions are always available.
• Data Security: The read-only nature of ROM prevents accidental data
modification, making it suitable for storing critical data and firmware.
• Reliability: ROM is reliable for embedded systems and other devices
that need to operate consistently without the risk of data loss or
corruption.
• Cost-Effective for Certain Applications: For devices with fixed
functionality, ROM provides an economical solution since the data is
pre-programmed and does not require updates.
Limitations of ROM
• Limited Reprogramming: Traditional ROM and PROM cannot be
modified after manufacturing. Even EEPROM and flash memory,
which are reprogrammable, have limited write cycles.
• Slower to Access Compared to RAM: ROM generally has slower
access speeds compared to RAM, as it is not designed for high-
speed operations but rather for stability.
• Limited Storage Capacity: ROM typically has a smaller storage
capacity, as it is used for fundamental instructions and firmware
rather than large amounts of data.
Secondary Storage Devices
Hard Disk Drives (HDDs)
• Description: Traditional mechanical storage devices that use spinning
magnetic disks to read/write data. Data is accessed using a moving
read/write head.
• Characteristics:
• Capacity: Typically ranges from hundreds of GBs to multiple TBs.
• Speed: Slower compared to SSDs; performance depends on disk RPM
(Revolutions Per Minute) such as 5400 or 7200 RPM.
• Durability: Mechanical parts make it prone to physical damage.
• Cost: Cheaper per GB compared to SSDs, making it economical for large data
storage.
• Use: Suitable for general-purpose storage like storing files, software, and
operating systems.
Solid State Drives (SSDs)

Description: Flash-based storage devices with no moving parts,

providing faster data access and higher reliability.
• Characteristics:
• Capacity: Typically ranges from 128 GB to 4 TB.
• Speed: Faster than HDDs, with rapid read/write speeds and lower
latency.
• Durability: No moving parts make it more resistant to physical shocks.
• Cost: More expensive per GB than HDDs.
• Use: Ideal for high-performance applications like gaming, multimedia
editing, and system boot drives.
Optical Discs (CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray Discs)
• Description: Storage media that use lasers to read/write data on a
reflective surface.
• Characteristics:
• Capacity:
• CDs: ~700 MB
• DVDs: 4.7 GB (single layer), 8.5 GB (dual layer)
• Blu-ray: 25 GB (single layer), 50 GB (dual layer)
• Speed: Slower than HDDs and SSDs.
• Durability: Susceptible to scratches, but data is generally stable over
time.
• Cost: Very inexpensive but less common due to declining use.
• Use: Used for distributing software, movies, and music, as well as for
backups.
USB Flash Drives
• Description: Portable storage devices that use flash memory and
connect via USB ports.
• Characteristics:
• Capacity: Ranges from 8 GB to 2 TB.
• Speed: Depends on USB version (e.g., USB 2.0, USB 3.0, or USB 3.2); newer
versions offer faster speeds.
• Durability: Compact and robust but can be lost easily due to size.
• Cost: Moderate, with good capacity-to-cost ratio.
• Use: Convenient for transferring files and small-scale backups.
Memory Cards (SD Cards, MicroSD)

• Description: Flash-based storage used in portable devices like

cameras, smartphones, and tablets.
• Characteristics:
• Capacity: Ranges from 4 GB to 1 TB.
• Speed: Depends on the class rating (e.g., Class 10, UHS-I, UHS-II).
• Durability: Portable but prone to physical damage or loss.
• Cost: Affordable and widely available.
• Use: Common for mobile devices, cameras, and other portable
electronics.
• External Hard Drives
• Description: Portable HDDs or SSDs connected to a computer via
USB or Thunderbolt.
• Characteristics:
• Capacity: 500 GB to 16 TB or more.
• Speed: Varies based on whether it's HDD-based or SSD-based.
• Durability: Similar to internal drives; SSD-based versions are more
durable.
• Cost: More expensive than internal drives due to portability.
• Use: Common for backups, transferring large files, and expanding
storage.
Network-Attached Storage (NAS)
• Description: A storage device connected to a network, allowing
multiple users and devices to access data simultaneously.
• Characteristics:
• Capacity: Depends on the number and size of drives; can range from a
few TBs to PBs.
• Speed: Dependent on network speed and drive type.
• Durability: Reliable, often includes RAID configurations for data
redundancy.
• Cost: Higher initial investment.
• Use: Ideal for businesses and home networks needing centralized storage
and backup.
Cloud Storage
• Description: Remote storage accessed via the internet, where
data is stored on servers managed by third-party providers.
• Characteristics:
• Capacity: Virtually unlimited, based on subscription plans.
• Speed: Depends on internet connection speed.
• Durability: Highly reliable with redundancy across multiple servers.
• Cost: Subscription-based, with free options available for limited storage.
• Use: Convenient for backups, file sharing, and accessing data across
devices.
Magnetic Tapes
• Description: Sequential storage media used for archival
purposes.
• Characteristics:
• Capacity: Up to several TBs per tape.
• Speed: Slow access speed due to sequential nature.
• Durability: Long lifespan when stored properly.
• Cost: Very cost-effective for large-scale storage.
General Characteristics of Secondary Storage Devices

• Non-Volatile: Data remains intact even when the power is off.

• High Capacity: Offers significantly larger storage compared to
primary memory.
• Durability: Designed for long-term data retention, though physical
durability varies by type.
• Portability: Some types, like USB drives and external hard drives,
are highly portable.
• Cost Efficiency: Generally more cost-effective for large-scale
data storage than primary memory.
• Slower Access: Secondary storage is slower than primary
memory, as it is not directly accessed by the CPU.
Operating System
Operating System (OS)

• An Operating System (OS) is system software that acts as an

intermediary between computer hardware and the user. It
manages hardware resources and provides services to
application software. The OS facilitates interaction between users
and the computer by providing a user-friendly interface and
controlling the hardware for seamless operation.
 Functions of an Operating System

• Process Management:
• Handles creation, scheduling, and termination of processes.
• Manages multitasking by allocating CPU time to processes efficiently.
• Memory Management:
• Allocates and deallocates memory space as needed by applications.
• Tracks memory usage and ensures no overlap or leakage.
• File System Management:
• Organizes, stores, retrieves, and manipulates files on storage devices.
• Maintains a hierarchical directory structure.
• Device Management:
• Manages input and output devices (e.g., keyboard, mouse, printers).
• Provides drivers to interact with hardware peripherals.
• Security and Access Control:
• Protects data and resources from unauthorized access.
• Implements user authentication and permissions.
Functions of an Operating System

• User Interface (UI):

• Provides a Graphical User Interface (GUI) or Command-Line Interface (CLI)
for users to interact with the system.
• Networking:
• Facilitates communication between computers and devices via networking
protocols.
• Manages data transfer over networks.
• Error Detection and Handling:
• Monitors the system for errors and takes corrective actions.
• Resource Allocation:
• Ensures efficient use of hardware resources (CPU, memory, I/O devices)
across multiple users or programs.
Types of Operating Systems
• Batch Operating System:
• Description: Processes batches of jobs without user interaction during execution.
• Functions:
• Manages a queue of tasks.
• Executes tasks in sequence to minimize idle time.
• Example: IBM's early systems.
• Time-Sharing Operating System:
• Description: Allows multiple users to use the system simultaneously by sharing CPU
time.
• Functions:
• Provides multitasking.
• Reduces idle CPU time by quickly switching between tasks.
• Example: UNIX, Multics.
• Distributed Operating System:
• Description: Runs on a network of interconnected computers, appearing as a single
system to users.
• Functions:
• Manages distributed resources.
• Facilitates data sharing across multiple nodes.
• Example: Windows Server, Linux Cluster.
• Real-Time Operating System (RTOS):
• Description: Provides immediate processing of tasks, critical for applications requiring real-
time responses.
• Functions:
• Handles time-sensitive tasks.
• Ensures high reliability and predictability.
• Example: VxWorks, RTLinux.
• Multitasking/Multiprogramming OS:
• Description: Allows multiple programs to run concurrently by sharing system resources.
• Functions:
• Allocates CPU and memory among processes.
• Manages context switching between tasks.
• Example: Windows 10, macOS.
• Single-User Operating System:
• Description: Supports one user at a time.
• Functions:
• Simplified resource allocation.
• Focuses on the user’s immediate needs.
• Example: MS-DOS.
• Multi-User Operating System:
• Description: Allows multiple users to access a single computer system simultaneously.
• Functions:
• Allocates resources fairly among users.
• Maintains user data integrity.
• Example: UNIX, Windows Server.

• Mobile Operating System:

• Description: Specifically designed for smartphones, tablets, and wearable devices.
• Functions:
• Manages touchscreens, sensors, and mobile networks.
• Provides energy-efficient operation.
• Example: Android, iOS.
• Embedded Operating System:
• Description: Used in embedded systems where the OS is built for specific hardware.
• Functions:
• Optimized for minimal resource usage.
• Performs dedicated tasks efficiently.
• Example: FreeRTOS, QNX.
• Network Operating System (NOS):
• Description: Manages networking tasks like file sharing and communication across a
network.
• Functions:
• Provides security for data sharing.
• Manages network resources and devices.
• Example: Novell NetWare, Windows Server.
• Cloud-Based Operating System:
• Description: Runs on virtual machines or in cloud infrastructure.
• Functions:
• Facilitates scalability and remote access.
• Supports on-demand resource allocation.
• Example: Google Chrome OS.
Thank You