Tools For Professional Development

Tools for Professional
Development
CONTENTS
General Classroom Guidelines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Learning-Strategy Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Course Enrichment Guidelines ............................ 13
Classroom Management Guidelines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Cooperative Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Cultural Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Meeting Individual Needs ................................. 27
Student Performance Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Determining Assessment Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Course Assessment and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
1
TOOLS FOR PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
GENERAL CLASSROOM GUIDELINES

Both students and teachers have a role in creating an effective classroom.
Teaching Tips
The following tips and recommendations from experienced teachers can help
you achieve your optimum teaching level and will encourage your students to
learn at the rate of their full potential.
1. Be prepared and organized.
◆ Order books.
◆ Write a course outline and student expectation guide.
◆ Review files of past classes.
◆ Meet with other teachers.
◆ Meet with administrators about expectations.
◆ Keep an idea file.
2. Clarify expectations with students.
◆ Review attendance policy.
◆ Review course outline.
◆ Review expectations of class.
◆ Answer students’ questions.
◆ Set high standards.
◆ Reward good work.
The Student’s Role

The student’s role is changing in today’s classroom. Students are expected to
be active learners, not passive receivers. The best learning methods incorporate
reading and listening to lectures with active student participation. Be sure to
review the following general classroom guidelines with your students:
◆ Be prepared. Have students come to class prepared with reading assign-
ments and homework. If students are not prepared, they are less likely to
participate and to grasp concepts during the lecture. Stress the importance
of completing assigned exercises and coming to class prepared to discuss
them. You may want students to complete certain assignments outside class
so that classroom time can be devoted to discussion and review. Many of
the exercises work well when they are discussed in small groups and others
work best when they are completed and reviewed in class.
◆ Review objectives. Read the chapter objectives at the beginning of each
class so that the students know the class expectations. Review the instruc-
tions of the exercises out loud as students follow in their books so that
everyone is on the same track, questions can be clarified, and everyone is
ready to start on time.
Tools for Professional Development 2

◆ Bring books to class. Students should bring their books to each class
period unless otherwise instructed.
◆ Encourage responsibility. Stress that students should take responsibility for
their education by participating in class, looking for innovative solutions,
and clarifying course expectations. Their teachers and advisors cannot tell
them about all academic regulations. They must be aware of deadlines and
procedures, and understand how the system works.
◆ Encourage support groups. Students need support from other students,
teachers, advisors, and academic support groups. Encourage them to take
responsibility for creating support groups. Point out that learning time man-
agement tips can help students in their careers. Discuss with them the value
of gaining the support of family members, co-workers, and supervisors.
The Teacher’s Role

A teacher must often exhibit a range of skills. In addition to understanding the
course material, you must be able to communicate clearly and draw out impor-
tant concepts from student questions and discussions.
◆ Acknowledge the whole of intelligence. Encourage students to use
the whole of their intelligence. IQ is only one indicator of intelligence.
Emotional maturity is also fundamental to school and job success. Students
who have emotional control, have developed the ability to work well with
others, have integrity and character, and have developed the tools to relate
to others courteously can greatly increase their effectiveness.
◆ Create a supportive climate. Students will get involved in the exercises if
they see that you are enthusiastic, interested, and value the assignments.
Walk around while students do the exercises and check their progress, but
do not help individuals or join teams. Give students lots of examples and
reinforce the material.
◆ Establish ground rules early. Stress that not only is attendance required,
but coming to class on time and prepared is also necessary. If students miss
five or ten minutes, they have missed the introduction and review, and
must interrupt to ask questions. You can always ease the schedule after
students demonstrate that they are responsible and take charge of their own
learning. Decide how long you need to spend on exercises, class discussions,
and lectures.
◆ Create diverse teams. Students can learn from those who offer different
perspectives, and diverse groups can foster understanding and respect for
differences. Arrange groups to be diverse in age, gender, culture, interests,
and so on. Many teachers like to have permanent teams throughout the
course to add continuity, increase team skills, and build friendships.
◆ Create classwide participation. Encourage all students to participate.
You may want to rotate the role of leader to encourage shy students to
participate and learn leadership skills. Shift the location of teams so that
those in the back of the classroom can respond more readily.

◆ Emphasize communication skills. Stress the importance of public speak-

ing and interpersonal communication skills. One of the best communica-
tion skills is the ability to present short summaries of projects, exercises, or
activities. Tell students that you will call on one of them to give a concise
and brief summary of the main points covered in the last class meeting. This
will not only encourage them to be prepared, but it will increase their pub-
lic speaking skills and liven up the class as well. A summary also serves as a
reminder and review of previous material. You can also add to the student’s
summary and connect it to the current lecture.
◆ Make time for questions. Have a set time when any topic is allowed, per-
haps at the end of the class or once a week during an extended break.
◆ Incorporate peer teaching. Peer teachers and advisors are effective because
they are able to relate to one another and they feel encouraged by work-
ing together. Students also have a chance to explain concepts in their own
words. Peer teachers do not have to be the students with the best grades to
be successful. Average students and struggling students can choose a topic
and explain it effectively to others. Incorporate peer teaching throughout
the course.
◆ Make connections. Education will be more relevant and meaningful if
students see the connection between school and work. Throughout the
course emphasize these connections:
❖ Student to student
❖ Student to teacher
❖ School to work
❖ Theory to practice
◆ Encourage students to be open to new perspectives. Sometimes students
have set values and mind-sets. Discuss the value of seeing problems from a
fresh perspective.
◆ Be aware of other demands on students’ time. Many students have work,
family, and community obligations that demand their time. Offer under-
standing but also discuss the necessity of backup plans. Have students dis-
cuss their many roles and concerns.
Instruction Style Guidelines

Students benefit from a variety of teacher input: introduction of new concepts
and procedures through oral explanation, demonstration of new procedures and
applications, and encouragement and immediate feedback on performance.
Building on Topics
Students need to know where they are headed, where they have been, and how
the topics they are learning fit together.
◆ Always review old learning to be sure students are ready to move on to a
new topic.

◆ Demonstrate new concepts and procedures to the class. Students learn

many of their skills by following teacher demonstrations and solving rel-
evant assignment materials.
◆ Relate new and advanced learning to the students’ growing competency with
overall skills. Explain how new skills reinforce and build on earlier skills.
Effective Questioning
Questioning is one way to stimulate student participation in class sessions to
assess the extent of the learning that has taken place. The following are sugges-
tions for effective questioning practices.
◆ Ask precise questions that require exact responses when principles or proce-
dures are involved.
◆ Ask questions that are relevant only to the subject matter.
◆ Direct your questions to the class as a whole. After a slight pause, call on
one student for a reply.
◆ Ask questions that can be answered by the students to whom they are
addressed, with special regard for each student’s ability.
◆ Ask enough questions to reach everyone in the class during the period or
during the week.
◆ Avoid questions that require simple yes or no responses. Ask why, how, and
when to encourage students to show that they really understand the material.
◆ Plan your questions to cover the chapter content as indicated by the chapter
objectives.
◆ Invite your students to ask questions. Have other class members attempt
to answer these questions before you do. As you know, students can often
explain things to one another very clearly if they are given the opportunity
to do so.
◆ Take note of the questions that most often provoke discussion or are raised
frequently. Include them in future quizzes and tests.
◆ Include some grade or mark for class participation in your overall appraisal
of each student.
The Teacher’s Attitude

Learning is a process centered around beliefs, attitude, and experience. Build a
supportive environment as you create a learning community. As the teacher, you
are key in creating this supportive classroom climate. Genuine interest and sup-
portiveness should be shown daily and may be enhanced by the following:
◆ Listen carefully to student comments and take notes when necessary.
◆ Respond seriously to students’ questions and concerns. Be enthusiastic and
positive and show that you enjoy teaching this class.
◆ Be available to meet with students if necessary.

◆ As the teacher, try to be seen as an open, supportive member of the team, as

well as a coach and facilitator. Student discussion is important to a support-
ive learning climate.
◆ Encouraging students to discover that their own answers can help facilitate
class discussion.
Managing a classroom takes considerable interpersonal and management
skills. When you feel discouraged or fatigued, try the following techniques for
renewal:
◆ Talk with other teachers and share ideas.
◆ Take students on field trips.
◆ Find your own style of teaching.
◆ Focus on your strengths.
◆ Build a supportive learning environment.
◆ Be a mentor.
◆ Express your concerns and expectations to the class.
◆ Invite stimulating guest speakers to class.
LEARNING-STRATEGY GUIDELINES
The two most common reasons that students fail are poor study habits and lack
of time management skills.
Helping Improve Study Habits and Time Management

Follow these guidelines to help students improve their study habits and time-
management skills.
◆ Post reminders of due dates for homework, projects, and tests. Encourage
students to break assignments into smaller tasks. They can work backward
from the due date, planning all the steps necessary to complete the assign-
ment. Students will be less prone to procrastinate, will find inspiration in
completing smaller tasks, and will feel more in control.
◆ Encourage students to learn how to contact at least two students in their
class. They can take notes for each other in an emergency, share informa-
tion, and study together.
◆ Encourage study groups. Students will be most effective when they learn to
use the skills and talents of others.
◆ Encourage students to get in touch with you as soon as they have a question
or problem. Emphasize that they should not wait until the night before an
exam to ask for clarification.
◆ Return phone calls and e-mails promptly.

Developing Critical Thinking Skills in Students

As your students enter the world of work, they will be required to process, ana-
lyze, interpret, and communicate information. Successful employees possess the
ability to make insightful decisions, solve problems creatively, and interact with
diverse groups.
Basic Elements of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is the process of logically deciding on a course of action or a
conclusion to a question or scenario. It involves the ability to:
◆ Compare and contrast
◆ Solve problems and make decisions
◆ Analyze and evaluate
◆ Synthesize and transfer knowledge
Benefits of Critical Thinking

◆ Helps students investigate their own methods for solving problems.
◆ Leads students to investigations that compare and contrast knowns and
unknowns.
◆ Allows students to make decisions about their own learning.
◆ Makes students aware of their own learning processes.
Problem-Solving Strategies
1. Define the problem. Instruct students to work through the following
question: What is the situation or the context of the problem? To define
the problem clearly, state the problem in one or two sentences.
2. Gather information and facts. Next, students should make sure that they
have all the necessary information about the situation. Ask questions and
observe.
3. Go from the general to the specific. Encourage students to look at the big
picture as they gain a general understanding of the context of the problem.
Break down the problem into its smaller parts.
4. Develop a plan. Problem solvers formulate a potential plan of action based
on the information gathered. Students should outline their plan step-by-
step and evaluate how the problem will be affected if their plan is enacted.
5. Make connections. If students can learn to connect what they have learned
in other classes to the problem at hand, they will become successful prob-
lem solvers.
6. Be flexible and creative. Problems often have a variety of acceptable out-
comes. Students should approach the situation from different viewpoints
and directions, exploring options. Speculation, intuition, and estimation
are important in this process.

How to Teach Critical Thinking

All educational disciplines strive to teach critical thinking skills. Today’s busi-
ness environment is highly competitive and demands skilled employees who
can make insightful decisions and solve problems creatively. Your students will
need to apply critical thinking skills to make important personal and profes-
sional plans and decisions in their own lives now and in the future. When you
teach your students critical thinking, you are equipping them with skills that
are essential to success.
Since all learning requires thinking, your students will benefit from exposure to
a variety of thinking exercises. Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive
Domain is widely recognized for its schema of levels of thinking. Each of
Bloom’s cognitive categories includes a list of thinking skills and indicates
the kinds of behavior students are expected to demonstrate when performing
specific learning tasks. Here are some examples:
Bloom’s Cognitive Categories
Thinking Skill Behaviors Required

Knowledge define, recognize, recall, identify, label, understand,
examine, show, collect
Comprehension translate, interpret, explain, describe,
summarize, extrapolate
Application apply, solve, experiment, show, predict
Analysis connect, relate, differentiate, classify, arrange, check,

group, distinguish, organize, categorize, detect,
compare, infer
Synthesis produce, propose, design, plan, combine, formulate,
compose, hypothesize, construct
Evaluation appraise, judge, criticize, decide
Integrating Critical Thinking Skills

The student text and the Teacher Resource Manual provide you with a variety
of activities and guidelines to help you incorporate and integrate critical think-
ing and problem-solving skills into your daily plans. The following are some
guidelines for integrating and teaching these skills:
◆ Let students know they are engaging in aspects of critical thinking. Explain
to students that finding solutions to problems is an example of analyzing
and evaluating information. Extend these applications of critical thinking
skills into your students’ lives. Point out that they constantly analyze and
evaluate music, conversations with friends, magazine or newspaper articles,
and television programs. This will help demonstrate to students that they
have had experience in using these skills.

◆ Stress the importance of critical thinking in daily life. Students should learn to
focus on sound decision-making processes, not snap judgments.
◆ Use activities that focus on open-ended problems to foster greater growth
for creative problem-solving. Discuss how people use different thought pro-
cesses to solve problems. When possible, have students share their ideas and
discuss how they arrived at their solutions.
◆ Organize students in cooperative learning groups so they can see how others
solve problems, give each other feedback, and try out new ideas. Divide stu-
dents into small discussion groups to think in a cooperative setting.
◆ Use assessments that measure students’ growth and performance. Challenge
students to reflect on chapter concepts and apply their knowledge. Ask stu-
dents to apply their analytical skills to solve a problem.
◆ Provide feedback and encourage students to feel comfortable experimenting
with new ideas and new ways to solve problems.
Improving Basic Skills

As your students progress through their academic education, basic skills in read-
ing, writing, listening, and math continue to evolve and expand. In the class-
room there are many opportunities to expose students to activities and exercises
that not only contribute to their understanding of the subject matter, but also
strengthen basic skills.
Developing Active Reading Strategies for Students

How well do your students read? Do they understand what they read? Are they
active readers or passive readers? By applying various strategies for reading, you
can help your students understand difficult concepts and theories.
To begin, have your students analyze their reading skills. Are they good at read-
ing factual material? Is it easy or difficult for them to read and interpret data?
Do they have a good vocabulary? Then discuss with your students the different
skills needed when reading factual material as opposed to recreational mate-
rial. In order to get the most from reading, your students need to learn how to
become active readers, getting involved with and responding to the material.
Active readers are effective readers.
Active reading requires focus and concentration. Becoming actively engaged in
reading can mean employing a variety of techniques: taking notes, previewing,
outlining main points, jotting down key words, finding definitions, looking for
patterns, and summarizing information in written or verbal forms.
Using SQ3R. “SQ3R” is known as one of the most successful and efficient
study methods used by students. The initials stand for the five steps in the study
process: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review. At first, your students may
find that the SQ3R method is difficult to master. Putting the steps into practice
requires deliberate effort and active involvement. If your students find that they

re-read information in order to absorb it, use of this study method will save them
time and frustration.
A Reading/Study System The following method should be used by your
students on a section-by-section basis for each chapter of the text.
S = SURVEY
Students survey the piece of writing to establish its purpose and to prepare them-
selves for the main ideas. Students should do the following:
◆ Read the titles and section headings.
◆ Read the objectives, instructions, and/or summary to understand how each
chapter fits the author’s purpose.
◆ Notice each boldface heading and subheading. Recognize the text’s organi-
zation before starting to read. Build a structure for the thought and details
to come.
◆ Notice any graphics (charts, maps, diagrams). They are presented to make
a point.
◆ Notice reading aids like italics, highlighting, boldface print, chapter objec-
tives, and margin notations. They are presented to help the reader sort,
comprehend, and remember the ideas of the chapter.
Q = QUESTION
As students are surveying the piece, a good way to decide what they will be read-
ing is to question as they survey. Writing down questions keeps students alert
and focused on their work. Students should do the following:
◆ Divide a sheet of paper in half lengthwise.

◆ On the left half, write questions as they are surveying the section of writing.
◆ Turn the boldface headings into as many questions as they think will be
answered in that section. The better the questions, the better their compre-
hension is likely to be. Students may always add further questions as they
proceed. When their minds are actively searching for answers to questions,
they become engaged in learning.
R1 = READ
As students read, they should also actively seek answers to their questions.
Students should do the following:
◆ Read each section (one at a time) with their questions in mind. Look for
the answers and write them down on the right side of the sheet of paper.
◆ Take notes on additional concepts that were not covered in their questions.
◆ Notice whether they need to make up some new questions and add them
to their list.
R2 = RECITE
After students have read and answered all of their questions, it is helpful to recite
the questions and their answers.

Students should do the following:

◆ Recite each question out loud, one at a time.
◆ Answer each question verbally according to the answer they have written
down on the right side of the paper.
◆ Create flashcards for difficult concepts or procedures.
◆ After each section, stop, recall their questions, and see if they can answer
them from memory. If not, look back again, but do not go on to the next
section until they can recite the answers.
R3 = REVIEW
Once students finish the entire chapter using these steps, they should review all
the questions from the headings. They should do the following:
◆ Using their notes, questions, and answers, mentally go over the material
within 24 hours of covering it.
◆ Review again after one week.
◆ Review approximately once a month until their exam.
◆ Be sure they can still answer all of the questions they posed in the Question
phase of their study process. If not, look back and refresh their memory.
Remember to stress that reading is not a passive activity. Students must train
their minds to actively learn.
GRID FOR SQ3R

Students can use the following grid to help them use the SQ3R system.
S = SURVEY: Survey the piece of writing to establish its purpose.
Titles, Headings, and Subheadings List chapter, sections, etc.
Objectives/Instructions/Terms List the major objectives, instructions,
and terms used in the text.
Graphics/Visuals List graphics/visuals in text.
Reading Aids Objectives, section questions, bolded
terms, etc., are all designed to empha-
size important information.
Q = Question: Question as you survey the materials.

Ask questions based on main For example: What are the different
headings and titles. types of multimedia presentations?
R1 = Read: As you read, actively seek answers to your questions. Write

them down as you find the answers in your reading.
What are the different types of Multimedia presentations can be slide
multimedia presentations? show presentations, simulations, Web
pages, games, advertisements, etc.

Writing for Success

Effective writing skills are essential for communicating information. Emphasize
these four basic steps to students as they attempt to communicate in writing:
1. Prepare Emphasize the importance of generating and focusing ideas
through brainstorming, research, and observation.
2. Organize Review the importance of organizing an outline so students can
keep focused on the theme, format, and ideas they want to express.
3. Write It is vital that students learn how to develop their main topic and
supporting points. Encourage students to prepare a timetable for completing
a written assignment and to use this schedule to meet a deadline.
4. Edit Emphasize the importance of revising their written work. Ask students
how they think editing may help improve their grades.
Listening with Intent

Although attending lectures, taking notes, and gathering information are a daily
part of your students’ lives, they may not have devoted the proper attention to
becoming effective listeners. Professionals in the world of business attend meet-
ings, follow directions, work with clients and customers, take notes, and give and
receive feedback. In order to successfully participate in these activities, students
must learn to be fully attentive with an intent to understand the topics presented.
Active listening must include a desire to listen, a willingness to learn, the post-
ponement of judgment of the teacher or speaker, a mindful approach, a respectful
viewpoint, an observant mind-set, and an ability to ask questions. It is important
for the listener to invest energy in the act of listening, to reduce distractions, and
to be quiet while the speaker is delivering a message.
Strengthening Arithmetic/Mathematics Skills

Basic arithmetic computations are performed on a daily basis in the lives of your
students when they compute percentages, keep track of their bank accounts,
or calculate their wages after deductions. Draw upon these life experiences to
strengthen math skills. Remind students that they can perform basic computa-
tions and approach practical problems by choosing appropriately from a variety
of mathematical techniques.
Thinking Algebraically
Algebraic thinking recognizes various types of patterns and functional relation-
ships and uses symbolic forms to represent and analyze mathematical situations
and structures. Many life and work experiences can be expressed in algebraic
terms. Your students’ life experiences should provide a broad base of real-world
ties that can be readily linked to the concepts of equation, function, and graphs.
Use logic puzzles, tables and graphs, and concepts centered on equations to help
build algebraic thinking.

COURSE ENRICHMENT GUIDELINES

The following guidelines will help students recognize the value of their efforts
and attitudes toward promoting their social, ethical, and cultural awareness as
it applies to the course.
Integrating Real-World Connections

Students want to see the relevance of what they are studying. Stress how the
course brings them closer to reaching their personal and professional goals. Use
practical applications when possible. Make certain that your examples are rel-
evant to students and that you ask them for examples that illustrate concepts.
Value Students’ Experiences

Students have a wealth of experience. Have them integrate course concepts with
their experiences. Discuss their viewpoints and encourage classroom discussions.
Discuss School and Community Resources That Can Help Students

You can use many resources on campus and in the community to help in teach-
ing. Some campuses have faculty development coordinators, special workshops,
and speakers.
Invite Guest Speakers to Your Class

Guest speakers can be an important addition to your class because:
◆ They are experts in their area.

◆ They add variety.
◆ They help students see the resources available.
◆ They help students see the value of networking and contacts.
You should give your guest speaker this information:
◆ Purpose of the class
◆ Description of the students
◆ Purpose of the presentation
◆ Topic and what you would like to see covered
◆ Appropriate amount of time to talk
◆ Time, place, and directions to the classroom
Ask the speaker for a brief description of his or her background, how he or she
would like to be introduced, and if he or she has questions for the students to
answer. Remember to send a thank-you note and comments from students.

Evaluate guest speakers for your records by filling in this form:
Guest Speaker Form
Date:
Guest speaker:
Topic:
Students’ reaction:
Teacher’s assessment:
Possible alternatives for speakers in this area:
Integrating Ethics
As your students engage in business transactions and act as employees and man-
agers, they will encounter ethical dilemmas requiring sound decision-making
skills. Students should understand that unethical behavior is often perceived as
unethical only after the action or decision has been taken or made.
The purpose of introducing ethics into your instruction is to help your students
integrate ethical considerations and basic values into their decision-making pro-
cess. Students are directed to develop a process for considering both the business
and the ethical ramifications of a decision before that decision is made. Even
though basic values are set in childhood, people do make different decisions as
they gain knowledge and insight.
Teaching Ethics
Educational instruction of ethics as a discipline is an aspect of teaching that is
commonly ignored. Yet, you do know how to make decisions and most likely
have personal experiences with decisions involving ethical ramifications. You
need not be an ethics theorist to incorporate discussions of ethical actions into
your instruction.
The Ethical Decision-Making Model

This ethical decision-making model will help your students analyze a situation,
evaluate alternatives, consider ramifications of each decision, and choose among
the alternatives. The five-step model described on the next page is one possible
approach to making an ethical decision.

◆ What are the ethical issues?

◆ What are the alternatives?
◆ Who are the affected parties?
◆ How do the alternatives affect the parties?
◆ What would you do?
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES

Even the most experienced teacher can have problems in the classroom. The fol-
lowing strategies are designed to help you handle the more common problems
encountered by educators. Should you encounter situations that require stronger
discipline than what is discussed here, contact your supervisor to learn your insti-
tution’s guidelines concerning student disciplinary procedures.
Attendance Problems
Sometimes students do not understand how important it is to attend every class.
Here are some tips for handling attendance problems:
◆ Expect regular attendance. From the first day of class, announce that
attendance, participation, and team cooperation will be graded. Stress that
assessing the students’ strengths, weaknesses, needs, and motivational levels
is important for completing assignments and evaluating progress. Point
out that when students miss class, they disappoint their teams. If a student
misses class without telling you in advance, talk with the student in private
and ask for a commitment.
◆ Grade attendance. Remind students that attendance and participation are
large parts of their grade. Prompt attendance is important to a class, students,
and teams, and promotes positive habits for the workplace.
Problems with Incomplete Work

You may have some students who are not turning in assignments. Here are some
teaching tips to encourage students to complete their work:
◆ Communicate expectations. Explain the guidelines and expectations
for receiving a good grade or credit for the course. Discuss what students
want to learn from the course and what that means in terms of attendance,
assignments, and participation. As suggested earlier, you may want to have
students turn in note cards with their name, phone number, the grade they
expect to earn, what they hope to learn from the course, and the areas they
most want to work on. This is an excellent time to review their goals.
◆ Contact students. Call or e-mail students when they miss class, do not par-
ticipate, or fail to turn in assignments. After this contact, it is up to students
to produce results. Show your concern but avoid rescuing them. They need
to be responsible for their behavior.

Attitude Problems
A few students may be unsure of what is expected or skeptical of the value of
the course. Dealing with different attitude problems is an important part of
classroom management.
Negative Attitude
Occasionally, you may have a student who is negative, argumentative, and refuses
to participate in team activities or contribute to class discussions. A negative atti-
tude may indicate a feeling of discomfort or fear. Here are some teaching tips for
handling negative attitudes:
◆ Expect responsibility. Stress that students are responsible for their attitudes.
Coaching and encouragement often inspire the negative student. Remind
students they are responsible for motivating themselves and creating a
resourceful state of mind. They cannot blame others and empower them-
selves at the same time.
◆ Isolate the problem student. Meet with the disruptive student. Indicate
that students who are disruptive during team exercises or class discussion
will be asked to leave. Indicate that students with negative attitudes affect
the entire class. If students complain or are uncooperative, have them
answer this question: What can I do to correct this situation?
Unmotivated Students
Increasing motivation is a major factor in helping students to try new strategies,
perform the required work, and attend all classes. Here are some teaching tips
for handling unmotivated students:

◆ Review strategies. As a group, discuss how students can cope with low
motivation. Invite a guest speaker to address motivation and attitude.
◆ Make learning active. When energy is low (and it often is around mid-
term), you may want to go on a field trip. You could also vary the assign-
ments or discuss students’ solutions for increasing motivation and creating
a more positive attitude.
◆ Model enthusiasm. When you are excited and enthusiastic about class, stu-
dents are more likely to be motivated. Enjoy what you are doing and do not
get discouraged by a lack of motivation.
Personality Conflicts
At times you may feel that students do not like you. Here are some teaching tips
for avoiding personality conflicts:
◆ Do not take it personally. Some students want to appear cool or tough
and will not let anyone get close to them. Other students may be especially
shy or unresponsive. These behaviors are rarely directed at you alone.
◆ Clarify perceptions. Perhaps there is a misunderstanding or students are
unclear about expectations. Be open to listening and trying to improve
communication.

◆ Discuss learning styles. Discuss different learning and relating styles.

Explain to students that they will have many different kinds of teachers
and employers, and it is important to be able to relate and communicate
with all kinds of people. Sometimes people are uncomfortable with a
teacher because he or she has a different teaching/learning style.
◆ Be yourself. Be confident, approachable, supportive, and a good listener.
Your goal is to support students in being successful both inside and outside
the classroom.
Behavior Problems
Behavior problems can disrupt the classroom and make it difficult for students to
learn. Use the following guidelines to deal with common classroom disruptions.
Class Interruptions
Here are some teaching tips for avoiding interruptions:
◆ Expect good manners. The point of listening until others are finished talk-
ing should be stressed from the first day of class. Emphasize how important
civility and business etiquette are in the workplace.
◆ Model respect. Show respect to students by modeling good listening
skills. Discuss periodically the importance of listening in teams, classes,
and relationships.
Too Much Socializing

Sometimes students seem to be having so much fun socializing in class that they
do not complete their assignments. Here are some teaching tips for reducing
student socializing:
◆ Time exercises. Set a certain amount of time for group and class discussions
and exercises. This time limit helps students focus on the task at hand. You
can always extend the time if necessary.
◆ Do first things first. Go over the first rule of time management: Do first
things first. Set priorities, follow through, and then have fun. Tell students
that they will gain confidence when they learn this important habit.
Side Talking in Class

Inappropriate side talking is disruptive and distracting. Side talking is especially
common when friends sit in the back of the classroom. Here are some teaching
tips to cut down side talking:
◆ Encourage courtesy. Restate your expectations and rules for the class and be
consistent. Encourage students to be respectful of all speakers.
◆ Illustrate the disruption. Often students think that because they are in the
back of the classroom, the teacher does not see or hear them. Demonstrate
the effects of side talking on a speaker and the class. Choose a student to

speak in front of the classroom. Have a few other students talk among them-
selves. Ask the speaker what it was like to try and speak over conversations.
Stress that public speaking and giving presentations are already difficult
without distractions or rude behavior.
◆ Clarify your feelings. Use the “I” message to communicate how you feel:
“I feel that what I am saying is being ignored when students side talk.”
Participation Problems
Active learning simply requires students to participate in class and to interact with
classmates. Anticipating students who are reluctant to participate will help you
adjust your teaching style to accomodate unequal participation in class.
Lack of Class Participation

Class participation helps you learn more about your students and encourages
them to keep up with assignments. You will have some students who are not
willing to participate or talk. Here are some teaching tips that will help increase
class participation:
◆ Talk about the benefits of cooperative learning. Tell students that organi-
zations are run by teams and require employees to participate.
◆ Review expectations. Announce the first day of the class and several times
thereafter that teamwork and participation are important factors in this
course and essential in the working world. People who are successful learn
to work with various types of people, regardless of whether they like them.
◆ Emphasize that students be prepared. If students do not keep up with

assignments, then they cannot contribute to the rest of the class.
◆ Get involved. Indicate that participation and team sharing make the class
much more effective and enjoyable. Some students may feel more comfort-
able talking and participating in a small group. You may want to have teams
of four or five students discuss exercises and then spend a few minutes dis-
cussing the topic with the class. Teamwork brings out participation even
with shy students.
Unequal Participation
Often it is only assertive students who lead the discussions. Here are some teach-
ing tips for getting all students to participate:
◆ Encourage all class members. It is important for you to stress that this
course depends on the participation of all class members. Occasionally call
on the quieter members of the class. Sometimes this makes it easier for
them to participate.
◆ Encourage listening. Listening is not only vital for healthy relationships; it
is also an important job skill. Encourage students to listen and to monitor
how much time they speak in groups. Communication is always enhanced
when people listen and contribute.

Shy Students
You will always have some students who are shy and do not contribute as much
as the more outgoing students. Here are some teaching tips for encouraging shy
students:
◆ Integrate learning styles. Discuss the different learning styles with students.
Point out that some people are more extroverted than others.
◆ Take a risk. If students are shy, ask them to reach out and be more involved.
Extroverted students should listen more to draw out the shyer students.
Encourage your outgoing students to be supportive, to listen, and to help
others express their views. You might want to shift the seating about every
four weeks so that shy students sit up front during some of the sessions.
◆ Stress class participation. Acknowledge that many students are shy but are
often more comfortable working in small teams.
◆ Give positive reinforcement. Call on students who do not participate much,
but who are otherwise doing well in class. If they get a positive response to
their contributions, they may become less reluctant to talk in class.

CREATING A LEARNER-CENTERED
INTRODUCTION ENVIRONMENT
COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Studies show that students learn faster and retain more information when they
are actively involved in the learning process. Studies also show that in a class-
room setting, students often learn more from each other about subject matter
than from a traditional teacher-led lecture and discussion. Cooperative learning
is one method that gets students actively involved in learning and at the same
time allows for peer teaching.
Cooperative learning helps students acquire the interaction skills that are increas-
ingly necessary in today’s team-oriented workplaces. Working in teams is so
much a part of the workplace that many employers give prospective employees
inventories and assessments to determine their ability to function within a team
framework. Through the use of cooperative learning, the teacher can emphasize
the collaborative skills of team-building and team decision-making, and social
skills such as how to listen, respond, agree, disagree, clarify, encourage, and
evaluate.
The Basic Elements of Cooperative Learning

In traditional educational settings, students tend to work on their own and
compete with one another. In the cooperative learning environment, students
work in teams and contribute to each other’s learning. Cooperative learning
is structured for small group learning, which meets the basic needs for inter-
personal relationships, personal growth, and enhanced learning. All members
of the group benefit from each other’s efforts, backgrounds, experiences, and
viewpoints. Cooperative learning can provide invigorating classroom dynam-
ics; increase respect for diversity; and encourage skills in effective listening and
speaking, leadership, decision-making, and conflict resolution.

Cooperative learning involves assigning students to small groups to work together
within a classroom setting. This learning structure is especially effective for more
difficult learning tasks, such as problem-solving, critical thinking, and conceptual
learning. Cooperative learning requires a supportive, student-centered, and non-
competitive climate. It supplements rather than replaces traditional approaches,
including lectures.
Cooperative learning groups emphasize:
◆ Supporting mutual goals rather than individual competition and
achievement
◆ Completing structured tasks where each team member contributes
◆ Sharing equal responsibility for accomplishing group goals
◆ Learning social skills
◆ Rotating interdependent roles (discussion leaders, recorders, observers,
listeners, and speakers)

CREATING A LEARNER-CENTERED ENVIRONMENT
◆ Maintaining equal participation.

◆ Encouraging individual responsibility.
The Benefits of Cooperative Learning Groups

Cooperative learning offers many benefits:
◆ Students are drawn into learning situations that require them to be directly
involved. Each student must make a contribution as well as accept input
from others.
◆ Students discover how to work with people of all types. Schools with
racially or ethnically mixed populations often improve interracial and
multicultural relationships among students.
◆ Students improve communication skills.
◆ Students learn valuable social and problem-solving skills that transfer to
real-world occupations and work environments.
◆ Students learn to work through conflicts.
Preparation for Cooperative Learning

Before assigning a cooperative learning activity, prepare your students for the
cooperative learning process. The following tips will help you set the stage for
effective cooperative learning.
◆ Classroom Arrangement Move the furniture in the room so that students
can face each other.

◆ Group Size Decide on the size of the group. Groups work best when
composed of two to five students.
◆ Group Assignments Assign students to groups. Each group should be
mixed racially, socially, ethnically, and by gender and range of ability.
◆ Rotation of Group Members Change groups periodically. For example,
you can change the groups every four to six weeks, every quarter, every
semester, or for every new chapter or section.
◆ Student Preparation Prepare students for cooperation. Students will work
with each other to accomplish the same goal, but each student will be indi-
vidually accountable for learning.
◆ Initial Activities Start small. It is not necessary to incorporate all the char-
acteristics of cooperative learning into the first activity. Some ideas will be
easy to adapt while others may be more difficult.
◆ Group Roles Explain group roles. Students need to learn the cooperative
skills that are fundamental to each role before they begin interacting in
cooperative activities. Their roles should be introduced to students one at
a time so the students can learn the differences among them.

Create Heterogeneous Teams

Within the first or second class meeting, place students in four- or five-member
teams. You can create heterogeneous class teams by mixing characteristics:
◆ Learning abilities
◆ Genders
◆ Cultures
◆ Ethnicities
Teachers and team members should assess their team’s effectiveness and reflect
on the learning process and outcomes. Is the team effective? Does everyone
contribute? How can the team be more effective?
Teachers can ascertain how teams interact by completing a chapter exercise each
class period. By starting the class with an exercise, you emphasize skills acquisi-
tion. Students get the opportunity to become acquainted with each other and
exchange ideas.
Teacher and Student Responsibilities

The success of the cooperative learning groups depends largely on the teacher’s
ability to coach each of the groups and on the students’ abilities to accomplish
a goal as a team.
The Teacher:
◆ Creates the learning environment.

◆ Structures and guides the process of learning.
◆ Motivates students to learn.
◆ States the goals of the instruction.
◆ Teaches the fundamental concepts.
◆ Interacts with and guides the work of many groups.
◆ Acts as a resource to the groups as needed.
◆ Monitors student behavior.
◆ Evaluates the group process.
The Students:
◆ Work toward group goals, yet understand that individual responsibility is
expected.
◆ Contribute their own ideas.
◆ Understand that they are responsible for one another’s learning as well as
their own.
◆ Draw upon their own creativity and on the strengths of their teammates.

◆ Communicate effectively with one another.

◆ Recognize that the differences among team members are a form of enrich-
ment, not a deficit.
Results of Cooperative Learning

In most classrooms, only a few outspoken and articulate students actively par-
ticipate. However, one of the goals of cooperative learning is to get all members
of the class to share ideas, express opinions, and participate in group exercises.
Emphasize the value of inclusive participation and the responsibility of outspo-
ken students to encourage less talkative students to express their views. Stress the
importance of listening and taking turns to talk.
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
High schools are becoming increasingly diverse environments. Diversity includes
factors such as gender, race, age, sexual orientation, ethnicity, physical ability,
social and economic background, and religion.
The Diverse Classroom

Your class may include students who have learning disabilities; students who
want more career direction; students who are very goal-oriented and career-
directed; transfer students; students on probation; athletes; students of different
races, cultures, and religions; and students who are physically impaired. Each
of these students will have different needs and problems. The more you know
about each individual, the more you will be able to use various strategies, learn-
ing methods, examples, and approaches to meet their specific needs.
Emphasize that we can all learn from each other by being open and sharing
different views, values, ideas, and goals. Encourage all students to get to know
people from different races, cultures, backgrounds, and religions. As contribut-
ing members of society, ask your students to assess their assumptions, judgments,
prejudices, and stereotypes. Discuss how critical thinking can lead to changes in
beliefs and attitudes.
Examine your own concerns, fears, prejudices, and assumptions. Avoid general-
izations and make certain your lectures are sensitive to the needs and views of all
your students. Be a model for tolerance and understanding, and increase your
awareness of other cultures or ethnic groups.
Supporting Diversity
The population of the United States is becoming increasingly diverse. As stu-
dents from many backgrounds enter our schools, it is becoming evident that
versatility is the key for learning. The traditional delivery mode of the teacher

lecturing to passive, inexperienced students is no longer relevant. Varied learn-

ing approaches and students’ active involvement are necessary if students are to
make meaningful connections to their classes and to the world of work.
Help prepare students to work with and celebrate differences between co-workers
in the business world. Have students discuss situations in which they felt different
because they were younger, older, of a different religion or culture, or a minority of
some other type.
Explore the available resources in the school and community that support diver-
sity. Post lists of noted speakers, events, and opportunities promoting increased
awareness and understanding. Bring in speakers who discuss how to celebrate
and promote diversity. Encourage students from different cultures to participate
and assume leadership roles.
Teaching Tips for the Diverse Classroom

Here are some teaching tips that may help students learn to value and under-
stand diversity:
◆ Be inviting. Students need to feel that they belong. Make your classroom
and office inviting. Be personable, get to know students, and welcome
them to your office. Ask questions about how they are adjusting and show
that you are interested.
◆ Invite outside speakers. Bring in speakers from different cultural back-
grounds.
◆ Use peer facilitators. Hire peer facilitators or tutors from different cultural
backgrounds.
◆ Plan outside events. Investigate resources on campus and in the com-
munity. Have students attend different cultural events or take a field trip as
part of the class experience.
◆ Discuss resources. Have a list of resources available for various cultural
groups.
◆ Encourage class discussions. Encourage all students to discuss their view-
points. Point out how people see things differently. Understanding and
respecting differences are the foundations of building common bonds.
◆ Encourage creativity and flexibility. Stress that people can speak and act
differently in different situations. Being flexible and relating to diverse peo-
ple in the work, home, and school environments both expand options and
build relationships. Relating to different people does not mean students are
rejecting their own culture. They are expanding their communication and
relationship skills.

Tips for Working with Diverse Students

High-Risk Students
The term “high-risk student” is often used today to describe students who
are at risk of dropping out of school. Emphasize that everyone has some risk
factors, and that the more students assess their strengths and weaknesses, the
more likely they are to ask for help and thus succeed. Stress to students that the
key is to take responsibility for who they are, where they are, and where they
want to be.
Transfer Students
Transfer students are often most concerned with what credits are transferred and
are acceptable for meeting the school’s requirements. It is critical that transfer
students see an advisor and plan their educational program. Transfer students
may think they already know the rules. Stress that every campus is different and
students should not assume that the procedures are the same.
Student Athletes
Athletes have the same issues that other students have, plus they have a large
commitment of time for sports practice and the additional stresses of competi-
tion, risk of injury, and the need to stay energized and focused on winning.
Here are some teaching tips for student athletes:
◆ Clarify expectations. Stress that attending and participating in all classes is
important. Athletes’ top priority should be school and not sports.

◆ Help students clarify their goals. Talk about their academic and career
goals. What do they want to do when they finish school? How can this
course help them reach their goals? What personal qualities and skills have
they gained by playing sports?
◆ Emphasize planning. Show students the importance of planning and time
management. Have them keep a time log so they can set their priorities and
keep their commitments.
Students on Academic Probation

Many students do not understand how easy it is to fall behind and find them-
selves on academic probation. You may want to invite the principal or another
administrator to discuss what “probation” and “disqualified” mean and how
students can stay in good standing academically. At some schools a student will
be placed on academic probation when his or her overall grade average falls
below a C average.

Here are some teaching tips for students on academic probation:

◆ Take fewer units. Students on probation are advised to not take more than
12 units.
◆ Compute GPA. Show students how to compute their grade point average.
◆ Talk to teachers. Stress the importance of meeting with each of their teach-
ers and obtaining regular progress reports or grades.
◆ Meet with an advisor. Students on probation need special attention. Stress
the importance of students meeting with their advisors.
International Students
The number of international students is increasing dramatically at many schools.
The adjustment to a new culture, language, and climate is tremendous.
Here are some teaching tips for international students:
◆ Stress involvement. Encourage students to form supportive relationships
with various types of people by getting involved in campus or community
activities.
◆ Explore resources. Learn what resources are available both on and off
campus for international students.
◆ Encourage mentoring. Many campuses have a mentoring program.
Connect the international student with a student who has been on campus
for at least a year.
◆ Speak clearly. If the student’s primary language is not English, speak
clearly and slowly, avoid slang, and explain the meaning of common
expressions and phrases.
◆ Clarify assignments. Make sure students understand what is expected
of them. Put important information in writing. It is important that you
do not come across as condescending, which can make the students feel
uncomfortable.
◆ Be warm and friendly. International students need to see a friendly face.
Smile and be welcoming.
◆ Integrate learning styles. As with all students, international students can
benefit from seeing, hearing, doing, and utilizing information.
◆ Learn about other cultures. Cultural differences in body language, atti-
tudes toward time, slang, and eye contact may be dramatic. Ask questions
and be respectful.
◆ Encourage students to talk. All students can benefit from hearing the
experiences of international students. Ask them to explain their customs,
country, and background.

MEETING INDIVIDUAL NEEDS

Your classroom contains learners who possess their own unique set of abili-
ties, perceptions, and needs. In order to meet the special needs of students with
physical or learning challenges, you may need to utilize more than one approach
to teaching. Auditory, visual, or physical difficulties may interfere with an
individual’s ability to learn in the same way as other students, yet these special
needs students have the same educational, social, emotional, and personality
development goals. This manual provides a variety of teaching strategies to help
you modify and creatively support the concepts that students need to learn.
There are many definitions of what constitutes a learning disability. All of us
have certain deficiencies and strengths. The point is to encourage all students to
assess their strengths and to seek extra help when they need it.
Special needs and disabilities may be visible or invisible. Some students are defi-
cient in certain skills. Other students may have learning disabilities and have
difficulty processing information. This difficulty may interfere with their abili-
ties to take tests, write, read, solve math problems, or comprehend information.
Other students may have physical or health disabilities.
The Americans with Disabilities Act stipulates that students are entitled access
to public education. Students should investigate the available resources at their
campuses. Many schools have a disabled student support services office. Public
campuses provide accessibility to classrooms, labs, and the library.
Understanding Learning Styles

One of your greatest challenges as a teacher is to provide a positive learning
environment for all students in your classroom. Because each student is unique,
his or her learning style and physical ability may vary widely.
Improve your teaching effectiveness by understanding how students learn and
by integrating different learning styles. Students can improve their learning by
discovering how they learn best. This understanding can empower them to take
control of their learning.
Teaching Students with Special Needs

Students may have orthopedic impairments, hearing or vision impairments,
learning disabilities, or behavior disorders — all of which may interfere with
their ability to learn. The learning styles of students may also vary. Some students
may be visual learners, while others learn more effectively through hands-on
activities. Some students may work well independently, while others need inter-
action. Students may come from a variety of cultural backgrounds, and some
may be second-language learners.

Once you determine the special needs of your students, you can identify the areas
in the curriculum that may present barriers to them. In order to remove those
barriers, you may need to modify your teaching methods.
Preparing for Special Needs

In your classroom, you may encounter students who have special needs. A
Special Needs Information and Resources chart (pages 31–32) describes some
of those special needs and identifies sources of information. Also provided are
tips for modifying your teaching style to accommodate the special needs of
your students.
The Different Learning Styles chart (pages 33–34) will help you identify your
students’ learning styles, provides a description of each type of learner, the likes
of each type, what each type is good at, and how each type learns best. Famous
learners within each type are also listed.
As you prepare for the special learning needs of your students, follow these
general guidelines:
◆ Identify the special needs of your students.
◆ Identify areas in the curriculum that may present barriers to some students.
◆ Define ways to remove any impediments to their learning.
◆ Modify your teaching methods to meet your students’ needs.
◆ Consult with your school professionals about students with special needs.
Modifying Your Teaching Style

Learning can occur in a variety of ways and at different speeds. To maximize
their learning experience, it is important to recognize how each of your students
learns best. You can meet their various needs by offering activities, resources,
and experiences that will help them learn effectively. This will help students
reduce frustration, focus on their strengths, and achieve an understanding of
the concepts.
Vary the way in which you present material so that you are appealing to all of
the different learning styles. If you have traditionally relied on a lecture-question
format, consider incorporating more visual aids into your instruction. Instead of
explaining a concept only verbally, integrate the use of transparencies, handouts,
or charts.
◆ For visual learners: Use visual aids, such as PowerPoint presentations, the
board, and transparency masters.
◆ For auditory learners: Present lectures, use small group discussion, and
repeat important material.
◆ For kinesthetic learners: Use field trips, student presentations, role-playing,
case studies, and activities.

Assign class time for different activities. Use student speakers to add interest and
information to the class. As you make adjustments for the benefit of your special
needs students, it is important to avoid calling attention to these modifications.
By developing good relationships with your special needs students, you can
address their specific challenges and offer encouragement.
Another challenge in dealing with special needs learners is how to have them
relay to you their understanding of the course material. Methods of assessment
may have to be altered in order to fairly apply the same standards to all students.
For example, a student who has difficulty writing may have to take a test orally
or use a computer. A student who deals with physical challenges may not be
equipped to participate in some group activities and may be better evaluated
using a project designed for an individual.
Encourage special needs students to take leadership roles just as other students
do. They should understand that they offer unique skills, talents, and perspec-
tives to the activities and concepts they are learning.
Tips for Teaching Students with Special Needs

Here are some tips for teaching students with special needs:
◆ Be aware of physical requirements. When an activity requires students to
write on a chalkboard or marker board, students who use wheelchairs may
require that the board be lowered, or they may use an overhead projector.
For students with visual impairments, an oral response is appropriate.
◆ Encourage responsibility. The student is responsible for documenting a
disability and requesting accommodations and assistance. Encourage stu-

dents to communicate what they need to be successful. Encourage them to
take responsibility for their learning. Have students find resources available
on campus and in the community.
◆ Learn about the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). As a teacher,
you will want to know about guidelines and resources. Find out what
resources are available to support students with disabilities.
◆ See the whole student. Do not allow disabilities to create a faulty percep-
tion of a student’s talents, effort, and abilities.
◆ Use various learning styles. Use visual, auditory, and hands-on learning
techniques. Have students discover how they learn and relate best.
Knowing how they learn, process information, and relate to others is an
essential tool that students can use for school and job success. Have stu-
dents integrate different learning styles.
◆ Use success tips and strategies. Studying in teams, previewing chapters,
sitting in the front row, attending all classes, actively participating in class,
making learning active, taping lectures, planning daily schedules, and get-
ting organized are just a few tips that can help students succeed.

◆ Encourage students to meet with teachers and advisors. One of the best
tips is to encourage students to meet with each of their teachers and their
advisors. Students should review course expectations, plan a course of study,
and seek feedback.
◆ Encourage students to use available resources. Have students explore
campus resources. For example, many schools have tutors, learning centers,
free workshops, and study guides. Encourage students to seek tutors, and
to ask teachers for extra help, more classroom discussions, explanations,
alternative methods for completing projects or testing, and extended time
for tests. Being assertive involves speaking calmly, concisely, directly, and
courteously. Students do not need to be pushy or aggressive to ask for what
they need.
◆ Use individualized projects. Students who are assigned to individual proj-
ects are free to progress at their own pace. You may ask your students to use
tutorial software that allows learners to advance at their own pace.

Special Needs Information and Resources

The following table contains information and resources that may help teachers
who have students with special needs. Teachers should always consult campus
professionals when working with students who have special needs.
Subject Description Sources of Information Tips for Instruction
Students with Multicultural and/or bilingual individ- ◆ Teaching English as a ◆ Remember that students’ ability to speak English does not reflect their academic ability.
Limited English uals often speak English as a second Second Language ◆ Try to incorporate students’ cultural experiences into your instruction. The help of a bilingual
Proficiencies language. The customs and behavior ◆ Mainstreaming and the aide may be effective.
of people in the majority culture may Minority Child ◆ Include information about different cultures in your curriculum to help build students’
be confusing to these individuals. ◆ Children with Limited self-image.
Cultural values may inhibit some of English: Teaching ◆ Avoid cultural stereotypes.
these students from full participation. Strategies for the ◆ Encourage students to share their cultures in the classroom.
Regular Classroom
◆ Educational Services to
Handicapped Students
with Limited English
Proficiency: A California
Statewide Study/
PBN B621
Students with Individuals with behavior disorders ◆ Exceptional Children ◆ Provide a clearly structured environment with regard to scheduling, rules, room arrange-
Behavior Disorders deviate from standards or expecta- ◆ Journal of Special ment, and safety.
tions of behavior and impair the Education ◆ Clearly outline objectives and how you will help students obtain objectives.
functioning of others and themselves. ◆ Educating Students with ◆ Work for long-term improvement; do not expect immediate success.
These learners may also be gifted or Behavior Disorders ◆ Model appropriate behavior for students and reinforce it.
learning disabled. ◆ Adjust group requirements for individual needs.
Students with Individuals who have orthopedic ◆ The Source Book for the ◆ Discuss with the student when you should offer aid.
Orthopedic impairments have restricted use of Disabled ◆ Help students and staff understand orthopedic impairments.
Impairments one or more limbs and require the ◆ Teaching Exceptional ◆ Invite all students to participate in activities including field trips, special events, and projects.
assistance of wheelchairs, crutches, Children ◆ Learn more about special orthopedic devices; be aware of any special safety precautions needed.
or braces. Other impairments may ◆ Vocational Preparation
require the use of respirators or and Employment of
other medical equipment. Students with Physical
and Multiple Disabilities
continued on next page

Subject Description Sources of Information Tips for Instruction
Students with The visually disabled have partial ◆ Journal of Visual ◆ Help students become independent. Modify assignments as needed.
Visual Impairments or total loss of sight. Individuals with Impairment and ◆ Provide tactile models whenever possible.
visual impairments are not signifi- Blindness ◆ Team the students with sighted peers.
cantly different from their sighted ◆ Education of the Visually ◆ Teach classmates to serve as guides.
peers in ability range or personality. Handicapped ◆ Tape lectures and reading assignments.
However, blindness may affect cogni- ◆ American Foundation for
tive, motor, and social development, the Blind
especially if early intervention is
lacking.
Students with Partial or total loss of hearing may ◆ American Annals of the ◆ Seat students where they can see your lip movements easily.
Hearing Impairments affect an individual’s cognitive, motor, Deaf ◆ Avoid verbal directions.
social, and speech development if ◆ Journal of Speech and ◆ Avoid standing with your back to the window or to a light source.
early intervention did not occur. The Hearing Research ◆ Use an overhead projector to help you maintain eye contact while writing.
ability range or personality of the ◆ National Association of ◆ Write all assignments on the board, or hand out written instructions.
hearing impaired is not significantly the Deaf
different from the hearing student.
Students with All learning-disabled students have ◆ Journal of Learning ◆ Create a classroom environment that leads to success.
Learning Disabilities an academic problem in one or Disabilities ◆ Provide assistance and direction; clearly define rules, assignments, and duties.
more areas, such as academic learn- ◆ The ABCs of Learning ◆ Allow for peer interaction during class time; utilize peer helpers.
ing, language, perception, social- Disabilities ◆ Practice skills frequently.
emotional adjustment, memory, or ◆ Learning Disability ◆ Use games and drills to help maintain interest.
ability to pay attention. Quarterly ◆ Allow students to record answers on tape, and allow extra time to complete tests
and assignments.
◆ Provide outlines or tape lecture materials.
Gifted Students Gifted students are often described ◆ Journal for the Education ◆ Emphasize concepts, theories, relationships, ideas, and generalizations.
as those having above-average abil- of the Gifted ◆ Let students express themselves in a variety of ways including drawing, creative writing,
ity, task commitment, and creativity. ◆ The National Research or acting.
Gifted students rank in the top five Center on the Gifted and ◆ Make arrangements for students to work on independent projects.
percent of their class. They usually Talented ◆ Make arrangements for students to advance to selected subjects early.
finish work more quickly than others ◆ Utilize public services and resources, such as agencies providing free and inexpensive materials,
and are capable of divergent thinking. community services and programs, and people in the community with specific expertise.

Different Learning Styles

Students often have different learning styles. Knowing how a particular student
learns can be the key to academic success.
Type Description Likes to… Is Good at… Learns Best by… Famous Learners…
Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence is related to words and read, write, tell stories, play memorizing names, dates, saying, hearing, and seeing ◆ Maya Angelou—poet
Learner language, written and spoken. word games, and tell jokes places, and trivia; spelling; words. ◆ Abraham Lincoln—U.S.
and riddles. using descriptive language; president and statesman
and creating imaginary ◆ Jerry Seinfeld—comedian
worlds.
Logical/ Intelligence deals with inductive and perform experiments, solve math, reasoning, logic, categorizing, classifying, ◆ Stephen Hawking—
Mathematical deductive thinking and reasoning, puzzles, work with numbers, problem solving, computing and working with abstract physicist
Learner numbers, and abstractions. ask questions, and explore numbers, moving from con- patterns and relationships. ◆ Albert Einstein—
patterns and relationships. crete to abstract, and think- theoretical physicist
ing conceptually. ◆ Alexa Canady—
neurosurgeon
Visual/Spatial Intelligence relies on the sense of draw, build, design, and understanding the use visualizing, dreaming, using ◆ Pablo Picasso—artist
◆ Maria Martinez—artist
Learner sight and being able to visualize an create things; daydream; do of space and how to get the mind’s eye, and working
object, including the ability to create jigsaw puzzles and mazes; around in it, thinking in with colors and pictures. ◆ I. M. Pei—architect
mental images. watch videos; look at photos; three-dimensional terms,
and draw maps and charts. and imagining things in
clear visual images.
Naturalistic Intelligence involves observing, spend time outdoors and measuring, charting, map- visualizing, performing ◆ George Washington
Learner understanding, and organizing pat- work with plants, animals, ping, observing plants and hands-on activities, bringing Carver—agricultural
terns in the natural environment. and other parts of the natural animals, keeping journals, outdoors into the classroom, chemist
environment; good at identify- collecting, classifying, and and relating home/class- ◆ Rachel Carson—
ing plants and animals and at participating in outdoor room to the natural world. scientific writer
hearing and seeing connec- activities. ◆ Charles Darwin—
tions to nature. scientist

Type Description Likes to… Is Good at… Learns Best by… Famous Learners…
Musical/Rhythmic Intelligence is based on recognition sing and hum, listen to music, remembering melodies; rhythm, melody, and music. ◆ Henry Mancini—composer
Learner of tonal patterns, including various play an instrument, move keeping time; mimicking ◆ Marian Anderson—
environmental sounds, and on sensi- body when music is playing, beat and rhythm; noticing opera singer
tivity to rhythm and beats. and make up songs. pitches, rhythms, and back- ◆ Paul McCartney—singer,
ground and environmental songwriter, musician
sounds.
Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence is related to physical learn by hands-on methods, physical activities such as touching, moving, interact- ◆ Jackie Joyner-Kersey—
Learner movement and the brain’s motor cor- demonstrate skill in crafts, sports, dancing, acting, ing with space, and pro- Olympic gold medalist
tex, which controls bodily motion. tinker, perform, display physi- and crafts. cessing knowledge through ◆ Katherine Dunham—
cal endurance, and challenge bodily sensations. modern dancer
self physically. ◆ Dr. Christian Barnard—
surgical pioneer
Interpersonal Intelligence operates primarily have lots of friends, talk to understanding people and sharing, comparing, ◆ Jimmy Carter—U.S. presi-
Learner through person-to-person relation- people, join groups, play their feelings, leading oth- relating, cooperating, and dent, statesman, winner of
ships and communication. cooperative games, solve ers, organizing, communicat- interviewing. Nobel Peace Prize
problems as part of a group, ing, and mediating conflicts. ◆ Eleanor Roosevelt—
and volunteer help when humanitarian
others need it. ◆ Lee Iacocca—former presi-

dent of Chrysler Corporation
Intrapersonal Intelligence is related to inner states work alone, pursue own understanding self, focusing working alone, doing individ- ◆ Marva Collins—educator
Learner of being, self-reflection, metacogni- interests, daydream, keep inward on feelings/dreams, ualized projects, and engag- ◆ Maria Montessori—
tion, and awareness of spiritual a personal diary or journal, following instincts, pursuing ing in self-paced instruction. educator and physician
realities. and think about starting own interests, and being original. ◆ Sigmund Freud—
business. psychotherapist

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
STUDENT PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT

Assessing the level of understanding that your students have gained is both an
administrative necessity and a useful tool for motivating students. When grad-
ing, promote a positive attitude. Grades should provide positive reinforcement
of your assessment of students’ performance. Grades can also help students feel
proud of their accomplishments and motivate them to work at improving their
overall performance.
Vary your grading standards according to time and purpose. For example, you
may be lenient at the beginning of the course to help students develop feelings of
success and confidence. Later, when your expectations are higher, your standards
may be more rigid.
Quizzes and tests should be scored and ranked but not necessarily graded.
Sometimes percentage grades may be misleading or even confusing. Since many
quizzes and some tests, especially short tests, cannot be scored on the basis of
100 percent, many teachers maintain a cumulative record of points earned and
make no association with letter grades or percentages.
In determining a student’s final grade, do not depend entirely on a mathematical
average. Also give consideration to the general quality of the student’s home-
work, the quantity and quality of the student’s class participation, and evidence
of improvement in skills, knowledge, habits, and attitudes.
As the teacher for this course, you may want to consider the purpose of
assessment:
◆ What is it you want to evaluate and why?
◆ What are your goals for the course?
◆ How do you meet your goals and objectives?
Assessment Strategies
You may need a variety of ways to assess what your students have learned.
One traditional method of measuring student progress is the written test that
evaluates recall of subject content. This program offers students assessment
opportunities at the section, chapter, and unit levels. Use ExamView Pro Test
Generator Software to evaluate and assess student progress. The program’s
Onlnie Learning Center also offers self-assessment exercises for your students.
Performance Assessment
It is important to assess more than students’ rote learning skills. Performance
assessment gives you the opportunity to evaluate whether a student has learned
to analyze and plan under different sets of circumstances. A traditional paper-
and-pencil test will not demonstrate your students’ skills in these areas.

CREATING A LEARNER-CENTERED
ASSESSMENT ENVIRONMENT
AND EVALUATION
The assessment process for this course is designed to be multidimensional and

provides you with many activities, projects, and situations that create opportuni-
ties for performance assessment. Cooperative learning, discussion activities, and
research projects provide opportunities for students to practice new skills and to
apply what they have learned to hands-on projects.
Skills Development
Skills development is the application of learning. It is the concept that skills can
be taught and that practice of those skills improves learning. The assumptions
underlying skills development accept that students:
◆ Are responsible for their learning, their behavior, and their actions.
◆ Must be active participants in the learning process.
◆ Must participate in cooperative and experiential learning.
◆ Must be open and willing to experiment and to learn new ideas, informa-
tion, and skills.
Ask students to complete the following questions at the end of each chapter or
at the end of each week:
◆ What is the most important thing I learned in class this week?
◆ How can I apply what I learned to my other classes?
◆ How can I apply what I learned to the workplace?
Project Assessment Rubric

The rubric on the following page may be used to assess Web design projects,
research assignments, and class presentations. You may wish to work with indi-
vidual students to set more specific goals and use those goals to assess student
work. Using this rubric, a student can receive a maximum score of 20 points. The
point grade can be assessed as letter grade following the information below:
Total Possible Points = 20
Score Grade
18–20 = A
15–17 = B
10–14 = C
5–9 = D
0–4 = F

Project Assessment Rubric

1 2 3 4
Technical No technical The student The student The student

Requirements requirements has met some has met the has exceeded
Has the student have been met. of the technical technical the technical
met the technical requirements. requirements. requirements.
requirements of the
project as assigned?
Content No content The student The student The student

Does the project requirements has met some has met has exceeded
contain the required of the project of the content the content the content
content as assigned? have been met. requirements. requirements requirements
of the project. of the project.
Organization The informa- The organiza- The organiza- The organiza-

Is the information tion in the tion of infor- tion of information is logical
in the project well project is not mation can be tion is adequate and interest-
organized and appro- understand- followed with and appropri- ing; the goals
priate to the goals of able. difficulty but is ate to the goals. are met in
the project? not appropriate creative ways.
to the goals.
Design The design The design The design The design is

Is the design under- detracts from is somewhat is clear and compelling
standable and appro- the clarity understand- adequate to the and creative
priate to the goals of of the project. able but is not goals. and serves the
the project? appropriate to goals.
the goals.
Mechanics The text has The text has six The text has The text has no
Is the text or the more than ten to nine gram- two to five grammatical
speech (for oral grammatical matical errors. grammatical errors. The stu-
presentations) errors. The stu- The student errors. The student’s speaking
grammatically dent has great has some dif- dent has little is clear and
correct? difficulty speak- ficulty speaking difficulty speak- correct.
ing clearly and clearly and cor- ing clearly and
correctly. rectly. correctly.

Portfolio Assessment
If they are used, student portfolios can also provide assessment. Have students
include in their portfolios:
◆ Work that reflects an achievement of 21st Century Skills and competencies.
◆ Work that reflects growth as a critical thinker.
◆ Work that demonstrates presentation skills.
◆ Work that shows interdisciplinary thinking.
◆ Something that reflects growth in professional behavior.
◆ Something that shows application of logical reasoning.
◆ Something that shows application of scientific reasoning.
◆ Work that shows an ability to effectively communicate.
◆ Something that shows an aesthetic analysis or evaluation of artwork.
◆ Something from an extracurricular activity that reflects personal or profes-
sional growth or understanding.
DETERMINING ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES

The chart below can help you determine which assessment strategies will work
best for you and your students.
Assessment
Advantages Disadvantages
Strategies
Objective Measures
Multiple choice ◆ Reliable, easy to ◆ Measures cognitive
Matching validate knowledge
Item sets ◆ Objective, if effectively, but is
True/False designed effectively limited on other
◆ Low cost, efficient measures
◆ Automated adminis- ◆ Not a good measure
tration of overall
◆ Lends to equating performance

Assessment
Strategies
Written Measures
Essays ◆ Face validity ◆ Subjective scoring
Restricted response (real life) ◆ Time consuming
Written simulations ◆ In-depth assessment and expensive to
Case analysis ◆ Measures writing score
Problem-solving skills and higher ◆ Limited breadth
exercises level skills ◆ Difficult to equate
◆ Reasonable devel- ◆ Moderate reliability
opmental costs and
time
Oral Measures
Oral examinations ◆ Measures commu- ◆ Costly and time
Interviews nications and inter- consuming
personal skills ◆ Limited reliability
◆ In-depth assess- ◆ Narrow sample
ment with varied of content
stimulus materials ◆ Scoring difficult,
◆ Learner involvement need multiple raters
Simulated Activities
In-basket ◆ Moderate reliability ◆ Costly and time
Computer simulations ◆ Performance-based consuming
measure ◆ Difficult to score,
administer, and
develop
Portfolios and
Product Analysis
Work samples ◆ Provides informa- ◆ Costly to administer
Projects tion not normally ◆ Labor and paper
Work diaries and logs available intensive
Achievement records ◆ Learner involvement ◆ Difficult to validate
◆ Face validity or equate
(real life) ◆ Biased toward best
◆ Easy to collect samples or out-
information standing qualities

TOOLS
ASSESSMENT
FOR PROFESSIONAL
AND EVALUATION
DEVELOPMENT
Assessment
Strategies
Performance
Measures
Demonstrations ◆ Job-related ◆ Rater training
Presentations ◆ Relatively easy to required
Performances administer ◆ Hard to equate
Production work ◆ In-depth assess- ◆ Subjective scoring
Observation ment ◆ Time consuming if
◆ Face validity breadth is needed
(real life)
Performance
Records
References ◆ Efficient ◆ Low reliability
Performance rating ◆ Low cost ◆ Subjective
forms ◆ Easy to administer ◆ Hard to equate
Parental rating ◆ Rater judgment
Self-Evaluation
◆ Learner involvement ◆ May be biased
and empowerment or unrealistic

◆ Learner respon-
sibility
◆ Measures dimen-
sions not available
otherwise

COURSE ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

The first place to start in the evaluation process is to examine goals and objec-
tives against outcomes.
Assessment of Teachers
The point of giving teacher and course evaluations is to receive comments from
students concerning their opinions of the course and the teacher’s teaching.
Students can use many standard evaluation forms to evaluate teachers. You may
also want to have students give you verbal or written suggestions.
Teacher Self-Assessment
A good place to start when designing your own instructional assessment plan is
to review your goals. Give some thought to what it is you want to accomplish.
You may have a long list. Review your list carefully and choose the goals that are
most important.
◆ What were the goals and objectives of the class?
◆ Did the course meet these goals and objectives?
◆ Did students make connections to other courses?
◆ Did students make connections to the workplace?
◆ Did students use critical thinking and creative problem solving?
◆ Did students learn how to learn?
◆ Did lectures integrate learning styles?

◆ Did students understand the value of cooperative learning?
◆ How can you make the class more experiential and active?
◆ Were guest speakers effective?
◆ What topics did students enjoy most?
Student Assessments of Course

Alternatively, teachers may want students to evaluate the course. Students can
answer the same questions listed above under teacher self-assessment. Teachers
may also want students to complete an evaluation form. You will probably want
to formulate specific questions to help students focus on particular topics and
concerns.

Assessment of Outcomes
You may want to gather data and work with staff in research and development
to measure outcomes. Compare students who took the class with those who did
not. Investigate:
◆ The retention rates of students over several years
◆ GPAs
◆ Graduation rates
You may also want to look at other factors considered important in the success
of the class. For example:
◆ The class is limited to 25 students.
◆ The class is taught by experienced teachers.
◆ The class includes peer teachers.
◆ The textbook is new and required.
◆ The course is offered at a reasonable time.
◆ The teachers are given training and support.
Student Advisory Committee

You may want to suggest that a student advisory committee be established to
collect data, set goals, and assess the success of the program. This committee
may be composed of teachers, administrators, and staff interested in student
success and retention. It should be stressed that data not be used punitively, and
there should also be multiple measures. The data should be a basis for ongoing
conversations. This committee may want to:
◆ Develop a historical database.
◆ Set goals and objectives.
◆ Monitor results and outcomes.
◆ Meet with employers.
◆ Analyze student performance.
◆ Integrate data and goals into strategic planning and budget procedures.
◆ Collect data for program review and accreditation.

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GENERAL CLASSROOM GUIDELINES

◆ Reward good work.

The Student’s Role

Tools for Professional Development 2

The Teacher’s Role

Tools for Professional Development 3

◆ Emphasize communication skills. Stress the importance of public speak-

Instruction Style Guidelines

Tools for Professional Development 4

◆ Demonstrate new concepts and procedures to the class. Students learn

The Teacher’s Attitude

Tools for Professional Development 5

◆ As the teacher, try to be seen as an open, supportive member of the team, as

Helping Improve Study Habits and Time Management

Tools for Professional Development 6

Developing Critical Thinking Skills in Students

Basic Elements of Critical Thinking

Benefits of Critical Thinking

Tools for Professional Development 7

How to Teach Critical Thinking

Bloom’s Cognitive Categories

Thinking Skill Behaviors Required

Analysis connect, relate, differentiate, classify, arrange, check,

Integrating Critical Thinking Skills

Tools for Professional Development 8

Improving Basic Skills

Developing Active Reading Strategies for Students

Tools for Professional Development 9

◆ Divide a sheet of paper in half lengthwise.

Tools for Professional Development 10

Students should do the following:

GRID FOR SQ3R

Q = Question: Question as you survey the materials.

R1 = Read: As you read, actively seek answers to your questions. Write

Tools for Professional Development 11

Writing for Success

Listening with Intent

Strengthening Arithmetic/Mathematics Skills

Tools for Professional Development 12

COURSE ENRICHMENT GUIDELINES

Integrating Real-World Connections

Value Students’ Experiences

Discuss School and Community Resources That Can Help Students

Invite Guest Speakers to Your Class

◆ They are experts in their area.

Tools for Professional Development 13

Evaluate guest speakers for your records by filling in this form:

Guest Speaker Form

The Ethical Decision-Making Model

Tools for Professional Development 14

◆ What are the ethical issues?

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES

Problems with Incomplete Work

Tools for Professional Development 15

for handling unmotivated students:

Tools for Professional Development 16

◆ Discuss learning styles. Discuss different learning and relating styles.

Too Much Socializing