GLOBAL JOURNAL OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES VOL. 17, NO.

2 2011: 131-136
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ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF CRUDE OIL SPILLAGES ON CROP FARMS

IN RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA

T. P. OJIMBA
(Received 8 June 2010; Revision Accepted 14 March 2011)

ABSTRACT

This article focused on economic effects of crude oil spillages on crop farms in Rivers State, Nigeria. The
objectives of the study were to calculate the areas of crop farms spilled by crude oil and estimate the corresponding
economic losses. Data for the study were collected using a multistage sampling procedure. A total of 170
questionnaires were distributed among crop farmers in selected 17 local government areas of Rivers State, out of
which 169 questionnaires were retrieved and retained for data analysis. Total area of crop farms spilled was 548.09
ha, of which about 80% were accounted for by heavy and medium oil spillages. About 83% of the economic losses
($148, 925.19) incurred by farmers were also accountable to heavy and medium oil spillages, while mean value lost
per hectare of a crop farm affected was $307.15. Therefore, the study concluded that oil spillages reduced areas of
farmland available for cropping, thereby causing serious economic losses in form of income and output, accruable to
the crop farmers in the state. To ameliorate these difficulties faced by crop farmers in Rivers State, it was
recommended that comprehensive scientific rehabilitating programme and diversification of sources of income for
farmers is embarked upon through effective extension and rural education programmes.

KEYWORDS: Crude oil spillages; environmental impact; economic losses on crop farmers; Rivers State; Nigeria.

1.0. INTRODUCTION Accidents could also occur due possibly to

The knowledge of crude oil spill behaviour is of vandalization of the pipelines leading to enormous loss
the utmost importance for the evaluation and risk of crude oil and/or refined petroleum products (Onwuka,
assessment of mineral oil contamination and its effects 2005; Platform, 2006; Cohen, 2008; Ogbu, 2008). Crude
(Seitinger, et al., 1994). An oil spill can affect the oil spillages in this article will include oil spillages in
environment in numerous ways. The magnitude of the heavy, medium, and light degrees of occurrences on
impact could be dependent on the type of accident farmland in Rivers State of Nigeria.
(blowouts, explosions, pipeline ruptures), the region of
the spill and the clean up and control techniques (Fisher 1.1. The Problem of the Study
and Sublette, 2005; Ogbu, 2008; Katusiime, 2009). As with many other benefits of civilization in this
Advanced technology not withstanding, accident current technical age, there are two sides of the
in the form of blow-outs of production well and pipeline equation of exploration and refining oil – the benefits
leaks have continued to occur in the Niger Delta region and the consequences (loss) which in this case is the
of Nigeria destroying farmland, crops, fish, and other environmental impact of the oil industry on agricultural
wildlife (such as snails, mushrooms, and non-woody production. This view was strongly supported by Pearce,
resources), thereby causing hardship to the subsistent et al., (1991) and Odu (1983). Pearce, et al., (1991)
farmers in the area (Edwin-Wosu and Kinako, 2004; stated that an improvement in environmental quality is
Agbogidi, et al., 2005; Daniel-Kalio and Tih, 2006; also an economic improvement if it increases social
Akaninwor and Okeke, 2006; Osuji and Ozioma, 2007). satisfaction or welfare. A benefit is any gain in welfare
Also seriously contaminated are streams, ponds, rivers (or satisfaction or utility). A cost is any loss in welfare.
and lakes, which serve as sources of drinking water We are here concerned then with the measurement of
(Essien and Antai, 2005; Abu and Chikere, 2006; the costs of reductions in environmental quality as it
Cohen, 2008; Anugwom and Anugwom, 2009; Chikere, affects agriculture by the oil industry, whether it be oil
et al. 2009; Essien and Antai, 2009). spillage, hazards in the form of heat, light, noise or
The exploitation of natural gas deposits of the acquisition of farmlands. Therefore, it would be a better
Niger Delta region of Nigeria had not been economically state of affairs if it is taken for granted that the
viable until recently. As a result, much of it has been disturbance of the environment (as it affects agriculture),
burnt-off to allow access to the underlying oil (NDDC, is a fact we must live with in Rivers State as long as
2006; Platform, 2006). The burning gas (flares) Nigeria prospects for oil and gas, and derive the benefits
produces gases such as nitrogen oxide and sulphur thereof (Ojimba, 2006).
dioxide which are released into the air. These air-borne In order to resolve to live with the problems of
pollutants are highly toxic, and the growth of plants crude oil pollution and make the best out of it, it is
(especially crops) was particularly inhibited by the hot necessary to carryout detailed studies to assess and
sooty emissions (Edwin-Wosu and Kinako, 2004; properly understand (in economic terms) the effects
Cohen, 2008; Udoetok and Osuji, 2008). crude oil spillages have on agricultural production in
T. P. Ojimba, Department of Agricultural Science, Rivers State University of Education, Ndele Campus, P.M.B. 5047,
Port Harcourt, Rivers State
132 T. P. OJIMBA
particular and the environment in general, in as far as it the soil, and destroys wildlife and the breeding ground
affects the economic status of the Rivers State farmers. for marine fishes because of the toxicity of oil and gas.
With distortion in the major livelihood activities of the The various government programmes aimed at
people in Rivers State due to crude oil spillages, the ameliorating the plight of the farmers have failed due to
question this article asks is what is the value of inefficiency and corruption. Consequently, the
economic losses which the crude oil spillages on crop indigenous people (mainly farmers) are impoverished,
farms had caused the farmers in Rivers State. with attendant increase in environmental abuse
occasioned by their struggle for survival.
1.2. The Justification of the Study Katusiime (2009) in her report on Niger Delta
There is paucity of scientific data on economic said that leaking pipelines running through villages,
losses due to crude oil spillages on crop farms in Rivers farms, creeks and rivers are a major source of pollution.
State. Ojimba (2005) did a comparison study of crop Farmland polluted by oil is rarely rehabilitated thereby
production in crude oil polluted and non-polluted farms causing economic ruin. Platform (2006) in its report on
in Rivers State, Nigeria. His results show that average oil pollution in the Niger Delta stated that between 1976
peasant farm size cultivated in the non-polluted crop and 1998, over 2.5 million barrels of oil have been spilt
farms which was 1.60 ha was higher than an average into the environment and that these spillages are a
peasant farm size in crude oil polluted crop farms (1.45 regular feature of life in the Niger Delta. They are rarely
ha). This reduction in the area of farm size cultivated, dealt with promptly. In some cases, minor leaks are left
reduced the total quantity of crop output and hence the for months, resulting in major pollution. Platform (2006)
farm income realized by farmers from crude oil polluted went on to say that there is no clean up operation in the
farms when compared to the non-polluted farms. This Niger Delta worth mentioning. No one knows exactly
led to his conclusion that crude oil pollution had how much oil has been spilt, how much land is polluted,
detrimental effects on crop production. how many people are affected, what species are
Ojimba (2007) investigated the effect of farm threatened, what the economic or environmental costs
size and crude oil pollution on the poverty level of the have been. This article will calculate the areas of crop
farmers in Rivers State of Nigeria. The results of his farms affected by crude oil spillages and try to estimate
investigation show that there was more poverty the economic values of crops lost due to the various
experienced in crude oil polluted crop farms households. degrees of oil spillages in Rivers State of Nigeria.
Therefore, he concluded that crude oil pollution Cohen (2008) reported that the residents of the
impoverished crop farmers in the state. Niger Delta sub-region have been expressing deep
There are literatures on the general effects of oil grievances for over two decades. Their air has been
pollution on agriculture (Otton, et al., 2005; Fisher and polluted by the flaring gas associated with crude oil
Sublette, 2005; Bader, 2006). There are literatures that pollution. Their wetlands, streams and farmland have
had touched on the effects of crude oil pollution in been polluted by oil spills and pipelines leaks. Cohen
Nigerian agriculture (Agbogidi, et al., 2005; Daniel-Kalio (2008) further reported that the residents of Niger Delta
and Tih, 2006; Chikere and Chijioke-Osuji, 2006; have seen virtually no benefits from oil revenues coming
Chikere, et al., 2009; Anugwom and Anugwom, 2009; to Nigeria via the Federal Government and that the
Tanee and Akonye, 2009). None of these studies people remain among the poorest in the country.
mentioned above had researched on the current topic: In some of the earlier studies conducted in
economic effects of crude oil spillages on crop farms in Rivers State, Nigeria, Mubana (1978) determined the
Rivers State of Nigeria, therefore the need and magnitude of the negative effects of crude petroleum
justification for the study. exploration and production on the output levels on
traditional farms in parts of Rivers State, concentrating
1.3. The Objectives of the Study on only four villages. He observed that on heavily
The main objective of this article is to estimate polluted farms both crop plants and trees were extinct.
the effects of crude oil spillages on crop farms in Rivers Osuji (1998) also conducted a post-impact survey of oil
State of Nigeria. The specific objectives are to: spill affected sites at Ogbodo and Eneka in Rivers State
(i) Calculate the area of crop farms polluted by of Nigeria. The survey conducted 15 months after the oil
crude oil spillages in Rivers State. spillage revealed that the oil affected plots had fewer
(ii) Estimate the economic losses due to crude oil plant covers when compared with the unaffected plots.
spillages on crop farms in the state; and Each of these studies showed that oil concentration in
(iii) Make policy recommendations that will the soil has adverse effects on performance of crops.
ameliorate the negative effects of crude oil However, none of these citations entailed detailed
spillages on crop farms in Rivers State of estimates of areas affected and economic analysis of
Nigeria. crude oil spillages.

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW 3.0. DATA

Chikere, et al., (2009) performed experiments in This study was conducted in Rivers State of
which Bonny light crude oil was spilled with three Nigeria where oil production and exploration activities is
treatments of different fertilizers (NPK, urea and poultry spread throughout the 23 local government areas of the
droppings) with periodic tilling in a tropical soil state. Data were collected from both the primary and
undergoing bioremediation as a result of the crude oil secondary sources. The primary data were collected
spillage in Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Onwuka (2005) through personal interviews and observations with the
reported that in Nigeria, environmental problems are crop farmers, and structured questionnaires distributed
severe, particularly in the Niger Delta region. The author among such crop farmers farming in crude oil polluted
stated that the crude oil activities damaged the fertility of farmland in the state.
ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF CRUDE OIL SPILLAGES ON CROP FARMS IN RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA 133
A multistage sampling technique was used to 4.1. Area of Farmland Polluted by Crude Oil
obtain data for the study. The first stage involved the Spillages
selection of seventeen (17) local government areas The area of farmland affected by various
(LGAs), out of the existing 23 LGAs in the state. This degrees of crude oil spillages in Rivers State during the
selection was based on the fact that these 17 LGAs period of survey in 2003 is shown on Table 1. The
were more crop farming inclined than others. The LGAs survey identified three categories of degrees of crude oil
include: Abua/Odual, Ahoada East, Ahoada West, spillages, which usually occur on crop farms in the state.
Andoni, Asaritoru, Degema, Eleme, Emohua, Etche, These are heavy crude oil spillages (in which all crops
Gokana, Ikwerre, Khana, Obio/Akpor, are destroyed), medium oil spillages (in which almost all
Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni, Omuma, Oyigbo and Tai LGAs. crops are destroyed on the affected farms), and light oil
The second stage involved the stratification of spillages (in which some crops were destroyed). These
farmland in an affected LGA into sampling units namely findings conform with the findings of the earlier studies
crude oil heavily spilled, medium and light degrees of of Mubana (1978); and Osuji, (1998); and also with the
spillages on crop farms. The third stage involved the more recent findings of Fisher and Sublette (2005).
random sampling of ten (10) crop farmers whose The total area of respondents’ crop farms spilled
farmland were affected by the different degrees of by the various degrees of crude oil spillages during the
spillages. A total of 170 questionnaires were distributed period of the survey in 2003 was 548.09 ha. Of these,
among crop farmers in the seventeen LGAs selected, the heavy oil spillages (in which all crops were
out of which 169 questionnaires were retrieved and destroyed) occurred on the largest area of 272.90 ha
retained as suitable for data analysis. (49.79%). This was followed by medium oil spillages (in
which almost all crops were destroyed) which occurred
4.0. RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS on 164.54 ha (30.01%) of respondents crop farms, and
The results were analyzed based on the set the light oil spillages (in which some crops were
objectives of calculating the areas of farmland polluted destroyed), occurred on 110.69 ha (20.20%) of
by crude oil spillages, and estimating the economic respondents crop farms in Rivers State.
losses incurred due to the different degrees of crude oil
spillages on the crop farms in Rivers State.

Table 1: Area of crop farms affected by crude oil spillages in varying degrees in Rivers State, 2003.
Table 1: Area of crop farms affected by crude oil spillages in varying degrees in Rivers State in 2003.
Degrees of Total Perce Average Standard Minimum Maximum C.V. ( (%) Ranking
oil spillage hectar nt farm deviation value value (ha)
es -age size (S.D) (ha)
spilled spilled (ha)
(ha) (ha)
Heavy Oil 272.90 49.79 3.37 1.91 0.40 10.00 56.68 1st
spillage (all
crops destroyed)
nd
Medium oil 164.50 30.01 2.79 1.50 0.30 10.00 53.76 2
spillage
(almost all crops
destroyed)
Light oil 110.69 20.20 2.09 1.21 0.20 8.00 57.89 3rd
spillage
(some crops
destroyed)
Total 548.09 100 - - - - - -
Mean 182.70 - 2.75 1.54 0.30 9.33 56.11 -

Source: Field Survey, 2003.

Results on Table 1 further show that average area of 4.2. Economic Effects of Crude Oil Spillages on
respondents’ farm size heavily spilled by crude oil during Crop Farms
the period of survey was 3.37 ha, average area of farm The estimated economic values of crops lost by
size affected by medium oil spillage was 2.79 ha and surveyed crop farmers due to various degrees of crude
light oil spillages occurred on an average farm size of oil spillages on crop farmland in Rivers State in 2003 are
2.09 ha. These crude oil spillages reduced the farmland reported on Table 2. The original value of naira (local
available for cropping in the state (Ojimba, 2007). This Nigerian currency) obtained during the survey was
reduction in crop farms area had caused untold converted into United States of America dollars (US$)
economic hardship to the crop farmers affected in Rivers using an exchange rate of N120 for US$1.00 which was
State and this hardship is continuous (Onwuka, 2005; the prevailing exchange rate as at the time of the survey
Platform 2006). in 2003.
134 T. P. OJIMBA
All crude oil spillages investigated caused a total economic loss of crops due to crude oil spillages on crop
economic lost of $178,769.37 incurred by the crop farms in Rivers State has led to loss of areas of
farmers interviewed during the survey. Among these cultivable farmland, achievable crop output and
economic losses, heavy crude oil spillages on crop accruable net farm incomes to the farmers in the
farms accounted for more than 57% of crops lost valued affected areas. This has led to increased poverty among
at $102,934.21, with a mean crops value lost per heavy the Rivers State crop farmers (Ojimba, 2006; 2007) and
degree of spillage of $1,286.68 and a mean crop value might be one of the reasons why the indigenes of the
lost per hectare of crop farm of $381.80. The medium state are said to be one of the poorest in the country
crude oil spillage category accounted for about 25.73% despite their oil rich environment (Cohen, 2008).
of the total loss of crops by the interviewed respondents Secondly, the average economic loss of $307.15 per
in Rivers State in 2003. This amounted to $45,990.98 hectare of crop farm in the state is very significant to the
with a mean crops value lost per medium degree of economy of peasant farmers households who are
spillage of $753.95 and mean crops value lost per believed to live on less than $1.00 per person per day
hectare of $270.23. The light oil spillage accounted for and own an average of 1.0 ha of farm cultivated
about 16.69% with a total value of $29,844.18. The annually (Lin and Lin, 2003; Adams and Page, 2005;
mean crops value lost per degree of light oil spillage was Ojimba, 2007).
$563.10, with a mean crops value lost per hectare of a
crop farm of $269.42. 5.0. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS

Table 2: Estimated economic value of crops lost The study focused on economic effects of crude
due to oil spillages on crop farms in Rivers State in oil spillages on crop farms in Rivers State, Nigeria. The
(US$.) specific objectives of the study were to calculate the
areas of crop farms polluted by crude oil spillages,
These data on Table 2 indicate that there were estimate the economic losses arising from such
severe economic losses by crop farmers interviewed excesses, and make policy recommendations that will
during the survey due to crude oil spillages on their crop ameliorate the negative effects on crop farmer.
farms. The reduction in size of farmlands and the

Table 2: Estimated economic value of crops lost due to oil spillages on crop farms in Rivers State in (US $.)
Degrees Total crops Percen Mean Standar Mean Coefficient Rankin
of oil value tage crops d crops value of variation g
spillage lost/degree value deviation lost/ha ($) (C.V.) (%)
of spillage lost/degre (S.D) ($)
($) e of
spillage
($)
Heavy Oil 102, 934.21 57.58 1,286.68 910.42 381.80 70.76 1st
Spillage
(All Crops
Destroyed)
nd
Medium Oil 45,990.98 25.73 753.95 547.12 270.23 72.57 2
Spillage
(Almost All
Crops
Destroyed)
rd
Light Oil 29,844.18 16.69 563.10 423.35 269.42 75.18 3
Spillage
(Some Crops
Destroyed)

Total Crops
Value Lost 178,769.37 100 2,603.73 1,880.89 921.45 72.24 -
Mean Crops
Value Lost 59,589.79 - 867.91 626.96 307.15 72.24 -

Source: Field Survey, 2003.

Data for the study were collected from both primary and data for analysis. A total of 170 questionnaires were
secondary sources. distributed among crop farmers in the selected 17 LGAs
The study which was conducted in Rivers State of out of which 169 questionnaires were retrieved and
Nigeria used a multistage sampling technique to obtain retained as suitable for data analysis.
ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF CRUDE OIL SPILLAGES ON CROP FARMS IN RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA 135
Results of the analyses showed that the degree developing countries? World Development.
of oil spillage on crop farms were principally three, 33(10): 1645-1669.
namely heavy oil spillage (where all crops were Agbogidi, M.O., Nweke, U.F. and Eshegbeyi, O.F.,
destroyed), medium oil spillage (where almost all crops 2005. Effects of soil pollution by crude oil on seedling
were destroyed) and light oil spillage (where some crops growth of Leucaena Leucacephala (LAM) De
were destroyed). The total area of crop farms Witt. Global J. Pure and Applied Sciences.
spilled during the period of survey was 548.09 ha, of 11(4): 453 – 456.
which about 50% of the spillage were due to heavy oil
spillage, 30% of the oil spillage was caused by the Akaninwhor, J.O. and Okeke, E.A., 2006. Effects of diets
medium oil spillages and the remaining 20%, was as a contaminated with crude petroleum products
result of light oil spillages. These crude oil spillages (Bonnylight and Forcados) on enzyme activity of
reduced the farmland available for cropping in Rivers Wistar albina rats. Global J. Pure and Applied
State. All crude oil spillages caused a total economic Sciences. 12(4): 501 – 504.
loss of $178,769.37 incurred by the respondent crop
farmers in Rivers State in 2003. About 57% of these Anugwom, E.E. and Anugwom, K.N., 2009. The other
economic losses were accountable to heavy oil side of civil society story: Women, oil and the
spillages, with a mean crops value lost per hectare of a Niger Delta environmental struggle.
crop farm as $381.80. This was followed by medium oil www.springerlink.com/index/13K7J8318242540.
spillages which accounted for about 26% of the crops pdf.- Geo Journal Springer. (Accessed
lost, with crops value lost per hectare of a crop farm as 14/09/2009).
$270.23.
In conclusion, the reduction in size of farmland Bader, D., 2006. Ecuador rainforest and its devastation
and the economic loss of crops due to crude oil spillages by oil production: Ecuador rainforest home to
on crop farms in Rivers State has led to loss of areas of one of the worst cases of oil pollution ever.
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the Rivers State crop farmers. diversity and physiochemical properties of a
In recommending policies that will ameliorate crude oil polluted soil. Nigerian J. Microbiology.
the negative effects of crude oil spillages on crop farms 20: 1039 – 1046.
in Rivers State, this study recommends the following,
that:- Chikere, B., Okpokwasili, G.C. and Chikere, B.O., 2009.
(i) Comprehensive scientific rehabilitation Bacteria diversity in a tropical crude oil polluted
programmes should be implemented for soil undergoing bioremediation. African J.
unavoidable oil spilled crop farms. The Biotechnology. 8 (11): 2535 - 2540.
rehabilitation programmes should be handled by
exerts in this field who are emerging strongly in Cohen, H., 2008. Nigeria : A well – oiled federation.
the state. Peace Ops. JIPO 4(2), Sept. – October.
(ii) Farmers in the state who are in crude oil (Accessed 14/08/2009).
spillages prone areas should seek additional
means of livelihood by diversifying their source Daniel–Kalio, L.A. and Tih, A.P., 2006. Effects of
of income or quit farming entirely for other nutrient supplementation and successive
economic activities that are not crude oil planting in oil-polluted soil on the performance
spillages prone, thereby allowing land to be of carica papaya L. Global J. Pure and Applied
allocated for its best alternative uses, in this Sciences. 12(3): 315-318.
case, oil and gas exploration and production,
since crude oil has become the main stay of the Edwin–Wosu, N.L. and Kinako, P.D.S., 2004. Biomass
Nigerian economy. loss as an index of pollution in various gradient
(iii) There is the need to intensify the dissemination of a crude oil polluted terrestrial environment.
of benefits from the rehabilitation programmes Global J. Pure and Applied Sciences. 10 (4):
and educating crop farmers on best farm 623 – 625.
practices available and what functional
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crude oil spillage on their crops farms. This oil spillage on beach microalgae in Nigeria.
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Essien, J.P. and Antai, S.P., 2009. Chromatium
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