Theory of Architecture 1

LECTURE #015
Space Programming and Diagramming

Arch. Jiffer John L. Taala

ARCH115 Instructor
Architectural programming
Noun
1. As the research and decision-making process that identifies the scope of
work to be designed. It include "facility programming," "functional and
operational requirements," and "scoping."
Space Programming
Noun
1. A primary process to identify and define the requirements of the occupants to
deliver the space. It includes identifying problems and needs, then providing
the right amount and type of space, equipment, and furniture needed to
function efficiently.
Space planning
Noun
1. An in-depth analysis of how physical space is used in structures. It considers
the purpose of spaces and who will use them. Space planning is a process
that takes several steps, and it's an important component for the work of
interior designers and architects.

Although its FORM and ROLE may vary from project to project and from
design method to design method, PROGRAMMING is nevertheless an integral
part of the planning of any building. With the architect involved in projects of
greater and greater complexity, the value of the program has grown from a
means of "getting to know the problem" to that of an instrument which LIMITS
and DIRECTS the planning process. Whereas in the past programming
amounted to little more than a superficial involvement with familiar and
uncomplicated functions which had little or no direct influence on the
operations of design synthesis, it is developing into a systematic, analytical
discipline with ever increasing INTERFACE with planning operations. The
increasing number of firms which specialize in this area is evidence of the
new importance placed on programming and its recognition as a distinct
component of the design process. (Edward T. White, 1972)
Architectural programming advantages
1. Involvement of interested parties in the definition of the scope of work
prior to the design effort
2. Emphasis on gathering and analyzing data early in the process so that the
design is based upon sound decisions
3. Efficiencies gained by avoiding redesign and more redesign as
requirements emerge during architectural design.
(Edith Cherry et al, 2016)

The most cost-effective time to make changes is during programming. This phase of
a project is the best time for interested parties to influence the outcome of a
project.
The "whole building" design approach is intended "to create a successful high-
performance building." To achieve that goal, we must apply the integrated design
approach to the project during the planning and programming phases. People
involved in the building design should interact closely throughout the design
process. The owner, building occupants, and operation and maintenance personnel
should be involved to contribute their understanding of how the building and its
systems will work for them once they occupy it. The fundamental challenge of
"whole building" design is to understand that all building systems are
interdependent. (Source: WBDG Web site, the goal of "Whole Building" design).
A SIX-STEP PROCESS
Many different programming formats incorporate the same essential elements. In
all cases, the design programming fits within a larger context of planning efforts
which can also be programmed. For design programming for a building, we propose
a six-step process as follows:

1) RESEARCH THE PROJECT TYPE

This step is necessary if the programmer is working on a project type for the first
time. The programmer should become familiar with some of the following relevant
information:

The types of spaces frequently included in the building type,

The space criteria (number of square feet per person or unit) for those spaces,
Typical relationships of spaces for these functions,
Typical ratios of net assignable square footage (NASF—areas that are assigned to a
function) to gross square footage (GSF—total area to the outside walls) for this
building type,
Typical costs per square foot for this building type,
Typical site requirements for the project type,
Regional issues that might alter the accuracy of the data above in the case of this
project, and
Technical, mechanical, electrical, security, or other issues unique to the project
type.
This information can be obtained from literature on the building type, analysis of
plans of existing projects, expert consultants familiar with the building type, and/or
cost estimating services.

2) ESTABLISH GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

Working with the committee, the programmer solicits and suggests broad goal
statements that will guide the remainder of the programming process. (See Design
Objectives on the WBDG Web site.) Each of the following categories of goals
should be addressed:

Organizational Goals: What are the goals of the owners? Where do they see their
organization headed? How does this architectural project fit into this broad picture?
Form and Image Goals: What should be the aesthetic and psychological impact of
the design? How should it relate to the surroundings? Should its image be similar to
or distinct from its neighbors? From other buildings belonging to the owner that are
located elsewhere? Are there historic, cultural, and/or context implications?
Function Goals: What major functions will take place in the building? How many
people are to be accommodated? How might the building design enhance or impact
occupant interactions?
Economic Goals: What is the total project budget? What is the attitude toward
initial costs versus long-range operating and maintenance costs? What level of
quality is desired (often stated in relation to other existing projects)? What is the
attitude toward conservation of resources and sustainability (energy, water, etc.)?
Time Goals: When is the project to be occupied? What types of changes are
expected over the next 5, 10, 15, and 20 years?
Management Goals: These goals are not so much an issue of the nature of the
project as they are the circumstances of the owner, clients, programmer, or
architect. For example, perhaps the schematic design must be completed in time for
a legislative request application deadline.

3) GATHER RELEVANT INFORMATION

Based upon the goals, the categories of relevant information can be determined and
researched. Typical categories include:

Facility users, activities, and schedules: Who is doing what, how many people are
doing each activity, and when are they doing it?
What equipment is necessary for activities to function properly? What is the size of
the equipment?
What aspects of the project need to be projected into the future? What is the
history of growth of each aspect that requires projection?
What are the space criteria (square feet per person or unit) for the functions to take
place?
What other design criteria may affect architectural programming: access to
daylight, acoustics, accessibility, campus/area design guidelines, historic
preservation, etc.?
Are there licensing or policy standards for minimum area for various functions?
What are these standards?
What are the energy usage and requirements?
What code information may affect programming decisions?
Site analysis: the site is always a major aspect of the design problem and therefore
should be included in the program. Site analysis components that often affect
design include:
Legal description
Zoning, design guidelines, and deed restrictions and requirements
Traffic (bus, automobile, and pedestrian) considerations
Utility availability (a potentially high cost item)
Topography
Views
Built features
Climate (if not familiar to the designer)
Vegetation and wildlife
Client's existing facility as a resource
If the client is already participating in the activities to be housed in the new facility,
it may be possible to make use of information at hand. Determine if the existing
facility is satisfactory or obsolete as a resource.
If a floor plan exists, do a square foot take-off of the areas for various functions.
Determine the building efficiency (the ratio of existing net-to-gross area). This ratio
is useful in establishing the building efficiency target for the new facility.
If the client is a repeat builder (school districts, public library, public office building,
etc.), obtain plans and do area take-offs; determine typical building efficiencies.
Use the existing square footages for comparison when you propose future amounts
of space. People can relate to what they already have. (See illustration above in
Step 5, Determine quantitative requirements.)

4) IDENTIFY STRATEGIES
Programmatic strategies suggest a way to accomplish the goals given what one
now knows about the opportunities and constraints. A familiar example of a
programmatic strategy is the relationship or "bubble" diagram. These diagrams
indicate what functions should be near each other in order for the project to
function smoothly. Relationship diagrams can also indicate the desired circulation
connections between spaces, what spaces require security or audio privacy, or
other aspects of special relationships.

Other types of strategies recur in programs for many different types of projects.
Some examples of common categories of programmatic strategies include:

Centralization and decentralization: What function components are grouped

together and which are segregated? For example, in some offices the copying
function is centralized, while in others there are copiers for each department.
Flexibility: What types of changes are expected for various functions? Do facilities
need to change over a period of a few hours? A few days? A summer recess? Or is
an addition what is really needed?
Flow: What goods, services, and people move through the project? What is needed
at each step of the way to accommodate that flow?
Priorities and phasing: What are the most important functions of the project? What
could be added later? Are there ongoing existing operations that must be
maintained?
Levels of access: Who is allowed where? What security levels are there?
Ideally, each of the goals and objectives identified in Step 2 will have some sort of
strategy for addressing that goal. Otherwise, either the goal is not very important,
or more discussion is required to address how to achieve that goal or objective.

5) DETERMINE QUANTITATIVE REQUIREMENTS

In this step, one must reconcile the available budget with the amount of
improvements desired within the project time frame. First, a list of spaces is
developed to accommodate all of the activities desired (see Exhibit A). The space
criteria researched in Step 3 are the basis of this list of space requirements. The
space requirements are listed as net assignable square feet (NASF), referring to the
space assigned to an activity, not including circulation to that space.
A percentage for "tare" space is added to the total NASF. Tare space is the area
needed for circulation, walls, mechanical, electrical and telephone equipment, wall
thickness, and public toilets. Building efficiency is the ratio of NASF to gross square
feet (GSF), the total area including the NASF and tare areas. Building efficiency
equals NASF/GSF. The building efficiency for a building type was researched in Step
1 and possibly Step 3. See Exhibit A for an example of space requirements.
The building efficiency of an existing space used by a client can inform the selection
of the net-to-gross ratio. The example below of an office suite within an office
building illustrates the areas of net assignable square feet and tare area. Notice that
some space within an office is considered circulation, even though it is not
delineated with walls. We call this circulation, "phantom corridor."

An office suite within an office building illustrating the areas of net assignable
square feet and tare area.
In the case of a tenant improvement within a larger building, one establishes the
"internal gross" of the leased space. Additional support space or tare area such as
mechanical rooms and public toilets would not be included in the calculation for
this project type.
The desired GSF is then tested against the available budget (see Exhibit B). In
drafting the total project cost, the programmer uses the cost per square foot
amount researched in Step 1. Factors for inflation should be included, based upon
the project schedule. Costs should be projected to the date of the mid-point of
construction because bidders calculate estimates on the assumption that costs
could change from the time of the bid date.
The total project cost includes the construction cost (for building and site work),
plus amounts for architect's fees, furniture and equipment, communications,
contingency, printing for bid sets, contingency, soils tests, topological surveys, and
any other costs that must come from the owner's budget. The intention is to help
the owner prepare for all the project costs, not just those costs assigned to
construction.
If the bottom line for the project costs is more than the budget, three things can
happen: 1) space can be trimmed back or delegated to a later phase (a reduction in
quantity); 2) the cost per square foot can be reduced (a reduction in quality); or 3)
both. This reconciliation of the desired space and the available budget is critical to
defining a realistic scope of work.

6) SUMMARIZE THE PROGRAM

Finally, once all of the preceding steps are executed, summary statements can be
written defining "in a nut shell" the results of the programming effort. All of the
pertinent information included above can be documented for the owner, committee
members, and the design team as well. The decision-makers should sign-off on the
scope of work as described in the program.
Once a program is completed and approved by the client, the information must be
integrated into the design process. Some clients want the programmer to stay
involved after the programming phase to insure that the requirements defined in the
program are realized in the design work.

EMERGING ISSUES
Some of the emerging issues in the discipline of architectural programming include:
Development of standards and guidelines for owners that build similar facilities
frequently. These efforts include:
Formalizing (computerizing) building facility requirements for Web-based
consumption—for example, the National Park Service has developed Facility
Planning Model Web-based software to assist park superintendents and other staff
in the development of space and cost predictions for legislative requests. The
intention is to make budget requests more realistic and more comprehensive.
Facility programming to make early predictions to aid in early capital budgeting
Client-owners are increasingly requiring verification that the design complies with
the program.
New technologies are generating a need for types of space which have no
precedents. Basic research on these technologies is required to determine standards
and guidelines.
As more clients require measures for building energy and resource conservation
standards (LEED, Green Globes, etc), the programming process needs to reflect
these requirements in goals, costs, scheduling, and process.
The supply of facility programmers is smaller than the demand. More professionals
need to consider this sub-discipline as a career path.

RELEVANT CODES AND STANDARDS

A very important part of programming is identifying relevant codes and standards
that apply to the project (see Steps 1 and 3 above). Codes, covenants, deed
restrictions, zoning requirements, licensing requirements, and other legal
obligations can have significant influence on costs and therefore, affordable GSF.
These factors must be identified prior to design.
Many governments and institutions have developed standards and guidelines for
space allocations. For example, the General Services Administration (GSA), military,
and higher education institutions all have standards and guidelines. These standards
must be adhered to in programming projects for these clients. The standards are
also useful as guidelines for agencies that have not developed their own standards.
Some standards are mandated by statutes in some jurisdictions for licensing,
accreditation, or equity purposes. Schools, hospitals, correctional facilities, and
other licensed or accredited institutions may be required to meet these standards
prior to opening their doors.
Some building codes identify the number of square feet allocated per person for
certain types of occupancy. However, while these ratios may determine the legal
occupancy numbers for the facility, exiting requirements, fire separations, etc., they
represent the minimum requirements. It may be necessary to accommodate specific
activities adequately with more space.
Space planning
Space planning is a complex process with many factors to consider. The principles
of space planning involve satisfying a defined criteria on a priority basis – as a
result, space planning is frequently about compromise. That being said, there is
often more than one solution to planning out the space requirements of a building.
Part 1 – Collect information
The design of a building or space will have numerous requirements from the client
or end user. It is important in the very early stages of design to carry out in depth
research and consider as many aspects of the use of the spaces as possible. Some
considerations can include:

Do the spaces have specific functions or need to be particular shapes or forms?

Do the spaces need to be flexible?
Is it possible to create a sequence of spaces (offices, museums for example)?
Do the spaces have different requirements in terms of light, ventilation, view,
accessibility?
Do the spaces need to have access to external spaces?
Must any of the spaces have particular security or privacy?
Is there any hierarchical requirements of the spaces?
What relationships must each space have with one another, and the external
environment?
How should the spaces be connected?
Which rooms need to be adjacent to one another and which rooms need to be
apart?
An example of some questions to consider if you are designing a residential unit:

What is the family size and structure

Location of site
Number of levels
Family or individual interests and activities
The more information and data that can be collected in these earlier stages, the
easier it will be to make the leap from data to diagrams and drawings as you
proceed through the space planning process.

Part 2 – Interpret requirements – build the brief

When we look at how to create spaces and accommodate humans in those spaces
we can consider some universal concepts relating to how people interact with their
environments.
Insider vs outsider
Individual vs community
Invitation vs rejection
Openness vs enclosure
Integration vs segregation
Combination vs dispersion

With these factors in mind we can start to develop a plan of requirements, extract
from the data we have collected the necessary functions these spaces will be fulfilling.
In some cases it is suitable to develop a matrix/table that demonstrates the
requirements of each room, in terms of privacy, daylight, access, equipment and so
forth, along with writing out any additional requirements or special considerations
for each room. This information will be a useful reference as you work through the
spaces of each room and start to develop some sketch diagrams.
Part 3 – Consider spaces and spatial relationships
Spatial Relationships
How can spaces be related to one another?
Space within a space
Interlocking spaces
Spaces linked by a common space
Adjacent spaces

Organising the space

You can consider a varying forms of spatial organisation, some of which are more
naturally suited to particular uses than others:
Centralised organisation
Linear organisation
Radial organisation
Clustered organisation
Grid organization
Consider some of the following as you plan out your spaces:

How does the envelope affect the internal spaces?

How will the contents of the room be arranged?
Do the rooms connect?
What is the flow of the circulation?
Are the proportions of the spaces comfortable?

Developing circulation
How people move around the building from room to room is just as important as
the destination.
When developing a circulation structure we can look at a few basic principles.
How efficient is the circulation in getting from point A to point B
Is the circulation discrete?
What is the fluidity of the circulation? Is there a smooth flowing route or a more
direct route?
Does the circulation route clash with furnishing requirements?
Part 4 – Create the solution
Once the spaces have been considered and the requirements have been studied it is
time to start sketching out relationship diagrams. The relationship diagram takes
your design from data to a more visual look at physically planning out your space. It
is abstract, and rough but enables you to develop your understanding of the
requirements and visualise how the spaces will work together and how the
circulation may flow between them.
At this stage the diagram does not need to represent the building size or space,
more a look at how each room relates to one another, sizes and so on. Lets look at
some examples:
As your sketch diagrams develop you can begin to build a rough sketch plan of your
spaces, this is sometimes known as bubble diagramming. The bubble diagram helps
you make the connection between basic spatial requirements and a fully drafted
floor plan. It is essentially a trial and error method of exploring the configuration
options. If you are working within the constraints of an existing building you can
print out the floor plan and work within that. However, if you are designing a new
building the bubble diagram can often be connected with your concept and site
analysis to develop the design. During this process it is important to keep referring
back to the initial data collected and the relationship diagram to ensure you are
considering all aspects of the design requirements.
This is an opportunity to try both safe and standard ideas along with more erratic
options as you are carrying out fast sketchy ideas.
At this point it is often useful to have a general idea of size requirements of certain
areas. For example, in a residential house, it is useful to know a rough size of a
double bedroom, or an average living room size in order to start making sense of
the spaces. Books like The Metric Handbook Planning and Desing Data by Littlefield
and Neufert Architects Data are a great reference and contain stacks of data that
would start you off in the right direction. (See the end of this article for
recommended reading).
Try different options and configurations, sketch your ideas and how the spaces will
connect to one another. As you work through the different options, make notes on
each one as to any pros and cons, benefits etc, so that later you can easily disregard
options that you don’t think will work at a later point.

Part 5 – Review and revise

Once some solutions have been sketched out it is then possible to review these
solutions and look for areas that require improvement. Things to consider when we
look at a residential scheme:

How will the occupants move from room to room?

Does the circulation cut up the space?
Does guest traffic flow through private areas?
Are the doors and windows in suitable positions? Do they interfere or add to the
overall spatial plan?
Does the plan orientate itself correctly with the site?
Do the rooms work well in relation to one another?

Once you have reviewed your initial sketches and ideas the plans can be developed
further by adding more detail and refining your drawings. It is key to refer to any
building regulations, codes and standards that will have an impact on your space
planning to ensure that your design is compliant from an early stage.
There is so much more to space planning that what I have touched on in this post
and there are some truly inspiring ways people are presenting their ideas and
findings. I have set up a new Pinterest board that is full of space planning ideas and
styles that will really help inspire. Please check it out and follow the board! Or
better still, follow all my boards!
You can almost build a small library of ‘rule of thumb’ plans that you can refer to in
order to speed up your space planning time.
WHAT IS A MATRIX DIAGRAM?
1. A matrix diagram is defined as a new management planning tool used for
analyzing and displaying the relationship between data sets. The matrix
diagram shows the relationship between two, three, or four groups of
information. It also can give information about the relationship, such as
its strength, of the roles played by various individuals or measurements.
2. A Matrix Diagram (MD) is a tool that allows a team to identify the
presence and strengths of relationships between two or more lists of
items. It provides a compact way of representing many-to-many
relationships of varying strengths. (Burge, n.d.)
3. A Matrix Diagram is a table that allows sets of data to be compared in
order to make better decisions. It displays the existence and strength of
relationship between pairs of items of two or more sets. The relationship
is then indicated by a number or symbol in each cell where the two items
intersect in the matrix. A matrix diagram can be used as part of other
decision making tools. Cause and Effect Matrix and Quality Function
Deployment are examples of tools that use the matrix diagram.

Why do it?
Relationships between things are often complex (many-to-many) and require us to
think in more than one-dimension. The Matrix Diagram is a simple tool that allows
relatively complex situations to be analysed in a simple straightforward way. They
help us to expose interactions and dependencies between things that help us to
understand complex causal relationships.
A matrix diagram is used to help identify and understand the relationship between
variables. This connection between variables can be useful in decision making,
problem solving and process improvement efforts. It is often used to understand the
relationship between two lists where the first represents problems and the second
represents possible solutions to those problems. It can also be used when the
second list is generated as a result of the first list, for example, to generate design
specifications that best meet the required operating conditions.
Where and when to use it?
A Matrix Diagram can be used where we wish to identify and assess the strength of
relationships between two or more lists of items. It is particularly useful for
examining the relationships between:
- a set of vague and un-measurable items with a set of precise and
measurable items (such as relating customer requirements to technical
requirements).
- two sets of items that are physically different (such as design solutions to a
set of technical requirements)
There are five basic types of Matrix Diagrams that allow for different numbers of
lists to be to be explored. The Types are:
L-type
T-type
Y-type
X-type
C-type
QFD Type (Quality Function Deployment)
Roof-Shaped
ROOF-SHAPED MATRIX DIAGRAM
The roof-shaped matrix is used with an L- or T-shaped matrix to show one group of
items relating to itself. It is most commonly used with a House of Quality, where it
forms the "roof" of the "house." In the figure below, the customer requirements are
related to one another. For example, a strong relationship links color and trace
metals, while viscosity is unrelated to any of the other requirements.
Roof-shaped Matrix Diagram

Frequently Used Matrix Diagram Symbols

How to Build a Matrix Diagram:

1. The following steps describe how to build and use an L-matrix diagram:
2. Clearly explain to the team the purpose for building the matrix diagram.
3. Select and collect the two sets of data that need to be compared.
4. Agree on the symbols and their values.
5. Construct a two-dimensional table.
6. Insert the first set of data on the left hand column and the second one on top
row of the table.
7. Work through the matrix and discuss the relationships between every pair of
items.
8. Place the appropriate symbol at the intersecting cell of the matrix.
9. Give weighted scores to show relative importance of items.
10. Calculate the final weighted scores for each item.
11. Review the completed matrix with your team in order to make the best
decision for your situation.
Matrix Diagram Samples
Stacking Diagram Samples
Bubble Diagram Samples
Space program diagram of The W.I.N.D. House by UNStudio.
FM Link (n.d.) Space Programming. Retrieved from
https://fmlink.com/articles/space-programming/
Edith Cherry et al. (November 2, 2016). Architectural Programming. Retrieved from
https://www.wbdg.org/design-disciplines/architectural-programming
Edward T. White (1972) Introduction to Architectural Programming
Stephanie Przybylek (n.d.) What is Space Planning? - Basics & Architecture.
Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-space-planning-basics-
architecture.html
First in Architecture. (n.d.). Space planning. Retrieved from
https://www.firstinarchitecture.co.uk/space-planning-basics/
WHAT IS A MATRIX DIAGRAM? Retrieved from https://asq.org/quality-
resources/matrix-diagram
Dr Stuart Burge (n.d.) The Systems Thinking Tool Box. Matrix Diagram (MD)
Matrix Diagram. Retrieved from https://citoolkit.com/articles/matrix-diagram/