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Fermat Numbers
January 2020
January 2020
DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.31221.73449

Authors:

Mercedes Orús-Lacort
Universitat Autònoma de Bsrcelona - UAB

Preprints and early-stage research may not have been peer reviewed yet.

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Abstract and Figures

In this paper we show a demonstration which allow us to prove how the Fermat numbers
2^2^n + 1 are not prime numbers for n ≥ 5. In particular, usingÉdouardusing´usingÉdouard Discover the world's
research
Lucas result, we show that for n ≥ 5, 2^2^n + 1 can be written as (k1 · 2^(n+2) + 1) · k2 for
k1 and k2 positive integer numbers.
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Results computed Results computed Graphs of the real Values of r1 and
with Wolfram… with Wolfram… functions y = 2 … r2 for F6 (denot…

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Fermat numbers are not prime numbers for n ≥ 5

Mercedes Orús–Lacort1,2 , Román Orús3,4,5 , Christophe Jouis6

1
College Mathematics, Universitat Oberta de Catalunya,
Rambla del Poblenou 156, 08018 Barcelona, Spain
2
College Mathematics, Universitat Nacional de Educacion a Distancia,
Calle Pintor Sorolla 21, 46002, Valencia, Spain
3
Donostia International Physics Center,
Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 4, E-20018 San Sebastián, Spain
4
Multiverse Computing,
Paseo de Miramón 170, E-20014 San Sebastián, Spain
5
Ikerbasque Foundation for Science,
Maria Diaz de Haro 3, E-48013 Bilbao, Spain
6
Laboratoire d’informatique de l’École polytechnique, LIX, UMR 7161, 1
rue Honoré d’Estienne d’Orves, Bâtiment Alan Turing, Campus de l’École
Polytechnique, 91120 Palaiseau, France

Abstract
n
In this paper we analyze the premise that Fermat numbers Fn = 22 + 1 are not prime
numbers for n ≥ 5. In particular, using Édouard Lucas’ result, we initially show for n = 5 how
5
one can write 22 +1 as something similar to a linear combination of certain powers of 2, such
that one can write F5 as a product of two prime factors, written as it was stated by Édouard
Lucas. We then analyze which condition should be satisfied by n so that in general Fn could
be written as a similar sum of powers of 2, which would allow us to write Fn as a product
of certain prime factors. We obtain that n should be greater than or equal to 5. Finally we
show another plausible way to find the factors in which Fn factorizes, and on the other hand
we show how we can obtain Fn+1 using Fn , which allow us to calculate how Fn+1 factorizes
knowing how Fn factorizes. Consequently, the results obtained lead us to conclude that the
Fermat numbers are not prime numbers for n ≥ 5, and how to calculate the factors in which
Fn factorizes, from the best of our observations.

Key Words: Number theory, Fermat Numbers.

AMS Classification: 11–02

1 Introduction

In mathematics there are the (well known) so-called Fermat numbers, being Pierre de Fermat the
first one to study them.

These numbers can be written as:

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n
Fn = 22 + 1 for n ∈ N.

Fermat numbers were first studied by Pierre de Fermat, who conjectured that all Fermat
numbers are prime.

The first five Fermat numbers F0 ,... F4 are prime. However, this conjecture was refuted by
Leonhard Euler in 1732 when he showed that:

5
F5 = 22 + 1 = 4294967297 = 641 · 6700417.

Euler proved that every factor of Fn must have the form k · 2n+1 +1, and later it was improved
by Édouard Lucas to k · 2n+2 + 1, for k ∈ N.

Fn for n < 5 are prime numbers, and it seems that there are no other known Fermat primes
Fn with n ≥ 5. However, little is known about Fermat numbers with large n [1].

In fact, the following were an open problem:

Is Fn composite for all n > 4?.

Are there infinitely many Fermat primes? (Eisenstein 1844) [2].
Are there infinitely many composite Fermat numbers?.

As of 2014, it is known that Fn is composite for 5 ≤ n ≤ 32, although the complete factorizations
of Fn are only known for 0 ≤ n ≤ 11, and there are no known prime factors for n = 20 and
n = 24 [3]. The largest Fermat number known to be composite is F3329780, and its prime factor
193 · 23329782 + 1, a megaprime, was discovered by the PrimeGrid collaboration in July 2014 [3]
[4].

The distributed computing project Fermat Search is searching for new factors of Fermat
numbers [5]. The set of all Fermat factors is A050922 (or, sorted, A023394) in OEIS.

It then seemed possible that the only primes of this form are 3, 5, 17, 257 and 65, 537. Indeed,
Boklan and Conway published in 2016 a very precise analysis suggesting that the probability of
the existence of another Fermat prime is less than one in a billion [6].

It is also important to mention some recently published works, where these numbers have
been studied and characterized, as well as some other references where the prime factorization
is attempted. In fact, several new prime factors for big Fermat numbers are found each year [7].
Others as Vavilov, N. [8] address a primality testing factorization and the search of prime divisors of
Fermat numbers and their relatives, Bouzalmst, A. and Sani, A. [9] gave a new sufficient condition
which allows to test primality of Fermat’s numbers, S. A. Kader [10] shows that all Fermat numbers
are square free, Mayer, E W. [11] via direct computation showed how the Montgomery-multiply-
based powering can be efficiently used in Fermat-number trial factorization, and also Tarau, P.
[12] who showed the Tree-based Arithmetic and Compressed Representations of Giant Numbers as
Fermat Numbers.

Similar to what we did in previous works, from the best of our analysis, observations and
computations, for other ancient unproved conjectures like Collatz conjecture [13], Riemann’s
Hypothesis [14], Twin Primes Conjecture [15], Goldbach Strong conjecture [15] and Polignac
conjecture [15], our goal with this article is to show a simple way which allows us to prove (to
n
the best of our observations) why the Fermat numbers 22 + 1 are not prime numbers for n ≥ 5.
n
In particular, using Édouard Lucas result, we show that for n ≥ 5, 22 + 1 can be written as a
product of 2 or more prime factors (k · 2 n+2 + 1) for k ∈ N.

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The paper is organized as follows: in Sec.2 we show an analysis which allows us to prove, to
n
the best of our observations, how the Fermat numbers 22 + 1 are not prime numbers for n ≥ 5.
In Sec.3 we present our conclusions.

Fermat numbers 22 + 1 are not prime numbers for n ≥ 5

n
2
n
It is well known that Fn = 22 + 1 is a prime number for 0 ≤ n ≤ 4, but it seems that for n ≥ 5
are not prime numbers.
Lucas showed that if Fn is not a prime number, then every factor must have the form k ·2n+2+1
for k ∈ N and k > 0.

Hence, to analyze if it is true that Fn is not prime for n ≥ 5, first we will analyze what happens
with F5 , for which we know from Euler that it can be decomposed as a product of two prime
factors, namely 641 multiplied by 6700417.

So, let us start by showing how we can get those two factors, so that those factors have the
format that Lucas stated. That is, we will show a method to compute two natural numbers k1 and
k2 such that F5 = (k1 · 27 + 1) · (k2 · 27 + 1).

Hence, multiplying both factors, F5 should be able to be written as something similar to a

linear combination of 1, 27 and 214.
5
Therefore, our method begins by writing the power 22 of F5 as a product of powers of 2 where
214 will be one of them.
5
Then, note that F5 = 22 + 1 = 232 + 1, and it can be written as F5 = 218 · 214 + 1, so that,
computing 218 = 262144 and replacing it then we have: F5 = 262144 · 214 + 1.

So, to be factored as a product of two factors, using how these factors must be as it was stated
by Lucas, there must exist two natural numbers k1 and k2 such that:

F5 = 218 · 214 + 1 = 262144 · 214 + 1 = (k1 · 27 + 1)(k2 · 27 + 1). (1)

That is:
262144 · 214 + 1 = k1 · k2 · 214 + (k1 + k2 ) · 27 + 1
262144 · 214 = k1 · k2 · 214 + (k1 + k2 ) · 27
262144 · 27 = k1 · k2 · 27 + k1 + k2
k1 · k2 · 27 + k1 + k2 = 262144 · 27 (2)
k1 · (k2 · 27 + 1) = 262144 · 27 − k2
262144 · 27 − k2
k1 =
k 2 · 27 + 1

262144 · 27 − k2
Hence, the last equality k1 = is what we must use to calculate the values of
k 2 · 27 + 1
k1 and k2 .

To find these natural numbers k1 and k2 , we can use Wolfram Alpha, writing it as if it was a
function of two variables in the real numbers. Wolfram will compute the integer roots, of which

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we will only use the ones being positive, that is, the ones in natural numbers. This is shown in
Download file PDF (x denotesDownload
Fig.1 k2 and citation
y denotes k1 ): Copy link

Figure 1: Results computed with Wolfram Alpha to find k1 and k2 , as explained in the main text.

Hence, in the Natural numbers we find the values of k1 and k2 equal to 5 and 52347.
Therefore, F5 can be writen as the product of the two prime factors (5·27 +1) and (52347·27 +1).
That is: F5 = (5 · 27 + 1)(52347 · 27 + 1).

Then, we have shown which is the procedure to write F5 as the product of these two factors,
and this implies that F5 is not a prime number.

The question now is: does it happen the same for all Fn such that n > 5?.

To answer this question, first note that, in general for any n perhaps Fn can be factorized as
the product of more than 2 prime factors, for instance let us assume that it can be written as the
product of 3 prime factors as Lucas stated, that is, Fn = (k1 ·2n+2 +1) · (r1 · 2n+2 +1) · (r2 · 2n+2 +1),
for k1 , r1 and r2 natural numbers.
In such case, note that we can multiply the two last factors, and we obtain r1 · r2 · 22n+4 + (r1 +
r2 ) · 2n+2 + 1 = 2n+2 · (r1 · r2 · 2n+2 + r1 + r2 ) + 1, where r1 · r2 · 2n+2 + r1 + r2 is a natural number,
we can denote it as k2 , and then the product of the two last prime factors can be written as a non
prime number k2 · 2n+2 + 1.

The same can be done if Fn factorizes as the product of more than 3 prime factors, multiplying
all the factors except the first one, and we will obtain again a factor (non prime) which will be a
certain natural number k2 multiplied by 2n+2 plus 1.

Therefore, in general for any n ∈ N such that n > 5, we will analyze also under which conditions
Fn can be written as the product of two factors, the first one k1 · 2n+2 + 1 being a prime factor as
Lucas stated, and the second one k2 · 2n+2 + 1 which can be also a prime factor as Lucas stated or
non prime but the result of the product of the others prime factors.

Hence, multiplying both factors, Fn should be able to be written as something similar to a

linear combination of 1, 2n+2 and 22n+4.
n
Therefore, as we do with F5 , our method begins by writing the power 22 of Fn as a product

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of powers of 2 where 22n+4 will be one of them. That is, we write it as:

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n
= 22 + 1Copy
n−2n−4
= 22link · 22n+4 + 1. (3)
Download file PDF Download citation Fn

The steps to follow are the same as for F5 . So, to be factored Fn as a product of two factors,
there must exist two natural numbers k1 and k2 such that:

n −2n−4
F n = 22 · 22n+4 + 1 = (k1 · 2n+2 + 1)(k2 · 2n+2 + 1). (4)

That is:
n −2n−4
22 · 22n+4 + 1 = k1 · k2 · 22n+4 + (k1 + k2 ) · 2n+2 + 1
n −2n−4
22 · 22n+4 = k1 · k2 · 22n+4 + (k1 + k2 ) · 2n+2
2n −2n−4
2 · 2n+2 = k1 · k2 · 2n+2 + k1 + k2
n
(5)
k1 · (k2 · 2n+2 + 1) = 22 −n−2
− k2
n
22 −n−2 − k2
k1 =
k2 · 2n+2 + 1

Using the last equality we can proceed as we do for F5 .

However the question is: is it possible to find these k1 and k2 values for all n > 5?.
n
To answer to this question we will analyze the equality k1 · k2 · 2n+2 + k1 + k2 = 22 −n−2 .
Firstly, note that, since the factors are very big when n increases then the values of k1 and k2 are
also very big, so it happens that k1 · k2 has always a value greater than 22n+4 . Below we can see
the values obtained for k1 and k2 using Wolfram Alpha, for n equal to 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.

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Figure 2: Results computed with Wolfram Alpha to find k1 and k2 , as explained in the main text.

Hence, analyzing k1 · k2 · 2n+2 + k1 + k2 we have:

k1 · k2 · 2n+2 + k1 + k2 > k1 · k2 · 2n+2 > 22n+4 · 2n+2

(6)
k1 · k2 · 2n+2 + k1 + k2 > 23n+6

n
However, since k1 · k2 · 2n+2 + k1 + k2 = 22 −n−2 , this implies that to be true the inequality
n
of the above paragraph, it should be satisfied the inequality 22 −n−2 > 23n+6, and this inequality
can only be true if 2 − n − 2 > 3n + 6, that is, if 2 > 4n + 8.
n n

So, if we solve the inequality 2n > 4n + 8 we obtain that it is true for all n ≥ 5. One way to
see this solution is plotting the graphs of the real functions y = 2x and y = 4x + 8, as it is shown
in Fig.3:

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Figure 3: Graphs of the real functions y = 2x , y = 4x + 8 and x = 5.

From the above graph, we observe clearly which is the first natural number where the function
2x is greater than 4x + 8. This number is n = 5.

Therefore, the result obtained lead us to conclude that, the Fermat numbers Fn are not prime
numbers for all n ≥ 5, being possible to have two or more primes factors, to the best of our
observations.

Another plausible way to obtain the factors in which Fn factorizes could be based on the
following reasoning.
n n
If 22 +1 = (k1 ·2n+2 +1) ·(k2 · 2n+2 +1) this implies 22 +1 = k1 ·k2 ·22n+4 +(k1 +k2 )· 2n+2 +1,
n
that is, 22 = k1 · k2 · 22n+4 + (k1 + k2 ) · 2n+2.
n n
Hence, as 22 = 22 −2n−4 · 22n+4, then if we can find a certain a and b natural numbers, such
n n
22 −2n−4 − a 22 −2n−4 − a
that, + b = a · 2n+2, and the quotient c = will be a natural number,
n
b b
2 −2n−4
then 2 − a = c · b and a · 2 n+2
= c + b, and therefore we have:

n
22 −2n−4 · 22n+4 = (22
n
−2n−4
− a + a) · 22n+4
2n−2n−4 2n+4 2n −2n−4
2 ·2 = (2 − a) · 22n+4 + a · 22n+4
n
22 −2n−4 · 22n+4 = c · b · 22n+4 + a · 2n+2 · 2n+2
n (7)
22 −2n−4 · 22n+4 = c · b · 22n+4 + (c + b) · 2n+2
22 −2n−4 · 22n+4 + 1 = c · b · 22n+4 + (c + b) · 2n+2 + 1
n

n
22 + 1 = (c · 2n+2 + 1) · (b · 2n+2 + 1)

That is, Fn would be factorized as the product of those two factors.

If we follow this method for F5 , we find a = 409, b = 5 and c = 52347, and as we can see 5 and
52347 were the k values obtained for n = 5.

The same happens for F6 , where we obtain a = 1026617761, b = 1071 and c = 262814145745,
and again b = 1071 and c = 262814145745 were the k values for n = 6.

Therefore, this can be another way to find the factors in which Fn factorizes for n ≥ 5 Finally,
and since the Fermat number Fn+1 can be obtained from Fn , this allows us to calculate which are
the values of certain r1 and r2 Natural numbers which allow us to factor Fn+1 as Lucas stated,
knowing the values of k1 and k2 used in the factorization of Fn . Next

To do so, note that the formula that allows us to obtain Fn+1 from Fn is: Stay

Fn+1 = (Fn − 1)2 + 1 (8)

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Then, if Fn can be factorized as Fn = (k1 · 2n+2 + 1) · (k2 · 2n+2 + 1), and Fn+1 should be
factorized
Download file PDF as Fn+1 = (r1citation
Download · 2n+3 + 1) · (r2 · 2n+3
Copy+ 1), this implies:
link

Fn = k1 · k2 · 22n+4 + (k1 + k2 ) · 2n+2 + 1

(9)
Fn+1 = r1 · r2 · 22n+6 + (r1 + r2 ) · 2n+3 + 1

If we use now Eq.7 we have:

Fn+1 = (Fn − 1)2 + 1

r1 · r2 · 22n+6 + (r1 + r2 ) · 2n+3 + 1 = (k1 · k2 · 22n+4 + (k1 + k2 ) · 2n+2 + 1 − 1)2 + 1 (10)
r1 · r2 · 22n+6 + (r1 + r2 ) · 2n+3 = (k1 · k2 · 22n+4 + (k1 + k2 ) · 2n+2)2

Hence, using the last equality r1 · r2 · 22n+6 + (r1 + r2 ) · 2n+3 = (k1 · k2 · 22n+4 + (k1 + k2 ) · 2n+2)2
and for instance Wolfram Alpha, we can find the r1 and r2 values in Natural numbers if k1 and k2
are known.

The next figure shows how we have calculated r1 and r2 for F6 using the above equality and
Wolfram Alpha, and knowing that for F5 the values of k1 and k2 are 5 and 52347.

Figure 4: Values of r1 and r2 for F6 (denoted x and y in Wolfram).

Therefore, for n ≥ 5, there are two ways to calculate two factors into which Fn can be factored;
using the method that was explained in a generalized way for Fn , or from the factors into which
Fn−1 is factored as we have just shown.

As we mentioned previously, there are some Fermat numbers which are factored as a product
of more than two factors, which would mean in this case that we can obtain some of this factors,
calculated with the methods described in this article, being not prime numbers, hence, in such case Next
we will have to analyze how to decompose these factors, as a product of primes, whose format is Stay
the one that Lucas established, using divisible criteria, not described in this article because this is
not the primary objective of this analysis.

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3
Download file PDF
Conclusions
Download citation Copy link
n
In this article we have analyzed if the Fermat numbers Fn = 22 + 1 are not prime numbers for
n ≥ 5, and they can be written as a product of certain factors in the form stated by Lucas.

First, we have analized F5 . We have written this number in terms of what could be something
very similar to a linear combination of powers of 2.
5
We realized that following a certain method, F5 = 22 + 1 can be written as the product of two
prime factor (k1 · 27 + 1)(k2 · 27 + 1), for a certain k1 and k2 natural numbers.

Hence, we have analyzed what conditions should be satisfied in general by n to proceed as we

do with n = 5, and solving an inequality we have obtained that n should be greater or equal to 5.

Additionally, we show another plausible way to find how Fn factorizes for n ≥ 5, and how
we can obtain Fn+1 using Fn which allow us to calculate how Fn+1 factorizes knowing how Fn
factorizes.

Therefore, the results lead us to conclude that the Fermat numbers are not prime for n ≥ 5, to
the best of our observations.

Acknowledgements: We acknowledge the fruitful discussions over the years with many
mathematicians, physicists and computer scientist colleagues regarding validity and applications
of these conjectures. We also acknowledge James Peterson for his appreciation of mathematics in
all its branches and for reviewing the English spelling. Finally, we also acknowledge computational
support from Wolfram Alpha.

References
[1] Grytczuk, A.; Luca, F. and Wójtowicz, M. (2001), ”Another note on the greatest prime
factors of Fermat numbers”, Southeast Asian Bulletin of Mathematics, 25 (1): 111–115,
doi:10.1007/s10012-001-0111-4.
[2] Guy, Richard K. (2004), Unsolved Problems in Number Theory, Problem Books in
Mathematics, 1 (3rd ed.), New York: Springer Verlag, pp. A3, A12, B21, ISBN 978-0-387-
20860-2.

[3] Křı́ žek, Michal; Luca, Florian and Somer, Lawrence (2001), 17 Lectures on Fermat Numbers:
From Number Theory to Geometry, CMS books in mathematics, 10, New York: Springer, ISBN
978-0-387-95332-8 - This book contains an extensive list of references.

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February 2018 Stay
Mercedes Orús-Lacort

In this paper we show whether it could be appropriate to use Mathematical induction method to analyze Goldbach's strong conjecture.
We use two properties that are satisfied for prime numbers, and based on these two properties, we show a way that, maybe, it can be
used to analyze and approach this conjecture by the mathematical induction method.

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10/07/2024, 19:24 (PDF) Fermat Numbers

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Analyzing the existence of infinite twin primes numbers

July 2020

Mercedes Orús-Lacort

In this paper we analyze the possibility of the existence of infinite twin primes numbers, or on the contrary, if we can guarantee that
there is a finite number of them. Using the formula 4((n − 1)! + 1) ≡ −n (mod n(n + 2)), satisfied if and only if (n, n + 2) are twin primes,
and Wilson Theorem, we analyze what conditions the twin primes meet, and what would happen if we assume that they are ... [Show
full abstract]

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Mathematical induction method in Goldbach's strong conjecture

September 2017

Mercedes Orús-Lacort

Goldbach's strong conjecture is one of the oldest and best-known unsolved problems in number theory and all of mathematics. It
states: ``Every even integer greater than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two primes". The conjecture has been shown to hold for all
integers less than 4 × 10^18, but remains unproven despite considerable effort. As we know there are two conjectures, the weak and
the ... [Show full abstract]

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Last Updated: 22 Feb 2024

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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338701495_Fermat_Numbers 14/14