144 PHYSICS

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A 1
THE GREEK ALPHABET

APPENDIX A 2
COMMON SI PREFIXES AND SYMBOLS FOR MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES

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APPENDICES 145

APPENDIX A 3
SOME IMPORTANT CONSTANTS

Other useful constants

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146 PHYSICS

APPENDIX A 4
CONVERSION FACTORS

Conversion factors are written as equations for simplicity.

Length Angle and Angular Speed

1 km = 0.6215 mi π rad = 180°
1mi = 1.609 km 1 rad = 57.30°
1m = 1.0936 yd = 3.281 ft = 39.37 in 1° = 1.745 × 10–2 rad
1 in = 2.54 cm 1 rev min–1 = 0.1047 rad s–1
1 ft = 12 in = 30.48 cm 1 rad s–1 = 9.549 rev min–1
1 yd = 3ft = 91.44 cm Mass
15
1 lightyear = 1 ly = 9.461 x 10 m 1 kg = 1000 g
°
1 A = 0.1nm 1 tonne = 1000 kg = 1 Mg
Area 1 u = 1.6606 × 10–27 kg
1 m2 = 104 cm2 1 kg = 6.022 × 1026 u
1km2 = 0.3861 mi2 = 247.1 acres 1 slug = 14.59 kg
1 in2= 6.4516 cm2 1 kg = 6.852 × 10–2 slug
1ft2= 9.29 x 10-2m2 1 u = 931.50 MeV/c2
1 m2= 10.76 ft2 Density
1 acre = 43,560 ft2 1 g cm–3 = 1000 kg m–3 = 1 kg L–1
1 mi2= 460 acres = 2.590 km2 Force
Volume 1 N = 0.2248 lbf = 105 dyn
1m3= 106cm3 1 lbf = 4.4482 N
3 -3 3
1 L = 1000 cm = 10 m 1 kgf = 2.2046 lbf
1 gal = 3.786 L Time
1 gal = 4 qt = 8 pt = 128 oz = 231 in3 1 h = 60 min = 3.6 ks
1 in3 = 16.39 cm3 1 d = 24 h = 1440 min = 86.4 ks
1ft3 = 1728 in3 = 28.32 L = 2.832 × 104 cm3 1y = 365.24 d = 31.56 Ms
Speed Pressure
–1 –1 –1
1 km h = 0.2778 m s = 0.6215 mi h 1 Pa = 1 N m–2
1mi h–1 = 0.4470 m s–1 = 1.609 km h–1 1 bar = 100 kPa
–1 –1
1mi h = 1.467 ft s 1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar
Magnetic Field 1atm = 14.7 lbf/in2 = 760 mm Hg
1 G = 10–4 T = 29.9 in Hg = 33.8 ft H2O
–2 4
1 T = 1 Wb m = 10 G 1 lbf in–2 = 6.895 kPa
1 torr = 1mm Hg = 133.32 Pa

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APPENDICES 147

Energy Power
1 kW h = 3.6 MJ 1 horsepower (hp) = 550 ft lbf/s
1 cal = 4.186 J = 745.7 W
–3 –1
1ft lbf = 1.356 J = 1.286 × 10 Btu 1 Btu min = 17.58 W
1 L atm = 101.325 J 1 W = 1.341 × 10–3 hp
1 L atm = 24.217 cal = 0.7376 ft lbf/s
1 Btu = 778 ft lb = 252 cal = 1054.35 J Thermal Conductivity
–19
1 eV = 1.602 × 10 J 1 W m–1 K–1 = 6.938 Btu in/hft2 °F
1 u c2 = 931.50 MeV 1 Btu in/hft2 °F = 0.1441 W/m K
1 erg = 10–7J

APPENDIX A 5
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE

Geometry y x
sin θ = cos θ =
Circle of radius r: circumference = 2πr; r r
y x
area = πr2 tan θ = cot θ =
x y
Sphere of radius r: area = 4πr2;
r r
4 3 sec θ = csc θ =
volume = πr x y
3
Right circular cylinder of radius r
Pythagorean Theorem
and height h: area = 2π r 2 +2π r h;
In this right triangle, a2 + b2 = c2
volume = π r h ;
2

Triangle of base a and altitude h.

1
area = ah
2
Quadratic Formula

If ax2 + bx + c = 0,

− b ± b 2 − 4 ac
a

then x=
2
Trigonometric Functions of Angle θ Fig. A 5.2

Triangles
Angles are A, B, C
Opposite sides are a, b, c
Angles A + B + C = 1800

sin A sin B sin C

= =
a b c

c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C
Fig. A 5.1 Exterior angle D = A + C

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148 PHYSICS

cos α + cos β

1 1
= 2 cos ( a + b ) cos ( a b)
2 2

cos α – cos β

1 1
= -2 sin ( a + b ) sin (a b )
Fig. A 5.3 2 2

Mathematical Signs and Symbols

Binomial Theorem
= equals
≅ equals approximately nx n(n -1)x 2
~ is the order of magnitude of (1– x)n =1– + +.....(x 2 <1)
1! 2!
≠ is not equal to
≡ is identical to, is defined as
> is greater than (>> is much greater than) nx n(n +1)x 2
(1– x)-n =1m + + .....(x 2 <1)
< is less than (<< is much less than) 1! 2!
≥ is greater than or equal to (or, is no less
than) Exponential Expansion
≤ is less than or equal to (or, is no more
x2 x3
than) e x =1+ x + + + .....
± plus or minus 2! 3!
∝ is proportional to
Logarithmic Expansion
∑ the sum of
x or < x > or xav the average value of x
Trigonometric Identities
Trigonometric Expansion
sin (900 – θ ) = cos θ
θ in radians)
(θ
cos (900 – θ ) = sin θ
sin θ/ cos θ = tan θ
sin2 θ + cos2 θ =1
sec2 θ – tan2 θ = 1
csc2 θ – cot2 θ = 1
sin2 θ = 2 sin θ cos θ Products of Vectors
cos2 θ = cos θ – sin θ = 2cos θ –1
2 2 2
Let be unit vectors in the x, y and z
= 1– 2 sin2 θ
directions. Then
sin(α ± β ) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β

cos (α ± β ) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β

tan (α ± β ) = Any vector a with components ax, ay, and az

along the x,y, and z axes can be written,
1 1
sin α ± sin β = 2 sin (a ± b ) cos (a ∓ b )
2 2

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APPENDICES 149

Let a, b and c be arbitary vectors with a × b = ab sin θ

magnitudes a, b and c. Then
a × (b + c ) = (a × b ) + (a × c ) ˆi ˆj kˆ
a ¥ b = - b ¥ a = ax ay az
( sa) × b = a × ( sb) = s(a × b) (s is a scalar)
bx by bz

Let θ be the smaller of the two angles ( ) ( )

= a y bz - bya z ˆi + (a z bx - bz a x ) ˆj + a x by - bx a y k
ˆ
between a and b. Then
a . (b × c) = b. (c × a) = c . (a × b)
a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a = a x bx + a y b y + a z b z = ab cosθ a × (b × c) = (a . c) b – (a . b) c

APPENDIX A 6
SI DERIVED UNITS
A 6.1 Some SI Derived Units expressed in SI Base Units

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A 6.2 SI Derived Units with special names

pascal

A 6.3 Some SI Derived Units expressed by means of SI Units with special names

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APPENDICES 151

Absorbed dose rate

APPENDIX A 7
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR USING SYMBOLS FOR PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, CHEMICAL
ELEMENTS AND NUCLIDES

• Symbols for physical quantities are normally single letters and printed in italic (or sloping) type.
However, in case of the two letter symbols, appearing as a factor in a product, some spacing is
necessary to separate this symbol from other symbols.
• Abbreviations, i.e., shortened forms of names or expressions, such as p.e. for potential energy,
are not used in physical equations. These abbreviations in the text are written in ordinary
normal/roman (upright) type.
• Vectors are printed in bold and normal/roman (upright) type. However, in class room situations,
vectors may be indicated by an arrow on the top of the symbol.
• Multiplication or product of two physical quantities is written with some spacing between them.
Division of one physical quantity by another may be indicated with a horizontal bar or with

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solidus, a slash or a short oblique stroke mark (/) or by writing it as a product of the
numerator and the inverse first power of the denominator, using brackets at appropriate
places to clearly distinguish between the numerator and the denominator.
• Symbols for chemical elements are written in normal/roman (upright) type. The symbol is
not followed by a full stop.
For example, Ca, C, H, He, U, etc.
• The attached numerals specifying a nuclide are placed as a left subscript (atomic number)
and superscript (mass number).
For example, a U-235 nuclide is expressed as 235
92 U
(with 235 expressing the mass number
and 92 as the atomic number of uranium with chemical symbol U).
• The right superscript position is used, if required, for indicating a state of ionisation (in
case of ions).
For example, Ca2+, PO34−

APPENDIX A 8
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR USING SYMBOLS FOR SI UNITS, SOME OTHER UNITS, AND
SI PREFIXES

• Symbols for units of physical quantities are printed/written in Normal/Roman (upright) type.
• Standard and recommended symbols for units are written in lower case roman (upright)
type, starting with small letters. The shorter designations for units such as kg, m, s, cd,
etc., are symbols and not the abbreviations. The unit names are never capitalised. However,
the unit symbols are capitalised only if the symbol for a unit is derived from a proper name
of scientist, beginning with a capital, normal/roman letter.
For example, m for the unit ‘metre’, d for the unit ‘day’, atm for the unit ‘atmospheric
pressure’, Hz for the unit ‘hertz’, Wb for the unit ‘weber’, J for the unit ‘joule’, A for the unit
‘ampere’, V for the unit ‘volt’, etc. The single exception is L, which is the symbol for the
unit ‘litre’. This exception is made to avoid confusion of the lower case letter l with the
Arabic numeral l.
• Symbols for units do not contain any final full stop at the end of recommended letter and
remain unaltered in the plural, using only singular form of the unit.
For example, for a length of 25 centimetres the unit symbol is written as 25 cm
and not 25 cms or 25 cm. or 25 cms., etc.
• Use of solidus ( / ) is recommended only for indicating a division of one letter unit symbol by
another unit symbol. Not more than one solidus is used.
For example :
m/s2 or m s–2 (with a spacing between m and s–2) but not m/s/s;
1 Pl =1 N s m –2 = 1 N s/m2 = 1 kg/s m=1 kg m–1 s–1, but not 1 kg/m/s;
J/K mol or J K–1 mol–1, but not J/K/mol; etc.
• Prefix symbols are printed in normal/roman (upright) type without spacing between the
prefix symbol and the unit symbol. Thus certain approved prefixes written very close to the
unit symbol are used to indicate decimal fractions or multiples of a SI unit, when it is
inconveniently small or large.
For example :
megawatt ( 1MW = 106 W); nanosecond (1 ns = 10–9 s);
–2
centimetre (1 cm = 10 m); picofarad (1 pF = 10–12 F);.
3
kilometre ( 1 km = 10 m); microsecond (1µs = 10–6 s);
–3
millivolt (1 mV= 10 V); gigahertz (1GHz = 109 Hz);

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APPENDICES 153

kilowatt-hour (1 kW h = 103 W h = 3.6 MJ = 3.6 × 106 J);

microampere (1µ A = 10–6 A); micron (1µm = 10–6 m);
angstrom (1 Α° =0.1 nm = 10–10 m); etc.
The unit ‘micron’ which equals 10–6 m, i.e. a micrometre, is simply the name given to
convenient sub-multiple of the metre. In the same spirit, the unit ‘fermi’, equal to a
femtometre or 10–15 m has been used as the convenient length unit in nuclear studies.
Similarly, the unit ‘barn’, equal to 10–28 m2, is a convenient measure of cross-sectional
areas in sub-atomic particle collisions. However, the unit ‘micron’ is preferred over the
unit ‘micrometre’ to avoid confusion of the ‘micrometre’ with the length measuring
instrument called ‘micrometer’. These newly formed multiples or sub-multiples (cm, km,
µm, µs, ns) of SI units, metre and second, constitute a new composite inseparable symbol
for units.
• When a prefix is placed before the symbol of a unit, the combination of prefix and symbol is
considered as a new symbol, for the unit, which can be raised to a positive or negative
power without using brackets. These can be combined with other unit symbols to form
compound unit. Rules for binding-in indices are not those of ordinary algebra.
For example :
cm3 means always (cm)3 = (0.01 m)3 = (10–2 m)3 = 10–6 m3, but never 0.01 m3 or
10–2 m3 or 1cm3 (prefix c with a spacing with m3 is meaningless as prefix c is to be attached
to a unit symbol and it has no physical significance or independent existence without
attachment with a unit symbol).
Similarly, mA2 means always (mA)2= (0.001A)2 = (10–3 A)2 =10–6 A2, but never 0.001 A2 or
10–3 A2 or m A2;
1 cm–1 = (10–2m)–1=102 m–1, but not 1c m–1 or 10–2 m–1;
1µs–1 means always (10–6s)–1=106 s–1, but not 1 × 10–6 s–1;
1 km2 means always (km)2 = (103 m)2=106 m2, but not 103 m2;
1mm2 means always (mm)2= (10–3 m)2=10–6 m2, but not 10–3 m2.
• A prefix is never used alone. It is always attached to a unit symbol and written or fixed
before (pre-fix) the unit symbol.
For example :
103/m3 means 1000/m3 or 1000 m-3, but not k/m3 or k m-3.
106/m3 means 10,00,000/m3 or 10,00,000 m–3, but not M/m3 or M m–3
• Prefix symbol is written very close to the unit symbol without spacing between them, while
unit symbols are written separately with spacing when units are multiplied together.
For example :
m s-1 (symbols m and s–1, in lower case, small letter m and s, are separate and independent
unit symbols for metre and second respectively, with spacing between them) means ‘metre
per second’, but not ‘milli per second’.
Similarly, ms–1 [symbol m and s are written very close to each other, with prefix symbol m
(for prefix milli) and unit symbol s, in lower case, small letter (for unit ‘second’) without
any spacing between them and making ms as a new composite unit] means ‘per millisecond’,
but never ‘metre per second’.
mS–1[symbol m and S are written very close to each other, with prefix symbol m (for prefix
milli) and unit symbol S, in capital roman letter S (for unit ‘siemens’) without any spacing
between them, and making mS as a new composite unit] means ‘per millisiemens’, but
never ‘per millisecond’.
C m [symbol C and m are written separately, representing unit symbols C (for unit ‘coulomb’)
and m (for unit ‘metre’), with spacing between them] means ‘coulomb metre’, but never
‘centimetre’, etc.
• The use of double prefixes is avoided when single prefixes are available.
For example :

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154 PHYSICS

10–9 m = 1nm (nanometre), but not 1mµm (millimicrometre),

10–6 m= 1µm (micron), but not 1mmm(millimillimetre),
10–12 F= 1 pF (picofarad), but not 1µµF (micromicrofarad),
109 W=1 GW (giga watt), but not 1 kMW (kilomegawatt), etc.
• The use of a combination of unit and the symbols for units is avoided when the physical quantity
is expressed by combining two or more units.
For example :
joule per mole kelvin is written as J/mol K or J mol–1 K–1, but not joule/mole K or
J/ mol kelvin or J/mole K, etc.
joule per tesla is written as J/T or J T–1, but not joule /T or J per tesla or J/tesla, etc.
newton metre second is written as N m s, but not Newton m second or N m second or N metre s
or newton metre s, etc.
joule per kilogram kelvin is written as J/kg K or J kg–1 K–1, but not J/kilog K or joule/kg K or J/
kg kelvin or J/kilogram K, etc.
• To simplify calculations, the prefix symbol is attached to the unit symbol in the numerator and
not to the denominator.
For example :
106 N/m2 is written more conveniently as MN/m2, in preference to N/mm2.
A preference has been expressed for multiples or sub-multiples involving the factor 1000, 10+3n
where n is the integer.
• Proper care is needed when same symbols are used for physical quantities and units of physical
quantities.
For example :
The physical quantity weight (W) expressed as a product of mass (m) and acceleration due to
gravity (g) may be written in terms of symbols W, m and g printed in italic ( or sloping) type as W
= m g, preferably with a spacing between m and g. It should not be confused with the unit
symbols for the units watt (W), metre (m) and gram (g). However, in the equation W=m g, the
symbol W expresses the weight with a unit symbol J, m as the mass with a unit symbol kg and
g as the acceleration due to gravity with a unit symbol m/s2. Similarly, in equation F = m a, the
symbol F expresses the force with a unit symbol N, m as the mass with a unit symbol kg, and a
as the acceleration with a unit symbol m/s2. These symbols for physical quantities should not
be confused with the unit symbols for the units ‘farad’ (F), ‘metre’(m) and ‘are’ (a).
Proper distinction must be made while using the symbols h (prefix hecto, and unit hour), c
(prefix centi, and unit carat), d (prefix deci and unit day), T (prefix tera, and unit tesla), a (prefix
atto, and unit are), da (prefix deca, and unit deciare), etc.
• SI base unit ‘kilogram’ for mass is formed by attaching SI prefix (a multiple equal to 103) ‘kilo’ to
a cgs (centimetre, gram, second) unit ‘gram’ and this may seem to result in an anomaly. Thus,
while a thousandth part of unit of length (metre) is called a millimetre (mm), a thousandth part
of the unit of mass (kg) is not called a millikilogram, but just a gram. This appears to give the
impression that the unit of mass is a gram (g) which is not true. Such a situation has arisen
because we are unable to replace the name ‘kilogram’ by any other suitable unit. Therefore, as
an exception, name of the multiples and sub-multiples of the unit of mass are formed by attaching
prefixes to the word ‘gram’ and not to the word ‘kilogram’.
For example :
103 kg =1 megagram ( 1Mg), but not 1 kilo kilogram (1 kkg);
10–6 kg = 1 milligram ( 1 mg), but not 1 microkilogram ( 1µkg);
10–3 kg = 1 gram (1g), but not 1 millikilogram (1 mkg), etc.
It may be emphasised again that you should use the internationally approved and recommended
symbols only. Continual practice of following general rules and guidelines in unit symbol writing
would make you learn mastering the correct use of SI units, prefixes and related symbols for physical
quantities in a proper perspective.

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APPENDICES 155

APPENDIX A 9
DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

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APPENDICES 157

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APPENDICES 159

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160 PHYSICS

ANSWERS

Chapter 1

1.1 (a) 10–6 ; (b) 1.5 × 104 ; (c) 5 ; (d) 11.3, 1.13 × 104.
1.2 (a) 107 ; (b) 10–16 ; (c) 3.9 × 104 ; (d) 6.67 × 10–8.
1.5 500
1.6 (c)
1.7 0.035 mm
1.9 94.1
1.10 (a) 1 ; (b) 3 ; (c) 4 ; (d) 4 ; (e) 4 ; (f) 4.
1.11 8.72 m2; 0.0855 m3
1.12 (a) 2.3 kg ; (b) 0.02 g
1.13 The correct formula is m = m0 (1 – v2/c2)–½
1.14 ≅ 3 × 10–7 m3
1.15 ≅ 104; intermolecular separation in a gas is much larger than the size of a molecule.
1.16 Near objects make greater angle than distant (far off) objects at the eye of the observer.
When you are moving, the angular change is less for distant objects than nearer objects.
So, these distant objects seem to move along with you, but the nearer objects in opposite
direction.
1.17 1.4 × 103 kg m-3; the mass density of the Sun is in the range of densities of liquids /
solids and not gases. This high density arises due to inward gravitational attraction
on outer layers due to inner layers of the Sun.

Chapter 2
2.1 (a), (b)
2.2 (a) A....B, (b) A....B, (c) B....A, (d) Same, (e) B....A....once.
2.4 37 s
2.5 3.06 m s–2 ; 11.4 s

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ANSWERS 161

2.6 (a) Vertically downwards; (b) zero velocity, acceleration of 9.8 m s-2 downwards;
(c) x > 0 (upward and downward motion); v < 0 (upward), v > 0 (downward), a > 0
throughout; (d) 44.1 m, 6 s.
2.7 (a) True;, (b) False; (c) True (if the particle rebounds instantly with the same speed, it
implies infinite acceleration which is unphysical); (d) False (true only when the chosen
positive direction is along the direction of motion)

15 45
2.10 (a) 5 km h–1, 5 km h–1; (b) 0, 6 km h–1; (c) km h–1, km h–1
8 8
2.11 Because, for an arbitrarily small interval of time, the magnitude of displacement is equal
to the length of the path.
2.12 All the four graphs are impossible. (a) a particle cannot have two different positions at
the same time; (b) a particle cannot have velocity in opposite directions at the same
time; (c) speed is always non-negative; (d) total path length of a particle can never
decrease with time. (Note, the arrows on the graphs are meaningless).
2.13 No, wrong. x- t plot does not show the trajectory of a particle. Context: A body is dropped
from a tower (x = 0) at t = 0.
2.14 105 m s-1
2.15 (a) A ball at rest on a smooth floor is kicked, it rebounds from a wall with reduced speed
and moves to the opposite wall which stops it; (b) A ball thrown up with some initial
velocity rebounding from the floor with reduced speed after each hit; (c) A uniformly
moving cricket ball turned back by hitting it with a bat for a very short time-interval.
2.16 x < 0, v < 0, a > 0; x > 0, v > 0, a < 0; x < 0, v > 0, a > 0.
2.17 Greatest in 3, least in 2; v > 0 in 1 and 2, v < 0 in 3.
2.18 Acceleration magnitude greatest in 2; speed greatest in 3; v > 0 in 1, 2 and 3; a > 0 in 1
and 3, a < 0 in 2; a = 0 at A, B, C, D.
Chapter 3
3.1 Volume, mass, speed, density, number of moles, angular frequency are scalars; the rest
are vectors.
3.2 Work, current
3.3 Impulse
3.4 Only (c) and (d) are permissible
3.5 (a) T, (b) F, (c) F, (d) T, (e) T
3.6 Hint: The sum (difference) of any two sides of a triangle is never less (greater) than the
third side. Equality holds for collinear vectors.
3.7 All statements except (a) are correct
3.8 400 m for each; B
3.9 (a) O; (b) O; (c) 21.4 km h–1
3.10 Displacement of magnitude 1 km and direction 60o with the initial direction; total path
length = 1.5 km (third turn); null displacement vector; path length = 3 km (sixth turn);
866 m, 30o, 4 km (eighth turn)

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162 PHYSICS

3.11 (a) 49.3 km h–1 ; (b) 21.4 km h–1. No, the average speed equals average velocity magnitude
only for a straight path.
3.12 150.5 m
3.13 50 m
3.14 9.9 m s-2, along the radius at every point towards the centre.
3.15 6.4 g
3.16 (a) False (true only for uniform circular motion)
(b) True, (c) True.

3.17 (a) v ( t ) = ( 3.0 ɵi − 4.0 t ɵj) aɵ (t ) = − 4.0 ɵj

(b) 8.54 m s–1, 70° with x-axis.
3.18 (a) 2 s, 24 m, 21.26 m s–1

3.19 2 , 45o with the x-axis; (

2 , – 45o with the x - axis, 5 / 2 , − 1 / 2 . )
3.20 (b) and (e)
3.21 Only (e) is true
3.22 182 m s–1

Chapter 4

4.1 (a) to (d) No net force according to the First Law

(e) No force, since it is far away from all material agencies producing electromagnetic
and gravitational forces.
4.2 The only force in each case is the force of gravity, (neglecting effects of air) equal to
0.5 N vertically downward. The answers do not change, even if the motion of the pebble
is not along the vertical. The pebble is not at rest at the highest point. It has a constant
horizontal component of velocity throughout its motion.
4.3 (a) 1 N vertically downwards (b) same as in (a)
(c) same as in (a); force at an instant depends on the situation at that instant, not
on history.
(d) 0.1 N in the direction of motion of the train.
4.4 (i) T
4.5 a = – 2.5 m s–2. Using v = u + at, 0 = 15 – 2.5 t i.e., t = 6.0 s
4.6 a = 1.5/25 = 0.06 m s–2
F = 3 × 0.06 = 0.18 N in the direction of motion.
4.7 Resultant force = 10 N at an angle of tan–1 (3/4) = 37° with the direction of 8 N force.
Acceleration = 2 m s–2 in the direction of the resultant force.
4.8 a = – 2.5 m s–2 , Retarding force = 465 × 2.5 = 1.2 × 103 N
4.9 F – 20,000 × 10 = 20000 × 5.0, i.e., F = 3.0 × 105 N
4.10 a = – 20 m s–2 0 ≤ t ≤ 30 s
t = –5 s : x = u t = – 10 × 5 = –50 m

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ANSWERS 163

t = 25 s : x = u t + (½) a t2 = (10 × 25 – 10 × 625)m = – 6 km

t = 100 s : First consider motion up to 30 s
x1 = 10 × 30 – 10 × 900 = – 8700 m
At t = 30 s, v = 10 – 20 × 30 = –590 m s-1
For motion from 30 s to 100 s : x2 = – 590 × 70 = – 41300 m
x = x1 + x2 = – 50 km

4.11 (a) Velocity of car ( at t = 10 s ) = 0 + 2 × 10 = 20 m s–1

By the First Law, the horizontal component of velocity is 20 m s–1 throughout.
Vertical component of velocity (at t = 11s) = 0 + 10 × 1 = 10 m s–1

Velocity of stone (at t = 11s) = 20 2 + 10 2 = 500 = 22.4 m s – 1 at an angle of tan–1 ( ½) with

the horizontal.
(b)10 m s-2 vertically downwards.
4.12 (a) At the extreme position, the speed of the bob is zero. If the string is cut, it will fall
vertically downwards.
(b) At the mean position, the bob has a horizontal velocity. If the string is cut, it will fall
along a parabolic path.
4.13 The reading on the scale is a measure of the force on the floor by the man. By the Third
Law, this is equal and opposite to the normal force N on the man by the floor.
(a) N = 70 × 10 = 700 N ; Reading is 70 kg
(b) 70 × 10 – N = 70 × 5 ; Reading is 35 kg
(c) N – 70 × 10 = 70 × 5 ; Reading is 105 kg
(d) 70 × 10 – N = 70 × 10; Reading would be zero; the scale would read zero.
4.14 (a) In all the three intervals, acceleration and, therefore, force are zero.
(b) 3 kg m s–1 at t = 0 ; (c) –3 kg m s–1 at t = 4 s.
4.15 If the 20 kg mass is pulled,
600 – T = 20 a, T = 10 a
a = 20 m s–2, T = 200 N
If the 10 kg mass is pulled, a = 20 m s–2, T = 400 N
4.16 T – 8 × 10 = 8 a, 12 × 10 – T = 12a
i.e. a = 2 m s–2, T = 96 N
4.17 By momentum conservation principle, total final momentum is zero. Two momentum
vectors cannot sum to a null momentum unless they are equal and opposite.
4.18 Impulse on each ball = 0.05 ×12 = 0.6 kg m s-1 in magnitude. The two impulses are
opposite in direction.
4.19 Use momentum conservation : 100 v = 0.02 × 80
v = 0.016 m s–1 = 1.6 cm s–1
4.20 Impulse is directed along the bisector of the initial and final directions. Its magnitude is
0.15 × 2 × 15 × cos 22.5° = 4.2 kg m s–1
40
4.21 v = 2π × 1.5 × = 2π m s –1
60
mv 2 0.25 × 4π 2
T= = = 6.6 N
R 1.5
2
mvmax
200 = , which gives v max = 35 m s –1
R

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164 PHYSICS

4.22 Alternative (b) is correct, according to the First Law

4.23 (a) The horse-cart system has no external force in empty space. The mutual forces
between the horse and the cart cancel (Third Law). On the ground, the contact force
between the system and the ground (friction) causes their motion from rest.
(b) Due to inertia of the body not directly in contact with the seat.
(c) A lawn mower is pulled or pushed by applying force at an angle. When you push, the
normal force (N ) must be more than its weight, for equilibrium in the vertical direction.
This results in greater friction f ( f ∝ N ) and, therefore, a greater applied force to move.
Just the opposite happens while pulling.
(d) To reduce the rate of change of momentum and hence to reduce the force necessary
to stop the ball.

Chapter 5

5.1 (a) +ve (b) –ve (c) –ve (d) + ve (e) – ve

5.2 (a) 882 J ; (b) –247 J; (c) 635 J ; (d) 635 J;
Work done by the net force on a body equals change in its kinetic energy.
5.3 (a) x > a ; 0 (c) x < a, x > b ; - V1
(b) −∞ < x < ∞; V1 (d) - b/2 < x < - a / 2, a / 2 < x < b / 2; -V1
5.5 (a) rocket; (b) For a conservative force work done over a path is minus of change in
potential energy. Over a complete orbit, there is no change in potential energy; (c) K.E.
increases, but P.E. decreases, and the sum decreases due to dissipation against friction;
(d) in the second case.
5.6 (a) decrease; (b) kinetic energy; (c) external force; (d) total linear momentum, and also
total energy (if the system of two bodies is isolated).
5.7 (a) F ; (b) F ; (c) F ; (d) F (true usually but not always, why?)
5.8 (a) No
(b) Yes
(c) Linear momentum is conserved during an inelastic collision, kinetic energy is, of
course, not conserved even after the collision is over.
(d) elastic.

5.9 (b) t
5.10 (c) t3/2
5.11 12 J
5.12 The electron is faster, ve / vp = 13.5
5.13 0.082 J in each half ; – 0.163 J
5.14 Yes, momentum of the molecule + wall system is conserved. The wall has a recoil
momentum such that the momentum of the wall + momentum of the outgoing molecule
equals momentum of the incoming molecule, assuming the wall to be stationary initially.
However, the recoil momentum produces negligible velocity because of the large mass of
the wall. Since kinetic energy is also conserved, the collision is elastic.
5.15 43.6 kW
5.16 (b)
5.17 It transfers its entire momentum to the ball on the table, and does not rise at all.
5.18 5.3 m s-1

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ANSWERS 165

5.19 27 km h–1 (no change in speed)

5.20 50 J

5.21 (a) m = ρ Avt (b) K = ρ Av 3t / 2 (c) P = 4.5 kW

5.22 (a) 49,000 J (b) 6.45 10-3 kg

5.23 (a) 200 m2 (b) comparable to the roof of a large house of dimension 14m × 14m.

Chapter 6

6.1 The geometrical centre of each. No, the CM may lie outside the body, as in case of a
ring, a hollow sphere, a hollow cylinder, a hollow cube etc.
6.2 Located on the line joining H and C1 nuclei at a distance of 1.24 Å from the H end.
6.3 The speed of the CM of the (trolley + child) system remains unchanged (equal to v)
because no external force acts on the system. The forces involved in running on the
trolley are internal to this system.
6.6 lz = xpy – ypx, lx = ypz – zpy, ly = zpx – xpz
6.8 72 cm
6.9 3675 N on each front wheel, 5145 N on each back wheel.
6.10 Sphere
6.11 Kinetic Energy = 3125 J; Angular Momentum = 62.5 J s
6.12 (a) 100 rev/min (use angular momentum conservation).
(b) The new kinetic energy is 2.5 times the initial kinetic energy of rotation. The child
uses his internal energy to increase his rotational kinetic energy.
6.13 25 s-2; 10 m s-2
6.14 36 kW
6.15 at R/6 from the center of original disc opposite to the center of cut portion.
6.16 66.0 g
6.17 6.75×1012 rad s–1
Chapter 7

7.1 (a ) No.
(b) Yes, if the size of the space ship is large enough for him to detect the variation in g.
(c) Tidal effect depends inversely on the cube of the distance unlike force, which depends
inversely on the square of the distance.
7.2 (a) decreases; (b) decreases; (c) mass of the body; (d) more.
7.3 Smaller by a factor of 0.63.
7.5 3.54 × 108 years.
7.6 (a) Kinetic energy, (b) less,
7.7 (a) No, (b) No, (c) No, (d) Yes
[The escape velocity is independent of mass of the body and the direction of projection.
It depends upon the gravitational potential at the point from where the body is launched.
Since this potential depends (slightly) on the latitude and height of the point, the escape

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166 PHYSICS

velocity (speed) depends (slightly) on these factors.]

7.8 All quantities vary over an orbit except angular momentum and total energy.

7.9 (b), (c) and (d)

7.10 and 7.11 For these two problems, complete the hemisphere to sphere. At both P, and C,
potential is constant and hence intensity = 0. Therefore, for the hemisphere, (c) and (e)
are correct.

P C

7.12 2.6 × 108 m

7.13 2.0 × 1030 kg
7.14 1.43 × 1012 m
7.15 28 N
7.16 125 N
7.17 8.0 × 106 m from the earth’s centre
7.18 31.7 km/s
7.19 5.9 × 109 J
7.20 2.6 × 106 m/s
7.21 0, 2.7 × 10-8 J/kg; an object placed at the mid point is in an unstable equilibrium

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Notes

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PAR T I

TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS XI

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11086 – PHYSICS (PART I)

First Edition ISBN 81-7450-508-3
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FOREWORD

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005 recommends that children’s life
at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a
departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system
and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and
textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic
idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp
boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us
significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined
in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers
will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue
imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and
freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed
on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination
is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored.
Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as
participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change is school routines and mode of functioning.
Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual
calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to
teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how
effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience,
rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address
the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at
different stages with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available
for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher
priority and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in
small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates
the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this
book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in science
and mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisor for this book,
Professor A.W. Joshi for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers
contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals
for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations
which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and
personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring
Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education,
Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of Professor
Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution.
As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in
the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will
enable us to undertake further revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training

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RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOKS

In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content

load on students. The National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises
reducing the content load and providing opportunities for experiential
learning with creative mindset. In this background, the NCER T has
undertaken the exercise to rationalise the textbooks across all classes.
Learning Outcomes already developed by the NCERT across classes have
been taken into consideration in this exercise.
Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the
following:

• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas in

the same class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in the same
subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without much
interventions from teachers and can be learned by children through
self-learning or peer-learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context

This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out

the changes given above.

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TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY GROUP FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Chairman, Advisory Committee, Inter University
Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA), Ganeshkhind, Pune University, Pune

CHIEF ADVISOR
A.W. Joshi, Professor, Honorary Visiting Scientist, NCRA, Pune (Formerly at
Department of Physics, University of Pune)

MEMBERS
Anuradha Mathur, PGT , Modern School, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi
Chitra Goel, PGT, Rajkiya Pratibha Vikas Vidyalaya, Tyagraj Nagar, Lodhi Road,
New Delhi
Gagan Gupta, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
H.C. Pradhan, Professor, Homi Bhabha Centre of Science Education, Tata Institute
of Fundamental Research, V.N. Purav Marg, Mankhurd, Mumbai
N. Panchapakesan, Professor (Retd.), Department of Physics and Astrophysics,
University of Delhi, Delhi
P.K. Srivastava, Professor (Retd.), Director, CSEC, University of Delhi, Delhi
P.K. Mohanty, PGT, Sainik School, Bhubaneswar
P.C. Agarwal, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, NCERT, Sachivalaya Marg,
Bhubaneswar
R. Joshi, Lecturer (S.G.), DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
S. Rai Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics and Astrophysics, University of
Delhi, Delhi
S.K. Dash, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Sher Singh, PGT, NDMC Navyug School, Lodhi Road, New Delhi
S.N. Prabhakara, PGT, DM School, Regional Institute of Education, NCERT, Mysore
Thiyam Jekendra Singh, Professor, Department of Physics, University of Manipur, Imphal
V.P. Srivastava, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi

MEMBER-COORDINATOR
B.K. Sharma, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The National Council of Educational Research and Training acknowledges the

valuable contribution of the individuals and organisations involved in the
development of Physics textbook for Class XI. The Council also acknowledges
the valuable contribution of the following academics for reviewing and refining
the manuscripts of this book: Deepak Kumar, Professor, School of Physical
Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi; Pankaj Sharan, Professor,
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi; Ajoy Ghatak, Emeritus Professor, Indian Institute
of Technology, New Delhi; V. Sundara Raja, Professor, Sri Venkateswara
University, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh; C.S. Adgaonkar, Reader (Retd), Institute
of Science, Nagpur, Maharashtra; D.A. Desai, Lecturer (Retd), Ruparel College,
Mumbai, Maharashtra; F.I. Surve, Lecturer, Nowrosjee Wadia College, Pune,
Maharashtra; Atul Mody, Lecturer (SG), VES College of Arts, Science and
Commerce, Chembur, Mumbai, Maharashtra; A.K. Das, PGT, St. Xavier’s Senior
Secondary School, Delhi; Suresh Kumar, PGT, Delhi Public School, Dwarka,
New Delhi; Yashu Kumar, PGT, Kulachi Hansraj Model School, Ashok Vihar,
Delhi; K.S. Upadhyay, PGT, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Muzaffar Nagar (U.P.);
I.K. Gogia, PGT, Kendriya Vidyalaya, Gole Market, New Delhi; Vijay Sharma,
PGT, Vasant Valley School, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi; R.S. Dass, Vice Principal
(Retd), Balwant Ray Mehta Vidya Bhawan, Lajpat Nagar, New Delhi and
Parthasarthi Panigrahi, PGT, D.V. CLW Girls School, Chittranjan, West Bengal.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the valuable contribution of
the following academics for the editing and finalisation of this book: A.S. Mahajan,
Professor (Retd), Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai, Maharashtra;
D.A. Desai, Lecturer (Retd), Ruparel College, Mumbai, Maharashtra;
V.H. Raybagkar, Reader, Nowrosjee Wadia College, Pune, Maharashtra and
Atul Mody, Lecturer (SG), VES College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Chembur,
Mumbai, Maharashtra.
The council also acknowledges the valuable contributions of the following
academics for reviewing and refining the text in 2017: A.K. Srivastava, DESM,
NCERT, New Delhi; Arnab Sen, NERIE, New Delhi; L.S. Chauhan, RIE, Bhopal;
O.N. Awasthi (Retd.), RIE., Bhopal; Rachna Garg, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi;
Raman Namboodiri, RIE, Mysuru; R.R. Koireng, DCS, NCERT, New Delhi; Shashi
Prabha, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi; and S.V. Sharma, RIE, Ajmer.
Special thanks are due to M. Chandra, Professor and Head, DESM, NCERT
for her support.
The Council also acknowledges the efforts of Deepak Kapoor, Incharge,
Computer Station, Inder Kumar, DTP Operator; Saswati Banerjee,
Copy Editor; Abhimanu Mohanty and Anuradha, Proof Readers in shaping
this book.
The contributions of the Publication Department in bringing out this book
are also duly acknowledged.

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PREFACE

More than a decade ago, based on National Policy of Education (NPE-1986),

National Council of Educational Research and Training published physics
textbooks for Classes XI and XII, prepared under the chairmanship of
Professor T. V. Ramakrishnan, F.R.S., with the help of a team of learned co-authors.
The books were well received by the teachers and students alike. The books, in
fact, proved to be milestones and trend-setters. However, the development of
textbooks, particularly science books, is a dynamic process in view of the changing
perceptions, needs, feedback and the experiences of the students, educators and
the society. Another version of the physics books, which was the result of the
revised syllabus based on National Curriculum Framework for School Education-2000
(NCFSE-2000), was brought out under the guidance of Professor Suresh Chandra,
which continued up to now. Recently the NCERT brought out the National Curriculum
Framework-2005 (NCF-2005), and the syllabus was accordingly revised during a
curriculum renewal process at school level. The higher secondary stage syllabus
(NCERT, 2005) has been developed accordingly. The Class XI textbook contains
fifteen chapters in two parts. Part I contains first eight chapters while Part II contains
next seven chapters. This book is the result of the renewed efforts of the present
Textbook Development Team with the hope that the students will appreciate the
beauty and logic of physics. The students may or may not continue to study physics
beyond the higher secondary stage, but we feel that they will find the thought
process of physics useful in any other branch they may like to pursue, be it finance,
administration, social sciences, environment, engineering, technology, biology or
medicine. For those who pursue physics beyond this stage, the matter developed
in these books will certainly provide a sound base.
Physics is basic to the understanding of almost all the branches of science and
technology. It is interesting to note that the ideas and concepts of physics are
increasingly being used in other branches such as economics and commerce, and
behavioural sciences too. We are conscious of the fact that some of the underlying
simple basic physics principles are often conceptually quite intricate. In this book,
we have tried to bring in a conceptual coherence. The pedagogy and the use of
easily understandable language are at the core of our effort without sacrificing the
rigour of the subject. The nature of the subject of physics is such that a certain
minimum use of mathematics is a must. We have tried to develop the mathematical
formulations in a logical fashion, as far as possible.
Students and teachers of physics must realise that physics is a branch which
needs to be understood, not necessarily memorised. As one goes from secondary to
higher secondary stage and beyond, physics involves mainly four components,
(a) large amount of mathematical base, (b) technical words and terms, whose
normal English meanings could be quite different, (c) new intricate concepts,
and (d) experimental foundation. Physics needs mathematics because we wish
to develop objective description of the world around us and express our observations
in terms of measurable quantities. Physics discovers new properties of particles
and wants to create a name for each one. The words are picked up normally from
common English or Latin or Greek, but gives entirely different meanings to these
words. It would be illuminating to look up words like energy, force, power, charge,
spin, and several others, in any standard English dictionary, and compare their

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meanings with their physics meanings. Physics develops intricate and often weird-
looking concepts to explain the behaviour of particles. Finally, it must be
remembered that entire physics is based on observations and experiments, without
which a theory does not get acceptance into the domain of physics.
This book has some features which, we earnestly hope, will enhance its
usefulness for the students. Each chapter is provided with a Summary at its end
for a quick overview of the contents of the chapter. This is followed by Points to
Ponder which points out the likely misconceptions arising in the minds of students,
hidden implications of certain statements/principles given in the chapter and
cautions needed in applying the knowledge gained from the chapter. They also
raise some thought-provoking questions which would make a student think about
life beyond physics. Students will find it interesting to think and apply their mind
on these points. Further, a large number of solved examples are included in the
text in order to clarify the concepts and/or to illustrate the application of these
concepts in everyday real-life situations. Occasionally, historical perspective has
been included to share the excitement of sequential development of the subject of
physics. Some Boxed items are introduced in many chapters either for this purpose
or to highlight some special features of the contents requiring additional attention
of the learners. Finally, a Subject Index has been added at the end of the book for
ease in locating keywords in the book.
The special nature of physics demands, apart from conceptual understanding,
the knowledge of certain conventions, basic mathematical tools, numerical values
of important physical constants, and systems of measurement units covering a
vast range from microscopic to galactic levels. In order to equip the students, we
have included the necessary tools and database in the form of Appendices A-1 to
A-9 at the end of the book. There are also some other appendices at the end of
some chapters giving additional information or applications of matter discussed in
that chapter.
Special attention has been paid for providing illustrative figures. To increase
the clarity, the figures are drawn in two colours. A large number of Exercises are
given at the end of each chapter. Some of these are from real-life situations. Students
are urged to solve these and in doing so, they may find them very educative. Moreover,
some Additional Exercises are given which are more challenging. Answers and
hints to solve some of these are also included. In the entire book, SI units have been
used. A comprehensive account of ‘units and measurement’ is given in Chapter 2 as a
part of prescribed syllabus/curriculum as well as a help in their pursuit of physics.
A box-item in this chapter brings out the difficulty in measuring as simple a thing as
the length of a long curved line. Tables of SI base units and other related units are
given here merely to indicate the presently accepted definitions and to indicate the
high degree of accuracy with which measurements are possible today. The numbers
given here are not to be memorised or asked in examinations.
There is a perception among students, teachers, as well as the general public
that there is a steep gradient between secondary and higher secondary stages.
But a little thought shows that it is bound to be there in the present scenario of
education. Education up to secondary stage is general education where a student
has to learn several subjects – sciences, social sciences, mathematics, languages,
at an elementary level. Education at the higher secondary stage and beyond, borders
on acquiring professional competence, in some chosen fields of endeavour. You
may like to compare this with the following situation. Children play cricket or
badminton in lanes and small spaces outside (or inside) their homes. But then

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xi
some of them want to make it to the school team, then district team, then State
team and then the National team. At every stage, there is bound to be a steep
gradient. Hard work would have to be put in whether students want to pursue
their education in the area of sciences, humanities, languages, music, fine arts,
commerce, finance, architecture, or if they want to become sportspersons or fashion
designers.
Completing this book has only been possible because of the spontaneous
and continuous support of many people. The Textbook Development Team is
thankful to Dr. V. H. Raybagkar for allowing us to use his box item in Chapter
4 and to Dr. F. I. Surve for allowing us to use two of his box items in Chapter 15.
We express also our gratitude to the Director, NCERT, for entrusting us with
the task of preparing this textbook as a part of national effort for improving
science education. The Head, Department of Education in Science and
Mathematics, NCERT, was always willing to help us in our endeavour in every
possible way.
The previous text got excellent academic inputs from teachers, students and
experts who sincerely suggested improvement during the past few years. We are
thankful to all those who conveyed these inputs to NCERT. We are also thankful to
the members of the Review Workshop and Editing Workshop organised to discuss
and refine the first draft. We thank the Chairmen and their teams of authors for
the text written by them in 1988, which provided the base and reference for
developing the 2002 version as well as the present version of the textbook.
Occasionally, substantial portions from the earlier versions, particularly those
appreciated by students/teachers, have been adopted/adapted and retained in
the present book for the benefit of coming generation of learners.
We welcome suggestions and comments from our valued users, especially
students and teachers. We wish our young readers a happy journey to the exciting
realm of physics.

A. W. JOSHI
Chief Advisor
Textbook Development Committee

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A NOTE FOR THE TEACHERS

To make the curriculum learner -centred, students should be made to participate and interact
in the learning process directly. Once a week or one out of every six classes would be a good
periodicity for such seminars and mutual interaction. Some suggestions for making the discussion
participatory are given below, with reference to some specific topics in this book.
Students may be divided into groups of five to six. The membership of these groups may be
rotated during the year, if felt necessary.
The topic for discussion can be presented on the board or on slips of paper. Students should
be asked to write their reactions or answers to questions, whichever is asked, on the given
sheets. They should then discuss in their groups and add modifications or comments in those
sheets. These should be discussed either in the same or in a different class. The sheets may also
be evaluated.
We suggest here three possible topics from the book. The first two topics suggested are, in
fact, very general and refer to the development of science over the past four centuries or more.
Students and teachers may think of more such topics for each seminar.
1. Ideas that changed civilisation
Suppose human beings are becoming extinct. A message has to be left for future generations or
alien visitors. Eminent physicist R P Feynmann wanted the following message left for future
beings, if any.
“Matter is made up of atoms”
A lady student and teacher of literature, wanted the following message left:
“Water existed, so human beings could happen”.
Another person thought it should be: “Idea of wheel for motion”
Write down what message each one of you would like to leave for future generations. Then
discuss it in your group and add or modify, if you want to change your mind. Give it to your
teacher and join in any discussion that follows.
2. Reductionism
Kinetic Theory of Gases relates the Big to the Small, the Macro to the Micro. A gas as a system
is related to its components, the molecules. This way of describing a system as a result of the
properties of its components is usually called Reductionism. It explains the behaviour of the
group by the simpler and predictable behaviour of individuals. Macroscopic observations and
microscopic properties have a mutual interdependence in this approach. Is this method useful?
This way of understanding has its limitations outside physics and chemistry, may be even
in these subjects. A painting cannot be discussed as a collection of the properties of chemicals
used in making the canvas and the painting. What emerges is more than the sum of its
components.
Question: Can you think of other areas where such an approach is used?
Describe briefly a system which is fully describable in terms of its components. Describe
one which is not. Discuss with other members of the group and write your views. Give it to your
teacher and join in any discussion that may follow.
3. Molecular approach to heat
Describe what you think will happen in the following case. An enclosure is separated by a
porous wall into two parts. One is filled with nitrogen gas (N2) and the other with CO2. Gases
will diffuse from one side to the other.
Question 1: Will both gases diffuse to the same extent? If not, which will diffuse more. Give
reasons.
Question 2: Will the pressure and temperature be unchanged? If not, what will be the changes
in both. Give reasons.
Write down your answers. Discuss with the group and modify them or add comments.
Give to the teacher and join in the discussion.

Students and teachers will find that such seminars and discussions lead to tremendous
understanding, not only of physics, but also of science and social sciences. They also bring in
some maturity among students.

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CONTENTS

FOREWORD iii
RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOKS v
PREFACE ix
A NOTE FOR THE TEACHER xii

C H A P T E R 1
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The international system of units 1
1.3 Significant figures 3
1.4 Dimensions of physical quantities 7
1.5 Dimensional formulae and dimensional equations 7
1.6 Dimensional analysis and its applications 7

C H A P T E R 2
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Instantaneous velocity and speed 14
2.3 Acceleration 15
2.4 Kinematic equations for uniformly accelerated motion 17

C H A P T E R 3
MOTION IN A PLANE
3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 Scalars and vectors 27
3.3 Multiplication of vectors by real numbers 29
3.4 Addition and subtraction of vectors – graphical method 29
3.5 Resolution of vectors 31
3.6 Vector addition – analytical method 33
3.7 Motion in a plane 34
3.8 Motion in a plane with constant acceleration 37
3.9 Projectile motion 38
3.10 Uniform circular motion 40

C H A P T E R 4
LAWS OF MOTION
4.1 Introduction 49
4.2 Aristotle’s fallacy 50
4.3 The law of inertia 50
4.4 Newton’s first law of motion 51
4.5 Newton’s second law of motion 53
4.6 Newton’s third law of motion 56

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xiv

4.7 Conservation of momentum 57

4.8 Equilibrium of a particle 58
4.9 Common forces in mechanics 59
4.10 Circular motion 63
4.11 Solving problems in mechanics 64

C H A P T E R 5
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
5.1 Introduction 71
5.2 Notions of work and kinetic energy : The work-energy theorem 73
5.3 Work 73
5.4 Kinetic energy 74
5.5 Work done by a variable force 75
5.6 The work-energy theorem for a variable force 76
5.7 The concept of potential energy 77
5.8 The conservation of mechanical energy 78
5.9 The potential energy of a spring 80
5.10 Power 83
5.11 Collisions 83

C H A P T E R 6
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION
6.1 Introduction 92
6.2 Centre of mass 95
6.3 Motion of centre of mass 99
6.4 Linear momentum of a system of particles 100
6.5 Vector product of two vectors 101
6.6 Angular velocity and its relation with linear velocity 103
6.7 Torque and angular momentum 105
6.8 Equilibrium of a rigid body 108
6.9 Moment of inertia 114
6.10 Kinematics of rotational motion about a fixed axis 116
6.11 Dynamics of rotational motion about a fixed axis 118
6.12 Angular momentum in case of rotations about a fixed axis 120

C H A P T E R 7
GRAVITATION
7.1 Introduction 127
7.2 Kepler’s laws 128
7.3 Universal law of gravitation 129
7.4 The gravitational constant 131
7.5 Acceleration due to gravity of the earth 132
7.6 Acceleration due to gravity below and above the surface of earth 133

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xv

7.7 Gravitational potential energy 134

7.8 Escape speed 135
7.9 Earth satellites 137
7.10 Energy of an orbiting satellite 138

APPENDICES 144

ANSWERS 160

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COVER DESIGN
(Adapted from the website of the Nobel Foundation
http://www.nobelprize.org)

The strong nuclear force binds protons and

neutrons in a nucleus and is the strongest of
nature’s four fundamental forces. A mystery
surrounding the strong nuclear force has been
solved. The three quarks within the proton can
sometimes appear to be free, although no free
quarks have ever been observed. The quarks
have a quantum mechanical property called
‘colour’ and interact with each other through
the exchange of particles called ‘gluons’
— nature glue.

BACK COVER
(Adapted from the website of the ISRO
http://www.isro.gov.in)

CARTOSAT-1 is a state-of-the-art Remote

Sensing Satellite, being eleventh one in the
Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) Satellite Series,
built by ISRO. CARTOSAT-1, having mass of
156 kg at lift off, has been launched into a
618 km high polar Sun Synchronous Orbit (SSO)
by ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle,
PSLV-C6. It is mainly intended for cartographic
applications.

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 CHAPTER ONE

UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison
with a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen, internationally
accepted reference standard called unit. The result of a
1.1 Introduction measurement of a physical quantity is expressed by a
1.2 The international system of number (or numerical measure) accompanied by a unit.
units Although the number of physical quantities appears to be
1.3 Significant figures very large, we need only a limited number of units for
expressing all the physical quantities, since they are inter-
1.4 Dimensions of physical related with one another. The units for the fundamental or
quantities base quantities are called fundamental or base units. The
1.5 Dimensional formulae and units of all other physical quantities can be expressed as
dimensional equations combinations of the base units. Such units obtained for the
1.6 Dimensional analysis and its derived quantities are called derived units. A complete set
applications of these units, both the base units and derived units, is
known as the system of units.
Summary
Exercises 1.2 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
In earlier time scientists of different countries were using
different systems of units for measurement. Three such
systems, the CGS, the FPS (or British) system and the MKS
system were in use extensively till recently.
The base units for length, mass and time in these systems
were as follows :
• In CGS system they were centimetre, gram and second
respectively.
• In FPS system they were foot, pound and second
respectively.
• In MKS system they were metre, kilogram and second
respectively.
The system of units which is at present internationally
accepted for measurement is the Système Internationale
d’ Unites (French for International System of Units),
abbreviated as SI. The SI, with standard scheme of symbols,
units and abbreviations, developed by the Bureau
International des Poids et measures (The International
Bureau of Weights and Measures, BIPM) in 1971 were
recently revised by the General Conference on Weights and
Measures in November 2018. The scheme is now for

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2 PHYSICS

international usage in scientific, technical, industrial

and commercial work. Because SI units used decimal
system, conversions within the system are quite simple
and convenient. We shall follow the SI units in
this book.
In SI, there are seven base units as given in (a)
Table 1.1. Besides the seven base units, there are two
more units that are defined for (a) plane angle dθ as the
ratio of length of arc ds to the radius r and (b) solid
angle dΩ as the ratio of the intercepted area dA of the
spherical surface, described about the apex O as the
centre, to the square of its radius r, as shown in
Fig. 1.1(a) and (b) respectively. The unit for plane angle
(b)
is radian with the symbol rad and the unit for the solid
angle is steradian with the symbol sr. Both these are Fig. 1.1 Description of (a) plane angle dθ and
dimensionless quantities. (b) solid angle dΩ .
Table 1.1 SI Base Quantities and Units*
Base SI Units
quantity Name Symbol Definition
Length metre m The metre, symbol m, is the SI unit of length. It is defined by taking the
fixed numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum c to be 299792458
when expressed in the unit m s–1 , where the second is defined in terms of
the caesium frequency ∆ν cs.
Mass kilogram kg The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the
fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be 6.62607015×10–34 when
expressed in the unit J s, which is equal to kg m2 s–1, where the metre and
the second are defined in terms of c and ∆ν cs.
Time second s The second, symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined by taking the fixed
numerical value of the caesium frequency ∆ν cs, the unperturbed ground-
state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom, to be
9192631770 when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s–1.
Electric ampere A The ampere, symbol A, is the SI unit of electric current. It is defined by
taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e to be
1.602176634×10–19 when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A s,
where the second is defined in terms of ∆ν cs.
Thermo kelvin K The kelvin, symbol K, is the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature.
dynamic It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant
Temperature k to be 1.380649×10–23 when expressed in the unit J K–1, which is equal to
kg m2 s–2 k–1, where the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of
h, c and ∆ν cs.
Amount of mole mol The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance. One mole
substance contains exactly 6.02214076×1023 elementary entities. This number is the
fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant, NA, when expressed in the
unit mol–1 and is called the Avogadro number. The amount of substance,
symbol n, of a system is a measure of the number of specified elementary
entities. An elementary entity may be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an electron,
any other particle or specified group of particles.
Luminous candela cd The candela, symbol cd, is the SI unit of luminous intensity in given direction.
intensity It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the luminous efficacy of
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×1012 Hz, Kcd, to be 683 when expressed
in the unit lm W–1, which is equal to cd sr W–1, or cd sr kg–1m–2s3, where the
kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and ∆ν cs.

* The values mentioned here need not be remembered or asked in a test. They are given here only to indicate the
extent of accuracy to which they are measured. With progress in technology, the measuring techniques get
improved leading to measurements with greater precision. The definitions of base units are revised to keep up
with this progress.

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 3

Table 1.2 Some units retained for general use (Though outside SI)

Note that when mole is used, the elementary the first uncertain digit are known as
entities must be specified. These entities significant digits or significant figures. If we
may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, say the period of oscillation of a simple
other particles or specified groups of such pendulum is 1.62 s, the digits 1 and 6 are
particles. reliable and certain, while the digit 2 is
We employ units for some physical quantities uncertain. Thus, the measured value has three
that can be derived from the seven base units significant figures. The length of an object
(Appendix A 6). Some derived units in terms of reported after measurement to be 287.5 cm has
the SI base units are given in (Appendix A 6.1). four significant figures, the digits 2, 8, 7 are
Some SI derived units are given special names certain while the digit 5 is uncertain. Clearly,
(Appendix A 6.2 ) and some derived SI units make reporting the result of measurement that
use of these units with special names and the includes more digits than the significant digits
seven base units (Appendix A 6.3). These are is superfluous and also misleading since it
given in Appendix A 6.2 and A 6.3 for your ready would give a wrong idea about the precision of
reference. Other units retained for general use measurement.
are given in Table 1.2.
The rules for determining the number of
Common SI prefixes and symbols for multiples
significant figures can be understood from the
and sub-multiples are given in Appendix A2.
following examples. Significant figures
General guidelines for using symbols for physical
indicate, as already mentioned, the precision
quantities, chemical elements and nuclides are
given in Appendix A7 and those for SI units and of measurement which depends on the least
some other units are given in Appendix A8 for count of the measuring instrument. A choice
your guidance and ready reference. of change of different units does not
change the number of significant digits or
1.3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES figures in a measurement. This important
As discussed above, every measurement remark makes most of the following
involves errors. Thus, the result of observations clear:
measurement should be reported in a way that (1) For example, the length 2.308 cm has four
indicates the precision of measurement. significant figures. But in different units, the
Normally, the reported result of measurement same value can be written as 0.02308 m or 23.08
is a number that includes all digits in the mm or 23080 µm.
number that are known reliably plus the first All these numbers have the same number of
digit that is uncertain. The reliable digits plus significant figures (digits 2, 3, 0, 8), namely four.

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4 PHYSICS

This shows that the location of decimal point is negative exponent (or power) of 10. In order to
of no consequence in determining the number get an approximate idea of the number, we may
of significant figures. round off the number a to 1 (for a ≤ 5) and to 10
The example gives the following rules : (for 5<a ≤ 10). Then the number can be
• All the non-zero digits are significant. expressed approximately as 10b in which the
exponent (or power) b of 10 is called order of
• All the zeros between two non-zero digits
magnitude of the physical quantity. When only
are significant, no matter where the an estimate is required, the quantity is of the
decimal point is, if at all. order of 10b. For example, the diameter of the
• If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) earth (1.28×107m) is of the order of 107m with
on the right of decimal point but to the the order of magnitude 7. The diameter of
left of the first non-zero digit are not hydrogen atom (1.06 ×10–10m) is of the order of
significant. [In 0.00 2308, the underlined 10 –10 m, with the order of magnitude
zeroes are not significant]. –10. Thus, the diameter of the earth is 17 orders
of magnitude larger than the hydrogen atom.
• The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a
It is often customary to write the decimal after
number without a decimal point are not
the first digit. Now the confusion mentioned in
significant.
(a) above disappears :
[Thus 123 m = 12300 cm = 123000 mm has 4.700 m = 4.700 × 102 cm
three significant figures, the trailing zero(s) = 4.700 × 103 mm = 4.700 × 10–3 km
being not significant.] However, you can also
The power of 10 is irrelevant to the
see the next observation.
determination of significant figures. However, all
• The trailing zero(s) in a number with a zeroes appearing in the base number in the
decimal point are significant. scientific notation are significant. Each number
[The numbers 3.500 or 0.06900 have four in this case has four significant figures.
significant figures each.] Thus, in the scientific notation, no confusion
(2) There can be some confusion regarding the arises about the trailing zero(s) in the base
trailing zero(s). Suppose a length is reported to number a. They are always significant.
be 4.700 m. It is evident that the zeroes here (4) The scientific notation is ideal for reporting
are meant to convey the precision of measurement. But if this is not adopted, we use
measurement and are, therefore, significant. [If the rules adopted in the preceding example :
these were not, it would be superfluous to write
them explicitly, the reported measurement • For a number greater than 1, without any
would have been simply 4.7 m]. Now suppose decimal, the trailing zero(s) are not
we change units, then significant.
4.700 m = 470.0 cm = 4700 mm = 0.004700 km • For a number with a decimal, the trailing
zero(s) are significant.
Since the last number has trailing zero(s) in a
number with no decimal, we would conclude (5) The digit 0 conventionally put on the left of a
erroneously from observation (1) above that the decimal for a number less than 1 (like 0.1250)
number has two significant figures, while in is never significant. However, the zeroes at the
fact, it has four significant figures and a mere end of such number are significant in a
change of units cannot change the number of measurement.
significant figures.
(6) The multiplying or dividing factors which are
(3) To remove such ambiguities in neither rounded numbers nor numbers
determining the number of significant representing measured values are exact and
figures, the best way is to report every have infinite number of significant digits. For
measurement in scientific notation (in the
d
power of 10). In this notation, every number is example in r = or s = 2πr, the factor 2 is an
expressed as a × 10b, where a is a number 2
between 1 and 10, and b is any positive or exact number and it can be written as 2.0, 2.00

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 5

t decimal place. The final result should, therefore,

or 2.0000 as required. Similarly, in T = , n is be rounded off to 663.8 g.
n
Similarly, the difference in length can be
an exact number.
expressed as :
1.3.1 Rules for Arithmetic Operations with 0.307 m – 0.304 m = 0.003 m = 3 ×10–3 m.
Significant Figures
Note that we should not use the rule (1) applicable
The result of a calculation involving approximate for multiplication and division and write 664 g as
measured values of quantities (i.e. values with the result in the example of addition and
limited number of significant figures) must 3.00 × 10–3 m in the example of subtraction. They
reflect the uncertainties in the original do not convey the precision of measurement
measured values. It cannot be more accurate properly. For addition and subtraction, the rule
than the original measured values themselves
is in terms of decimal places.
on which the result is based. In general, the
final result should not have more significant 1.3.2 Rounding off the Uncertain Digits
figures than the original data from which it was The result of computation with approximate
obtained. Thus, if mass of an object is measured numbers, which contain more than one
to be, say, 4.237 g (four significant figures) and uncertain digit, should be rounded off. The rules
its volume is measured to be 2.51 cm3, then its for rounding off numbers to the appropriate
density, by mere arithmetic division, is significant figures are obvious in most cases. A
1.68804780876 g/cm3 upto 11 decimal places. number 2.746 rounded off to three significant
It would be clearly absurd and irrelevant to figures is 1.75, while the number 1.743 would
record the calculated value of density to such a be 1.74. The rule by convention is that the
precision when the measurements on which the preceding digit is raised by 1 if the
value is based, have much less precision. The
insignificant digit to be dropped (the
following rules for arithmetic operations with
underlined digit in this case) is more than
significant figures ensure that the final result
5, and is left unchanged if the latter is less
of a calculation is shown with the precision that
than 5. But what if the number is 2.745 in
is consistent with the precision of the input
measured values : which the insignificant digit is 5. Here, the
(1) In multiplication or division, the final convention is that if the preceding digit is
result should retain as many significant even, the insignificant digit is simply
figures as are there in the original number dropped and, if it is odd, the preceding digit
with the least significant figures. is raised by 1. Then, the number 2.745 rounded
Thus, in the example above, density should off to three significant figures becomes 1.74. On
be reported to three significant figures. the other hand, the number 2.735 rounded off
4.237g
to three significant figures becomes 1.74 since
-3
Density = 3
= 1.69 g cm the preceding digit is odd.
2.51 cm In any involved or complex multi-step
Similarly, if the speed of light is given as calculation, you should retain, in intermediate
3.00 × 108 m s-1 (three significant figure) and steps, one digit more than the significant digits
one year (1y = 365.25 d) has 3.1557 × 107 s (five and round off to proper significant figures at the
significant figures), the light year is 9.47 × 1015 m end of the calculation. Similarly, a number
(three significant figures). known to be within many significant figures,
such as in 1.99792458 × 108 m/s for the speed
(2) In addition or subtraction, the final result
should retain as many decimal places as are of light in vacuum, is rounded off to an
there in the number with the least approximate value 3 × 108 m/s , which is often
decimal places. employed in computations. Finally, remember
For example, the sum of the numbers that exact numbers that appear in formulae like
436.32 g, 227.2 g and 0.301 g by mere arithmetic L
addition, is 663.821 g. But the least precise 2 π in T = 2π , have a large (infinite) number
measurement (227.2 g) is correct to only one g

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6 PHYSICS

of significant figures. The value of π =

= 16.2 cm ± 0.6 %.
3.1415926.... is known to a large number of
significant figures. You may take the value as Similarly, the breadth b may be written as
3.142 or 3.14 for π, with limited number of b = 10.1 ± 0.1 cm
significant figures as required in specific = 10.1 cm ± 1 %
cases.
Then, the error of the product of two (or more)
Example 1.1 Each side of a cube is experimental values, using the combination of
⊳
measured to be 7.203 m. What are the errors rule, will be
total surface area and the volume of the
cube to appropriate significant figures? l b = 163.62 cm2 + 1.6%

= 163.62 + 2.6 cm2

Answer The number of significant figures in
the measured length is 4. The calculated area This leads us to quote the final result as
and the volume should therefore be rounded off l b = 164 + 3 cm2
to 4 significant figures.
Here 3 cm2 is the uncertainty or error in the
Surface area of the cube = 6(7.203)2 m2 estimation of area of rectangular sheet.
= 311.299254 m2 (2) If a set of experimental data is specified
= 311.3 m2 to n significant figures, a result obtained by
combining the data will also be valid to n
Volume of the cube = (7.203)3 m3
significant figures.
= 373.714754 m3
However, if data are subtracted, the number of
= 373.7 m3 ⊳ significant figures can be reduced.
⊳
Example 1.2 5.74 g of a substance For example, 12.9 g – 7.06 g, both specified to
occupies 1.2 cm3. Express its density by three significant figures, cannot properly be
keeping the significant figures in view. evaluated as 5.84 g but only as 5.8 g, as
Answer There are 3 significant figures in the uncertainties in subtraction or addition combine
measured mass whereas there are only 2 in a different fashion (smallest number of
decimal places rather than the number of
significant figures in the measured volume.
significant figures in any of the number added
Hence the density should be expressed to only
or subtracted).
2 significant figures.
5.74 (3) The relative error of a value of number
Density = g cm−3 specified to significant figures depends not
1.2 only on n but also on the number itself.
= 4.8 g cm--3 . ⊳ For example, the accuracy in measurement of
mass 1.02 g is ± 0.01 g whereas another
1.3.3 Rules for Determining the Uncertainty measurement 9.89 g is also accurate to ± 0.01 g.
in the Results of Arithmetic The relative error in 1.02 g is
Calculations = (± 0.01/1.02) × 100 %
The rules for determining the uncertainty or = ± 1%
error in the number/measured quantity in Similarly, the relative error in 9.89 g is
arithmetic operations can be understood from = (± 0.01/9.89) × 100 %
the following examples. = ± 0.1 %
(1) If the length and breadth of a thin Finally, remember that intermediate results in
rectangular sheet are measured, using a metre a multi-step computation should be
scale as 16.2 cm and, 10.1 cm respectively, there calculated to one more significant figure in
are three significant figures in each every measurement than the number of
measurement. It means that the length l may digits in the least precise measurement.
be written as These should be justified by the data and then
l = 16.2 ± 0.1 cm the arithmetic operations may be carried out;

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 7

otherwise rounding errors can build up. For mass, one dimension in length, and –2
example, the reciprocal of 9.58, calculated (after dimensions in time. The dimensions in all other
rounding off) to the same number of significant base quantities are zero.
figures (three) is 0.104, but the reciprocal of Note that in this type of representation, the
0.104 calculated to three significant figures is magnitudes are not considered. It is the quality
of the type of the physical quantity that enters.
9.62. However, if we had written 1/9.58 = 0.1044
Thus, a change in velocity, initial velocity,
and then taken the reciprocal to three significant average velocity, final velocity, and speed are
figures, we would have retrieved the original all equivalent in this context. Since all these
value of 9.58. quantities can be expressed as length/time,
This example justifies the idea to retain one their dimensions are [L]/[T] or [L T–1].
more extra digit (than the number of digits in
the least precise measurement) in intermediate 1.5 DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND
steps of the complex multi-step calculations in DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS
order to avoid additional errors in the process The expression which shows how and which of
of rounding off the numbers. the base quantities represent the dimensions
of a physical quantity is called the dimensional
1.4 DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES formula of the given physical quantity. For
example, the dimensional formula of the volume
The nature of a physical quantity is described is [M° L3 T°], and that of speed or velocity is
by its dimensions. All the physical quantities [M° L T-1]. Similarly, [M° L T–2] is the dimensional
represented by derived units can be expressed formula of acceleration and [M L–3 T°] that of
in terms of some combination of seven mass density.
fundamental or base quantities. We shall call An equation obtained by equating a physical
these base quantities as the seven dimensions quantity with its dimensional formula is called
of the physical world, which are denoted with the dimensional equation of the physical
square brackets [ ]. Thus, length has the quantity. Thus, the dimensional equations are
dimension [L], mass [M], time [T], electric current the equations, which represent the dimensions
[A], thermodynamic temperature [K], luminous of a physical quantity in terms of the base
intensity [cd], and amount of substance [mol]. quantities. For example, the dimensional
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the equations of volume [V ], speed [v], force [F ] and
powers (or exponents) to which the base mass density [ρ] may be expressed as
quantities are raised to represent that
[V] = [M0 L3 T0]
quantity. Note that using the square brackets
[v] = [M0 L T–1]
[ ] round a quantity means that we are dealing
[F] = [M L T–2]
with ‘the dimensions of’ the quantity.
[ρ] = [M L–3 T0]
In mechanics, all the physical quantities can
be written in terms of the dimensions [L], [M] The dimensional equation can be obtained
and [T]. For example, the volume occupied by from the equation representing the relations
an object is expressed as the product of length, between the physical quantities. The
breadth and height, or three lengths. Hence the dimensional formulae of a large number and
dimensions of volume are [L] × [L] × [L] = [L]3 = [L3]. wide variety of physical quantities, derived from
the equations representing the relationships
As the volume is independent of mass and time,
among other physical quantities and expressed
it is said to possess zero dimension in mass [M°],
in terms of base quantities are given in
zero dimension in time [T°] and three Appendix 9 for your guidance and ready
dimensions in length. reference.
Similarly, force, as the product of mass and
acceleration, can be expressed as 1.6 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS
Force = mass × acceleration APPLICATIONS
= mass × (length)/(time)2
The recognition of concepts of dimensions, which
The dimensions of force are [M] [L]/[T]2 = guide the description of physical behaviour is
[M L T–2]. Thus, the force has one dimension in of basic importance as only those physical

2024-25
8 PHYSICS

quantities can be added or subtracted which such as angle as the ratio (length/length),
have the same dimensions. A thorough refractive index as the ratio (speed of light in
understanding of dimensional analysis helps us vacuum/speed of light in medium) etc., has no
in deducing certain relations among different dimensions.
physical quantities and checking the derivation, Now we can test the dimensional consistency
accuracy and dimensional consistency or or homogeneity of the equation
homogeneity of various mathematical
expressions. When magnitudes of two or more x = x 0 + v0 t + (1/2) a t 2
physical quantities are multiplied, their units for the distance x travelled by a particle or body
should be treated in the same manner as in time t which starts from the position x0 with
ordinary algebraic symbols. We can cancel an initial velocity v0 at time t = 0 and has uniform
identical units in the numerator and
acceleration a along the direction of motion.
denominator. The same is true for dimensions
The dimensions of each term may be written as
of a physical quantity. Similarly, physical
[x] = [L]
quantities represented by symbols on both sides
of a mathematical equation must have the same [x0 ] = [L]
dimensions. [v0 t] = [L T–1] [T]
= [L]
1.6.1 Checking the Dimensional [(1/2) a t2] = [L T–2] [T2]
Consistency of Equations = [L]
As each term on the right hand side of this
The magnitudes of physical quantities may be equation has the same dimension, namely that
added together or subtracted from one another of length, which is same as the dimension of
only if they have the same dimensions. In other left hand side of the equation, hence this
words, we can add or subtract similar physical equation is a dimensionally correct equation.
quantities. Thus, velocity cannot be added to It may be noted that a test of consistency of
force, or an electric current cannot be subtracted dimensions tells us no more and no less than a
from the thermodynamic temperature. This test of consistency of units, but has the
simple principle called the principle of advantage that we need not commit ourselves
homogeneity of dimensions in an equation is to a particular choice of units, and we need not
extremely useful in checking the correctness of worry about conversions among multiples and
an equation. If the dimensions of all the terms sub-multiples of the units. It may be borne in
are not same, the equation is wrong. Hence, if mind that if an equation fails this consistency
we derive an expression for the length (or test, it is proved wrong, but if it passes, it is
distance) of an object, regardless of the symbols not proved right. Thus, a dimensionally correct
appearing in the original mathematical relation, equation need not be actually an exact
when all the individual dimensions are (correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong
simplified, the remaining dimension must be (incorrect) or inconsistent equation must be
that of length. Similarly, if we derive an equation wrong.
of speed, the dimensions on both the sides of
equation, when simplified, must be of length/ ⊳
Example 1.3 Let us consider an equation
time, or [L T–1].
Dimensions are customarily used as a 1
m v2 = m g h
preliminary test of the consistency of an 2
equation, when there is some doubt about the where m is the mass of the body, v its
correctness of the equation. However, the velocity, g is the acceleration due to
dimensional consistency does not guarantee gravity and h is the height. Check
correct equations. It is uncertain to the extent whether this equation is dimensionally
of dimensionless quantities or functions. The correct.
arguments of special functions, such as the
trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential Answer The dimensions of LHS are
functions must be dimensionless. A pure [M] [L T–1 ]2 = [M] [ L2 T–2]
number, ratio of similar physical quantities, = [M L2 T–2]

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 9

The dimensions of RHS are string, that oscillates under the action of
[M][L T–2] [L] = [M][L2 T–2] the force of gravity. Suppose that the period
= [M L2 T–2] of oscillation of the simple pendulum
The dimensions of LHS and RHS are the same and depends on its length (l), mass of the bob
hence the equation is dimensionally correct. ⊳ (m) and acceleration due to gravity (g).
Derive the expression for its time period
using method of dimensions.
Example 1.4 The SI unit of energy is
⊳
J = kg m2 s–2; that of speed v is m s–1 and
of acceleration a is m s–2. Which of the Answer The dependence of time period T on
formulae for kinetic energy (K) given below the quantities l, g and m as a product may be
can you rule out on the basis of written as :
dimensional arguments (m stands for the T = k lx gy mz
mass of the body) : where k is dimensionless constant and x, y
(a) K = m2 v3 and z are the exponents.
(b) K = (1/2)mv2 By considering dimensions on both sides, we
(c) K = ma have
(d) K = (3/16)mv2 [Lo M o T 1 ]=[L1 ]x [L1 T –2 ]y [M1 ]z
(e) K = (1/2)mv2 + ma = Lx+y T–2y Mz
Answer Every correct formula or equation must On equating the dimensions on both sides,
have the same dimensions on both sides of the we have
equation. Also, only quantities with the same x + y = 0; –2y = 1; and z = 0
physical dimensions can be added or
1 1
subtracted. The dimensions of the quantity on So that x = ,y = – , z = 0
the right side are [M2 L3 T–3] for (a); [M L2 T–2] for 2 2
–½
(b) and (d); [M L T–2] for (c). The quantity on the
½
Then, T = k l g
right side of (e) has no proper dimensions since
two quantities of different dimensions have been l
added. Since the kinetic energy K has the or, T = k
g
dimensions of [M L2 T–2], formulas (a), (c) and (e)
are ruled out. Note that dimensional arguments Note that value of constant k can not be obtained
cannot tell which of the two, (b) or (d), is the by the method of dimensions. Here it does not
correct formula. For this, one must turn to the matter if some number multiplies the right side
actual definition of kinetic energy (see of this formula, because that does not affect its
Chapter 5). The correct formula for kinetic dimensions.
energy is given by (b). ⊳
l
Actually, k = 2π so that T = 2π ⊳
1.6.2 Deducing Relation among the g
Physical Quantities
The method of dimensions can sometimes be Dimensional analysis is very useful in deducing
used to deduce relation among the physical relations among the interdependent physical
quantities. For this we should know the quantities. However, dimensionless constants
dependence of the physical quantity on other cannot be obtained by this method. The method
quantities (upto three physical quantities or of dimensions can only test the dimensional
linearly independent variables) and consider it validity, but not the exact relationship between
as a product type of the dependence. Let us take physical quantities in any equation. It does not
an example. distinguish between the physical quantities
having same dimensions.
A number of exercises at the end of this
⊳
Example 1.5 Consider a simple
pendulum, having a bob attached to a chapter will help you develop skill in
dimensional analysis.

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10 PHYSICS

SUMMARY

1. Physics is a quantitative science, based on measurement of physical quantities. Certain

physical quantities have been chosen as fundamental or base quantities (such as
length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of substance,
and luminous intensity).
2. Each base quantity is defined in terms of a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen but properly
standardised reference standard called unit (such as metre, kilogram, second, ampere,
kelvin, mole and candela). The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called
fundamental or base units.
3. Other physical quantities, derived from the base quantities, can be expressed as a
combination of the base units and are called derived units. A complete set of units,
both fundamental and derived, is called a system of units.
4. The International System of Units (SI) based on seven base units is at present
internationally accepted unit system and is widely used throughout the world.
5. The SI units are used in all physical measurements, for both the base quantities and
the derived quantities obtained from them. Certain derived units are expressed by
means of SI units with special names (such as joule, newton, watt, etc).
6. The SI units have well defined and internationally accepted unit symbols (such as m
for metre, kg for kilogram, s for second, A for ampere, N for newton etc.).
7. Physical measurements are usually expressed for small and large quantities in scientific
notation, with powers of 10. Scientific notation and the prefixes are used to simplify
measurement notation and numerical computation, giving indication to the precision
of the numbers.
8. Certain general rules and guidelines must be followed for using notations for physical
quantities and standard symbols for SI units, some other units and SI prefixes for
expressing properly the physical quantities and measurements.
9. In computing any physical quantity, the units for derived quantities involved in the
relationship(s) are treated as though they were algebraic quantities till the desired
units are obtained.
10. In measured and computed quantities proper significant figures only should be retained.
Rules for determining the number of significant figures, carrying out arithmetic
operations with them, and ‘rounding off ‘ the uncertain digits must be followed.
11. The dimensions of base quantities and combination of these dimensions describe
the nature of physical quantities. Dimensional analysis can be used to check the
dimensional consistency of equations, deducing relations among the physical
quantities, etc. A dimensionally consistent equation need not be actually an
exact (correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong or inconsistent equation
must be wrong.

EXERCISES

Note : In stating numerical answers, take care of significant figures.

1.1 Fill in the blanks
(a) The volume of a cube of side 1 cm is equal to .....m3
(b) The surface area of a solid cylinder of radius 2.0 cm and height 10.0 cm is equal to
...(mm)2
(c) A vehicle moving with a speed of 18 km h–1 covers....m in 1 s
(d) The relative density of lead is 11.3. Its density is ....g cm–3 or ....kg m–3.
1.2 Fill in the blanks by suitable conversion of units
(a) 1 kg m2 s–2 = ....g cm2 s–2
(b) 1 m = ..... ly
(c) 3.0 m s–2 = .... km h–2
(d) G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 (kg)–2 = .... (cm)3 s–2 g–1.

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 11

1.3 A calorie is a unit of heat (energy in transit) and it equals about 4.2 J where 1J =
1 kg m2 s–2. Suppose we employ a system of units in which the unit of mass equals α
kg, the unit of length equals β m, the unit of time is γ s. Show that a calorie has a
magnitude 4.2 α –1 β –2 γ 2 in terms of the new units.
1.4 Explain this statement clearly :
“To call a dimensional quantity ‘large’ or ‘small’ is meaningless without specifying a
standard for comparison”. In view of this, reframe the following statements wherever
necessary :
(a) atoms are very small objects
(b) a jet plane moves with great speed
(c) the mass of Jupiter is very large
(d) the air inside this room contains a large number of molecules
(e) a proton is much more massive than an electron
(f) the speed of sound is much smaller than the speed of light.
1.5 A new unit of length is chosen such that the speed of light in vacuum is unity. What
is the distance between the Sun and the Earth in terms of the new unit if light takes
8 min and 20 s to cover this distance ?
1.6 Which of the following is the most precise device for measuring length :
(a) a vernier callipers with 20 divisions on the sliding scale
(b) a screw gauge of pitch 1 mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale
(c) an optical instrument that can measure length to within a wavelength of light ?
1.7 A student measures the thickness of a human hair by looking at it through a
microscope of magnification 100. He makes 20 observations and finds that the average
width of the hair in the field of view of the microscope is 3.5 mm. What is the
estimate on the thickness of hair ?
1.8 Answer the following :
(a)You are given a thread and a metre scale. How will you estimate the diameter of
the thread ?
(b)A screw gauge has a pitch of 1.0 mm and 200 divisions on the circular scale. Do
you think it is possible to increase the accuracy of the screw gauge arbitrarily by
increasing the number of divisions on the circular scale ?
(c) The mean diameter of a thin brass rod is to be measured by vernier callipers. Why
is a set of 100 measurements of the diameter expected to yield a more reliable
estimate than a set of 5 measurements only ?
1.9 The photograph of a house occupies an area of 1.75 cm2 on a 35 mm slide. The slide
is projected on to a screen, and the area of the house on the screen is 1.55 m2. What
is the linear magnification of the projector-screen arrangement.
1.10 State the number of significant figures in the following :
(a) 0.007 m2
(b) 2.64 × 1024 kg
(c) 0.2370 g cm–3
(d) 6.320 J
(e) 6.032 N m–2
(f) 0.0006032 m2
1.11 The length, breadth and thickness of a rectangular sheet of metal are 4.234 m, 1.005 m, and
2.01 cm respectively. Give the area and volume of the sheet to correct significant figures.
1.12 The mass of a box measured by a grocer’s balance is 2.30 kg. Two gold pieces of
masses 20.15 g and 20.17 g are added to the box. What is (a) the total mass of the
box, (b) the difference in the masses of the pieces to correct significant figures ?
1.13 A famous relation in physics relates ‘moving mass’ m to the ‘rest mass’ mo of a
particle in terms of its speed v and the speed of light, c. (This relation first arose as
a consequence of special relativity due to Albert Einstein). A boy recalls the relation
almost correctly but forgets where to put the constant c. He writes :
m0
m=
(1 − v )
2 1/2 .

Guess where to put the missing c.

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12 PHYSICS

1.14 The unit of length convenient on the atomic scale is known as an angstrom and is
denoted by Å: 1 Å = 10–10 m. The size of a hydrogen atom is about 0.5 Å. What is the
total atomic volume in m3 of a mole of hydrogen atoms ?
1.15 One mole of an ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure occupies 22.4 L
(molar volume). What is the ratio of molar volume to the atomic volume of a mole of
hydrogen ? (Take the size of hydrogen molecule to be about 1 Å). Why is this ratio
so large ?
1.16 Explain this common observation clearly : If you look out of the window of a fast
moving train, the nearby trees, houses etc. seem to move rapidly in a direction opposite
to the train’s motion, but the distant objects (hill tops, the Moon, the stars etc.)
seem to be stationary. (In fact, since you are aware that you are moving, these
distant objects seem to move with you).
1.17 The Sun is a hot plasma (ionized matter) with its inner core at a temperature exceeding
10 7 K, and its outer surface at a temperature of about 6000 K. At these high
temperatures, no substance remains in a solid or liquid phase. In what range do you
expect the mass density of the Sun to be, in the range of densities of solids and
liquids or gases ? Check if your guess is correct from the following data : mass of the
Sun = 2.0 ×1030 kg, radius of the Sun = 7.0 × 108 m.

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 CHAPTER TWO

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Motion is common to everything in the universe. We walk,
run and ride a bicycle. Even when we are sleeping, air moves
2.1 Introduction into and out of our lungs and blood flows in arteries and
2.2 Instantaneous velocity and veins. We see leaves falling from trees and water flowing
speed down a dam. Automobiles and planes carry people from one
2.3 Acceleration place to the other. The earth rotates once every twenty-four
2.4 Kinematic equations for hours and revolves round the sun once in a year. The sun
uniformly accelerated motion itself is in motion in the Milky Way, which is again moving
2.5 Relative velocity within its local group of galaxies.
Summary
Motion is change in position of an object with time. How
Points to ponder does the position change with time ? In this chapter, we shall
Exercises learn how to describe motion. For this, we develop the
concepts of velocity and acceleration. We shall confine
ourselves to the study of motion of objects along a straight
line, also known as rectilinear motion. For the case of
rectilinear motion with uniform acceleration, a set of simple
equations can be obtained. Finally, to understand the relative
nature of motion, we introduce the concept of relative velocity.
In our discussions, we shall treat the objects in motion as
point objects. This approximation is valid so far as the size
of the object is much smaller than the distance it moves in a
reasonable duration of time. In a good number of situations
in real-life, the size of objects can be neglected and they can
be considered as point-like objects without much error.
In Kinematics, we study ways to describe motion without
going into the causes of motion. What causes motion
described in this chapter and the next chapter forms the
subject matter of Chapter 4.

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14 PHYSICS

2.2 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND SPEED

The average velocity tells us how fast an object
has been moving over a given time interval but
does not tell us how fast it moves at different
instants of time during that interval. For this,
we define instantaneous velocity or simply
velocity v at an instant t.
The velocity at an instant is defined as the
limit of the average velocity as the time interval
∆t becomes infinitesimally small. In other words,
∆x
v = lim (2.1a)
∆t → 0 ∆t
Fig. 2.1 Determining velocity from position-time
dx (2.1b) graph. Velocity at t = 4 s is the slope of the
=
dt tangent to the graph at that instant.

lim
where the symbol ∆t →0 stands for the operation Now, we decrease the value of ∆t from 2 s to 1
of taking limit as ∆tg0 of the quantity on its s. Then line P1P2 becomes Q1Q2 and its slope
right. In the language of calculus, the quantity gives the value of the average velocity over
on the right hand side of Eq. (2.1a) is the the interval 3.5 s to 4.5 s. In the limit ∆t → 0,
differential coefficient of x with respect to t and the line P1P2 becomes tangent to the position-
dx time curve at the point P and the velocity at t
is denoted by (see Appendix 2.1). It is the
dt = 4 s is given by the slope of the tangent at
rate of change of position with respect to time, that point. It is difficult to show this
at that instant. process graphically. But if we use
numerical method to obtain the value of
We can use Eq. (2.1a) for obtaining the
the velocity, the meaning of the limiting
value of velocity at an instant either
process becomes clear. For the graph shown
graphically or numerically. Suppose that we
in Fig. 2.1, x = 0.08 t3. Table 2.1 gives the
want to obtain graphically the value of
value of ∆x/∆t calculated for ∆t equal to 2.0 s,
velocity at time t = 4 s (point P) for the motion
1.0 s, 0.5 s, 0.1 s and 0.01 s centred at t =
of the car represented in Fig.2.1 calculation.
4.0 s. The second and third columns give the
Let us take ∆t = 2 s centred at t = 4 s. Then,
by the definition of the average velocity, the  ∆t   ∆t 
value of t1=  t −  and t 2 =  t +  and the
slope of line P1P2 ( Fig. 2.1) gives the value of  2   2 
average velocity over the interval 3 s to 5 s. fourth and the fifth columns give the

∆x
Table 2.1 Limiting value of at t = 4 s
∆t

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 15

a + 16b – a – 4b
= = 6.0 × b
3
corresponding values of x, i.e. x (t1) = 0.08 t1
2.0
and x (t2) = 0.08 t 23 . The sixth column lists the = 6.0 × 2.5 = 15 m s-1 ⊳
difference ∆x = x (t 2) – x (t1 ) and the last
column gives the ratio of ∆x and ∆t, i.e. the Note that for uniform motion, velocity is
average velocity corresponding to the value the same as the average velocity at all
of ∆t listed in the first column. instants.
We see from Table 2.1 that as we decrease Instantaneous speed or simply speed is the
the value of ∆t from 2.0 s to 0.010 s, the value of magnitude of velocity. For example, a velocity of
the average velocity approaches the limiting + 24.0 m s–1 and a velocity of – 24.0 m s–1 —
value 3.84 m s–1 which is the value of velocity at both have an associated speed of 24.0 m s-1. It
dx should be noted that though average speed over
t = 4.0 s, i.e. the value of at t = 4.0 s. In this a finite interval of time is greater or equal to the
dt magnitude of the average velocity,
manner, we can calculate velocity at each instantaneous speed at an instant is equal to
instant for motion of the car. the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity at
The graphical method for the determination that instant. Why so ?
of the instantaneous velocity is always not a
convenient method. For this, we must carefully 2.3 ACCELERATION
plot the position–time graph and calculate the The velocity of an object, in general, changes
value of average velocity as ∆t becomes smaller during its course of motion. How to describe
and smaller. It is easier to calculate the value this change? Should it be described as the rate
of velocity at different instants if we have data of change in velocity with distance or with
of positions at different instants or exact time ? This was a problem even in Galileo’s
expression for the position as a function of time. time. It was first thought that this change could
Then, we calculate ∆x/∆t from the data for be described by the rate of change of velocity
decreasing the value of ∆t and find the limiting with distance. But, through his studies of
value as we have done in Table 2.1 or use motion of freely falling objects and motion of
differential calculus for the given expression and objects on an inclined plane, Galileo concluded
that the rate of change of velocity with time is
dx
calculate at different instants as done in a constant of motion for all objects in free fall.
dt On the other hand, the change in velocity with
the following example. distance is not constant – it decreases with the
⊳ increasing distance of fall. This led to the
Example 2.1 The position of an object concept of acceleration as the rate of change
moving along x-axis is given by x = a + bt2 of velocity with time.
where a = 8.5 m, b = 2.5 m s–2 and t is The average acceleration a over a time interval
measured in seconds. What is its velocity at is defined as the change of velocity divided by
t = 0 s and t = 2.0 s. What is the average the time interval :
velocity between t = 2.0 s and t = 4.0 s ?

Answer In notation of differential calculus, the a = v 2 – v1 = ∆v (2.2)

velocity is t 2 – t1 ∆t

where v2 and v1 are the instantaneous velocities

v=
dx
=
dt dt
d
( )
a + bt 2 = 2b t = 5.0 t m s -1 or simply velocities at time t2 and t1 . It is the
average change of velocity per unit time. The SI
At t = 0 s, v = 0 m s–1 and at t = 2.0 s,
-1
unit of acceleration is m s–2 .
v = 10 m s .
On a plot of velocity versus time, the average
acceleration is the slope of the straight line
x ( 4.0 ) − x (2.0 )
Average velocity = connecting the points corresponding to (v2, t2)
4.0 − 2.0 and (v1, t1).

2024-25
16 PHYSICS

Instantaneous acceleration is defined in the (c) An object is moving in negative direction

same way as the instantaneous velocity : with a negative acceleration.
∆v dv (d) An object is moving in positive direction
a = lim = (2.3) till time t1, and then turns back with the
∆t →0∆t dt
same negative acceleration.
The acceleration at an instant is the slope
of the tangent to the v–t curve at that An interesting feature of a velocity-time
instant. graph for any moving object is that the area
Since velocity is a quantity having both under the curve represents the
magnitude and direction, a change in displacement over a given time interval. A
velocity may involve either or both of these general proof of this statement requires use of
factors. Acceleration, therefore, may result calculus. We can, however, see that it is true
from a change in speed (magnitude), a for the simple case of an object moving with
change in direction or changes in both. Like constant velocity u. Its velocity-time graph is
velocity, acceleration can also be positive, as shown in Fig. 2.4.
negative or zero. Position-time graphs for
motion with positive, negative and zero
acceleration are shown in Figs. 2.4 (a), (b)
and (c), respectively. Note that the graph
curves upward for positive acceleration;
downward for negative acceleration and it is
a straight line for zero acceleration.
Although acceleration can vary with time,
our study in this chapter will be restricted
to motion with constant acceleration. In this
case, the average acceleration equals the
constant value of acceleration during the
interval. If the velocity of an object is v o at t
= 0 and v at time t, we have
v − v0
a= or, v = v0 + a t (2.4)
t −0

Fig. 2.3 Velocity–time graph for motions with

Fig. 2.2 Position-time graph for motion with constant acceleration. (a) Motion in positive
(a) positive acceleration; (b) negative
direction with positive acceleration,
acceleration, and (c) zero acceleration.
(b) Motion in positive direction with
Let us see how velocity-time graph looks like negative acceleration, (c) Motion in
for some simple cases. Fig. 2.3 shows velocity- negative direction with negative
time graph for motion with constant acceleration acceleration, (d) Motion of an object with
negative acceleration that changes
for the following cases :
direction at time t1. Between times 0 to
(a) An object is moving in a positive direction t1, it moves in positive x - direction
with a positive acceleration. and between t1 and t2 it moves in the
(b) An object is moving in positive direction opposite direction.
with a negative acceleration.

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 17

Fig. 2.4 Area under v–t curve equals displacement

of the object over a given time interval.

The v-t curve is a straight line parallel to the

time axis and the area under it between t = 0
and t = T is the area of the rectangle of height u
and base T. Therefore, area = u × T = uT which Fig. 2.5 Area under v-t curve for an object with
is the displacement in this time interval. How uniform acceleration.
come in this case an area is equal to a distance?
Think! Note the dimensions of quantities on
the two coordinate axes, and you will arrive at As explained in the previous section, the area
the answer. under v-t curve represents the displacement.
Therefore, the displacement x of the object is :
Note that the x-t, v-t, and a-t graphs shown
in several figures in this chapter have sharp 1
kinks at some points implying that the x =
2
(v –v 0 ) t + v 0 t (2.5)
functions are not differentiable at these
But v − v0 = a t
points. In any realistic situation, the
functions will be differentiable at all points 1
and the graphs will be smooth. Therefore, x = a t 2 + v 0t
2
What this means physically is that 1
or, x = v0t + at 2 (2.6)
acceleration and velocity cannot change 2
values abruptly at an instant. Changes are Equation (2.5) can also be written as
always continuous.
v + v0
2.4 KINEMATIC EQU ATIONS FOR x= t = vt (2.7a)
2
UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION
where,
For uniformly accelerated motion, we can derive
some simple equations that relate displacement v + v0
(x), time taken (t), initial velocity (v 0), final v= (constant acceleration only)
2
velocity (v) and acceleration (a). Equation (2.4) (2.7b)
already obtained gives a relation between final
and initial velocities v and v0 of an object moving Equations (2.7a) and (2.7b) mean that the object
with uniform acceleration a : has undergone displacement x with an average
velocity equal to the arithmetic average of the
v = v0 + at (2.4) initial and final velocities.
From Eq. (2.4), t = (v – v0)/a. Substituting this in
This relation is graphically represented in Fig. 2.5. Eq. (2.7a), we get
The area under this curve is :
 v + v0   v − v 0  v − v 0
2 2
Area between instants 0 and t = Area of triangle
x =vt = =
ABC + Area of rectangle OACD  2   a  2a
1
=
2
(v –v0 ) t + v0t v 2 = v02 + 2ax (2.8)

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18 PHYSICS

This equation can also be obtained by

∫ 0 (v0 + at ) dt
t
substituting the value of t from Eq. (2.4) into Eq. =
(2.6). Thus, we have obtained three important
equations : 1
x – x 0 = v0 t + a t2
v = v0 + at 2
1
1 x = x 0 + v0 t + a t2
x = v 0t + at 2 2
2 We can write
v 2 = v02 + 2ax (2.9a)
a=
dv dv dx
= =v
dv
dt dx dt dx
connecting five quantities v0, v, a, t and x. These
are kinematic equations of rectilinear motion for or, v dv = a dx
constant acceleration. Integrating both sides,
The set of Eq. (2.9a) were obtained by v x

assuming that at t = 0, the position of the particle, ∫v 0

v dv = ∫x 0
a dx
x is 0. We can obtain a more general equation if
v 2 – v 02
we take the position coordinate at t = 0 as non- = a (x – x 0 )
zero, say x0. Then Eqs. (2.9a) are modified 2
(replacing x by x – x0 ) to :
v 2 = v02 + 2a ( x – x 0 )
v = v0 + at The advantage of this method is that it can be used
1 for motion with non-uniform acceleration
x = x 0 + v 0t + at 2 (2.9b) also.
2
Now, we shall use these equations to some
v 2 = v 02 + 2a ( x − x 0 ) (2.9c) important cases. ⊳
⊳
⊳ Example 2.3 A ball is thrown vertically
Example 2.2 Obtain equations of motion upwards with a velocity of 20 m s–1 from
for constant acceleration using method of the top of a multistorey building. The
calculus. height of the point from where the ball is
thrown is 25.0 m from the ground. (a) How
Answer By definition high will the ball rise ? and (b) how long
will it be before the ball hits the ground?
dv Take g = 10 m s–2.
a =
dt
dv = a dt
Answer (a) Let us take the y-axis in the
Integrating both sides
v t
vertically upward direction with zero at the
∫v 0
dv = ∫ 0a dt ground, as shown in Fig. 2.6.
Now vo = + 20 m s–1,
t
= a ∫ dt (a is a = – g = –10 m s–2,
0
v = 0 m s–1
constant) If the ball rises to height y from the point of
v – v 0 = at launch, then using the equation
v = v 0 + at (
v 2 = v02 + 2 a y – y 0 )
we get
dx
Further, v= 0 = (20)2 + 2(–10)(y – y0)
dt
Solving, we get, (y – y0) = 20 m.
dx = v dt
Integrating both sides (b) We can solve this part of the problem in two
x t ways. Note carefully the methods used.
∫x 0
dx = ∫ 0 v dt

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 19

0 = 25 +20 t + (½) (-10) t2

Or, 5t2 – 20t – 25 = 0
Solving this quadratic equation for t, we get
t = 5s
Note that the second method is better since we
do not have to worry about the path of the motion
as the motion is under constant acceleration.
⊳
⊳
Example 2.4 Free-fall : Discuss the
motion of an object under free fall. Neglect
air resistance.

Answer An object released near the surface of

the Earth is accelerated downward under the
influence of the force of gravity. The magnitude
of acceleration due to gravity is represented by
g. If air resistance is neglected, the object is
Fig. 2.6 said to be in free fall. If the height through
which the object falls is small compared to the
FIRST METHOD : In the first method, we split earth’s radius, g can be taken to be constant,
the path in two parts : the upward motion (A to equal to 9.8 m s–2. Free fall is thus a case of
B) and the downward motion (B to C) and motion with uniform acceleration.
calculate the corresponding time taken t1 and We assume that the motion is in y-direction,
t2. Since the velocity at B is zero, we have : more correctly in –y-direction because we
v = vo + at choose upward direction as positive. Since the
0 = 20 – 10t1 acceleration due to gravity is always downward,
Or, t1 = 2 s it is in the negative direction and we have
This is the time in going from A to B. From B, or a = – g = – 9.8 m s–2
the point of the maximum height, the ball falls The object is released from rest at y = 0. Therefore,
freely under the acceleration due to gravity. The v0 = 0 and the equations of motion become:
ball is moving in negative y direction. We use
equation v= 0–gt = –9.8 t m s–1
2 2
y = 0 – ½ g t = –4.9 t m
1 2
y = y0 + v 0t + at v2 = 0 – 2 g y = –19.6 y m2 s–2
2 These equations give the velocity and the
We have, y0 = 45 m, y = 0, v0 = 0, a = – g = –10 m s–2 distance travelled as a function of time and also
0 = 45 + (½) (–10) t22 the variation of velocity with distance. The
Solving, we get t2 = 3 s variation of acceleration, velocity, and distance,
Therefore, the total time taken by the ball before with time have been plotted in Fig. 2.7(a), (b)
it hits the ground = t1 + t2 = 2 s + 3 s = 5 s. and (c).

SECOND METHOD : The total time taken can

also be calculated by noting the coordinates of
initial and final positions of the ball with respect
to the origin chosen and using equation
1 2
y = y0 + v 0t + at
2
Now y0 = 25 m y=0m
vo = 20 m s-1, a = –10m s–2, t = ? (a)

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20 PHYSICS

traversed during successive intervals of

time. Since initial velocity is zero, we have
1 2
y=− gt
2
Using this equation, we can calculate the
position of the object after different time
intervals, 0, τ, 2τ, 3τ… which are given in
second column of Table 2.2. If we take
(–1/ 2) gτ2 as y0 — the position coordinate after
first time interval τ, then third column gives
(b) the positions in the unit of yo. The fourth
column gives the distances traversed in
successive τs. We find that the distances are
in the simple ratio 1: 3: 5: 7: 9: 11… as shown
in the last column. This law was established
by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) who was the first
to make quantitative studies of free fall. ⊳

Example 2.6 Stopping distance of

⊳
vehicles : When brakes are applied to a
moving vehicle, the distance it travels before
stopping is called stopping distance. It is
(c) an important factor for road safety and
depends on the initial velocity (v0) and the
Fig. 2.7 Motion of an object under free fall.
(a) Variation of acceleration with time.
braking capacity, or deceleration, –a that
(b) Variation of velocity with time. is caused by the braking. Derive an
(c) Variation of distance with time ⊳ expression for stopping distance of a vehicle
in terms of vo and a.
⊳ Example 2.5 Galileo’s law of odd Answer Let the distance travelled by the vehicle
numbers : “The distances traversed, during before it stops be ds. Then, using equation of
equal intervals of time, by a body falling motion v2 = vo2 + 2 ax, and noting that v = 0, we
from rest, stand to one another in the same have the stopping distance
ratio as the odd numbers beginning with
unity [namely, 1: 3: 5: 7…...].” Prove it. – v02
ds =
Answer Let us divide the time interval of 2a
motion of an object under free fall into many Thus, the stopping distance is proportional to
equal intervals τ and find out the distances the square of the initial velocity. Doubling the

Table 2.2

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 21

initial velocity increases the stopping distance

by a factor of 4 (for the same deceleration).
For the car of a particular make, the braking
distance was found to be 10 m, 20 m, 34 m and
50 m corresponding to velocities of 11, 15, 20
and 25 m/s which are nearly consistent with
the above formula.

Stopping distance is an important factor

considered in setting speed limits, for example,
in school zones. ⊳
⊳
Example 2.7 Reaction time : When a
situation demands our immediate
action, it takes some time before we
really respond. Reaction time is the
time a person takes to observe, think
and act. For example, if a person is Fig. 2.8 Measuring the reaction time.
driving and suddenly a boy appears on
the road, then the time elapsed before Answer The ruler drops under free fall.
he slams the brakes of the car is the Therefore, vo = 0, and a = – g = –9.8 m s–2. The
reaction time. Reaction time depends distance travelled d and the reaction time tr are
on complexity of the situation and on related by
an individual.
You can measure your reaction
time by a simple experiment. Take a
ruler and ask your friend to drop it
vertically through the gap between Or,
your thumb and forefinger (Fig. 2.8).
Given d = 21.0 cm and g = 9.8 m s–2 the reaction
After you catch it, find the distance d
time is
travelled by the ruler. In a particular
case, d was found to be 21.0 cm.
⊳
Estimate reaction time.

SUMMARY

1. An object is said to be in motion if its position changes with time. The position of the
object can be specified with reference to a conveniently chosen origin. For motion in
a straight line, position to the right of the origin is taken as positive and to the left as
negative.
The average speed of an object is greater or equal to the magnitude of the average
velocity over a given time interval.
2. Instantaneous velocity or simply velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity
as the time interval ∆t becomes infinitesimally small :

∆ x dx
v = lim v = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆t → 0 ∆t dt

The velocity at a particular instant is equal to the slope of the tangent drawn on
position-time graph at that instant.

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22 PHYSICS

3. Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the time interval during which
the change occurs :

∆v
a=
∆t
4. Instantaneous acceleration is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the
time interval ∆t goes to zero :

∆v dv
a = lim a = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆t →0 ∆t dt
The acceleration of an object at a particular time is the slope of the velocity-time
graph at that instant of time. For uniform motion, acceleration is zero and the x-t
graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis and the v-t graph is a straight line
parallel to the time axis. For motion with uniform acceleration, x-t graph is a parabola
while the v-t graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis.
5. The area under the velocity-time curve between times t1 and t2 is equal to the displacement
of the object during that interval of time.
6. For objects in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the five quantities, displacement
x, time taken t, initial velocity v0, final velocity v and acceleration a are related by a set
of simple equations called kinematic equations of motion :
v = v0 + at

1 2
x = v0 t + at
2
2 2
v = v0 + 2ax
if the position of the object at time t = 0 is 0. If the particle starts at x = x0 , x in above
equations is replaced by (x – x0).

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 23

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The origin and the positive direction of an axis are a matter of choice. You should first specify
this choice before you assign signs to quantities like displacement, velocity and acceleration.
2. If a particle is speeding up, acceleration is in the direction of velocity; if its speed is
decreasing, acceleration is in the direction opposite to that of the velocity. This
statement is independent of the choice of the origin and the axis.
3. The sign of acceleration does not tell us whether the particle’s speed is increasing or
decreasing. The sign of acceleration (as mentioned in point 3) depends on the choice
of the positive direction of the axis. For example, if the vertically upward direction is
chosen to be the positive direction of the axis, the acceleration due to gravity is
negative. If a particle is falling under gravity, this acceleration, though negative,
results in increase in speed. For a particle thrown upward, the same negative
acceleration (of gravity) results in decrease in speed.
4. The zero velocity of a particle at any instant does not necessarily imply zero acceleration
at that instant. A particle may be momentarily at rest and yet have non-zero acceleration.
For example, a particle thrown up has zero velocity at its uppermost point but the
acceleration at that instant continues to be the acceleration due to gravity.
5. In the kinematic equations of motion [Eq. (2.9)], the various quantities are algebraic,
i.e. they may be positive or negative. The equations are applicable in all situations
(for one dimensional motion with constant acceleration) provided the values of different
quantities are substituted in the equations with proper signs.
6. The definitions of instantaneous velocity and acceleration (Eqs. (2.1) and (2.3)) are
exact and are always correct while the kinematic equations (Eq. (2.9)) are true only for
motion in which the magnitude and the direction of acceleration are constant during
the course of motion.

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24 PHYSICS

EXERCISES

2.1 In which of the following examples of motion, can the body be considered
approximately a point object:
(a) a railway carriage moving without jerks between two stations.
(b) a monkey sitting on top of a man cycling smoothly on a circular track.
(c) a spinning cricket ball that turns sharply on hitting the ground.
(d) a tumbling beaker that has slipped off the edge of a table.
2.2 The position-time (x-t) graphs for two children A and B returning from their school
O to their homes P and Q respectively are shown in Fig. 2.9. Choose the correct
entries in the brackets below ;
(a) (A/B) lives closer to the school than (B/A)
(b) (A/B) starts from the school earlier than (B/A)
(c) (A/B) walks faster than (B/A)
(d) A and B reach home at the (same/different) time
(e) (A/B) overtakes (B/A) on the road (once/twice).

Fig. 2.9
2.3 A woman starts from her home at 9.00 am, walks with a speed of 5 km h–1 on a
straight road up to her office 2.5 km away, stays at the office up to 5.00 pm, and
returns home by an auto with a speed of 25 km h–1. Choose suitable scales and
plot the x-t graph of her motion.
2.4 A drunkard walking in a narrow lane takes 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward,
followed again by 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward, and so on. Each step is 1 m
long and requires 1 s. Plot the x-t graph of his motion. Determine graphically and
otherwise how long the drunkard takes to fall in a pit 13 m away from the start.
2.5 A car moving along a straight highway with speed of 126 km h–1 is brought to a
stop within a distance of 200 m. What is the retardation of the car (assumed
uniform), and how long does it take for the car to stop ?
2.6 A player throws a ball upwards with an initial speed of 29.4 m s–1.
(a) What is the direction of acceleration during the upward motion of the ball ?
(b) What are the velocity and acceleration of the ball at the highest point of its motion ?
(c) Choose the x = 0 m and t = 0 s to be the location and time of the ball at its
highest point, vertically downward direction to be the positive direction of
x-axis, and give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration of the ball
during its upward, and downward motion.
(d) To what height does the ball rise and after how long does the ball return to the
player’s hands ? (Take g = 9.8 m s–2 and neglect air resistance).
2.7 Read each statement below carefully and state with reasons and examples, if it is
true or false ;
A particle in one-dimensional motion
(a) with zero speed at an instant may have non-zero acceleration at that instant
(b) with zero speed may have non-zero velocity,
(c) with constant speed must have zero acceleration,
(d) with positive value of acceleration must be speeding up.

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 25

2.8 A ball is dropped from a height of 90 m on a floor. At each collision with the floor,
the ball loses one tenth of its speed. Plot the speed-time graph of its motion
between t = 0 to 12 s.
2.9 Explain clearly, with examples, the distinction between :
(a) magnitude of displacement (sometimes called distance) over an interval of time,
and the total length of path covered by a particle over the same interval;
(b) magnitude of average velocity over an interval of time, and the average speed
over the same interval. [Average speed of a particle over an interval of time is
defined as the total path length divided by the time interval]. Show in both (a)
and (b) that the second quantity
is either greater than or equal to
the first. When is the equality sign
true ? [For simplicity, consider
one-dimensional motion only].
2.10 A man walks on a straight road from
his home to a market 2.5 km away with
a speed of 5 km h–1 . Finding the
market closed, he instantly turns and
walks back home with a speed of 7.5
km h–1. What is the
(a) magnitude of average velocity, and
(b) average speed of the man over the
interval of time (i) 0 to 30 min, (ii)
0 to 50 min, (iii) 0 to 40 min ?
[Note: You will appreciate from this
exercise why it is better to define
average speed as total path length
divided by time, and not as
magnitude of average velocity. You
would not like to tell the tired man
on his return home that his
average speed was zero !] Fig. 2.10
2.11 In Exercises 2.9 and 2.10, we have
carefully distinguished between
average speed and magnitude of average
velocity. No such distinction is necessary when
we consider instantaneous speed and
magnitude of velocity. The instantaneous speed
is always equal to the magnitude of
instantaneous velocity. Why?
2.12 Look at the graphs (a) to (d) (Fig. 2.10) carefully
and state, with reasons, which of these cannot
possibly represent one-dimensional motion of
a particle.
2.13 Figure 2.11shows the x-t plot of one-
dimensional motion of a particle. Is it correct
to say from the graph that the particle moves Fig. 2.11
in a straight line for t < 0 and on a parabolic
path for t >0 ? If not, suggest a suitable physical
context for this graph.
2.14 A police van moving on a highway with a speed of
30 km h–1 fires a bullet at a thief’s car speeding away in
the same direction with a speed of 192 km h–1. If the muzzle
speed of the bullet is 150 m s–1, with what speed does the
bullet hit the thief’s car ? (Note: Obtain that speed which
is relevant for damaging the thief’s car).

2024-25
26 PHYSICS

2.15 Suggest a suitable physical situation for each of the following graphs (Fig 2.12):

Fig. 2.12

2.16 Figure 2.13 gives the x-t plot of a particle executing one-dimensional simple
harmonic motion. (You will learn about this motion in more detail in Chapter13).
Give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration variables of the particle at
t = 0.3 s, 1.2 s, – 1.2 s.

Fig. 2.13

2.17 Figure 2.14 gives the x-t plot of a

particle in one-dimensional motion.
Three different equal intervals of time
are shown. In which interval is the
average speed greatest, and in which
is it the least ? Give the sign of average
velocity for each interval.

Fig. 2.14
2.18 Figure 2.15 gives a speed-time graph of
a particle in motion along a constant
direction. Three equal intervals of time
are shown. In which interval is the
average acceleration greatest in
magnitude? In which interval is the
average speed greatest ? Choosing the
positive direction as the constant
direction of motion, give the signs of v
and a in the three intervals. What are
the accelerations at the points A, B, C
and D ? Fig. 2.15

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 CHAPTER THREE

MOTION IN A PLANE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last chapter we developed the concepts of position,
displacement, velocity and acceleration that are needed to
3.1 Introduction describe the motion of an object along a straight line. We
3.2 Scalars and vectors found that the directional aspect of these quantities can be
3.3 Multiplication of vectors by taken care of by + and – signs, as in one dimension only two
real numbers directions are possible. But in order to describe motion of an
3.4 Addition and subtraction of object in two dimensions (a plane) or three dimensions
vectors — graphical method (space), we need to use vectors to describe the above-
3.5 Resolution of vectors mentioned physical quantities. Therefore, it is first necessary
3.6 Vector addition — analytical to learn the language of vectors. What is a vector ? How to
method add, subtract and multiply vectors ? What is the result of
3.7 Motion in a plane multiplying a vector by a real number ? We shall learn this
3.8 Motion in a plane with to enable us to use vectors for defining velocity and
constant acceleration acceleration in a plane. We then discuss motion of an object
3.9 Projectile motion in a plane. As a simple case of motion in a plane, we shall
3.10 Uniform circular motion discuss motion with constant acceleration and treat in detail
the projectile motion. Circular motion is a familiar class of
Summary motion that has a special significance in daily-life situations.
Points to ponder We shall discuss uniform circular motion in some detail.
Exercises
The equations developed in this chapter for motion in a
plane can be easily extended to the case of three dimensions.

3.2 SCALARS AND VECTORS

In physics, we can classify quantities as scalars or
vectors. Basically, the difference is that a direction is
associated with a vector but not with a scalar. A scalar
quantity is a quantity with magnitude only. It is specified
completely by a single number, along with the proper
unit. Examples are : the distance between two points,
mass of an object, the temperature of a body and the
time at which a certain event happened. The rules for
combining scalars are the rules of ordinary algebra.
Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided

2024-25
28 PHYSICS

just as the ordinary numbers*. For example, represented by another position vector, OP′
if the length and breadth of a rectangle are denoted by r′. The length of the vector r
1.0 m and 0.5 m respectively, then its represents the magnitude of the vector and its
perimeter is the sum of the lengths of the direction is the direction in which P lies as seen
four sides, 1.0 m + 0.5 m +1.0 m + 0.5 m = from O. If the object moves from P to P′, the
3.0 m. The length of each side is a scalar vector PP′ (with tail at P and tip at P′) is called
and the perimeter is also a scalar. Take the displacement vector corresponding to
another example: the maximum and motion from point P (at time t) to point P′ (at time t′).
minimum temperatures on a particular day
are 35.6 °C and 24.2 °C respectively. Then,
the difference between the two temperatures
is 11.4 °C. Similarly, if a uniform solid cube
of aluminium of side 10 cm has a mass of
2.7 kg, then its volume is 10–3 m3 (a scalar)
and its density is 2.7×103 kg m –3 (a scalar).
A vector quantity is a quantity that has both
a magnitude and a direction and obeys the
triangle law of addition or equivalently the Fig. 3.1 (a) Position and displacement vectors.
parallelogram law of addition. So, a vector is (b) Displacement vector PQ and different
specified by giving its magnitude by a number courses of motion.
and its direction. Some physical quantities that It is important to note that displacement
are represented by vectors are displacement, vector is the straight line joining the initial and
velocity, acceleration and force. final positions and does not depend on the actual
To represent a vector, we use a bold face type path undertaken by the object between the two
in this book. Thus, a velocity vector can be
positions. For example, in Fig. 3.1(b), given the
represented by a symbol v. Since bold face is
initial and final positions as P and Q, the
difficult to produce, when written by hand, a
displacement vector is the same PQ for different
vector is often represented by an arrow placed
r r paths of journey, say PABCQ, PDQ, and PBEFQ.
over a letter, say v . Thus, both v and v
Therefore, the magnitude of displacement is
represent the velocity vector. The magnitude of
either less or equal to the path length of an
a vector is often called its absolute value,
object between two points. This fact was
indicated by |v| = v. Thus, a vector is
emphasised in the previous chapter also while
represented by a bold face, e.g. by A, a, p, q, r, ...
x, y, with respective magnitudes denoted by light discussing motion along a straight line.
face A, a, p, q, r, ... x, y. 3.2.2 Equality of Vectors
3.2.1 Position and Displacement Vectors Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if, and
To describe the position of an object moving in only if, they have the same magnitude and the
a plane, we need to choose a convenient point, same direction.**
say O as origin. Let P and P′ be the positions of Figure 3.2(a) shows two equal vectors A and
the object at time t and t′, respectively [Fig. 3.1(a)]. B. We can easily check their equality. Shift B
We join O and P by a straight line. Then, OP is parallel to itself until its tail Q coincides with that
the position vector of the object at time t. An of A, i.e. Q coincides with O. Then, since their
arrow is marked at the head of this line. It is tips S and P also coincide, the two vectors are
represented by a symbol r, i.e. OP = r. Point P′ is said to be equal. In general, equality is indicated

* Addition and subtraction of scalars make sense only for quantities with same units. However, you can multiply
and divide scalars of different units.
** In our study, vectors do not have fixed locations. So displacing a vector parallel to itself leaves the vector
unchanged. Such vectors are called free vectors. However, in some physical applications, location or line of
application of a vector is important. Such vectors are called localised vectors.

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 29

The factor λ by which a vector A is multiplied

could be a scalar having its own physical
dimension. Then, the dimension of λ A is the
product of the dimensions of λ and A. For
example, if we multiply a constant velocity vector
by duration (of time), we get a displacement
vector.
3.4 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF
VECTORS — GRAPHICAL METHOD
Fig. 3.2 (a) Two equal vectors A and B. (b) Two As mentioned in section 4.2, vectors, by
vectors A′ and B′ are unequal though they definition, obey the triangle law or equivalently,
are of the same length. the parallelogram law of addition. We shall now
describe this law of addition using the graphical
as A = B. Note that in Fig. 3.2(b), vectors A′ and method. Let us consider two vectors A and B that
B′ have the same magnitude but they are not lie in a plane as shown in Fig. 3.4(a). The lengths
equal because they have different directions. of the line segments representing these vectors
Even if we shift B′ parallel to itself so that its tail are proportional to the magnitude of the vectors.
Q′ coincides with the tail O′ of A′, the tip S′ of B′ To find the sum A + B, we place vector B so that
does not coincide with the tip P′ of A′. its tail is at the head of the vector A, as in
3.3 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS BY REAL Fig. 3.4(b). Then, we join the tail of A to the head
NUMBERS of B. This line OQ represents a vector R, that is,
Multiplying a vector A with a positive number λ the sum of the vectors A and B. Since, in this
gives a vector whose magnitude is changed by procedure of vector addition, vectors are
the factor λ but the direction is the same as that
of A :
λ A = λ A if λ > 0.
For example, if A is multiplied by 2, the resultant
vector 2A is in the same direction as A and has
a magnitude twice of |A| as shown in Fig. 3.3(a).
Multiplying a vector A by a negative number
−λ gives another vector whose direction is
opposite to the direction of A and whose
magnitude is λ times |A|.
Multiplying a given vector A by negative
numbers, say –1 and –1.5, gives vectors as
shown in Fig 3.3(b).

(c) (d)
Fig. 3.3 (a) Vector A and the resultant vector after
multiplying A by a positive number 2. Fig. 3.4 (a) Vectors A and B. (b) Vectors A and B
(b) Vector A and resultant vectors after added graphically. (c) Vectors B and A
multiplying it by a negative number –1 added graphically. (d) Illustrating the
and –1.5. associative law of vector addition.

2024-25
30 PHYSICS

arranged head to tail, this graphical method is What is the physical meaning of a zero vector?
called the head-to-tail method. The two vectors Consider the position and displacement vectors
and their resultant form three sides of a triangle, in a plane as shown in Fig. 3.1(a). Now suppose
so this method is also known as triangle method that an object which is at P at time t, moves to
of vector addition. If we find the resultant of P′ and then comes back to P. Then, what is its
B + A as in Fig. 3.4(c), the same vector R is displacement? Since the initial and final
obtained. Thus, vector addition is commutative: positions coincide, the displacement is a “null
A+B=B+A (3.1) vector”.

The addition of vectors also obeys the associative Subtraction of vectors can be defined in terms
law as illustrated in Fig. 3.4(d). The result of of addition of vectors. We define the difference
adding vectors A and B first and then adding of two vectors A and B as the sum of two vectors
vector C is the same as the result of adding B A and –B :
and C first and then adding vector A : A – B = A + (–B) (3.5)
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (3.2) It is shown in Fig 3.5. The vector –B is added to
What is the result of adding two equal and vector A to get R2 = (A – B). The vector R1 = A + B
opposite vectors ? Consider two vectors A and is also shown in the same figure for comparison.
–A shown in Fig. 3.3(b). Their sum is A + (–A). We can also use the parallelogram method to
Since the magnitudes of the two vectors are the find the sum of two vectors. Suppose we have
same, but the directions are opposite, the two vectors A and B. To add these vectors, we
resultant vector has zero magnitude and is bring their tails to a common origin O as
represented by 0 called a null vector or a zero shown in Fig. 3.6(a). Then we draw a line from
vector : the head of A parallel to B and another line from
the head of B parallel to A to complete a
A–A=0 |0|= 0 (3.3)
parallelogram OQSP. Now we join the point of
Since the magnitude of a null vector is zero, its the intersection of these two lines to the origin
direction cannot be specified. O. The resultant vector R is directed from the
The null vector also results when we multiply common origin O along the diagonal (OS) of the
a vector A by the number zero. The main parallelogram [Fig. 3.6(b)]. In Fig.3.6(c), the
properties of 0 are : triangle law is used to obtain the resultant of A
A+0=A and B and we see that the two methods yield the
λ0=0 same result. Thus, the two methods are
0A=0 (3.4) equivalent.

Fig. 3.5 (a) Two vectors A and B, – B is also shown. (b) Subtracting vector B from vector A – the result is R2. For
comparison, addition of vectors A and B, i.e. R1 is also shown.

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 31

Fig. 3.6 (a) Two vectors A and B with their tails brought to a common origin. (b) The sum A + B obtained using
the parallelogram method. (c) The parallelogram method of vector addition is equivalent to the triangle
method.

⊳
Example 3.1 Rain is falling vertically with 3.5 RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
a speed of 35 m s–1. Winds starts blowing Let a and b be any two non-zero vectors in a
after sometime with a speed of 12 m s–1 in plane with different directions and let A be
east to west direction. In which direction another vector in the same plane (Fig. 3.8). A
should a boy waiting at a bus stop hold can be expressed as a sum of two vectors — one
his umbrella ? obtained by multiplying a by a real number and
the other obtained by multiplying b by another
real number. To see this, let O and P be the tail
and head of the vector A. Then, through O, draw
a straight line parallel to a, and through P, a
straight line parallel to b. Let them intersect at
Q. Then, we have
A = OP = OQ + QP (3.6)
But since OQ is parallel to a, and QP is parallel
to b, we can write :

Fig. 3.7 OQ = λ a, and QP = µ b (3.7)

where λ and µ are real numbers.
Answer The velocity of the rain and the wind
are represented by the vectors vr and vw in Fig. Therefore, A = λ a + µ b (3.8)
3.7 and are in the direction specified by the
problem. Using the rule of vector addition, we
see that the resultant of vr and vw is R as shown
in the figure. The magnitude of R is
2 2 2 2 −1 −1
R = vr + vw = 35 + 12 ms = 37 m s

The direction θ that R makes with the vertical

is given by
vw 12
tan θ = = = 0.343 Fig. 3.8 (a) Two non-colinear vectors a and b.
vr 35 (b) Resolving a vector A in terms of vectors
a and b.
θ = tan ( 0.343) = 19°
Or, -1

Therefore, the boy should hold his umbrella We say that A has been resolved into two
in the vertical plane at an angle of about 19o component vectors λ a and µ b along a and b
with the vertical towards the east. ⊳

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32 PHYSICS

respectively. Using this method one can resolve

and A2 is parallel to ɵj , we have :
a given vector into two component vectors along
a set of two vectors – all the three lie in the same A1= Ax ɵi , A2 = Ay ɵj (3.11)
plane. It is convenient to resolve a general vector
where Ax and Ay are real numbers.
along the axes of a rectangular coordinate
system using vectors of unit magnitude. These Thus, A = Ax ɵi + Ay ɵj (3.12)
are called unit vectors that we discuss now. A
unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and This is represented in Fig. 3.9(c). The quantities
points in a particular direction. It has no Ax and Ay are called x-, and y- components of the
dimension and unit. It is used to specify a vector A. Note that Ax is itself not a vector, but
direction only. Unit vectors along the x-, y- and
A ɵi is a vector, and so is A ɵj . Using simple
z-axes of a rectangular coordinate system are x y
trigonometry, we can express Ax and Ay in terms
denoted by ɵi , ɵj and k̂ , respectively, as shown of the magnitude of A and the angle θ it makes
in Fig. 3.9(a). with the x-axis :
Since these are unit vectors, we have Ax = A cos θ
Ay = A sin θ (3.13)
 î  =  ĵ  =  k̂ =1 (3.9)
As is clear from Eq. (3.13), a component of a
These unit vectors are perpendicular to each vector can be positive, negative or zero
other. In this text, they are printed in bold face depending on the value of θ.
with a cap (^) to distinguish them from other Now, we have two ways to specify a vector A
vectors. Since we are dealing with motion in two in a plane. It can be specified by :
dimensions in this chapter, we require use of (i) its magnitude A and the direction θ it makes
only two unit vectors. If we multiply a unit vector, with the x-axis; or
say n̂ by a scalar, the result is a vector (ii) its components Ax and Ay
λ = λ n̂. In general, a vector A can be written as If A and θ are given, Ax and Ay can be obtained
using Eq. (3.13). If Ax and Ay are given, A and θ
A = |A| n̂ (3.10) can be obtained as follows :
where n̂ is a unit vector along A. 2 2 2 2 2 2
A x + Ay = A cos θ + A sin θ
We can now resolve a vector A in terms
= A2
of component vectors that lie along unit vectors
î and ɵj . Consider a vector A that lies in x-y Or, A= A 2x + Ay2 (3.14)
plane as shown in Fig. 3.9(b). We draw lines from
the head of A perpendicular to the coordinate Ay Ay
And tan θ = , θ = tan− 1 (3.15)
axes as in Fig. 3.9(b), and get vectors A1 and A2 Ax Ax
such that A + A = A. Since A is parallel to ɵi
1 2 1

Fig. 3.9 (a) Unit vectors ɵi , ɵj and kɵ lie along the x-, y-, and z-axes. (b) A vector A is resolved into its
components Ax and Ay along x-, and y- axes. (c) A1 and A2 expressed in terms of ɵi and ɵj .

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MOTION IN A PLANE 33

So far we have considered a vector lying in

B = B x iɵ + By ɵj
an x-y plane. The same procedure can be used
to resolve a general vector A into three Let R be their sum. We have
components along x-, y-, and z-axes in three R=A+B
dimensions. If α , β, and γ are the angles *
between A and the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively
( ) (
= A x ɵi + Ay ɵj + B x iɵ + By ɵj ) (3.19a)
[Fig. 3.9(d)], we have Since vectors obey the commutative and
associative laws, we can arrange and regroup
the vectors in Eq. (3.19a) as convenient to us :

(
R = ( A x + B x ) ɵi + Ay + By ɵj ) (3.19b)

Since R = R x iɵ + Ry ɵj (3.20)

we have, R x = A x + B x , R y = Ay + B y (3.21)
Thus, each component of the resultant
vector R is the sum of the corresponding
components of A and B.
In three dimensions, we have
A = A iɵ + A ɵj + A kɵ
x y z

B = B x iɵ + By ɵj + Bz kɵ
(d)
R = A + B = R x iɵ + Ry ɵj + Rz kɵ
Fig. 3.9 (d) A vector A resolved into components along
x-, y-, and z-axes
with Rx = Ax + Bx
A x = A cos α , A y = A cos β , A z = A cos γ (3.16a) Ry = Ay + By
In general, we have Rz = Az + Bz (3.22)
A = Ax ˆi + Ay ˆj + Az k
ˆ (3.16b) This method can be extended to addition and
The magnitude of vector A is subtraction of any number of vectors. For
A = A x2 + Ay2 + Az2 (3.16c) example, if vectors a, b and c are given as
A position vector r can be expressed as a = a iɵ + a ɵj + a kɵ
x y z
r = x ɵi + y ɵj + z k
ɵ (3.17)
b = b x iɵ + by ɵj + bz kɵ
where x, y, and z are the components of r along
x-, y-, z-axes, respectively. c = c x iɵ + c y ɵj + c z kɵ (3.23a)
3.6 VECTOR ADDITION – ANALYTICAL then, a vector T = a + b – c has components :
METHOD Tx = a x + b x − c x
Although the graphical method of adding vectors Ty = a y + by − c y (3.23b)
helps us in visualising the vectors and the
Tz = a z + b z − c z .
resultant vector, it is sometimes tedious and has
limited accuracy. It is much easier to add vectors ⊳
by combining their respective components. Example 3.2 Find the magnitude and
direction of the resultant of two vectors A
Consider two vectors A and B in x-y plane with
and B in terms of their magnitudes and
components Ax, Ay and Bx, By :
angle θ between them.
A = A x iɵ + Ay ɵj (3.18)

* Note that angles α, β, and γ are angles in space. They are between pairs of lines, which are not coplanar.

2024-25
34 PHYSICS

⊳
Example 3.3 A motorboat is racing
towards north at 25 km/h and the water
current in that region is 10 km/h in the
direction of 60° east of south. Find the
resultant velocity of the boat.

Answer The vector vb representing the velocity

of the motorboat and the vector vc representing
Fig. 3.10
the water current are shown in Fig. 3.11 in
Answer Let OP and OQ represent the two vectors directions specified by the problem. Using the
A and B making an angle θ (Fig. 3.10). Then, parallelogram method of addition, the resultant
using the parallelogram method of vector R is obtained in the direction shown in the
addition, OS represents the resultant vector R : figure.
R=A+B
SN is normal to OP and PM is normal to OS.
From the geometry of the figure,
OS2 = ON2 + SN2
but ON = OP + PN = A + B cos θ
SN = B sin θ
OS2 = (A + B cos θ)2 + (B sin θ)2
or, R2 = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ

R= A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos θ (3.24a)

In ∆ OSN, SN = OS sinα = R sinα, and
in ∆ PSN, SN = PS sin θ = B sin θ
Therefore, R sin α = B sin θ
R B
or, = (3.24b)
sin θ sin α
Fig. 3.11
Similarly,
PM = A sin α = B sin β
We can obtain the magnitude of R using the Law
A B of cosine :
or, = (3.24c)
sin β sin α
Combining Eqs. (3.24b) and (3.24c), we get R = v 2b + v c2 + 2v bv c cos120o
R A B
= = (3.24d) = 252 + 102 + 2 × 25 × 10 ( -1/2 ) ≅ 22 km/h
sin θ sin β sin α
To obtain the direction, we apply the Law of sines
Using Eq. (3.24d), we get:
R vc vc
B = or, sin φ = sin θ
sin α = sin θ (3.24e) sin θ sin φ R
R
where R is given by Eq. (3.24a). 10 × sin120 10 3
= = ≅ 0.397
SN B sin θ 21.8 2 × 21.8
or, tan α = = (3.24f)
OP + PN A + B cos θ
φ ≅ 23.4 ⊳
Equation (3.24a) gives the magnitude of the
resultant and Eqs. (3.24e) and (3.24f) its direction. 3.7 MOTION IN A PLANE
Equation (3.24a) is known as the Law of cosines In this section we shall see how to describe
and Eq. (3.24d) as the Law of sines. ⊳ motion in two dimensions using vectors.

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MOTION IN A PLANE 35

3.7.1 Position Vector and Displacement Suppose a particle moves along the curve shown
The position vector r of a particle P located in a by the thick line and is at P at time t and P′ at
plane with reference to the origin of an x-y time t′ [Fig. 3.12(b)]. Then, the displacement is :
reference frame (Fig. 3.12) is given by ∆r = r′ – r (3.25)
and is directed from P to P′.
r = x iɵ + y ɵj
We can write Eq. (3.25) in a component form:
where x and y are components of r along x-, and
y- axes or simply they are the coordinates of
the object.
∆r ( ) (
= x' ɵi + y' ɵj − x iɵ + y ɵj )
= ɵi∆x + ɵj∆y
where ∆x = x ′ – x, ∆y = y′ – y (3.26)
Velocity
The average velocity ( v ) of an object is the ratio
of the displacement and the corresponding time
interval :
∆r ∆x iɵ + ∆y ɵj ∆x ɵ ∆y
v= = = iɵ +j (3.27)
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t

Or, v = v x ˆi + v y j
(a)
∆r
Since v = , the direction of the average velocity
∆t
is the same as that of ∆r (Fig. 3.12). The velocity
(instantaneous velocity) is given by the limiting
value of the average velocity as the time interval
approaches zero :
∆ r dr
v = lim = (3.28)
∆t → 0 ∆ t dt
The meaning of the limiting process can be easily
understood with the help of Fig 3.13(a) to (d). In
these figures, the thick line represents the path
of an object, which is at P at time t. P1, P2 and
(b) P3 represent the positions of the object after
Fig. 3.12 (a) Position vector r. (b) Displacement ∆r and times ∆t1,∆t2, and ∆t3. ∆r1, ∆r2, and ∆r3 are the
average velocity v of a particle. displacements of the object in times ∆t1, ∆t2, and

Fig. 3.13 As the time interval ∆t approaches zero, the average velocity approaches the velocity v. The direction
of v is parallel to the line tangent to the path.

2024-25
36 PHYSICS

∆t3, respectively. The direction of the average

velocity v is shown in figures (a), (b) and (c) for
three decreasing values of ∆t, i.e. ∆t1,∆t2, and ∆t3,
( ∆ t 1 > ∆ t 2 > ∆ t 3 ). As ∆ t → 0, ∆ r → 0
and is along the tangent to the path [Fig. 3.13(d)].
Therefore, the direction of velocity at any point
on the path of an object is tangential to the
path at that point and is in the direction of
motion.
We can express v in a component form : Fig. 3.14 The components vx and vy of velocity v and
the angle θ it makes with x-axis. Note that
dr vx = v cos θ, vy = v sin θ.
v=
dt
The acceleration (instantaneous acceleration)
 ∆x ∆y ɵ  is the limiting value of the average acceleration
= lim  iɵ + j (3.29)
∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t  as the time interval approaches zero :
∆v
∆x ɵ ∆y a = lim
= iɵ lim + j lim (3. 32a)
∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t
dx ɵ dy Since ∆v = ∆v x iɵ + ∆v y ɵj, we have
Or, v = iɵ +j = v x iɵ + vy ɵj.
dt dt ∆v y
∆v x
dx dy a = iɵ lim + ɵj lim
where v x = , vy = (3.30a) ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t
dt dt
So, if the expressions for the coordinates x and Or, a = a x iɵ + a y ɵj (3.32b)
y are known as functions of time, we can use
these equations to find vx and vy. dv x dv y
where, a x = , ay = (3.32c)*
The magnitude of v is then dt dt
2 2 As in the case of velocity, we can understand
v= v x + vy (3.30b)
graphically the limiting process used in defining
and the direction of v is given by the angle θ : acceleration on a graph showing the path of the
object’s motion. This is shown in Figs. 3.15(a) to
vy v 
−1  y
 (d). P represents the position of the object at
tanθ = , θ = tan (3.30c)
  time t and P1, P2, P3 positions after time ∆t1, ∆t2,
vx  vx 
∆t3, respectively (∆t 1> ∆t2>∆t3). The velocity vectors
vx, vy and angle θ are shown in Fig. 3.14 for a at points P, P1, P2, P3 are also shown in Figs. 3.15
velocity vector v at point p. (a), (b) and (c). In each case of ∆t, ∆v is obtained
using the triangle law of vector addition. By
Acceleration
definition, the direction of average acceleration
The average acceleration a of an object for a is the same as that of ∆v. We see that as ∆t
time interval ∆t moving in x-y plane is the change decreases, the direction of ∆v changes and
in velocity divided by the time interval : consequently, the direction of the acceleration

a=
∆v
=
(
∆ v x iɵ + v y ɵj ) = ∆v x
iɵ +
∆v y
ɵj (3.31a)
changes. Finally, in the limit ∆t g0 [Fig. 3.15(d)],
the average acceleration becomes the
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t instantaneous acceleration and has the direction
as shown.
Or, a = a x iɵ + a y ɵj . (3.31b)

* In terms of x and y, ax and ay can be expressed as

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MOTION IN A PLANE 37

x (m)

Fig. 3.15 The average acceleration for three time intervals (a) ∆t1, (b) ∆t2, and (c) ∆t3, (∆t1> ∆t2> ∆t3). (d) In the
limit ∆t g0, the average acceleration becomes the acceleration.

Note that in one dimension, the velocity and

the acceleration of an object are always along  vy  −1  4  °
θ = tan-1   = tan   ≅ 53 with x-axis.
the same straight line (either in the same  x
v  3 
direction or in the opposite direction).
However, for motion in two or three ⊳
dimensions, velocity and acceleration vectors
may have any angle between 0° and 180° 3.8 MOTION IN A PLANE WITH CONSTANT
between them. ACCELERATION
⊳
Example 3.4 The position of a particle is Suppose that an object is moving in x-y plane
given by and its acceleration a is constant. Over an
interval of time, the average acceleration will
r = 3.0t ˆi + 2.0t 2ˆj + 5.0 kˆ equal this constant value. Now, let the velocity
where t is in seconds and the of the object be v0 at time t = 0 and v at time t.
coefficients have the proper units for r to Then, by definition
be in metres. (a) Find v(t) and a(t) of the v − v0 v − v0
particle. (b) Find the magnitude and a= =
t−0 t
direction of v(t) at t = 1.0 s.
Or, v = v 0 + at (3.33a)
Answer In terms of components :
v x = v ox + a x t
v( t ) =
dr
dt
=
d
dt
(3.0 t iɵ + 2.0t 2 ɵj + 5.0 kɵ
) v y = v oy + a y t (3.33b)

= 3.0iɵ + 4.0t ɵj
Let us now find how the position r changes with
dv time. We follow the method used in the one-
a (t ) = = +4.0 ɵj
dt dimensional case. Let ro and r be the position
a = 4.0 m s–2 along y- direction vectors of the particle at time 0 and t and let the
velocities at these instants be vo and v. Then,
At t = 1.0 s, v = 3.0ˆi + 4.0ˆj over this time interval t, the average velocity is
-1 (vo + v)/2. The displacement is the average
It’s magnitude is v = 3 + 4 = 5.0 m s
2 2
velocity multiplied by the time interval :
and direction is

2024-25
38 PHYSICS

 v + v0   ( v + at ) + v 0  ( )
= 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2 ˆi + 1.0 t 2 ˆj
r − r0 =   t= 0 t
 2   2 
Therefore, x (t ) = 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2

= v0t +
1 2
at y (t ) = +1.0 t 2
2 Given x (t) = 84 m, t = ?

1 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2 = 84 ⇒ t = 6 s
Or, r = r0 + v 0t + at 2 (3.34a) At t = 6 s, y = 1.0 (6)2 = 36.0 m
2
dr
It can be easily verified that the derivative of Now, the velocity v = = (5.0 + 3.0 t ) ˆi + 2.0 t ˆj
dt
dr
Eq. (3.34a), i.e. gives Eq.(3.33a) and it also At t = 6 s, v = 23.0iɵ + 12.0 ɵj
dt
satisfies the condition that at t=0, r = r o . speed = v = 232 + 122 ≅ 26 m s−1 .
Equation (3.34a) can be written in component ⊳
form as 3.9 PROJECTILE MOTION
1
x = x 0 + v ox t + a x t 2 As an application of the ideas developed in the
2 previous sections, we consider the motion of a
1 projectile. An object that is in flight after being
y = y0 + v oy t + ayt 2 (3.34b) thrown or projected is called a projectile. Such
2
a projectile might be a football, a cricket ball, a
One immediate interpretation of Eq.(3.34b) is that baseball or any other object. The motion of a
the motions in x- and y-directions can be treated projectile may be thought of as the result of two
independently of each other. That is, motion in separate, simultaneously occurring components
a plane (two-dimensions) can be treated as two
of motions. One component is along a horizontal
separate simultaneous one-dimensional
direction without any acceleration and the other
motions with constant acceleration along two
along the vertical direction with constant
perpendicular directions. This is an important
acceleration due to the force of gravity. It was
result and is useful in analysing motion of objects
Galileo who first stated this independency of the
in two dimensions. A similar result holds for three
dimensions. The choice of perpendicular horizontal and the vertical components of
directions is convenient in many physical projectile motion in his Dialogue on the great
situations, as we shall see in section 3.9 for world systems (1632).
projectile motion. In our discussion, we shall assume that the
air resistance has negligible effect on the motion
⊳ Example 3.5 A particle starts from origin of the projectile. Suppose that the projectile is
at t = 0 with a velocity 5.0 î m/s and moves launched with velocity vo that makes an angle
in x-y plane under action of a force which θo with the x-axis as shown in Fig. 3.16.
produces a constant acceleration of
After the object has been projected, the
(3.0iɵ +2.0jɵ ) m/s 2 . (a) What is the
acceleration acting on it is that due to gravity
y-coordinate of the particle at the instant which is directed vertically downward:
its x-coordinate is 84 m ? (b) What is the
speed of the particle at this time ? a = −g ɵj
Or, ax = 0, ay = – g (3.35)

Answer From Eq. (3.34a) for r0 = 0, the position The components of initial velocity vo are :
of the particle is given by
1 2
r (t ) = v 0 t + at vox = vo cos θo
2 voy= vo sin θo (3.36)
( )
= 5.0ˆi t + (1/2) 3.0ˆi + 2.0ˆj t 2

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 39

Now, since g, θo and vo are constants, Eq. (3.39)

is of the form y = a x + b x2, in which a and b are
constants. This is the equation of a parabola,
i.e. the path of the projectile is a parabola
(Fig. 3.17).

Fig 3.16 Motion of an object projected with velocity

vo at angle θ0.
If we take the initial position to be the origin of
the reference frame as shown in Fig. 3.16, we
have :
xo = 0, yo = 0
Then, Eq.(3.34b) becomes :
x = vox t = (vo cos θo ) t
and y = (vo sin θo ) t – ( ½ )g t2 (3.37) Fig. 3.17 The path of a projectile is a parabola.

The components of velocity at time t can be Time of maximum height

obtained using Eq.(3.33b) : How much time does the projectile take to reach the
vx = vox = vo cos θo maximum height ? Let this time be denoted by tm.
Since at this point, vy= 0, we have from Eq. (3.38):
vy = vo sin θo – g t (3.38) vy = vo sinθo – g tm = 0
Equation (3.37) gives the x-, and y-coordinates Or, tm = vo sinθo /g (3.40a)
of the position of a projectile at time t in terms of
The total time Tf during which the projectile is
two parameters — initial speed vo and projection
in flight can be obtained by putting y = 0 in
angle θo. Notice that the choice of mutually
Eq. (3.37). We get :
perpendicular x-, and y-directions for the
analysis of the projectile motion has resulted in Tf = 2 (vo sin θo )/g (3.40b)
a simplification. One of the components of Tf is known as the time of flight of the projectile.
velocity, i.e. x-component remains constant We note that Tf = 2 tm , which is expected
throughout the motion and only the because of the symmetry of the parabolic path.
y- component changes, like an object in free fall Maximum height of a projectile
in vertical direction. This is shown graphically
The maximum height h m reached by the
at few instants in Fig. 3.17. Note that at the point
projectile can be calculated by substituting
of maximum height, vy= 0 and therefore,
t = tm in Eq. (3.37) :
vy
θ = tan-1 =o  v sinθ  g  v sinθ 2
vx (
y = hm = v0 sinθ 0 
0
)
0
− 
 0 0

Equation of path of a projectile  g  2 g 

What is the shape of the path followed by the

( v 0 sin θ 0 ) 2
projectile? This can be seen by eliminating the Or, hm = (3.41)
time between the expressions for x and y as 2g
given in Eq. (3.37). We obtain: Horizontal range of a projectile
g
y = ( tan θo ) x −
The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from
x2
2 (v o cosθo )
2 (3.39) its initial position (x = y = 0) to the position where it
passes y = 0 during its fall is called the horizontal

2024-25
40 PHYSICS

range, R. It is the distance travelled during the time y (t) = yo + voy t +(1/2) ay t2
of flight Tf . Therefore, the range R is Here, xo = yo = 0, voy = 0, ay = –g = –9.8 m s-2,
R = (vo cos θo) (Tf ) vox = 15 m s-1.
=(vo cos θo) (2 vo sin θo)/g The stone hits the ground when y(t) = – 490 m.
– 490 m = –(1/2)(9.8) t2.
2
v0 sin 2θ 0 This gives t =10 s.
Or, R= (3.42a) The velocity components are vx = vox and
g
vy = voy – g t
Equation (3.42a) shows that for a given so that when the stone hits the ground :
projection velocity vo , R is maximum when sin vox = 15 m s–1
2θ0 is maximum, i.e., when θ0 = 450. voy = 0 – 9.8 × 10 = – 98 m s–1
The maximum horizontal range is, therefore, Therefore, the speed of the stone is
2
Rm =
v0 v 2x + vy2 = 152 + 982 = 99 m s −1 ⊳
(3.42b)
g
⊳
Example 3.6 Galileo, in his book Two new ⊳ Example 3.8 A cricket ball is thrown at a
sciences, stated that “for elevations which speed of 28 m s–1 in a direction 30° above
exceed or fall short of 45° by equal amounts, the horizontal. Calculate (a) the maximum
the ranges are equal”. Prove this statement. height, (b) the time taken by the ball to
return to the same level, and (c) the
distance from the thrower to the point
Answer For a projectile launched with velocity
where the ball returns to the same level.
vo at an angle θo , the range is given by

v02 sin 2θ0

R= Answer (a) The maximum height is given by
g
hm =
(v0 sinθo )2 = (28 sin 30°)2
Now, for angles, (45° + α ) and ( 45° – α), 2θo is m
2g 2 (9.8 )
(90° + 2α ) and ( 90° – 2α ) , respectively. The
values of sin (90° + 2α ) and sin (90° – 2α ) are 14 × 14
the same, equal to that of cos 2α. Therefore, = = 10.0 m
2 × 9.8
ranges are equal for elevations which exceed or
fall short of 45° by equal amounts α. ⊳ (b) The time taken to return to the same level is
Tf = (2 vo sin θo )/g = (2× 28 × sin 30° )/9.8
⊳ = 28/9.8 s = 2.9 s
Example 3.7 A hiker stands on the edge (c) The distance from the thrower to the point
of a cliff 490 m above the ground and where the ball returns to the same level is
throws a stone horizontally with an initial
speed of 15 m s-1. Neglecting air resistance,
find the time taken by the stone to reach R=
(v sin 2θ )
2
o o
=
28 × 28 × sin 60o
= 69 m ⊳
g 9.8
the ground, and the speed with which it
hits the ground. (Take g = 9.8 m s-2 ).
3.10 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
Answer We choose the origin of the x-,and y-
When an object follows a circular path at a
axis at the edge of the cliff and t = 0 s at the
constant speed, the motion of the object is called
instant the stone is thrown. Choose the positive
uniform circular motion. The word “uniform”
direction of x-axis to be along the initial velocity refers to the speed, which is uniform (constant)
and the positive direction of y-axis to be the throughout the motion. Suppose an object is
vertically upward direction. The x-, and y- moving with uniform speed v in a circle of radius
components of the motion can be treated R as shown in Fig. 3.18. Since the velocity of the
independently. The equations of motion are : object is changing continuously in direction, the
x (t) = xo + vox t object undergoes acceleration. Let us find the
magnitude and the direction of this acceleration.

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MOTION IN A PLANE 41

Fig. 3.18 Velocity and acceleration of an object in uniform circular motion. The time interval ∆t decreases from
(a) to (c) where it is zero. The acceleration is directed, at each point of the path, towards the centre of
the circle.
Let r and r′ be the position vectors and v and r′ be ∆θ. Since the velocity vectors v and v′ are
v′ the velocities of the object when it is at point P always perpendicular to the position vectors, the
and P ′ as shown in Fig. 3.18(a). By definition, angle between them is also ∆θ . Therefore, the
velocity at a point is along the tangent at that triangle CPP′ formed by the position vectors and
point in the direction of motion. The velocity the triangle GHI formed by the velocity vectors
vectors v and v′ are as shown in Fig. 3.18(a1). v, v′ and ∆v are similar (Fig. 3.18a). Therefore,
∆v is obtained in Fig. 3.18 (a2) using the triangle the ratio of the base-length to side-length for
law of vector addition. Since the path is circular, one of the triangles is equal to that of the other
v is perpendicular to r and so is v′ to r′. triangle. That is :
Therefore, ∆v is perpendicular to ∆r. Since
 ∆v  ∆v ∆r
average acceleration is along ∆v  a =  , the =
 ∆t  v R
average acceleration a is perpendicular to ∆r. If
we place ∆v on the line that bisects the angle ∆r
Or, ∆v = v
between r and r′, we see that it is directed towards R
the centre of the circle. Figure 3.18(b) shows the Therefore,
same quantities for smaller time interval. ∆v and
∆v v ∆r v ∆r
hence a is again directed towards the centre. a = lim = lim = lim
In Fig. 3.18(c), ∆t Ž 0 and the average ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆ t → 0 R∆ t R ∆t → 0 ∆t
acceleration becomes the instantaneous If ∆t is small, ∆θ will also be small and then arc
acceleration. It is directed towards the centre*. PP′ can be approximately taken to be|∆r|:
Thus, we find that the acceleration of an object ∆ r ≅ v∆ t
in uniform circular motion is always directed
∆r
towards the centre of the circle. Let us now find ≅v
the magnitude of the acceleration. ∆t
The magnitude of a is, by definition, given by ∆r
lim =v
∆v Or,
a = ∆t → 0 ∆t
lim
∆t → 0 ∆t
Let the angle between position vectors r and Therefore, the centripetal acceleration ac is :

* In the limit ∆tŽ0, ∆r becomes perpendicular to r. In this limit ∆v→ 0 and is consequently also perpendicular
to V. Therefore, the acceleration is directed towards the centre, at each point of the circular path.

2024-25
42 PHYSICS

v 2 2
ω R
2
ac =   v = v2/R (3.43) ac =
v
=
2
=ω R
R 
R R
Thus, the acceleration of an object moving with 2
ac = ω R (3.46)
speed v in a circle of radius R has a magnitude
2
v /R and is always directed towards the centre.
The time taken by an object to make one revolution
This is why this acceleration is called centripetal
acceleration (a term proposed by Newton). A is known as its time period T and the number of
thorough analysis of centripetal acceleration was revolution made in one second is called its
first published in 1673 by the Dutch scientist frequency ν (=1/T ). However, during this time
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) but it was the distance moved by the object is s = 2πR.
probably known to Newton also some years earlier. Therefore, v = 2πR/T =2πRν (3.47)
“Centripetal” comes from a Greek term which means In terms of frequency ν, we have
‘centre-seeking’. Since v and R are constant, the ω = 2πν
magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is also v = 2πRν
constant. However, the direction changes —
ac = 4π2 ν2R (3.48)
pointing always towards the centre. Therefore, a
centripetal acceleration is not a constant vector. ⊳
Example 3.9 An insect trapped in a
We have another way of describing the
circular groove of radius 12 cm moves along
velocity and the acceleration of an object in
the groove steadily and completes 7
uniform circular motion. As the object moves
revolutions in 100 s. (a) What is the
from P to P′ in time ∆t (= t′ – t), the line CP
angular speed, and the linear speed of the
(Fig. 3.18) turns through an angle ∆θ as shown
motion? (b) Is the acceleration vector a
in the figure. ∆θ is called angular distance. We
constant vector ? What is its magnitude ?
define the angular speed ω (Greek letter omega)
as the time rate of change of angular
Answer This is an example of uniform circular
displacement :
motion. Here R = 12 cm. The angular speed ω is
∆θ given by
ω=
∆t
(3.44) ω = 2π/T = 2π × 7/100 = 0.44 rad/s
Now, if the distance travelled by the object The linear speed v is :
during the time ∆t is ∆s, i.e. PP′ is ∆s, then : v =ω R = 0.44 s-1 × 12 cm = 5.3 cm s-1
∆s The direction of velocity v is along the tangent
v=
∆t to the circle at every point. The acceleration is
directed towards the centre of the circle. Since
but ∆s = R ∆θ. Therefore :
this direction changes continuously,
∆θ acceleration here is not a constant vector.
v=R =Rω
∆t However, the magnitude of acceleration is
v= Rω (3.45) constant:
We can express centripetal acceleration ac in a = ω2 R = (0.44 s–1)2 (12 cm)
terms of angular speed : = 2.3 cm s-2 ⊳

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MOTION IN A PLANE 43

SUMMARY

1. Scalar quantities are quantities with magnitudes only. Examples are distance, speed,
mass and temperature.
2. Vector quantities are quantities with magnitude and direction both. Examples are
displacement, velocity and acceleration. They obey special rules of vector algebra.
3. A vector A multiplied by a real number λ is also a vector, whose magnitude is λ times
the magnitude of the vector A and whose direction is the same or opposite depending
upon whether λ is positive or negative.
4. Two vectors A and B may be added graphically using head-to-tail method or parallelogram
method.
5. Vector addition is commutative :
A+B=B+A
It also obeys the associative law :
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
6. A null or zero vector is a vector with zero magnitude. Since the magnitude is zero, we
don’t have to specify its direction. It has the properties :
A+0=A
λ0 = 0
0A=0
7. The subtraction of vector B from A is defined as the sum of A and –B :
A – B = A+ (–B)
8. A vector A can be resolved into component along two given vectors a and b lying in the
same plane :
A=λa+µb
where λ and µ are real numbers.
9. A unit vector associated with a vector A has magnitude 1 and is along the vector A:
A
n̂ =
A
The unit vectors i,ɵ ɵj, k
ɵ are vectors of unit magnitude and point in the direction of
the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively in a right-handed coordinate system.
10. A vector A can be expressed as
A = A iɵ + A ɵj x y
where Ax, Ay are its components along x-, and y -axes. If vector A makes an angle θ
Ay
with the x-axis, then Ax = A cos θ, Ay=A sin θ and A = A = Ax2 + Ay2 , tanθ = .
Ax
11. Vectors can be conveniently added using analytical method. If sum of two vectors A
and B, that lie in x-y plane, is R, then :
R = Rx iɵ + Ry ɵj , where, Rx = Ax + Bx, and Ry = Ay + By

12. The position vector of an object in x-y plane is given by r = x iɵ + y ɵj and the
displacement from position r to position r’ is given by
∆r = r′− r
= ( x ′ − x ) iɵ + (y ′ − y ) ɵj
= ∆x iɵ + ∆y ɵj
13. If an object undergoes a displacement ∆r in time ∆t, its average velocity is given by
∆r
v= . The velocity of an object at time t is the limiting value of the average velocity
∆t
as ∆t tends to zero :

2024-25
44 PHYSICS

∆r dr
v= lim =. It can be written in unit vector notation as :
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
dx dy dz
v = v iɵ + v ɵj + v
x y
ɵ
z k where vx = dt , v y = dt , v z = dt
When position of an object is plotted on a coordinate system, v is always tangent to
the curve representing the path of the object.
14. If the velocity of an object changes from v to v′in time ∆t, then its average acceleration
v − v' ∆v
is given by: a = =
∆t ∆t
The acceleration a at any time t is the limiting value of a as ∆t Ž0 :
∆v dv
lima= =
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
ɵ ɵ ɵ
In component form, we have : a = a x i + a y j + a z k
dv x dvy dvz
where, a x = , ay = , az =
dt dt dt
15. If an object is moving in a plane with constant acceleration a = a = a x2 + a y2 and
its position vector at time t = 0 is ro, then at any other time t, it will be at a point given
by:
1 2
r = ro + v o t + at
2
and its velocity is given by :
v = vo + a t
where vo is the velocity at time t = 0
In component form :
1
x = x o + vox t + ax t 2
2
1
y = yo + voy t + ay t 2
2
v x = v ox + a x t

v y = v oy + a y t

Motion in a plane can be treated as superposition of two separate simultaneous one-

dimensional motions along two perpendicular directions
16. An object that is in flight after being projected is called a projectile. If an object is
projected with initial velocity vo making an angle θo with x-axis and if we assume its
initial position to coincide with the origin of the coordinate system, then the position
and velocity of the projectile at time t are given by :
x = (vo cos θo) t
y = (vo sin θo) t − (1/2) g t2
vx = vox = vo cos θo
vy = vo sin θo − g t
The path of a projectile is parabolic and is given by :

gx 2
y = ( tanθ0 ) x –
2 (v o cos θo )
2

The maximum height that a projectile attains is :

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 45

hm =
(vo sinqo )
2g
The time taken to reach this height is :
vo sinθ o
tm =
g
The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from its initial position to the position
it passes y = 0 during its fall is called the range, R of the projectile. It is :
vo2
R= sin 2θo
g
17. When an object follows a circular path at constant speed, the motion of the object is
called uniform circular motion. The magnitude of its acceleration is ac = v2 /R. The
direction of ac is always towards the centre of the circle.
The angular speed ω, is the rate of change of angular distance. It is related to velocity
v by v = ω R. The acceleration is ac = ω 2R.
If T is the time period of revolution of the object in circular motion and ν is its
frequency, we have ω = 2π ν, v = 2πνR, ac = 4π2ν2R

2024-25
46 PHYSICS

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The path length traversed by an object between two points is, in general, not the same as
the magnitude of displacement. The displacement depends only on the end points; the
path length (as the name implies) depends on the actual path. The two quantities are
equal only if the object does not change its direction during the course of motion. In all
other cases, the path length is greater than the magnitude of displacement.
2. In view of point 1 above, the average speed of an object is greater than or equal to the
magnitude of the average velocity over a given time interval. The two are equal only if the
path length is equal to the magnitude of displacement.
3. The vector equations (3.33a) and (3.34a) do not involve any choice of axes. Of course,
you can always resolve them along any two independent axes.
4. The kinematic equations for uniform acceleration do not apply to the case of uniform
circular motion since in this case the magnitude of acceleration is constant but its
direction is changing.
5. An object subjected to two velocities v1 and v2 has a resultant velocity v = v1 + v2. Take
care to distinguish it from velocity of object 1 relative to velocity of object 2 : v12= v1 − v2.
Here v1 and v2 are velocities with reference to some common reference frame.
6. The resultant acceleration of an object in circular motion is towards the centre only if
the speed is constant.
7. The shape of the trajectory of the motion of an object is not determined by the acceleration
alone but also depends on the initial conditions of motion ( initial position and initial
velocity). For example, the trajectory of an object moving under the same acceleration
due to gravity can be a straight line or a parabola depending on the initial conditions.

EXERCISES
3.1 State, for each of the following physical quantities, if it is a scalar or a vector :
volume, mass, speed, acceleration, density, number of moles, velocity, angular
frequency, displacement, angular velocity.
3.2 Pick out the two scalar quantities in the following list :
force, angular momentum, work, current, linear momentum, electric field, average
velocity, magnetic moment, relative velocity.
3.3 Pick out the only vector quantity in the following list :
Temperature, pressure, impulse, time, power, total path length, energy, gravitational
potential, coefficient of friction, charge.
3.4 State with reasons, whether the following algebraic operations with scalar and vector
physical quantities are meaningful :
(a) adding any two scalars, (b) adding a scalar to a vector of the same dimensions ,
(c) multiplying any vector by any scalar, (d) multiplying any two scalars, (e) adding any
two vectors, (f) adding a component of a vector to the same vector.
3.5 Read each statement below carefully and state with reasons, if it is true or false :
(a) The magnitude of a vector is always a scalar, (b) each component of a vector is
always a scalar, (c) the total path length is always equal to the magnitude of the
displacement vector of a particle. (d) the average speed of a particle (defined as total
path length divided by the time taken to cover the path) is either greater or equal to
the magnitude of average velocity of the particle over the same interval of time, (e)
Three vectors not lying in a plane can never add up to give a null vector.
3.6 Establish the following vector inequalities geometrically or otherwise :
(a) |a+b| < |a| + |b|
(b) |a+b| > ||a| − |b||

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 47

(c) − b| < |a| + |b|

|a−
(d) − b| > ||a| − |b||
|a−
When does the equality sign above apply?
3.7 Given a + b + c + d = 0, which of the following
statements are correct : Q
(a) a, b, c, and d must each be a null vector,
(b) The magnitude of (a + c) equals the magnitude of
( b + d),
(c) The magnitude of a can never be greater than the
sum of the magnitudes of b, c, and d,
(d) b + c must lie in the plane of a and d if a and d are
not collinear, and in the line of a and d, if they are
collinear ?
3.8 Three girls skating on a circular ice ground of radius
200 m start from a point P on the edge of the ground
and reach a point Q diametrically opposite to P following
different paths as shown in Fig. 3.19. What is the
magnitude of the displacement vector for each ? For Fig. 3.19
which girl is this equal to the actual length of
path skate ?

3.9 A cyclist starts from the centre O of a circular park of radius 1 km, reaches the edge P
of the park, then cycles along the circumference, and returns to the centre along QO
as shown in Fig. 3.20. If the round trip takes 10 min, what is the (a) net displacement,
(b) average velocity, and (c) average speed of the cyclist ?

Fig. 3.20
3.10 On an open ground, a motorist follows a track that turns to his left by an angle of 600
after every 500 m. Starting from a given turn, specify the displacement of the motorist
at the third, sixth and eighth turn. Compare the magnitude of the displacement with
the total path length covered by the motorist in each case.
3.11 A passenger arriving in a new town wishes to go from the station to a hotel located
10 km away on a straight road from the station. A dishonest cabman takes him along
a circuitous path 23 km long and reaches the hotel in 28 min. What is (a) the average
speed of the taxi, (b) the magnitude of average velocity ? Are the two equal ?
3.12 The ceiling of a long hall is 25 m high. What is the maximum horizontal distance that
a ball thrown with a speed of 40 m s-1 can go without hitting the ceiling of the hall ?
3.13 A cricketer can throw a ball to a maximum horizontal distance of 100 m. How much
high above the ground can the cricketer throw the same ball ?

2024-25
48 PHYSICS

3.14 A stone tied to the end of a string 80 cm long is whirled in a horizontal circle with a
constant speed. If the stone makes 14 revolutions in 25 s, what is the magnitude and
direction of acceleration of the stone ?
3.15 An aircraft executes a horizontal loop of radius 1.00 km with a steady speed of 900
km/h. Compare its centripetal acceleration with the acceleration due to gravity.
3.16 Read each statement below carefully and state, with reasons, if it is true or false :
(a) The net acceleration of a particle in circular motion is always along the radius of
the circle towards the centre
(b) The velocity vector of a particle at a point is always along the tangent to the path
of the particle at that point
(c) The acceleration vector of a particle in uniform circular motion averaged over one
cycle is a null vector

3.17 The position of a particle is given by

r = 3.0t ˆi − 2.0t 2 ˆj + 4.0 k
ˆ m
where t is in seconds and the coefficients have the proper units for r to be in metres.
(a) Find the v and a of the particle? (b) What is the magnitude and direction of
velocity of the particle at t = 2.0 s ?
3.18 A particle starts from the origin at t = 0 s with a velocity of 10.0 ɵj m/s and moves in

( )
the x-y plane with a constant acceleration of 8.0ɵi + 2.0 ɵj m s-2. (a) At what time is
the x- coordinate of the particle 16 m? What is the y-coordinate of the particle at
that time? (b) What is the speed of the particle at the time ?
3.19 ɵi and ɵj are unit vectors along x- and y- axis respectively. What is the magnitude
and direction of the vectors ɵi + ɵj , and ɵi − ɵj ? What are the components of a vector

A= 2 ɵi + 3ɵj along the directions of ɵi + ɵj and ɵi − ɵj ? [You may use graphical method]
3.20 For any arbitrary motion in space, which of the following relations are true :
(a) vaverage = (1/2) (v (t1) + v (t2))
(b) v average = [r(t2) - r(t1) ] /(t2 – t1)
(c) v (t) = v (0) + a t
(d) r (t) = r (0) + v (0) t + (1/2) a t2
(e) a average =[ v (t2) - v (t1 )] /( t2 – t1)
(The ‘average’ stands for average of the quantity over the time interval t1 to t2)
3.21 Read each statement below carefully and state, with reasons and examples, if it is
true or false :
A scalar quantity is one that
(a) is conserved in a process
(b) can never take negative values
(c) must be dimensionless
(d) does not vary from one point to another in space
(e) has the same value for observers with different orientations of axes.
3.22 An aircraft is flying at a height of 3400 m above the ground. If the angle subtended at
a ground observation point by the aircraft positions 10.0 s a part is 30°, wat is the
speed of the aircraft ?

2024-25
 CHAPTER FOUR

LAWS OF MOTION

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding Chapter, our concern was to describe the
motion of a particle in space quantitatively. We saw that
4.1 Introduction uniform motion needs the concept of velocity alone whereas
4.2 Aristotle’s fallacy non-uniform motion requires the concept of acceleration in
4.3 The law of inertia addition. So far, we have not asked the question as to what
4.4 Newton’s first law of motion governs the motion of bodies. In this chapter, we turn to this
4.5 Newton’s second law of
basic question.
motion Let us first guess the answer based on our common
4.6 Newton’s third law of motion experience. To move a football at rest, someone must kick it.
To throw a stone upwards, one has to give it an upward
4.7 Conservation of momentum
push. A breeze causes the branches of a tree to swing; a
4.8 Equilibrium of a particle strong wind can even move heavy objects. A boat moves in a
4.9 Common forces in mechanics flowing river without anyone rowing it. Clearly, some external
4.10 Circular motion agency is needed to provide force to move a body from rest.
4.11 Solving problems in Likewise, an external force is needed also to retard or stop
mechanics motion. You can stop a ball rolling down an inclined plane by
Summary applying a force against the direction of its motion.
Points to ponder In these examples, the external agency of force (hands,
Exercises wind, stream, etc) is in contact with the object. This is not
always necessary. A stone released from the top of a building
accelerates downward due to the gravitational pull of the
earth. A bar magnet can attract an iron nail from a distance.
This shows that external agencies (e.g. gravitational and
magnetic forces ) can exert force on a body even from a
distance.
In short, a force is required to put a stationary body in
motion or stop a moving body, and some external agency is
needed to provide this force. The external agency may or may
not be in contact with the body.
So far so good. But what if a body is moving uniformly (e.g.
a skater moving straight with constant speed on a horizontal
ice slab) ? Is an external force required to keep a body in
uniform motion?

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50 PHYSICS

4.2 ARISTOTLE’S FALLACY true law of nature for forces and motion, one has
The question posed above appears to be simple. to imagine a world in which uniform motion is
However, it took ages to answer it. Indeed, the possible with no frictional forces opposing. This
correct answer to this question given by Galileo is what Galileo did.
in the seventeenth century was the foundation 4.3 THE LAW OF INERTIA
of Newtonian mechanics, which signalled the
Galileo studied motion of objects on an inclined
birth of modern science.
plane. Objects (i) moving down an inclined plane
The Greek thinker, Aristotle (384 B.C– 322
accelerate, while those (ii) moving up retard.
B.C.), held the view that if a body is moving,
(iii) Motion on a horizontal plane is an interme-
something external is required to keep it moving.
diate situation. Galileo concluded that an object
According to this view, for example, an arrow
moving on a frictionless horizontal plane must
shot from a bow keeps flying since the air behind
neither have acceleration nor retardation, i.e. it
the arrow keeps pushing it. The view was part of
an elaborate framework of ideas developed by should move with constant velocity (Fig. 4.1(a)).
Aristotle on the motion of bodies in the universe.
Most of the Aristotelian ideas on motion are now
known to be wrong and need not concern us.
For our purpose here, the Aristotelian law of
motion may be phrased thus: An external force
is required to keep a body in motion. (i) (ii) (iii)
Aristotelian law of motion is flawed, as we shall Fig. 4.1(a)
see. However, it is a natural view that anyone Another experiment by Galileo leading to the
would hold from common experience. Even a same conclusion involves a double inclined plane.
small child playing with a simple (non-electric) A ball released from rest on one of the planes rolls
down and climbs up the other. If the planes are
toy-car on a floor knows intuitively that it needs
smooth, the final height of the ball is nearly the
to constantly drag the string attached to the toy-
same as the initial height (a little less but never
car with some force to keep it going. If it releases
greater). In the ideal situation, when friction is
the string, it comes to rest. This experience is
absent, the final height of the ball is the same
common to most terrestrial motion. External as its initial height.
forces seem to be needed to keep bodies in If the slope of the second plane is decreased
motion. Left to themselves, all bodies eventually and the experiment repeated, the ball will still
come to rest. reach the same height, but in doing so, it will
What is the flaw in Aristotle’s argument? The travel a longer distance. In the limiting case, when
answer is: a moving toy car comes to rest because the slope of the second plane is zero (i.e. is a
the external force of friction on the car by the floor horizontal) the ball travels an infinite distance.
opposes its motion. To counter this force, the child In other words, its motion never ceases. This is,
has to apply an external force on the car in the of course, an idealised situation (Fig. 4.1(b)).
direction of motion. When the car is in uniform
motion, there is no net external force acting on it:
the force by the child cancels the force ( friction)
by the floor. The corollary is: if there were no friction,
the child would not be required to apply any force
to keep the toy car in uniform motion.
The opposing forces such as friction (solids)
and viscous forces (for fluids) are always present
in the natural world. This explains why forces
by external agencies are necessary to overcome
the frictional forces to keep bodies in uniform
motion. Now we understand where Aristotle Fig. 4.1(b) The law of inertia was inferred by Galileo
went wrong. He coded this practical experience from observations of motion of a ball on a
in the form of a basic argument. To get at the double inclined plane.

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LAWS OF MOTION 51

In practice, the ball does come to a stop after accomplished almost single-handedly by Isaac
moving a finite distance on the horizontal plane, Newton, one of the greatest scientists of all times.
because of the opposing force of friction which Newton built on Galileo’s ideas and laid the
can never be totally eliminated. However, if there foundation of mechanics in terms of three laws
were no friction, the ball would continue to move of motion that go by his name. Galileo’s law of
with a constant velocity on the horizontal plane. inertia was his starting point which he formu-
Galileo thus, arrived at a new insight on lated as the first law of motion:
motion that had eluded Aristotle and those who Every body continues to be in its state
followed him. The state of rest and the state of of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
uniform linear motion (motion with constant line unless compelled by some external
velocity) are equivalent. In both cases, there is force to act otherwise.

Ideas on Motion in Ancient Indian Science

Ancient Indian thinkers had arrived at an elaborate system of ideas on motion. Force, the cause of
motion, was thought to be of different kinds : force due to continuous pressure (nodan), as the force
of wind on a sailing vessel; impact (abhighat), as when a potter’s rod strikes the wheel; persistent
tendency (sanskara) to move in a straight line(vega) or restoration of shape in an elastic body;
transmitted force by a string, rod, etc. The notion of (vega) in the Vaisesika theory of motion perhaps
comes closest to the concept of inertia. Vega, the tendency to move in a straight line, was thought to
be opposed by contact with objects including atmosphere, a parallel to the ideas of friction and air
resistance. It was correctly summarised that the different kinds of motion (translational, rotational
and vibrational) of an extended body arise from only the translational motion of its constituent
particles. A falling leaf in the wind may have downward motion as a whole (patan) and also rotational
and vibrational motion (bhraman, spandan), but each particle of the leaf at an instant only has a
definite (small) displacement. There was considerable focus in Indian thought on measurement of
motion and units of length and time. It was known that the position of a particle in space can be
indicated by distance measured along three axes. Bhaskara (1150 A.D.) had introduced the concept
of ‘instantaneous motion’ (tatkaliki gati), which anticipated the modern notion of instantaneous
velocity using Differential Calculus. The difference between a wave and a current (of water) was clearly
understood; a current is a motion of particles of water under gravity and fluidity while a wave results
from the transmission of vibrations of water particles.

no net force acting on the body. It is incorrect to The state of rest or uniform linear motion both
assume that a net force is needed to keep a body imply zero acceleration. The first law of motion can,
in uniform motion. To maintain a body in therefore, be simply expressed as:
uniform motion, we need to apply an external If the net external force on a body is zero, its
force to ecounter the frictional force, so that acceleration is zero. Acceleration can be non
the two forces sum up to zero net external zero only if there is a net external force on
force. the body.
To summarise, if the net external force is zero,
a body at rest continues to remain at rest and a Two kinds of situations are encountered in the
body in motion continues to move with a uniform application of this law in practice. In some
velocity. This property of the body is called examples, we know that the net external force
inertia. Inertia means ‘resistance to change’. on the object is zero. In that case we can
A body does not change its state of rest or conclude that the acceleration of the object is
uniform motion, unless an external force zero. For example, a spaceship out in
compels it to change that state. interstellar space, far from all other objects and
with all its rockets turned off, has no net
4.4 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION external force acting on it. Its acceleration,
Galileo’s simple, but revolutionary ideas according to the first law, must be zero. If it is
dethroned Aristotelian mechanics. A new in motion, it must continue to move with a
mechanics had to be developed. This task was uniform velocity.

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52 PHYSICS

More often, however, we do not know all the The acceleration of the car cannot be accounted
forces to begin with. In that case, if we know for by any internal force. This might sound
that an object is unaccelerated (i.e. it is either surprising, but it is true. The only conceivable
at rest or in uniform linear motion), we can infer external force along the road is the force of
from the first law that the net external force on friction. It is the frictional force that accelerates
the object must be zero. Gravity is everywhere. the car as a whole. (You will learn about friction
For terrestrial phenomena, in particular, every in section 4.9). When the car moves with
object experiences gravitational force due to the constant velocity, there is no net external force.
earth. Also objects in motion generally experience The property of inertia contained in the First
friction, viscous drag, etc. If then, on earth, an law is evident in many situations. Suppose we
object is at rest or in uniform linear motion, it is are standing in a stationary bus and the driver
not because there are no forces acting on it, but starts the bus suddenly. We get thrown
because the various external forces cancel out backward with a jerk. Why ? Our feet are in touch
i.e. add up to zero net external force. with the floor. If there were no friction, we would
Consider a book at rest on a horizontal surface remain where we were, while the floor of the bus
Fig. (4.2(a)). It is subject to two external forces : would simply slip forward under our feet and the
the force due to gravity (i.e. its weight W) acting back of the bus would hit us. However,
downward and the upward force on the book by fortunately, there is some friction between the
the table, the normal force R . R is a self-adjusting feet and the floor. If the start is not too sudden,
force. This is an example of the kind of situation i.e. if the acceleration is moderate, the frictional
mentioned above. The forces are not quite known force would be enough to accelerate our feet
fully but the state of motion is known. We observe along with the bus. But our body is not strictly
the book to be at rest. Therefore, we conclude a rigid body. It is deformable, i.e. it allows some
from the first law that the magnitude of R equals relative displacement between different parts.
that of W. A statement often encountered is : What this means is that while our feet go with
“Since W = R, forces cancel and, therefore, the book the bus, the rest of the body remains where it is
is at rest”. This is incorrect reasoning. The correct due to inertia. Relative to the bus, therefore, we
statement is : “Since the book is observed to be at are thrown backward. As soon as that happens,
rest, the net external force on it must be zero, however, the muscular forces on the rest of the
according to the first law. This implies that the body (by the feet) come into play to move the body
normal force R must be equal and opposite to the along with the bus. A similar thing happens
weight W ”. when the bus suddenly stops. Our feet stop due
to the friction which does not allow relative
motion between the feet and the floor of the bus.
But the rest of the body continues to move
forward due to inertia. We are thrown forward.
The restoring muscular forces again come into
play and bring the body to rest.
⊳
Example 4.1 An astronaut accidentally
gets separated out of his small spaceship
accelerating in inter stellar space at a
Fig. 4.2 (a) a book at rest on the table, and (b) a car
constant rate of 100 m s–2. What is the
moving with uniform velocity. The net force
is zero in each case.
acceleration of the astronaut the instant after
he is outside the spaceship ? (Assume that
Consider the motion of a car starting from there are no nearby stars to exert
rest, picking up speed and then moving on a gravitational force on him.)
smooth straight road with uniform speed (Fig.
(4.2(b)). When the car is stationary, there is no Answer Since there are no nearby stars to exert
net force acting on it. During pick-up, it gravitational force on him and the small
accelerates. This must happen due to a net spaceship exerts negligible gravitational
external force. Note, it has to be an external force. attraction on him, the net force acting on the

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LAWS OF MOTION 53

astronaut, once he is out of the spaceship, is act. One reason is that the cricketer allows a
zero. By the first law of motion the acceleration longer time for his hands to stop the ball. As
of the astronaut is zero. ⊳ you may have noticed, he draws in the hands
4.5 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION backward in the act of catching the ball
(Fig. 4.3). The novice, on the other hand,
The first law refers to the simple case when the
keeps his hands fixed and tries to catch the
net external force on a body is zero. The second
ball almost instantly. He needs to provide a
law of motion refers to the general situation when
much greater force to stop the ball instantly,
there is a net external force acting on the body.
and this hurts. The conclusion is clear: force
It relates the net external force to the
not only depends on the change in momentum,
acceleration of the body.
but also on how fast the change is brought
Momentum about. The same change in momentum
Momentum of a body is defined to be the product brought about in a shorter time needs a
of its mass m and velocity v, and is denoted greater applied force. In short, the greater the
by p: rate of change of momentum, the greater is
p=mv (4.1) the force.
Momentum is clearly a vector quantity. The
following common experiences indicate the
importance of this quantity for considering the
effect of force on motion.
• Suppose a light-weight vehicle (say a small
car) and a heavy weight vehicle (say a loaded
truck) are parked on a horizontal road. We all
know that a much greater force is needed to
push the truck than the car to bring them to
the same speed in same time. Similarly, a
greater opposing force is needed to stop a
heavy body than a light body in the same time,
if they are moving with the same speed.
• If two stones, one light and the other heavy,
are dropped from the top of a building, a Fig. 4.3 Force not only depends on the change in
person on the ground will find it easier to catch momentum but also on how fast the change
the light stone than the heavy stone. The is brought about. A seasoned cricketer draws
in his hands during a catch, allowing greater
mass of a body is thus an important
time for the ball to stop and hence requires a
parameter that determines the effect of force smaller force.
on its motion.
• Speed is another important parameter to
consider. A bullet fired by a gun can easily • Observations confirm that the product of
pierce human tissue before it stops, resulting mass and velocity (i.e. momentum) is basic to
in casualty. The same bullet fired with the effect of force on motion. Suppose a fixed
moderate speed will not cause much damage. force is applied for a certain interval of time
Thus for a given mass, the greater the speed, on two bodies of different masses, initially at
the greater is the opposing force needed to stop rest, the lighter body picks up a greater speed
the body in a certain time. Taken together,
than the heavier body. However, at the end of
the product of mass and velocity, that is
the time interval, observations show that each
momentum, is evidently a relevant variable
body acquires the same momentum. Thus
of motion. The greater the change in the
the same force for the same time causes
momentum in a given time, the greater is the
force that needs to be applied. the same change in momentum for
• A seasoned cricketer catches a cricket ball different bodies. This is a crucial clue to the
coming in with great speed far more easily second law of motion.
than a novice, who can hurt his hands in the • In the preceding observations, the vector

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54 PHYSICS

character of momentum has not been evident. ∆p ∆p

In the examples so far, momentum and change F∝ or F = k
∆t ∆t
in momentum both have the same direction.
But this is not always the case. Suppose a where k is a constant of proportionality. Taking
stone is rotated with uniform speed in a ∆p
horizontal plane by means of a string, the the limit ∆t → 0, the term becomes the
∆t
magnitude of momentum is fixed, but its derivative or differential co-efficient of p with
direction changes (Fig. 4.4). A force is needed dp
to cause this change in momentum vector. respect to t, denoted by . Thus
dt
This force is provided by our hand through
the string. Experience suggests that our hand dp
F =k (4.2)
needs to exert a greater force if the stone is dt
rotated at greater speed or in a circle of For a body of fixed mass m,
smaller radius, or both. This corresponds to
greater acceleration or equivalently a greater dp d dv
rate of change in momentum vector. This
= (m v ) = m = ma (4.3)
dt dt dt
suggests that the greater the rate of change
i.e the Second Law can also be written as
in momentum vector the greater is the force
F = kma (4.4)
applied.
which shows that force is proportional to the
product of mass m and acceleration a.
The unit of force has not been defined so far.
In fact, we use Eq. (4.4) to define the unit of force.
We, therefore, have the liberty to choose any
constant value for k. For simplicity, we choose
k = 1. The second law then is
dp
F= = ma (4.5)
dt
In SI unit force is one that causes an acceleration
of 1 m s-2 to a mass of 1 kg. This unit is known as
newton : 1 N = 1 kg m s-2.
Let us note at this stage some important points
Fig. 4.4 Force is necessary for changing the direction
of momentum, even if its magnitude is about the second law :
constant. We can feel this while rotating a 1. In the second law, F = 0 implies a = 0. The second
stone in a horizontal circle with uniform speed law is obviously consistent with the first law.
by means of a string.
2. The second law of motion is a vector law. It is
These qualitative observations lead to the equivalent to three equations, one for each
second law of motion expressed by Newton as component of the vectors :
follows :
dp x
The rate of change of momentum of a body is Fx = = ma x
dt
directly proportional to the applied force and
dp y
takes place in the direction in which the force Fy = = ma y
acts. dt
dp
Thus, if under the action of a force F for time Fz = z =m a z (4.6)
interval ∆t, the velocity of a body of mass m dt
changes from v to v + ∆v i.e. its initial momentum This means that if a force is not parallel to
p = m v changes by ∆p = m ∆v . According to the the velocity of the body, but makes some angle
with it, it changes only the component of
Second Law,
velocity along the direction of force. The

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LAWS OF MOTION 55

component of velocity normal to the force Answer The retardation ‘a’ of the bullet
remains unchanged. For example, in the (assumed constant) is given by
motion of a projectile under the vertical
gravitational force, the horizontal component –u2 – 90 × 90
a= = m s −2 = – 6750 m s−2
of velocity remains unchanged (Fig. 4.5). 2s 2 × 0.6
3. The second law of motion given by Eq. (4.5) is The retarding force, by the second law of
applicable to a single point particle. The force motion, is
F in the law stands for the net external force
= 0.04 kg × 6750 m s-2 = 270 N
on the particle and a stands for acceleration
of the particle. It turns out, however, that the The actual resistive force, and therefore,
law in the same form applies to a rigid body or, retardation of the bullet may not be uniform. The
even more generally, to a system of particles. answer therefore, only indicates the average
In that case, F refers to the total external force resistive force. ⊳
on the system and a refers to the acceleration
⊳
Example 4.3 The motion of a particle of
of the system as a whole. More precisely, a is
1 2
the acceleration of the centre of mass of the mass m is described by y = ut + gt . Find
system about which we shall study in detail in 2
Chapter 6. Any internal forces in the system the force acting on the particle.
are not to be included in F. Answer We know
1 2
y = ut + gt
2
Now,
dy
v= = u + gt
dt
dv
acceleration, a = =g
dt
Fig. 4.5 Acceleration at an instant is determined by Then the force is given by Eq. (4.5)
the force at that instant. The moment after a F = ma = mg
stone is dropped out of an accelerated train,
Thus the given equation describes the motion
it has no horizontal acceleration or force, if
air resistance is neglected. The stone carries of a particle under acceleration due to gravity
no memory of its acceleration with the train and y is the position coordinate in the direction
a moment ago. of g. ⊳

4. The second law of motion is a local relation Impulse

which means that force F at a point in space We sometimes encounter examples where a large
(location of the particle) at a certain instant force acts for a very short duration producing a
of time is related to a at that point at that finite change in momentum of the body. For
instant. Acceleration here and now is example, when a ball hits a wall and bounces
determined by the force here and now, not by back, the force on the ball by the wall acts for a
any history of the motion of the particle very short time when the two are in contact, yet
(See Fig. 4.5). the force is large enough to reverse the momentum
of the ball. Often, in these situations, the force
⊳ Example 4.2 A bullet of mass 0.04 kg and the time duration are difficult to ascertain
moving with a speed of 90 m s–1 enters a separately. However, the product of force and time,
which is the change in momentum of the body
heavy wooden block and is stopped after a
remains a measurable quantity. This product is
distance of 60 cm. What is the average
called impulse:
resistive force exerted by the block on the
bullet? Impulse = Force × time duration
= Change in momentum (4.7)

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56 PHYSICS

A large force acting for a short time to produce a Thus, according to Newtonian mechanics,
finite change in momentum is called an impulsive force never occurs singly in nature. Force is the
force. In the history of science, impulsive forces were mutual interaction between two bodies. Forces
put in a conceptually different category from always occur in pairs. Further, the mutual forces
ordinary forces. Newtonian mechanics has no such between two bodies are always equal and
distinction. Impulsive force is like any other force – opposite. This idea was expressed by Newton in
except that it is large and acts for a short time. the form of the third law of motion.
To every action, there is always an equal and
Example 4.4 A batsman hits back a ball
⊳
opposite reaction.
straight in the direction of the bowler without
changing its initial speed of 12 m s–1. Newton’s wording of the third law is so crisp and
If the mass of the ball is 0.15 kg, determine beautiful that it has become a part of common
the impulse imparted to the ball. (Assume language. For the same reason perhaps,
linear motion of the ball) misconceptions about the third law abound. Let
us note some important points about the third
Answer Change in momentum law, particularly in regard to the usage of the
= 0.15 × 12–(–0.15×12) terms : action and reaction.
1. The terms action and reaction in the third law
= 3.6 N s, mean nothing else but ‘force’. Using different
Impulse = 3.6 N s, terms for the same physical concept
in the direction from the batsman to the bowler. can sometimes be confusing. A simple
This is an example where the force on the ball and clear way of stating the third law is as
by the batsman and the time of contact of the follows :
ball and the bat are difficult to know, but the Forces always occur in pairs. Force on a
impulse is readily calculated. ⊳ body A by B is equal and opposite to the
force on the body B by A.
4.6 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
2. The terms action and reaction in the third law
The second law relates the external force on a
may give a wrong impression that action
body to its acceleration. What is the origin of the
comes before reaction i.e action is the cause
external force on the body ? What agency
and reaction the effect. There is no cause-
provides the external force ? The simple answer effect relation implied in the third law. The
in Newtonian mechanics is that the external force on A by B and the force on B by A act
force on a body always arises due to some other at the same instant. By the same reasoning,
body. Consider a pair of bodies A and B. B gives any one of them may be called action and the
rise to an external force on A. A natural question other reaction.
is: Does A in turn give rise to an external force 3. Action and reaction forces act on different
on B ? In some examples, the answer seems bodies, not on the same body. Consider a pair
clear. If you press a coiled spring, the spring is of bodies A and B. According to the third law,
compressed by the force of your hand. The
FAB = – FBA (4.8)
compressed spring in turn exerts a force on your
hand and you can feel it. But what if the bodies (force on A by B) = – (force on B by A)
are not in contact ? The earth pulls a stone Thus if we are considering the motion of any
downwards due to gravity. Does the stone exert one body (A or B), only one of the two forces is
a force on the earth ? The answer is not obvious relevant. It is an error to add up the two forces
since we hardly see the effect of the stone on the and claim that the net force is zero.
earth. The answer according to Newton is: Yes, However, if you are considering the system
the stone does exert an equal and opposite force of two bodies as a whole, FAB and FBA are
on the earth. We do not notice it since the earth internal forces of the system (A + B). They add
is very massive and the effect of a small force on up to give a null force. Internal forces in a
its motion is negligible. body or a system of particles thus cancel away

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LAWS OF MOTION 57

in pairs. This is an important fact that the force on the wall due to the ball is normal to
enables the second law to be applicable to a the wall along the positive x-direction. The
body or a system of particles (See Chapter 6). magnitude of force cannot be ascertained since
the small time taken for the collision has not
⊳ Example 4.5 Two identical billiard balls been specified in the problem.
strike a rigid wall with the same speed but
Case (b)
at different angles, and get reflected without
any change in speed, as shown in Fig. 4.6. ( px ) initial ( )
= m u cos 30 , py initial = − m u sin 30
What is (i) the direction of the force on the
wall due to each ball? (ii) the ratio of the
magnitudes of impulses imparted to the ( px ) final = – m u cos 30 , py ( ) final = − m u sin 30
balls by the wall ? Note, while px changes sign after collision, py
does not. Therefore,
x-component of impulse = –2 m u cos 30°
y-component of impulse = 0
The direction of impulse (and force) is the same
as in (a) and is normal to the wall along the
negative x direction. As before, using Newton’s
third law, the force on the wall due to the ball is
normal to the wall along the positive x direction.
The ratio of the magnitudes of the impulses
Fig. 4.6 imparted to the balls in (a) and (b) is

Answer An instinctive answer to (i) might be (

2 m u/ 2 m u cos 30 = ) 2
3
≈ 1.2 ⊳
that the force on the wall in case (a) is normal to
the wall, while that in case (b) is inclined at 30° 4.7 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
to the normal. This answer is wrong. The force
on the wall is normal to the wall in both cases. The second and third laws of motion lead to
How to find the force on the wall? The trick is an important consequence: the law of
to consider the force (or impulse) on the ball conservation of momentum. Take a familiar
due to the wall using the second law, and then example. A bullet is fired from a gun. If the force
use the third law to answer (i). Let u be the speed on the bullet by the gun is F, the force on the gun
of each ball before and after collision with the by the bullet is – F, according to the third law.
wall, and m the mass of each ball. Choose the x The two forces act for a common interval of time
and y axes as shown in the figure, and consider ∆t. According to the second law, F ∆t is the change
the change in momentum of the ball in each in momentum of the bullet and – F ∆t is the
case : change in momentum of the gun. Since initially,
both are at rest, the change in momentum equals
Case (a) the final momentum for each. Thus if pb is the
( px ) initial = mu (p )
y initial =0 momentum of the bullet after firing and pg is the
recoil momentum of the gun, pg = – pb i.e. pb + pg
( px )
final
= −mu (p )
y final =0 = 0. That is, the total momentum of the (bullet +
gun) system is conserved.
Impulse is the change in momentum vector. Thus in an isolated system (i.e. a system with
Therefore, no external force), mutual forces between pairs
of particles in the system can cause momentum
x-component of impulse = – 2 m u change in individual particles, but since the
y-component of impulse = 0 mutual forces for each pair are equal and
Impulse and force are in the same direction. opposite, the momentum changes cancel in pairs
Clearly, from above, the force on the ball due to and the total momentum remains unchanged.
the wall is normal to the wall, along the negative This fact is known as the law of conservation
x-direction. Using Newton’s third law of motion, of momentum :

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58 PHYSICS

The total momentum of an isolated system of

interacting particles is conserved.
An important example of the application of the
law of conservation of momentum is the collision
of two bodies. Consider two bodies A and B, with
initial momenta pA and pB. The bodies collide,
get apart, with final momenta p′A and p′ B Fig. 4.7 Equilibrium under concurrent forces.
respectively. By the Second Law
In other words, the resultant of any two forces
say F1 and F2, obtained by the parallelogram
FAB ∆t = p′A − p A and
law of forces must be equal and opposite to the
FBA ∆t = p′B − p B third force, F3. As seen in Fig. 4.7, the three
forces in equilibrium can be represented by the
(where we have taken a common interval of time sides of a triangle with the vector arrows taken
for both forces i.e. the time for which the two in the same sense. The result can be
bodies are in contact.) generalised to any number of forces. A particle
is in equilibrium under the action of forces F1,
Since FAB = − FBA by the third law,
F2,... Fn if they can be represented by the sides
p′A − p A = −( p′B − p B ) of a closed n-sided polygon with arrows directed
in the same sense.
i.e. p′A + p′B = p A + p B (4.9) Equation (4.11) implies that
which shows that the total final momentum of F1x + F2x + F3x = 0
the isolated system equals its initial momentum. F1y + F2y + F3y = 0
Notice that this is true whether the collision is F1z + F2z + F3z = 0 (4.12)
elastic or inelastic. In elastic collisions, there is
where F1x, F1y and F1z are the components of F1
a second condition that the total initial kinetic
along x, y and z directions respectively.
energy of the system equals the total final kinetic
energy (See Chapter 5). Example 4.6 See Fig. 4.8. A mass of 6 kg
⊳
is suspended by a rope of length 2 m
from the ceiling. A force of 50 N in the
4.8 EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLE horizontal direction is applied at the mid-
Equilibrium of a particle in mechanics refers to point P of the rope, as shown. What is the
the situation when the net external force on the angle the rope makes with the vertical in
equilibrium ? (Take g = 10 m s-2). Neglect
particle is zero.* According to the first law, this
the mass of the rope.
means that, the particle is either at rest or in
uniform motion.
If two forces F1 and F2, act on a particle,
equilibrium requires
F1 = − F2 (4.10)
i.e. the two forces on the particle must be equal
and opposite. Equilibrium under three
concurrent forces F1, F2 and F3 requires that
(a) (b) (c)
the vector sum of the three forces is zero. Fig. 4.8
F1 + F2 + F3 = 0 (4.11)

* Equilibrium of a body requires not only translational equilibrium (zero net external force) but also rotational
equilibrium (zero net external torque), as we shall see in Chapter 6.

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LAWS OF MOTION 59

Answer Figures 4.8(b) and 4.8(c) are known as other types of supports), there are mutual
free-body diagrams. Figure 4.8(b) is the free-body contact forces (for each pair of bodies) satisfying
diagram of W and Fig. 4.8(c) is the free-body the third law. The component of contact force
diagram of point P. normal to the surfaces in contact is called
Consider the equilibrium of the weight W. normal reaction. The component parallel to the
Clearly,T2 = 6 × 10 = 60 N. surfaces in contact is called friction. Contact
Consider the equilibrium of the point P under forces arise also when solids are in contact with
the action of three forces - the tensions T1 and fluids. For example, for a solid immersed in a
T2, and the horizontal force 50 N. The horizontal fluid, there is an upward bouyant force equal to
and vertical components of the resultant force the weight of the fluid displaced. The viscous
must vanish separately : force, air resistance, etc are also examples of
contact forces (Fig. 4.9).
T1 cos θ = T2 = 60 N
Two other common forces are tension in a
T1 sin θ = 50 N string and the force due to spring. When a spring
which gives that is compressed or extended by an external force,
a restoring force is generated. This force is
usually proportional to the compression or
Note the answer does not depend on the length elongation (for small displacements). The spring
of the rope (assumed massless) nor on the point force F is written as F = – k x where x is the
at which the horizontal force is applied. ⊳ displacement and k is the force constant. The
negative sign denotes that the force is opposite
4.9 COMMON FORCES IN MECHANICS to the displacement from the unstretched state.
In mechanics, we encounter several kinds of For an inextensible string, the force constant is
forces. The gravitational force is, of course, very high. The restoring force in a string is called
pervasive. Every object on the earth experiences tension. It is customary to use a constant tension
the force of gravity due to the earth. Gravity also T throughout the string. This assumption is true
governs the motion of celestial bodies. The for a string of negligible mass.
gravitational force can act at a distance without We learnt that there are four fundamental
the need of any intervening medium. forces in nature. Of these, the weak and strong
All the other forces common in mechanics are forces appear in domains that do not concern
contact forces.* As the name suggests, a contact us here. Only the gravitational and electrical
force on an object arises due to contact with some forces are relevant in the context of mechanics.
other object: solid or fluid. When bodies are in The different contact forces of mechanics
contact (e.g. a book resting on a table, a system mentioned above fundamentally arise from
of rigid bodies connected by rods, hinges and electrical forces. This may seem surprising

Fig. 4.9 Some examples of contact forces in mechanics.

* We are not considering, for simplicity, charged and magnetic bodies. For these, besides gravity, there are
electrical and magnetic non-contact forces.

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60 PHYSICS

since we are talking of uncharged and non- exist by itself. When there is no applied force,
magnetic bodies in mechanics. At the microscopic there is no static friction. It comes into play the
level, all bodies are made of charged constituents moment there is an applied force. As the applied
(nuclei and electrons) and the various contact force F increases, fs also increases, remaining
forces arising due to elasticity of bodies, molecular equal and opposite to the applied force (up to a
collisions and impacts, etc. can ultimately be certain limit), keeping the body at rest. Hence, it
traced to the electrical forces between the charged is called static friction. Static friction opposes
constituents of different bodies. The detailed impending motion. The term impending motion
means motion that would take place (but does
microscopic origin of these forces is, however,
not actually take place) under the applied force,
complex and not useful for handling problems in
if friction were absent.
mechanics at the macroscopic scale. This is why
We know from experience that as the applied
they are treated as different types of forces with force exceeds a certain limit, the body begins to
their characteristic properties determined move. It is found experimentally that the limiting
empirically.
value of static friction f s ( ) max
is independent of
4.9.1 Friction the area of contact and varies with the normal
Let us return to the example of a body of mass m force(N) approximately as :
at rest on a horizontal table. The force of gravity (f )
s max
= µs N (4.13)
(mg) is cancelled by the normal reaction force
where µ s is a constant of proportionality
(N) of the table. Now suppose a force F is applied
depending only on the nature of the surfaces in
horizontally to the body. We know from
contact. The constant µs is called the coefficient
experience that a small applied force may not of static friction. The law of static friction may
be enough to move the body. But if the applied thus be written as
force F were the only external force on the body, fs ≤ µs N (4.14)
it must move with acceleration F/m, however
small. Clearly, the body remains at rest because ( )
If the applied force F exceeds f s max the body
some other force comes into play in the begins to slide on the surface. It is found experi-
horizontal direction and opposes the applied mentally that when relative motion has started,
force F, resulting in zero net force on the body. the frictional force decreases from the static
This force fs parallel to the surface of the body in
contact with the table is known as frictional
( )
maximum value f s max . Frictional force that
force, or simply friction (Fig. 4.10(a)). The opposes relative motion between surfaces in
subscript stands for static friction to distinguish contact is called kinetic or sliding friction and is
it from kinetic friction fk that we consider later denoted by fk . Kinetic friction, like static fric-
tion, is found to be independent of the area of
(Fig. 4.10(b)). Note that static friction does not
contact. Further, it is nearly independent of the
velocity. It satisfies a law similar to that for static
friction:
f k = µk N (4.15)
where µk′ the coefficient of kinetic friction,
depends only on the surfaces in contact. As
mentioned above, experiments show that µk is
Fig. 4.10 Static and sliding friction: (a) Impending less than µs . When relative motion has begun,
motion of the body is opposed by static the acceleration of the body according to the
friction. When external force exceeds the second law is ( F – fk )/m. For a body moving with
maximum limit of static friction, the body constant velocity, F = fk. If the applied force on
begins to move. (b) Once the body is in the body is removed, its acceleration is – fk /m
motion, it is subject to sliding or kinetic friction and it eventually comes to a stop.
which opposes relative motion between the The laws of friction given above do not have
two surfaces in contact. Kinetic friction is the status of fundamental laws like those for
usually less than the maximum value of static
gravitational, electric and magnetic forces. They
friction.
are empirical relations that are only

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LAWS OF MOTION 61

approximately true. Yet they are very useful in Answer The forces acting on a block of mass m
practical calculations in mechanics. at rest on an inclined plane are (i) the weight
Thus, when two bodies are in contact, each mg acting vertically downwards (ii) the normal
experiences a contact force by the other. Friction, force N of the plane on the block, and (iii) the
by definition, is the component of the contact force static frictional force fs opposing the impending
parallel to the surfaces in contact, which opposes motion. In equilibrium, the resultant of these
impending or actual relative motion between the forces must be zero. Resolving the weight mg
two surfaces. Note that it is not motion, but along the two directions shown, we have
relative motion that the frictional force opposes. m g sin θ = fs , m g cos θ = N
Consider a box lying in the compartment of a train
As θ increases, the self-adjusting frictional force
that is accelerating. If the box is stationary
fs increases until at θ = θmax, fs achieves its
relative to the train, it is in fact accelerating along
with the train. What forces cause the acceleration maximum value, f s ( ) max
= µs N.
of the box? Clearly, the only conceivable force in
the horizontal direction is the force of friction. If Therefore,
there were no friction, the floor of the train would
tan θmax = µs or θmax = tan–1 µs
slip by and the box would remain at its initial
position due to inertia (and hit the back side of When θ becomes just a little more than θmax ,
the train). This impending relative motion is there is a small net force on the block and it
opposed by the static friction fs. Static friction begins to slide. Note that θmax depends only on
provides the same acceleration to the box as that µs and is independent of the mass of the block.
of the train, keeping it stationary relative to the
train. For θmax = 15°,
⊳ µs = tan 15°
Example 4.7 Determine the maximum = 0.27 ⊳
acceleration of the train in which a box ⊳
lying on its floor will remain stationary, Example 4.9 What is the acceleration of
given that the co-efficient of static friction the block and trolley system shown in a
between the box and the train’s floor is Fig. 4.12(a), if the coefficient of kinetic friction
0.15. between the trolley and the surface is 0.04?
What is the tension in the string? (Take g =
Answer Since the acceleration of the box is due 10 m s-2). Neglect the mass of the string.
to the static friction,
ma = fs ≤ µs N = µs m g
i.e. a ≤ µs g
∴ amax = µs g = 0.15 x 10 m s–2
= 1.5 m s–2 ⊳
⊳
Example 4.8 See Fig. 4.11. A mass of 4 kg
rests on a horizontal plane. The plane is
gradually inclined until at an angle θ = 15°
with the horizontal, the mass just begins to
slide. What is the coefficient of static friction
between the block and the surface ?
(a)

(b) (c)
Fig. 4.11 Fig. 4.12

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62 PHYSICS

Answer As the string is inextensible, and the is the reason why discovery of the wheel has
pully is smooth, the 3 kg block and the 20 kg been a major milestone in human history.
trolley both have same magnitude of Rolling friction again has a complex origin,
acceleration. Applying second law to motion of though somewhat different from that of static
the block (Fig. 4.12(b)), and sliding friction. During rolling, the surfaces
30 – T = 3a in contact get momentarily deformed a little, and
Apply the second law to motion of the trolley (Fig. this results in a finite area (not a point) of the
4.12(c)), body being in contact with the surface. The net
effect is that the component of the contact force
T – fk = 20 a.
parallel to the surface opposes motion.
Now fk = µk N,
We often regard friction as something
Here µk = 0.04, undesirable. In many situations, like in a
N = 20 x 10 machine with different moving parts, friction
= 200 N. does have a negative role. It opposes relative
Thus the equation for the motion of the trolley is motion and thereby dissipates power in the form
T – 0.04 x 200 = 20 a Or T – 8 = 20a. of heat, etc. Lubricants are a way of reducing
22 kinetic friction in a machine. Another way is to
These equations give a = m s –2 = 0.96 m s-2 use ball bearings between two moving parts of a
23
and T = 27.1 N. ⊳ machine [Fig. 4.13(a)]. Since the rolling friction
between ball bearings and the surfaces in
Rolling friction contact is very small, power dissipation is
A body like a ring or a sphere rolling without reduced. A thin cushion of air maintained
slipping over a horizontal plane will suffer no between solid surfaces in relative motion is
another effective way of reducing friction
friction, in principle. At every instant, there is
(Fig. 4.13(a)).
just one point of contact between the body and
In many practical situations, however, friction
the plane and this point has no motion relative
is critically needed. Kinetic friction that
to the plane. In this ideal situation, kinetic or dissipates power is nevertheless important for
static friction is zero and the body should quickly stopping relative motion. It is made use
continue to roll with constant velocity. We know, of by brakes in machines and automobiles.
in practice, this will not happen and some Similarly, static friction is important in daily
resistance to motion (rolling friction) does occur, life. We are able to walk because of friction. It
i.e. to keep the body rolling, some applied force is impossible for a car to move on a very slippery
is needed. For the same weight, rolling friction road. On an ordinary road, the friction between
is much smaller (even by 2 or 3 orders of the tyres and the road provides the necessary
magnitude) than static or sliding friction. This external force to accelerate the car.

Fig. 4.13 Some ways of reducing friction. (a) Ball bearings placed between moving parts of a machine.
(b) Compressed cushion of air between surfaces in relative motion.

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LAWS OF MOTION 63

4.10 CIRCULAR MOTION is the static friction that provides the centripetal
acceleration. Static friction opposes the
We have seen in Chapter 4 that acceleration of
impending motion of the car moving away from
a body moving in a circle of radius R with uniform
the circle. Using equation (4.14) & (4.16) we get
speed v is v2/R directed towards the centre.
the result
According to the second law, the force f providing
c
this acceleration is : mv 2
f = ≤ µs N
mv 2 R
fc = (4.16)
R µs RN
v2 ≤ = µs Rg [ ∵ N = mg]
where m is the mass of the body. This force m
directed forwards the centre is called the which is independent of the mass of the car.
centripetal force. For a stone rotated in a circle This shows that for a given value of µs and R,
by a string, the centripetal force is provided by there is a maximum speed of circular motion of
the tension in the string. The centripetal force the car possible, namely
for motion of a planet around the sun is the
v max = µs Rg (4.18)

(a) (b)

Fig. 4.14 Circular motion of a car on (a) a level road, (b) a banked road.

gravitational force on the planet due to the sun. Motion of a car on a banked road
For a car taking a circular turn on a horizontal
We can reduce the contribution of friction to the
road, the centripetal force is the force of friction.
circular motion of the car if the road is banked
The circular motion of a car on a flat and
(Fig. 4.14(b)). Since there is no acceleration along
banked road give interesting application of the
the vertical direction, the net force along this
laws of motion.
direction must be zero. Hence,
Motion of a car on a level road
N cos θ = mg + f sin θ (4.19a)
Three forces act on the car (Fig. 4.14(a):
(i) The weight of the car, mg The centripetal force is provided by the horizontal
(ii) Normal reaction, N components of N and f.
(iii) Frictional force, f mv 2
As there is no acceleration in the vertical N sin θ + f cos θ = (4.19b)
R
direction
N – mg = 0 But f ≤ µs N
N = mg (4.17)
Thus to obtain v we put
The centripetal force required for circular motion max
is along the surface of the road, and is provided f = µs N .
by the component of the contact force between Then Eqs. (4.19a) and (4.19b) become
road and the car tyres along the surface. This
by definition is the frictional force. Note that it N cos θ = mg + µs N sin θ (4.20a)

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64 PHYSICS

N sin θ + µs N cos θ = mv2/R (4.20b)

⊳ Example 4.11 A circular racetrack of
From Eq. (4.20a), we obtain radius 300 m is banked at an angle of 15°.
mg If the coefficient of friction between the
N= wheels of a race-car and the road is 0.2,
cosθ – µs sinθ
what is the (a) optimum speed of the race-
Substituting value of N in Eq. (4.20b), we get car to avoid wear and tear on its tyres, and
mg (sinθ + µs cosθ ) mv max
2 (b) maximum permissible speed to avoid
= slipping ?
cosθ – µs sinθ R
1 Answer On a banked road, the horizontal
 µ + tanθ  2 component of the normal force and the frictional
or v max =  Rg s  (4.21) force contribute to provide centripetal force to
 1 – µs tanθ 
keep the car moving on a circular turn without
Comparing this with Eq. (4.18) we see that slipping. At the optimum speed, the normal
maximum possible speed of a car on a banked reaction’s component is enough to provide the
road is greater than that on a flat road. needed centripetal force, and the frictional force
is not needed. The optimum speed vo is given by
For µs = 0 in Eq. (4.21 ), Eq. (4.22):
vo = ( R g tan θ ) ½ (4.22) vO = (R g tan θ)1/2
At this speed, frictional force is not needed at all Here R = 300 m, θ = 15°, g = 9.8 m s-2; we
to provide the necessary centripetal force. have
Driving at this speed on a banked road will cause vO = 28.1 m s-1.
little wear and tear of the tyres. The same The maximum permissible speed vmax is given by
equation also tells you that for v < vo, frictional Eq. (4.21):
force will be up the slope and that a car can be
parked only if tan θ ≤ µs.
⊳ ⊳
Example 4.10 A cyclist speeding at
18 km/h on a level road takes a sharp
circular turn of radius 3 m without reducing
the speed. The co-efficient of static friction 4.11 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN MECHANICS
between the tyres and the road is 0.1. Will The three laws of motion that you have learnt in
the cyclist slip while taking the turn? this chapter are the foundation of mechanics.
You should now be able to handle a large variety
Answer On an unbanked road, frictional force of problems in mechanics. A typical problem in
alone can provide the centripetal force needed mechanics usually does not merely involve a
to keep the cyclist moving on a circular turn single body under the action of given forces.
without slipping. If the speed is too large, or if More often, we will need to consider an assembly
the turn is too sharp (i.e. of too small a radius) of different bodies exerting forces on each other.
or both, the frictional force is not sufficient to Besides, each body in the assembly experiences
provide the necessary centripetal force, and the the force of gravity. When trying to solve a
cyclist slips. The condition for the cyclist not to problem of this type, it is useful to remember
slip is given by Eq. (4.18) : the fact that we can choose any part of the
v2 ≤ µs R g assembly and apply the laws of motion to that
part provided we include all forces on the chosen
Now, R = 3 m, g = 9.8 m s-2, µs = 0.1. That is, part due to the remaining parts of the assembly.
µs R g = 2.94 m2 s-2. v = 18 km/h = 5 m s-1; i.e., We may call the chosen part of the assembly as
v2 = 25 m2 s-2. The condition is not obeyed. the system and the remaining part of the
The cyclist will slip while taking the assembly (plus any other agencies of forces) as
circular turn. ⊳ the environment. We have followed the same

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LAWS OF MOTION 65

method in solved examples. To handle a typical the net force on the block must be zero i.e.,
problem in mechanics systematically, one R = 20 N. Using third law the action of the
should use the following steps : block (i.e. the force exerted on the floor by
(i) Draw a diagram showing schematically the the block) is equal to 20 N and directed
various parts of the assembly of bodies, the vertically downwards.
links, supports, etc. (b) The system (block + cylinder) accelerates
(ii) Choose a convenient part of the assembly downwards with 0.1 m s-2. The free-body
as one system. diagram of the system shows two forces on
(iii) Draw a separate diagram which shows this the system : the force of gravity due to the
system and all the forces on the system by earth (270 N); and the normal force R ′ by the
the remaining part of the assembly. Include floor. Note, the free-body diagram of the
also the forces on the system by other system does not show the internal forces
agencies. Do not include the forces on the between the block and the cylinder. Applying
environment by the system. A diagram of the second law to the system,
this type is known as ‘a free-body diagram’.
270 – R′ = 27 × 0.1N
(Note this does not imply that the system
ie. R′ = 267.3 N
under consideration is without a net force).
(iv) In a free-body diagram, include information
about forces (their magnitudes and
directions) that are either given or you are
sure of (e.g., the direction of tension in a
string along its length). The rest should be
treated as unknowns to be determined using
laws of motion.
(v) If necessary, follow the same procedure for
another choice of the system. In doing so,
employ Newton’s third law. That is, if in the
free-body diagram of A, the force on A due to
B is shown as F, then in the free-body
diagram of B, the force on B due to A should
be shown as –F.
The following example illustrates the above
procedure :

⊳ Example 4.12 See Fig. 4.15. A wooden Fig. 4.15

block of mass 2 kg rests on a soft horizontal
floor. When an iron cylinder of mass 25 kg By the third law, the action of the system on
is placed on top of the block, the floor yields the floor is equal to 267.3 N vertically downward.
steadily and the block and the cylinder Action-reaction pairs
together go down with an acceleration of
For (a): (i) the force of gravity (20 N) on the block
0.1 m s–2. What is the action of the block
by the earth (say, action); the force of
on the floor (a) before and (b) after the floor
gravity on the earth by the block
yields ? Take g = 10 m s–2. Identify the
(reaction) equal to 20 N directed
action-reaction pairs in the problem.
upwards (not shown in the figure).
(ii) the force on the floor by the block
Answer (action); the force on the block by the
(a) The block is at rest on the floor. Its free-body floor (reaction).
diagram shows two forces on the block, the For (b): (i) the force of gravity (270 N) on the
force of gravitational attraction by the earth system by the earth (say, action); the
equal to 2 × 10 = 20 N; and the normal force force of gravity on the earth by the
R of the floor on the block. By the First Law, system (reaction), equal to 270 N,

2024-25
66 PHYSICS

directed upwards (not shown in the gravity on the mass in (a) or (b) and the normal
figure). force on the mass by the floor are not action-
(ii) the force on the floor by the system reaction pairs. These forces happen to be equal
(action); the force on the system by the and opposite for (a) since the mass is at rest.
floor (reaction). In addition, for (b), the They are not so for case (b), as seen already.
force on the block by the cylinder and The weight of the system is 270 N, while the
the force on the cylinder by the block normal force R′ is 267.3 N. ⊳
also constitute an action-reaction pair. The practice of drawing free-body diagrams is
The important thing to remember is that an of great help in solving problems in mechanics.
action-reaction pair consists of mutual forces It allows you to clearly define your system and
which are always equal and opposite between consider all forces on the system due to objects
two bodies. Two forces on the same body which that are not part of the system itself. A number
happen to be equal and opposite can never of exercises in this and subsequent chapters will
constitute an action-reaction pair. The force of help you cultivate this practice.

SUMMARY

1. Aristotle’s view that a force is necessary to keep a body in uniform motion is wrong. A
force is necessary in practice to counter the opposing force of friction.
2. Galileo extrapolated simple observations on motion of bodies on inclined planes, and
arrived at the law of inertia. Newton’s first law of motion is the same law rephrased
thus: “Everybody continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line,
unless compelled by some external force to act otherwise”. In simple terms, the First Law
is “If external force on a body is zero, its acceleration is zero”.
3. Momentum (p ) of a body is the product of its mass (m) and velocity (v) :
p = mv
4. Newton’s second law of motion :
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force and takes
place in the direction in which the force acts. Thus
dp
F=k =kma
dt
where F is the net external force on the body and a its acceleration. We set the constant
of proportionality k = 1 in SI units. Then
dp
F= = ma
dt
The SI unit of force is newton : 1 N = 1 kg m s-2.
(a) The second law is consistent with the First Law (F = 0 implies a = 0)
(b) It is a vector equation
(c) It is applicable to a particle, and also to a body or a system of particles, provided F
is the total external force on the system and a is the acceleration of the system as
a whole.
(d) F at a point at a certain instant determines a at the same point at that instant.
That is the Second Law is a local law; a at an instant does not depend on the
history of motion.
4. Impulse is the product of force and time which equals change in momentum.
The notion of impulse is useful when a large force acts for a short time to produce a
measurable change in momentum. Since the time of action of the force is very short,
one can assume that there is no appreciable change in the position of the body during
the action of the impulsive force.
6. Newton’s third law of motion:
To every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction

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LAWS OF MOTION 67

In simple terms, the law can be stated thus :

Forces in nature always occur between pairs of bodies. Force on a body A by body
B is equal and opposite to the force on the body B by A.
Action and reaction forces are simultaneous forces. There is no cause-effect
relation between action and reaction. Any of the two mutual forces can be
called action and the other reaction. Action and reaction act on different
bodies and so they cannot be cancelled out. The internal action and reaction
forces between different parts of a body do, however, sum to zero.
7. Law of Conservation of Momentum
The total momentum of an isolated system of particles is conserved. The law
follows from the second and third law of motion.
8. Friction
Frictional force opposes (impending or actual) relative motion between two
surfaces in contact. It is the component of the contact force along the common
tangent to the surface in contact. Static friction fs opposes impending relative
motion; kinetic friction fk opposes actual relative motion. They are independent
of the area of contact and satisfy the following approximate laws :

( )
f s ≤ fs
max
= µs R

f =µ R
k k
µs (co-efficient of static friction) and µk (co-efficient of kinetic friction) are
constants characteristic of the pair of surfaces in contact. It is found
experimentally that µk is less than µs .

POINTS TO PONDER
1. Force is not always in the direction of motion. Depending on the situation, F
may be along v, opposite to v, normal to v or may make some other angle with
v. In every case, it is parallel to acceleration.
2. If v = 0 at an instant, i.e. if a body is momentarily at rest, it does not mean that
force or acceleration are necessarily zero at that instant. For example, when a
ball thrown upward reaches its maximum height, v = 0 but the force continues
to be its weight mg and the acceleration is not zero but g.
3. Force on a body at a given time is determined by the situation at the location of
the body at that time. Force is not ‘carried’ by the body from its earlier history of
motion. The moment after a stone is released out of an accelerated train, there is
no horizontal force (or acceleration) on the stone, if the effects of the surrounding
air are neglected. The stone then has only the vertical force of gravity.
4. In the second law of motion F = m a, F stands for the net force due to all
material agencies external to the body. a is the effect of the force. ma should
not be regarded as yet another force, besides F.

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68 PHYSICS

5. The centripetal force should not be regarded as yet another kind of force. It is
simply a name given to the force that provides inward radial acceleration to a
body in circular motion. We should always look for some material force like
tension, gravitational force, electrical force, friction, etc as the centripetal force
in any circular motion.
6. Static friction is a self-adjusting force up to its limit µs N (fs ≤ µs N). Do not put
fs= µs N without being sure that the maximum value of static friction is coming
into play.
7. The familiar equation mg = R for a body on a table is true only if the body is in
equilibrium. The two forces mg and R can be different (e.g. a body in an
accelerated lift). The equality of mg and R has no connection with the third
law.
8. The terms ‘action’ and ‘reaction’ in the third Law of Motion simply stand for
simultaneous mutual forces between a pair of bodies. Unlike their meaning in
ordinary language, action does not precede or cause reaction. Action and reaction
act on different bodies.
9. The different terms like ‘friction’, ‘normal reaction’ ‘tension’, ‘air resistance’,
‘viscous drag’, ‘thrust’, ‘buoyancy’, ‘weight’, ‘centripetal force’ all stand for ‘force’
in different contexts. For clarity, every force and its equivalent terms
encountered in mechanics should be reduced to the phrase ‘force on A by B’.
10. For applying the second law of motion, there is no conceptual distinction between
inanimate and animate objects. An animate object such as a human also
requires an external force to accelerate. For example, without the external
force of friction, we cannot walk on the ground.
11. The objective concept of force in physics should not be confused with the
subjective concept of the ‘feeling of force’. On a merry-go-around, all parts of
our body are subject to an inward force, but we have a feeling of being pushed
outward – the direction of impending motion.

EXERCISES

(For simplicity in numerical calculations, take g = 10 m s-2)

4.1 Give the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on
(a) a drop of rain falling down with a constant speed,
(b) a cork of mass 10 g floating on water,
(c) a kite skillfully held stationary in the sky,
(d) a car moving with a constant velocity of 30 km/h on a rough road,
(e) a high-speed electron in space far from all material objects, and free of
electric and magnetic fields.
4.2 A pebble of mass 0.05 kg is thrown vertically upwards. Give the direction
and magnitude of the net force on the pebble,
(a) during its upward motion,
(b) during its downward motion,
(c) at the highest point where it is momentarily at rest. Do your answers
change if the pebble was thrown at an angle of 45° with the horizontal
direction?
Ignore air resistance.
4.3 Give the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on a stone of mass
0.1 kg,
(a) just after it is dropped from the window of a stationary train,
(b) just after it is dropped from the window of a train running at a constant
velocity of 36 km/h,
(c ) just after it is dropped from the window of a train accelerating with 1 m s-2,
(d) lying on the floor of a train which is accelerating with 1 m s-2, the stone
being at rest relative to the train.
Neglect air resistance throughout.

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LAWS OF MOTION 69

4.4 One end of a string of length l is connected to a particle of mass m and the
other to a small peg on a smooth horizontal table. If the particle moves in a
circle with speed v the net force on the particle (directed towards the centre)
is :

mv2 mv 2
(i) T, (ii) T − , (iii) T + , (iv) 0
l l
T is the tension in the string. [Choose the correct alternative].
4.5 A constant retarding force of 50 N is applied to a body of mass 20 kg moving
initially with a speed of 15 m s-1. How long does the body take to stop ?
4.6 A constant force acting on a body of mass 3.0 kg changes its speed from 2.0 m s-1
to 3.5 m s-1 in 25 s. The direction of the motion of the body remains
unchanged. What is the magnitude and direction of the force ?
4.7 A body of mass 5 kg is acted upon by two perpendicular forces 8 N and 6 N.
Give the magnitude and direction of the acceleration of the body.
4.8 The driver of a three-wheeler moving with a speed of 36 km/h sees a child
standing in the middle of the road and brings his vehicle to rest in 4.0 s just
in time to save the child. What is the average retarding force on the vehicle ?
The mass of the three-wheeler is 400 kg and the mass of the driver is 65 kg.
4.9 A rocket with a lift-off mass 20,000 kg is blasted upwards with an initial
acceleration of 5.0 m s-2. Calculate the initial thrust (force) of the blast.
4.10 A body of mass 0.40 kg moving initially with a constant speed of 10 m s-1 to
the north is subject to a constant force of 8.0 N directed towards the south
for 30 s. Take the instant the force is applied to be t = 0, the position of the
body at that time to be x = 0, and predict its position at t = –5 s, 25 s, 100 s.
4.11 A truck starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 2.0 m s-2. At t = 10 s, a
stone is dropped by a person standing on the top of the truck (6 m high from
the ground). What are the (a) velocity, and (b) acceleration of the stone at t =
11s ? (Neglect air resistance.)
4.12 A bob of mass 0.1 kg hung from the ceiling of a room by a string 2 m long is
set into oscillation. The speed of the bob at its mean position is 1 m s-1.
What is the trajectory of the bob if the string is cut when the bob is (a) at one
of its extreme positions, (b) at its mean position.
4.13 A man of mass 70 kg stands on a weighing scale in a lift which is moving
(a) upwards with a uniform speed of 10 m s-1,
(b) downwards with a uniform acceleration of 5 m s-2,
(c) upwards with a uniform acceleration of 5 m s-2.
What would be the readings on the scale in each case?
(d) What would be the reading if the lift mechanism failed and it hurtled
down freely under gravity ?
4.14 Figure 4.16 shows the position-time graph of a particle of mass 4 kg. What is
the (a) force on the particle for t < 0, t > 4 s, 0 < t < 4 s? (b) impulse at t = 0 and
t = 4 s ? (Consider one-dimensional motion only).

Fig. 4.16
4.15 Two bodies of masses 10 kg and 20 kg respectively kept on a smooth, horizontal
surface are tied to the ends of a light string. A horizontal force F = 600 N is
applied to (i) A, (ii) B along the direction of string. What is the tension in the
string in each case?

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70 PHYSICS

4.16 Two masses 8 kg and 12 kg are connected at the two ends of a light inextensible
string that goes over a frictionless pulley. Find the acceleration of the masses, and
the tension in the string when the masses are released.
4.17 A nucleus is at rest in the laboratory frame of reference. Show that if it disintegrates
into two smaller nuclei the products must move in opposite directions.
4.18 Two billiard balls each of mass 0.05 kg moving in opposite directions with speed 6 m s-1
collide and rebound with the same speed. What is the impulse imparted to each ball due
to the other ?
4.19 A shell of mass 0.020 kg is fired by a gun of mass 100 kg. If the muzzle speed of the
shell is 80 m s-1, what is the recoil speed of the gun ?
4.20 A batsman deflects a ball by an angle of 45° without changing its initial speed which is
equal to 54 km/h. What is the impulse imparted to the ball ? (Mass of the ball is 0.15 kg.)
4.21 A stone of mass 0.25 kg tied to the end of a string is whirled round in a circle of radius
1.5 m with a speed of 40 rev./min in a horizontal plane. What is the tension in the
string ? What is the maximum speed with which the stone can be whirled around if
the string can withstand a maximum tension of 200 N ?
4.22 If, in Exercise 4.21, the speed of the stone is increased beyond the maximum permissible
value, and the string breaks suddenly, which of the following correctly describes the
trajectory of the stone after the string breaks :
(a) the stone moves radially outwards,
(b) the stone flies off tangentially from the instant the string breaks,
(c) the stone flies off at an angle with the tangent whose magnitude depends on the
speed of the particle ?
4.23 Explain why
(a) a horse cannot pull a cart and run in empty space,
(b) passengers are thrown forward from their seats when a speeding bus stops
suddenly,
(c) it is easier to pull a lawn mower than to push it,
(d) a cricketer moves his hands backwards while holding a catch.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The terms ‘work’, ‘energy’ and ‘power’ are frequently used
in everyday language. A farmer ploughing the field, a
5.1 Introduction construction worker carrying bricks, a student studying for
a competitive examination, an artist painting a beautiful
5.2 Notions of work and kinetic
landscape, all are said to be working. In physics, however,
energy : The work-energy
theorem the word ‘Work’ covers a definite and precise meaning.
Somebody who has the capacity to work for 14-16 hours a
5.3 Work
day is said to have a large stamina or energy. We admire a
5.4 Kinetic energy
long distance runner for her stamina or energy. Energy is
5.5 Work done by a variable force thus our capacity to do work. In Physics too, the term ‘energy’
5.6 The work-energy theorem for is related to work in this sense, but as said above the term
a variable force ‘work’ itself is defined much more precisely. The word ‘power’
5.7 The concept of potential is used in everyday life with different shades of meaning. In
energy karate or boxing we talk of ‘powerful’ punches. These are
5.8 The conservation of delivered at a great speed. This shade of meaning is close to
mechanical energy the meaning of the word ‘power’ used in physics. We shall
5.9 The potential energy of a find that there is at best a loose correlation between the
spring physical definitions and the physiological pictures these
5.10 Power terms generate in our minds. The aim of this chapter is to
5.11 Collisions develop an understanding of these three physical quantities.
Summary
Before we proceed to this task, we need to develop a
Points to ponder
mathematical prerequisite, namely the scalar product of two
vectors.
Exercises
5.1.1 The Scalar Product
We have learnt about vectors and their use in Chapter 3.
Physical quantities like displacement, velocity, acceleration,
force etc. are vectors. We have also learnt how vectors are
added or subtracted. We now need to know how vectors are
multiplied. There are two ways of multiplying vectors which
we shall come across : one way known as the scalar product
gives a scalar from two vectors and the other known as the
vector product produces a new vector from two vectors. We
shall look at the vector product in Chapter 6. Here we take
up the scalar product of two vectors. The scalar product or
dot product of any two vectors A and B, denoted as A.B (read

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72 PHYSICS

A dot B) is defined as
A = A x iɵ + Ay ɵj + Az kɵ
A.B = A B cos θ (5.1a)
B = B x iɵ + By ɵj + Bz kɵ
where θ is the angle between the two vectors as
shown in Fig. 5.1(a). Since A, B and cos θ are their scalar product is
scalars, the dot product of A and B is a scalar
quantity. Each vector, A and B, has a direction
(
A.B = A x ˆi + Ay ˆj + Az k )(
ˆ . B ˆi + B ˆj + B k
x y z
ˆ )
but their scalar product does not have a = A x B x + Ay By + Az B z (5.1b)
direction.
From the definition of scalar product and
From Eq. (5.1a), we have (Eq. 5.1b) we have :
(i) A . A = A x A x + A y Ay + A z A z
A .B = A (B cos θ )
= B (A cos θ ) Or,
2 2
A = A x + Ay + A z
2 2
(5.1c)
Geometrically, B cos θ is the projection of B onto since A .A = |A ||A| cos 0 = A2.
A in Fig.5.1 (b) and A cos θ is the projection of A (ii) A .B = 0, if A and B are perpendicular.
onto B in Fig. 5.1 (c). So, A.B is the product of
the magnitude of A and the component of B along u Example 5.1 Find the angle between force
A. Alternatively, it is the product of the F = (3 ˆi + 4 ˆj - 5 k
ˆ ) unit and displacement
magnitude of B and the component of A along B.
d = (5 ˆi + 4 ˆj + 3 k
ˆ ) unit. Also find the
Equation (5.1a) shows that the scalar product
follows the commutative law : projection of F on d.
A.B = B.A Answer F.d = Fx d x + Fy d y + Fz d z
Scalar product obeys the distributive = 3 (5) + 4 (4) + (– 5) (3)
law: = 16 unit
A . (B + C) = A .B + A .C Hence F.d = F d cos θ = 16 unit

Further, A. (λ B) = λ (A.B) Now F.F = F 2 = Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2

where λ is a real number. = 9 + 16 + 25
= 50 unit
The proofs of the above equations are left to
you as an exercise. and d.d = d 2 = d x2 + dy2 + dz2

For unit vectors ɵi, ɵj, kɵ we have = 25 + 16 + 9

= 50 unit
iɵ ⋅ ɵi =
ɵj ⋅ ɵj = kɵ ⋅ kɵ = 1
16 16
∴ cos θ = = = 0.32 ,
iɵ ⋅ ɵj =
ɵj ⋅ kɵ = kɵ ⋅ iɵ = 0 50 50 50

Given two vectors θ = cos–1 0.32

Fig. 5.1 (a) The scalar product of two vectors A and B is a scalar : A. B = A B cos θ. (b) B cos θ is the projection
of B onto A. (c) A cos θ is the projection of A onto B.

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 73

5.2 NOTIONS OF WORK AND KINETIC

ENERGY: THE WORK-ENERGY THEOREM to be proportional to the speed of the drop
but is otherwise undetermined. Consider
The following relation for rectilinear motion under a drop of mass 1.00 g falling from a height
constant acceleration a has been encountered 1.00 km. It hits the ground with a speed of
in Chapter 3, 50.0 m s-1. (a) What is the work done by the
v2 − u2 = 2 as (5.2) gravitational force ? What is the work done
where u and v are the initial and final speeds by the unknown resistive force?
and s the distance traversed. Multiplying both Answer (a) The change in kinetic energy of the
sides by m/2, we have drop is
1 1 1
mv 2 − mu 2 = mas = Fs (5.2a) ∆K = m v2 − 0
2 2 2
where the last step follows from Newton’s Second 1
Law. We can generalise Eq. (5.2) to three = × 10-3 × 50 × 50
2
dimensions by employing vectors = 1.25 J
v2 − u2 = 2 a.d where we have assumed that the drop is initially
at rest.
Here a and d are acceleration and displacement
Assuming that g is a constant with a value
vectors of the object respectively.
10 m/s2, the work done by the gravitational force
Once again multiplying both sides by m/2 , we obtain
is,
1 1 Wg = mgh
mv 2 − mu 2 = m a.d = F.d (5.2b)
2 2 = 10-3 ×10 ×103
The above equation provides a motivation for = 10.0 J
the definitions of work and kinetic energy. The (b) From the work-energy theorem
left side of the equation is the difference in the
quantity ‘half the mass times the square of the ∆ K = W g + Wr
speed’ from its initial value to its final value. We where Wr is the work done by the resistive force
call each of these quantities the ‘kinetic energy’, on the raindrop. Thus
denoted by K. The right side is a product of the Wr = ∆K − Wg
displacement and the component of the force = 1.25 −10
along the displacement. This quantity is called = − 8.75 J
‘work’ and is denoted by W. Eq. (5.2b) is then
is negative. ⊳
Kf − Ki = W (5.3) 5.3 WORK
where Ki and Kf are respectively the initial and As seen earlier, work is related to force and the
final kinetic energies of the object. Work refers displacement over which it acts. Consider a
to the force and the displacement over which it constant force F acting on an object of mass m.
acts. Work is done by a force on the body over The object undergoes a displacement d in the
a certain displacement. positive x-direction as shown in Fig. 5.2.
Equation (5.2) is also a special case of the
work-energy (WE) theorem : The change in
kinetic energy of a particle is equal to the
work done on it by the net force. We shall
generalise the above derivation to a varying force
in a later section.
⊳ Example 5.2 It is well known that a
raindrop falls under the influence of the Fig. 5.2 An object undergoes a displacement d
downward gravitational force and the under the influence of the force F.
opposing resistive force. The latter is known

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74 PHYSICS

The work done by the force is defined to be Table 5.1 Alternative Units of Work/Energy in J
the product of component of the force in the
direction of the displacement and the
magnitude of this displacement. Thus
W = (F cos θ )d = F.d (5.4)
We see that if there is no displacement, there
is no work done even if the force is large. Thus,
when you push hard against a rigid brick wall,
the force you exert on the wall does no work. Yet ⊳
Example 5.3 A cyclist comes to a skidding
your muscles are alternatively contracting and stop in 10 m. During this process, the force
relaxing and internal energy is being used up on the cycle due to the road is 200 N and
and you do get tired. Thus, the meaning of work is directly opposed to the motion. (a) How
in physics is different from its usage in everyday much work does the road do on the cycle ?
language. (b) How much work does the cycle do on
the road ?
No work is done if :
(i) the displacement is zero as seen in the
example above. A weightlifter holding a 150 Answer Work done on the cycle by the road is
kg mass steadily on his shoulder for 30 s the work done by the stopping (frictional) force
does no work on the load during this time. on the cycle due to the road.
(ii) the force is zero. A block moving on a smooth (a) The stopping force and the displacement make
horizontal table is not acted upon by a an angle of 180o (π rad) with each other.
horizontal force (since there is no friction), but Thus, work done by the road,
may undergo a large displacement. Wr = Fd cosθ
(iii) the force and displacement are mutually
= 200 × 10 × cos π
perpendicular. This is so since, for θ = π/2 rad
(= 90o), cos (π/2) = 0. For the block moving on = – 2000 J
a smooth horizontal table, the gravitational It is this negative work that brings the cycle
force mg does no work since it acts at right to a halt in accordance with WE theorem.
angles to the displacement. If we assume that (b) From Newton’s Third Law an equal and
the moon’s orbits around the earth is opposite force acts on the road due to the
perfectly circular then the earth’s cycle. Its magnitude is 200 N. However, the
gravitational force does no work. The moon’s road undergoes no displacement. Thus,
instantaneous displacement is tangential work done by cycle on the road is zero. ⊳
while the earth’s force is radially inwards and The lesson of Example 5.3 is that though the
θ = π/2. force on a body A exerted by the body B is always
Work can be both positive and negative. If θ is equal and opposite to that on B by A (Newton’s
between 0o and 90o, cos θ in Eq. (5.4) is positive. Third Law); the work done on A by B is not
If θ is between 90o and 180o, cos θ is negative. necessarily equal and opposite to the work done
In many examples the frictional force opposes on B by A.
displacement and θ = 180o. Then the work done
5.4 KINETIC ENERGY
by friction is negative (cos 180o = –1).
From Eq. (5.4) it is clear that work and energy As noted earlier, if an object of mass m has
have the same dimensions, [ML2T–2]. The SI unit velocity v, its kinetic energy K is
of these is joule (J), named after the famous British
1 1
physicist James Prescott Joule (1811-1869). Since K = m v.v = mv 2 (5.5)
work and energy are so widely used as physical 2 2
concepts, alternative units abound and some of Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity. The kinetic
these are listed in Table 5.1. energy of an object is a measure of the work an

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 75

Table 5.2 Typical kinetic energies (K)

object can do by the virtue of its motion. This This is illustrated in Fig. 5.3(a). Adding
notion has been intuitively known for a long time. successive rectangular areas in Fig. 5.3(a) we
The kinetic energy of a fast flowing stream get the total work done as
has been used to grind corn. Sailing xf
ships employ the kinetic energy of the wind. Table
5.2 lists the kinetic energies for various
W≅ ∑F (x )∆x
xi
(5.6)

objects. where the summation is from the initial position

xi to the final position xf.
Example 5.4 In a ballistics demonstration
⊳
a police officer fires a bullet of mass 50.0 g If the displacements are allowed to approach
with speed 200 m s-1 (see Table 5.2) on soft zero, then the number of terms in the sum
plywood of thickness 2.00 cm. The bullet increases without limit, but the sum approaches
emerges with only 10% of its initial kinetic a definite value equal to the area under the curve
energy. What is the emergent speed of the in Fig. 5.3(b). Then the work done is
bullet ? lim xf

Answer The initial kinetic energy of the bullet

W = lim
∆x → 0 ∑F (x )∆x
xi
is mv2/2 = 1000 J. It has a final kinetic energy
of 0.1×1000 = 100 J. If vf is the emergent speed xf

of the bullet, = ∫ F ( x ) dx (5.7)

1 2
xi
mv f = 100 J where ‘lim’ stands for the limit of the sum when
2
∆x tends to zero. Thus, for a varying force
2 × 100 J the work done can be expressed as a definite
vf =
0.05 kg integral of force over displacement (see also
Appendix 3.1).
= 63.2 m s–1
The speed is reduced by approximately 68%
(not 90%). ⊳

5.5 WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE

A constant force is rare. It is the variable force,
which is more commonly encountered. Fig. 5.3
is a plot of a varying force in one dimension.
If the displacement ∆x is small, we can take
the force F (x) as approximately constant and
the work done is then
∆W =F (x) ∆x Fig. 5.3(a)

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76 PHYSICS

The work done by the frictional force is

Wf → area of the rectangle AGHI
Wf = (−50) × 20
= − 1000 J
The area on the negative side of the force axis
has a negative sign. ⊳
5.6 THE WORK-ENERGY THEOREM FOR A
VARIABLE FORCE
Fig. 5.3 (a) The shaded rectangle represents the We are now familiar with the concepts of work
work done by the varying force F(x), over and kinetic energy to prove the work-energy
the small displacement ∆x, ∆W = F(x) ∆x. theorem for a variable force. We confine
(b) adding the areas of all the rectangles we ourselves to one dimension. The time rate of
find that for ∆x → 0, the area under the curve change of kinetic energy is
is exactly equal to the work done by F(x).
dK d 1 2
=  m v 
⊳
Example 5.5 A woman pushes a trunk on dt dt  2
a railway platform which has a rough
dv
surface. She applies a force of 100 N over a =m v
distance of 10 m. Thereafter, she gets dt
progressively tired and her applied force =F v (from Newton’s Second Law)
reduces linearly with distance to 50 N. The dx
total distance through which the trunk has =F
dt
been moved is 20 m. Plot the force applied Thus
by the woman and the frictional force, which dK = Fdx
is 50 N versus displacement. Calculate the Integrating from the initial position (x i ) to final
work done by the two forces over 20 m. position ( x f ), we have
Answer Kf xf

∫ dK = ∫ Fdx
Ki xi

where, Ki and K f are the initial and final kinetic

energies corresponding to x i and x f.
xf

Fig. 5.4 Plot of the force F applied by the woman and

or K f − Ki = ∫ Fdx (5.8a)
xi
the opposing frictional force f versus
From Eq. (5.7), it follows that
displacement.
Kf − Ki = W (5.8b)
The plot of the applied force is shown in Fig.
5.4. At x = 20 m, F = 50 N (≠ 0). We are given Thus, the WE theorem is proved for a variable
that the frictional force f is |f|= 50 N. It opposes force.
motion and acts in a direction opposite to F. It While the WE theorem is useful in a variety of
is therefore, shown on the negative side of the problems, it does not, in general, incorporate the
force axis. complete dynamical information of Newton’s
The work done by the woman is second law. It is an integral form of Newton’s
WF → area of the rectangle ABCD + area of second law. Newton’s second law is a relation
the trapezium CEID between acceleration and force at any instant of
1 time. Work-energy theorem involves an integral
WF = 100 × 10 + (100 + 50) × 10 over an interval of time. In this sense, the temporal
2
= 1000 + 750 (time) information contained in the statement of
= 1750 J Newton’s second law is ‘integrated over’ and is

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 77

not available explicitly. Another observation is that are like ‘compressed springs’. They possess a
Newton’s second law for two or three dimensions large amount of potential energy. An earthquake
is in vector form whereas the work-energy results when these fault lines readjust. Thus,
theorem is in scalar form. In the scalar form, potential energy is the ‘stored energy’ by virtue
information with respect to directions contained of the position or configuration of a body. The
in Newton’s second law is not present. body left to itself releases this stored energy in
⊳ the form of kinetic energy. Let us make our notion
Example 5.6 A block of mass m = 1 kg, of potential energy more concrete.
moving on a horizontal surface with speed The gravitational force on a ball of mass m is
vi = 2 m s–1 enters a rough patch ranging mg . g may be treated as a constant near the earth
from x = 0.10 m to x = 2.01 m. The retarding surface. By ‘near’ we imply that the height h of
force Fr on the block in this range is inversely the ball above the earth’s surface is very small
proportional to x over this range, compared to the earth’s radius RE (h <<RE) so that
−k we can ignore the variation of g near the earth’s
Fr = for 0.1 < x < 2.01 m surface*. In what follows we have taken the
x
= 0 for x < 0.1m and x > 2.01 m upward direction to be positive. Let us raise the
where k = 0.5 J. What is the final kinetic ball up to a height h. The work done by the external
energy and speed vf of the block as it agency against the gravitational force is mgh. This
crosses this patch ? work gets stored as potential energy.
Gravitational potential energy of an object, as a
function of the height h, is denoted by V(h) and it
Answer From Eq. (5.8a) is the negative of work done by the gravitational
2.01
( −k ) dx force in raising the object to that height.
K f = Ki + ∫ x
V (h) = mgh
0.1 If h is taken as a variable, it is easily seen that
the gravitational force F equals the negative of
1
= mv i2 − k ln (x ) 2.01
0.1
the derivative of V(h) with respect to h. Thus,
2
d
F =− V(h) = −m g
1
= mvi2 − k ln (2.01/0.1) dh
2 The negative sign indicates that the
= 2 − 0.5 ln (20.1) gravitational force is downward. When released,
the ball comes down with an increasing speed.
= 2 − 1.5 = 0.5 J Just before it hits the ground, its speed is given
v f = 2K f /m = 1 m s−1 by the kinematic relation,
v2 = 2gh
This equation can be written as
Here, note that ln is a symbol for the natural
logarithm to the base e and not the logarithm to 1
the base 10 [ln X = loge X = 2.303 log10 X]. ⊳ m v2 = m g h
2
5.7 THE CONCEPT OF POTENTIAL ENERGY which shows that the gravitational potential
energy of the object at height h, when the object
The word potential suggests possibility or is released, manifests itself as kinetic energy of
capacity for action. The term potential energy the object on reaching the ground.
brings to one’s mind ‘stored’ energy. A stretched Physically, the notion of potential energy is
bow-string possesses potential energy. When it applicable only to the class of forces where work
is released, the arrow flies off at a great speed. done against the force gets ‘stored up’ as energy.
The earth’s crust is not uniform, but has When external constraints are removed, it
discontinuities and dislocations that are called manifests itself as kinetic energy. Mathematically,
fault lines. These fault lines in the earth’s crust (for simplicity, in one dimension) the potential

* The variation of g with height is discussed in Chapter 7 on Gravitation.

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78 PHYSICS

energy V(x) is defined if the force F(x) can be which means that K + V, the sum of the kinetic
written as and potential energies of the body is a constant.
dV Over the whole path, xi to xf, this means that
F (x ) = − Ki + V(xi ) = Kf + V(xf ) (5.11)
dx
This implies that The quantity K +V(x), is called the total
mechanical energy of the system. Individually
xf Vf
the kinetic energy K and the potential energy
∫ F(x) dx = − ∫ dV = Vi − V f V(x) may vary from point to point, but the sum
xi Vi
is a constant. The aptness of the term
The work done by a conservative force such as ‘conservative force’ is now clear.
gravity depends on the initial and final positions Let us consider some of the definitions of a
only. In the previous chapter we have worked conservative force.
on examples dealing with inclined planes. If an l A force F(x) is conservative if it can be derived
object of mass m is released from rest, from the from a scalar quantity V(x) by the relation
top of a smooth (frictionless) inclined plane of given by Eq. (5.9). The three-dimensional
height h, its speed at the bottom generalisation requires the use of a vector
is 2gh irrespective of the angle of inclination. derivative, which is outside the scope of this
Thus, at the bottom of the inclined plane it book.
acquires a kinetic energy, mgh. If the work done l The work done by the conservative force
depends only on the end points. This can be
or the kinetic energy did depend on other factors
seen from the relation,
such as the velocity or the particular path taken
W = Kf – Ki = V (xi ) – V(xf )
by the object, the force would be called non-
which depends on the end points.
conservative.
l A third definition states that the work done
The dimensions of potential energy are
by this force in a closed path is zero. This is
[ML2T –2] and the unit is joule (J), the same as
once again apparent from Eq. (5.11) since
kinetic energy or work. To reiterate, the change
xi = xf .
in potential energy, for a conservative force,
∆V is equal to the negative of the work done by Thus, the principle of conservation of total
the force mechanical energy can be stated as
∆V = − F(x) ∆x (5.9) The total mechanical energy of a system is
In the example of the falling ball considered in conserved if the forces, doing work on it, are
this section we saw how potential energy was conservative.
converted to kinetic energy. This hints at an The above discussion can be made more
important principle of conservation in mechanics, concrete by considering the example of the
which we now proceed to examine. gravitational force once again and that of the
spring force in the next section. Fig. 5.5 depicts
5.8 THE CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL a ball of mass m being dropped from a cliff of
ENERGY height H.
For simplicity we demonstrate this important
principle for one-dimensional motion. Suppose
that a body undergoes displacement ∆x under
the action of a conservative force F. Then from
the WE theorem we have,
∆K = F(x) ∆x
If the force is conservative, the potential energy
function V(x) can be defined such that
− ∆V = F(x) ∆x
The above equations imply that Fig. 5.5 The conversion of potential energy to kinetic
∆K + ∆V = 0 energy for a ball of mass m dropped from a
∆(K + V ) = 0 (5.10) height H.

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 79

The total mechanical energies E0, Eh, and EH Answer (i) There are two external forces on
of the ball at the indicated heights zero (ground the bob : gravity and the tension (T ) in the
level), h and H, are string. The latter does no work since the
EH = mgH (5.11 a) displacement of the bob is always normal to the
string. The potential energy of the bob is thus
1
Eh = mgh + mvh2 (5.11 b) associated with the gravitational force only. The
2 total mechanical energy E of the system is
E0 = (1/2) mvf2 (5.11 c)
conserved. We take the potential energy of the
The constant force is a special case of a spatially system to be zero at the lowest point A. Thus,
dependent force F(x). Hence, the mechanical at A :
energy is conserved. Thus
EH = E0 1 2
1 E= mv0 (5.12)
or, mgH = mv 2f 2
2
v f = 2gH [Newton’s Second Law]
a result that was obtained in section 5.7 for a
where TA is the tension in the string at A. At the
freely falling body.
highest point C, the string slackens, as the
Further,
tension in the string (TC ) becomes zero.
EH = Eh
which implies, Thus, at C
1
v 2h = 2 g(H − h) (5.11 d) E= mvc2 + 2mgL (5.13)
2
and is a familiar result from kinematics.
At the height H, the energy is purely potential. mvc2
It is partially converted to kinetic at height h and mg = [Newton’s Second Law] (5.14)
L
is fully kinetic at ground level. This illustrates
the conservation of mechanical energy. where v C is the speed at C. From Eqs. (5.13)
and (5.14)
Example 5.7 A bob of mass m is suspended
⊳
5
by a light string of length L . It is imparted a E =
mgL
horizontal velocity vo at the lowest point A 2
such that it completes a semi-circular Equating this to the energy at A
trajectory in the vertical plane with the string
5 m 2
becoming slack only on reaching the topmost mgL = v0
point, C. This is shown in Fig. 5.6. Obtain an 2 2
expression for (i) vo; (ii) the speeds at points or, v0 = 5 gL
B and C; (iii) the ratio of the kinetic energies
(KB/KC) at B and C. Comment on the nature (ii) It is clear from Eq. (5.14)
of the trajectory of the bob after it reaches vC = gL
the point C.
At B, the energy is
1
E= mv 2B + mgL
2
Equating this to the energy at A and employing
the result from (i), namely v 02 = 5 gL ,

1 1
mv 2B + mgL = mv02
2 2

5
= m gL
Fig. 5.6 2

2024-25
80 PHYSICS

∴ v B = 3gL k xm2
W =+ (5.16)
2
(iii) The ratio of the kinetic energies at B and C
is :
1 2
mv
KB 2 B 3
= =
KC 1 2 1
mvC
2
At point C, the string becomes slack and the
velocity of the bob is horizontal and to the left. If
the connecting string is cut at this instant, the
bob will execute a projectile motion with
horizontal projection akin to a rock kicked
horizontally from the edge of a cliff. Otherwise
the bob will continue on its circular path and
complete the revolution. ⊳
5.9 THE POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SPRING
The spring force is an example of a variable force
which is conservative. Fig. 5.7 shows a block
attached to a spring and resting on a smooth
horizontal surface. The other end of the spring
is attached to a rigid wall. The spring is light
and may be treated as massless. In an ideal
spring, the spring force Fs is proportional to
x where x is the displacement of the block from
the equilibrium position. The displacement could
be either positive [Fig. 5.7(b)] or negative
[Fig. 5.7(c)]. This force law for the spring is called
Hooke’s law and is mathematically stated as

Fs = − kx
The constant k is called the spring constant. Its
unit is N m-1. The spring is said to be stiff if k is
large and soft if k is small. Fig. 5.7 Illustration of the spring force with a block
Suppose that we pull the block outwards as in attached to the free end of the spring.
Fig. 5.7(b). If the extension is xm, the work done by (a) The spring force Fs is zero when the
the spring force is displacement x from the equilibrium position
is zero. (b) For the stretched spring x > 0
xm xm and Fs < 0 (c) For the compressed spring
Ws = ∫ Fs dx = − ∫ kx dx x < 0 and Fs > 0.(d) The plot of Fs versus x.
0 0 The area of the shaded triangle represents
the work done by the spring force. Due to the
2
k xm opposing signs of Fs and x, this work done is
=− (5.15)
2 2
negative, Ws = −kx m / 2.
This expression may also be obtained by
considering the area of the triangle as in The same is true when the spring is
Fig. 5.7(d). Note that the work done by the compressed with a displacement xc (< 0). The
external pulling force F is positive since it
overcomes the spring force. spring force does work Ws = − kx c2 / 2 while the

2024-25
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 81

external force F does work + kx c2 / 2 . If the block and vice versa, however, the total mechanical
energy remains constant. This is graphically
is moved from an initial displacement xi to a depicted in Fig. 5.8.
final displacement xf , the work done by the
spring force Ws is
xf
k x i2 k x 2f
Ws = − ∫ k x dx = − (5.17)
xi
2 2

Thus the work done by the spring force depends

only on the end points. Specifically, if the block
is pulled from xi and allowed to return to xi ;
xi
k x i2 k x i2
Ws = − ∫ k x dx = −
xi
2 2

=0 (5.18) Fig. 5.8 Parabolic plots of the potential energy V and

The work done by the spring force in a cyclic kinetic energy K of a block attached to a
process is zero. We have explicitly demonstrated spring obeying Hooke’s law. The two plots
are complementary, one decreasing as the
that the spring force (i) is position dependent
other increases. The total mechanical
only as first stated by Hooke, (Fs = − kx); (ii) energy E = K + V remains constant.
does work which only depends on the initial and
final positions, e.g. Eq. (5.17). Thus, the spring
Example 5.8 To simulate car accidents, auto
⊳
force is a conservative force.
We define the potential energy V(x) of the spring manufacturers study the collisions of moving
to be zero when block and spring system is in the cars with mounted springs of different spring
equilibrium position. For an extension (or constants. Consider a typical simulation with
compression) x the above analysis suggests that a car of mass 1000 kg moving with a speed
18.0 km/h on a smooth road and colliding
kx 2 with a horizontally mounted spring of spring
V(x) = (5.19) constant 5.25 × 103 N m–1. What is the
2
You may easily verify that − dV/dx = − k x, the maximum compression of the spring ?
spring force. If the block of mass m in Fig. 5.7 is
extended to xm and released from rest, then its Answer At maximum compression the kinetic
total mechanical energy at any arbitrary point x, energy of the car is converted entirely into the
where x lies between – xm and + xm, will be given by potential energy of the spring.
The kinetic energy of the moving car is
1 2 1 1
k xm = k x 2 + m v2 1
2 2 2 K = mv 2
where we have invoked the conservation of 2
mechanical energy. This suggests that the speed 1
and the kinetic energy will be maximum at the = × 103 × 5 × 5
2
equilibrium position, x = 0, i.e.,
K = 1.25 × 104 J
1 1
2
m vm = k xm
2
where we have converted 18 km h–1 to 5 m s–1 [It is
2 2 useful to remember that 36 km h–1 = 10 m s–1].
where vm is the maximum speed. At maximum compression x m, the potential
energy V of the spring is equal to the kinetic
k
or vm = xm energy K of the moving car from the principle of
m conservation of mechanical energy.
Note that k/m has the dimensions of [T-2] and
our equation is dimensionally correct. The 1
V = k xm
2
kinetic energy gets converted to potential energy 2

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82 PHYSICS

= 1.25 × 104 J
We obtain
xm = 2.00 m
We note that we have idealised the situation.
The spring is considered to be massless. The
surface has been considered to possess
negligible friction. ⊳
We conclude this section by making a few Fig. 5.9 The forces acting on the car.
remarks on conservative forces.
(i) Information on time is absent from the above 1
discussions. In the example considered ∆K = Kf − Ki = 0 − m v 2
2
above, we can calculate the compression, but The work done by the net force is
not the time over which the compression
1
occurs. A solution of Newton’s Second Law W =− kx m2 − µm g x m
for this system is required for temporal 2
information. Equating we have
(ii) Not all forces are conservative. Friction, for
1 1
example, is a non-conservative force. The m v 2 = k x m2 + µm g x m
2 2
principle of conservation of energy will have
to be modified in this case. This is illustrated Now µmg = 0.5 × 103 × 10 = 5 × 103 N (taking
in Example 5.9. g =10.0 m s -2). After rearranging the above
(iii) The zero of the potential energy is arbitrary. equation we obtain the following quadratic
equation in the unknown xm.
It is set according to convenience. For the
spring force we took V(x) = 0, at x = 0, i.e. the k x m2 + 2µm g x m − m v 2 = 0
unstretched spring had zero potential
energy. For the constant gravitational force
mg, we took V = 0 on the earth’s surface. In
a later chapter we shall see that for the force
due to the universal law of gravitation, the where we take the positive square root since
zero is best defined at an infinite distance xm is positive. Putting in numerical values we
from the gravitational source. However, once obtain
the zero of the potential energy is fixed in a xm = 1.35 m
given discussion, it must be consistently which, as expected, is less than the result in
adhered to throughout the discussion. You Example 5.8.
cannot change horses in midstream ! If the two forces on the body consist of a
conservative force Fc and a non-conservative
⊳
Example 5.9 Consider Example 5.8 taking force Fnc , the conservation of mechanical energy
the coefficient of friction, µ, to be 0.5 and formula will have to be modified. By the WE
calculate the maximum compression of the theorem
spring. (Fc+ Fnc ) ∆x = ∆K
But Fc ∆x = − ∆V
Answer In presence of friction, both the spring Hence, ∆(K + V) = Fnc ∆x
force and the frictional force act so as to oppose ∆E = Fnc ∆x
the compression of the spring as shown in where E is the total mechanical energy. Over
Fig. 5.9. the path this assumes the form
We invoke the work-energy theorem, rather Ef − Ei = Wnc
than the conservation of mechanical energy. where W nc is the total work done by the
The change in kinetic energy is non-conservative forces over the path. Note that

2024-25
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 83

unlike the conservative force, Wnc depends on Our electricity bills carry the energy
the particular path i to f. ⊳ consumption in units of kWh. Note that kWh is
a unit of energy and not of power.
5.10 POWER
Often it is interesting to know not only the work u Example 5.10 An elevator can carry a
done on an object, but also the rate at which maximum load of 1800 kg (elevator +
this work is done. We say a person is physically passengers) is moving up with a constant
fit if he not only climbs four floors of a building speed of 2 m s–1. The frictional force opposing
but climbs them fast. Power is defined as the the motion is 4000 N. Determine the
time rate at which work is done or energy is minimum power delivered by the motor to
transferred. the elevator in watts as well as in horse
The average power of a force is defined as the power.
ratio of the work, W, to the total time t taken
Answer The downward force on the elevator is
W
Pav = F = m g + Ff = (1800 × 10) + 4000 = 22000 N
t
The instantaneous power is defined as the The motor must supply enough power to balance
limiting value of the average power as time this force. Hence,
interval approaches zero, P = F. v = 22000 × 2 = 44000 W = 59 hp ⊳
dW 5.11 COLLISIONS
P = (5.20)
dt In physics we study motion (change in position).
The work dW done by a force F for a displacement At the same time, we try to discover physical
dr is dW = F.dr. The instantaneous power can quantities, which do not change in a physical
also be expressed as process. The laws of momentum and energy
conservation are typical examples. In this
dr
P = F. section we shall apply these laws to a commonly
dt encountered phenomena, namely collisions.
= F.v (5.21) Several games such as billiards, marbles or
carrom involve collisions.We shall study the
where v is the instantaneous velocity when the collision of two masses in an idealised form.
force is F. Consider two masses m1 and m2. The particle
Power, like work and energy, is a scalar m1 is moving with speed v1i , the subscript ‘i’
quantity. Its dimensions are [ML2T – 3]. In the SI, implying initial. We can cosider m2 to be at rest.
its unit is called a watt (W). The watt is 1 J s–1. No loss of generality is involved in making such
The unit of power is named after James Watt, a selection. In this situation the mass m 1
one of the innovators of the steam engine in the collides with the stationary mass m2 and this
eighteenth century. is depicted in Fig. 5.10.
There is another unit of power, namely the
horse-power (hp)
1 hp = 746 W
This unit is still used to describe the output of
automobiles, motorbikes, etc.
We encounter the unit watt when we buy
electrical goods such as bulbs, heaters and
refrigerators. A 100 watt bulb which is on for 10
hours uses 1 kilowatt hour (kWh) of energy.
100 (watt) × 10 (hour) Fig. 5.10 Collision of mass m1, with a stationary mass m2.
= 1000 watt hour The masses m 1 and m 2 fly-off in different
=1 kilowatt hour (kWh) directions. We shall see that there are
= 103 (W) × 3600 (s) relationships, which connect the masses, the
= 3.6 × 106 J velocities and the angles.

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84 PHYSICS

5.11.1 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions The loss in kinetic energy on collision is
In all collisions the total linear momentum is 1 1
conserved; the initial momentum of the system ∆K = m1v1i2 − (m1 + m 2 )v 2f
2 2
is equal to the final momentum of the system.
One can argue this as follows. When two objects
1 1 m12
collide, the mutual impulsive forces acting over = m1v12i − v12i [using Eq. (5.22)]
the collision time ∆t cause a change in their 2 2 m1 + m 2
respective momenta :
1  m1 
∆p1 = F12 ∆t = m1v12i 1 − 
2  m 1 + m2 
∆p2 = F21 ∆t
where F12 is the force exerted on the first particle
1 m1m 2 2
by the second particle. F21 is likewise the force = v1i
exerted on the second particle by the first particle. 2 m1 + m 2
Now from Newton’s third law, F12 = − F21. This
implies which is a positive quantity as expected.
Consider next an elastic collision. Using the
∆p1 + ∆p2 = 0
above nomenclature with θ 1 = θ 2 = 0, the
The above conclusion is true even though the momentum and kinetic energy conservation
forces vary in a complex fashion during the equations are
collision time ∆t. Since the third law is true at
every instant, the total impulse on the first object m1v1i = m1v1f + m2v2f (5.23)
is equal and opposite to that on the second.
m 1v12i = m 1v12f + m 2v 22 f (5.24)
On the other hand, the total kinetic energy of
the system is not necessarily conserved. The From Eqs. (5.23) and (5.24) it follows that,
impact and deformation during collision may
generate heat and sound. Part of the initial kinetic m 1v1i (v 2 f − v1i ) = m1v1 f (v 2 f − v1 f )
energy is transformed into other forms of energy.
A useful way to visualise the deformation during or, v 2 f (v1i − v1 f ) = v12i − v12f
collision is in terms of a ‘compressed spring’. If
the ‘spring’ connecting the two masses regains = (v1i − v1 f )(v1i + v1 f )
its original shape without loss in energy, then
the initial kinetic energy is equal to the final Hence, ∴ v 2 f = v1i + v1 f (5.25)
kinetic energy but the kinetic energy during the
collision time ∆t is not constant. Such a collision Substituting this in Eq. (5.23), we obtain
is called an elastic collision. On the other hand (m 1 − m 2 )
v1 f = v1i (5.26)
the deformation may not be relieved and the two m1 + m 2
bodies could move together after the collision. A
2m1v1i
collision in which the two particles move together and v2 f = (5.27)
after the collision is called a completely inelastic m1 + m 2
collision. The intermediate case where the Thus, the ‘unknowns’ {v1f, v2f} are obtained in
deformation is partly relieved and some of the terms of the ‘knowns’ {m1, m2, v1i}. Special cases
initial kinetic energy is lost is more common and of our analysis are interesting.
is appropriately called an inelastic collision. Case I : If the two masses are equal
5.11.2 Collisions in One Dimension v1f = 0
Consider first a completely inelastic collision v2f = v1i
in one dimension. Then, in Fig. 5.10, The first mass comes to rest and pushes off the
θ1 =θ2 = 0 second mass with its initial speed on collision.
m1v1i = (m1+m2)vf (momentum conservation) Case II : If one mass dominates, e.g. m2 > > m1
v1f ~ − v1i v2f ~ 0
m1 The heavier mass is undisturbed while the
vf = v1i (5.22)
m1 + m 2 lighter mass reverses its velocity.

2024-25
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 85

⊳ dimensional, where the initial velocities and the

Example 5.11 Slowing down of neutrons: final velocities lie in a plane.
In a nuclear reactor a neutron of high
speed (typically 107 m s–1) must be slowed 5.11.3 Collisions in Two Dimensions
to 103 m s–1 so that it can have a high Fig. 5.10 also depicts the collision of a moving
probability of interacting with isotope U 235
92
mass m1 with the stationary mass m2. Linear
and causing it to fission. Show that a momentum is conserved in such a collision.
neutron can lose most of its kinetic energy Since momentum is a vector this implies three
in an elastic collision with a light nuclei equations for the three directions {x, y, z}.
like deuterium or carbon which has a mass Consider the plane determined by the final
of only a few times the neutron mass. The velocity directions of m1 and m2 and choose it to
material making up the light nuclei, usually be the x-y plane. The conservation of the
heavy water (D2O) or graphite, is called a z-component of the linear momentum implies
moderator. that the entire collision is in the x-y plane. The
x- and y-component equations are
Answer The initial kinetic energy of the neutron
m1v1i = m1v1f cos θ 1 + m2v2f cos θ 2 (5.28)
is
0 = m1v1f sin θ1 − m2v2f sin θ2 (5.29)
1
K1i = m1v12i
2 One knows {m1, m2, v1i} in most situations. There
are thus four unknowns {v1f , v2f , θ1 and θ2}, and
while its final kinetic energy from Eq. (5.26)
only two equations. If θ 1 = θ 2 = 0, we regain
2
1 1  m − m2  2 Eq. (5.23) for one dimensional collision.
K1 f = m 1v12f = m1  1 v1i
2 2  m1 + m 2  If, further the collision is elastic,
1 1 1
m1v1i 2 = m1v1 f 2 + m2v2 f 2 (5.30)
The fractional kinetic energy lost is 2 2 2
2 We obtain an additional equation. That still
K1 f m − m2 
f1 = = 1 leaves us one equation short. At least one of
K1i  m 1 + m 2  the four unknowns, say θ 1, must be made known
while the fractional kinetic energy gained by the for the problem to be solvable. For example, θ1
moderating nuclei K2f /K1i is can be determined by moving a detector in an
angular fashion from the x to the y axis. Given
f2 = 1 − f1 (elastic collision)
{m1, m2, v1i , θ1} we can determine {v1f , v2f , θ2}
4m1m 2 from Eqs. (5.28)-(5.30).
=
(m1 + m 2 )2 ⊳ Example 5.12 Consider the collision
depicted in Fig. 5.10 to be between two
One can also verify this result by substituting
billiard balls with equal masses m1 = m2.
from Eq. (5.27).
The first ball is called the cue while the
For deuterium m 2 = 2m 1 and we obtain
second ball is called the target. The
f1 = 1/9 while f2 = 8/9. Almost 90% of the
billiard player wants to ‘sink’ the target
neutron’s energy is transferred to deuterium. For
ball in a corner pocket, which is at an
carbon f1 = 71.6% and f2 = 28.4%. In practice,
angle θ2 = 37°. Assume that the collision is
however, this number is smaller since head-on
elastic and that friction and rotational
collisions are rare. ⊳
motion are not important. Obtain θ 1.
If the initial velocities and final velocities of
both the bodies are along the same straight line,
Answer From momentum conservation, since
the masses are equal
then it is called a one-dimensional collision, or
head-on collision. In the case of small spherical v1i = v1f + v 2f
bodies, this is possible if the direction of travel
of body 1 passes through the centre of body 2 or ( )(
v 1i 2 = v1 f + v 2 f ⋅ v1 f + v 2 f )
which is at rest. In general, the collision is two-
= v1 f 2 + v 2 f 2 + 2 v1 f .v2 f

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86 PHYSICS

= {v 1f
2
+ v 2 f 2 + 2v1 f v 2 f cos (θ1 + 37° ) } (5.31)
The matter simplifies greatly if we consider
spherical masses with smooth surfaces, and
Since the collision is elastic and m1 = m2 it follows assume that collision takes place only when the
from conservation of kinetic energy that bodies touch each other. This is what happens
in the games of marbles, carrom and billiards.
v1i 2 = v1 f 2 + v 2 f 2 (5.32)
In our everyday world, collisions take place only
Comparing Eqs. (5.31) and (5.32), we get when two bodies touch each other. But consider
a comet coming from far distances to the sun, or
cos (θ1 + 37°) = 0 alpha particle coming towards a nucleus and
or θ1 + 37° = 90° going away in some direction. Here we have to
deal with forces involving action at a distance.
Thus, θ1 = 53° Such an event is called scattering. The velocities
This proves the following result : when two equal and directions in which the two particles go away
masses undergo a glancing elastic collision with depend on their initial velocities as well as the
one of them at rest, after the collision, they will type of interaction between them, their masses,
move at right angles to each other. ⊳ shapes and sizes.

SUMMARY

1. The work-energy theorem states that the change in kinetic energy of a body is the work
done by the net force on the body.
Kf - Ki = Wnet
2. A force is conservative if (i) work done by it on an object is path independent and
depends only on the end points {xi, xj}, or (ii) the work done by the force is zero for an
arbitrary closed path taken by the object such that it returns to its initial position.
3. For a conservative force in one dimension, we may define a potential energy function V(x)
such that
dV ( x )
F (x ) = −
dx
xf

or Vi − V f = ∫ F ( x ) dx
xi

4. The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that the total mechanical
energy of a body remains constant if the only forces that act on the body are conservative.
5. The gravitational potential energy of a particle of mass m at a height x about the earth’s
surface is
V(x) = m g x
where the variation of g with height is ignored.
5. The elastic potential energy of a spring of force constant k and extension x is
1
V (x ) = k x2
2
7. The scalar or dot product of two vectors A and B is written as A.B and is a scalar
quantity given by :A.B = AB cos θ, where θ is the angle between A and B. It can be
positive, negative or zero depending upon the value of θ. The scalar product of two
vectors can be interpreted as the product of magnitude of one vector and component
of the other vector along the first vector. For unit vectors :
ˆi ⋅ ˆi = ˆj ⋅ ˆj = k
ˆ ⋅k
ˆ = 1 and ˆi ⋅ ˆj = ˆj ⋅ k
ˆ =k
ˆ ⋅ ˆi = 0
Scalar products obey the commutative and the distributive laws.

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 87

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The phrase ‘calculate the work done’ is incomplete. We should refer (or imply
clearly by context) to the work done by a specific force or a group of forces on a
given body over a certain displacement.
2. Work done is a scalar quantity. It can be positive or negative unlike mass and
kinetic energy which are positive scalar quantities. The work done by the friction
or viscous force on a moving body is negative.
3. For two bodies, the sum of the mutual forces exerted between them is zero from
Newton’s Third Law,
F12 + F21 = 0
But the sum of the work done by the two forces need not always cancel, i.e.
W12 + W21 ≠ 0
However, it may sometimes be true.
4. The work done by a force can be calculated sometimes even if the exact nature of
the force is not known. This is clear from Example 5.2 where the WE theorem is
used in such a situation.
5. The WE theorem is not independent of Newton’s Second Law. The WE theorem
may be viewed as a scalar form of the Second Law. The principle of conservation
of mechanical energy may be viewed as a consequence of the WE theorem for
conservative forces.
5. The WE theorem holds in all inertial frames. It can also be extended to non-
inertial frames provided we include the pseudoforces in the calculation of the
net force acting on the body under consideration.
7. The potential energy of a body subjected to a conservative force is always
undetermined upto a constant. For example, the point where the potential
energy is zero is a matter of choice. For the gravitational potential energy mgh,
the zero of the potential energy is chosen to be the ground. For the spring
potential energy kx2/2 , the zero of the potential energy is the equilibrium position
of the oscillating mass.
8. Every force encountered in mechanics does not have an associated potential
energy. For example, work done by friction over a closed path is not zero and no
potential energy can be associated with friction.
9. During a collision : (a) the total linear momentum is conserved at each instant of
the collision ; (b) the kinetic energy conservation (even if the collision is elastic)
applies after the collision is over and does not hold at every instant of the collision.
In fact the two colliding objects are deformed and may be momentarily at rest
with respect to each other.

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88 PHYSICS

EXERCISES

5.1 The sign of work done by a force on a body is important to understand. State carefully
if the following quantities are positive or negative:
(a) work done by a man in lifting a bucket out of a well by means of a rope tied to the
bucket.
(b) work done by gravitational force in the above case,
(c) work done by friction on a body
sliding down an inclined plane,
(d) work done by an applied force on
a body moving on a rough
horizontal plane with uniform
velocity,
(e) work done by the resistive force of
air on a vibrating pendulum in
bringing it to rest.
5.2 A body of mass 2 kg initially at rest
moves under the action of an applied
horizontal force of 7 N on a table with
coefficient of kinetic friction = 0.1.
Compute the
(a) work done by the applied force in
10 s,
(b) work done by friction in 10 s,
(c) work done by the net force on the
body in 10 s,
(d) change in kinetic energy of the
body in 10 s,
and interpret your results.
5.3 Given in Fig. 5.11 are examples of some
potential energy functions in one
dimension. The total energy of the
particle is indicated by a cross on the
ordinate axis. In each case, specify the
regions, if any, in which the particle
cannot be found for the given energy.
Also, indicate the minimum total
energy the particle must have in each
case. Think of simple physical contexts
for which these potential energy shapes
are relevant.

Fig. 5.11

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 89

5.4 The potential energy function for a

particle executing linear simple
harmonic motion is given by V(x) =
kx2/2, where k is the force constant
of the oscillator. For k = 0.5 N m-1,
the graph of V(x) versus x is shown
in Fig. 5.12. Show that a particle of
total energy 1 J moving under this
Fig. 5.12
potential must ‘turn back’ when it
reaches x = ± 2 m.

5.5 Answer the following :

(a) The casing of a rocket in flight
burns up due to friction. At
whose expense is the heat
energy required for burning
obtained? The rocket or the
atmosphere?
(b) Comets move around the sun
in highly elliptical orbits. The
gravitational force on the
comet due to the sun is not Fig. 5.13
normal to the comet’s velocity
in general. Yet the work done by the gravitational force over every complete orbit
of the comet is zero. Why ?
(c) An artificial satellite orbiting the earth in very thin atmosphere loses its energy
gradually due to dissipation against atmospheric resistance, however small. Why
then does its speed increase progressively as it comes closer and closer to the earth ?
(d) In Fig. 5.13(i) the man walks 2 m carrying a mass of 15 kg on his hands. In Fig.
5.13(ii), he walks the same distance pulling the rope behind him. The rope goes
over a pulley, and a mass of 15 kg hangs at its other end. In which case is the work
done greater ?
5.6 Underline the correct alternative :
(a) When a conservative force does positive work on a body, the potential energy of
the body increases/decreases/remains unaltered.
(b) Work done by a body against friction always results in a loss of its kinetic/potential
energy.
(c) The rate of change of total momentum of a many-particle system is proportional
to the external force/sum of the internal forces on the system.
(d) In an inelastic collision of two bodies, the quantities which do not change after
the collision are the total kinetic energy/total linear momentum/total energy of
the system of two bodies.
5.7 State if each of the following statements is true or false. Give reasons for your answer.
(a) In an elastic collision of two bodies, the momentum and energy of each body is
conserved.
(b) Total energy of a system is always conserved, no matter what internal and external
forces on the body are present.
(c) Work done in the motion of a body over a closed loop is zero for every force in
nature.
(d) In an inelastic collision, the final kinetic energy is always less than the initial
kinetic energy of the system.
5.8 Answer carefully, with reasons :
(a) In an elastic collision of two billiard balls, is the total kinetic energy conserved
during the short time of collision of the balls (i.e. when they are in contact) ?
(b) Is the total linear momentum conserved during the short time of an elastic collision
of two balls ?

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90 PHYSICS

(c) What are the answers to (a) and (b) for an inelastic collision ?
(d) If the potential energy of two billiard balls depends only on the separation distance
between their centres, is the collision elastic or inelastic ? (Note, we are talking
here of potential energy corresponding to the force during collision, not gravitational
potential energy).
5.9 A body is initially at rest. It undergoes one-dimensional motion with constant
acceleration. The power delivered to it at time t is proportional to
(i) t1/2 (ii) t (iii) t3/2 (iv) t2
5.10 A body is moving unidirectionally under the influence of a source of constant power.
Its displacement in time t is proportional to
(i) t1/2 (ii) t (iii) t3/2 (iv) t2
5.11 A body constrained to move along the z-axis of a coordinate system is subject to a
constant force F given by
F = −ˆi + 2 ˆj + 3 k
ˆ N

where ˆi, ˆj, k

ˆ are unit vectors along the x-, y- and z-axis of the system respectively.
What is the work done by this force in moving the body a distance of 4 m along the
z-axis ?
5.12 An electron and a proton are detected in a cosmic ray experiment, the first with kinetic
energy 10 keV, and the second with 100 keV. Which is faster, the electron or the
proton ? Obtain the ratio of their speeds. (electron mass = 9.11×10-31 kg, proton mass
= 1.67×10–27 kg, 1 eV = 1.60 ×10–19 J).
5.13 A rain drop of radius 2 mm falls from a height of 500 m above the ground. It falls with
decreasing acceleration (due to viscous resistance of the air) until at half its original
height, it attains its maximum (terminal) speed, and moves with uniform speed
thereafter. What is the work done by the gravitational force on the drop in the first
and second half of its journey ? What is the work done by the resistive force in the
entire journey if its speed on reaching the ground is 10 m s–1 ?
5.14 A molecule in a gas container hits a horizontal wall with speed 200 m s–1 and angle 30°
with the normal, and rebounds with the same speed. Is momentum conserved in the
collision ? Is the collision elastic or inelastic ?
5.15 A pump on the ground floor of a building can pump up water to fill a tank of volume 30 m3
in 15 min. If the tank is 40 m above the ground, and the efficiency of the pump is 30%,
how much electric power is consumed by the pump ?
5.16 Two identical ball bearings in contact with each other and resting on a frictionless
table are hit head-on by another ball bearing of the same mass moving initially with a
speed V. If the collision is elastic, which of the following (Fig. 5.14) is a possible result
after collision ?

Fig. 5.14

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 91

5.17 The bob A of a pendulum released from 30o to the

vertical hits another bob B of the same mass at rest
on a table as shown in Fig. 5.15. How high does
the bob A rise after the collision ? Neglect the size of
the bobs and assume the collision to be elastic.

5.18 The bob of a pendulum is released from a horizontal

position. If the length of the pendulum is 1.5 m,
what is the speed with which the bob arrives at the
lowermost point, given that it dissipated 5% of its
initial energy against air resistance ?
5.19 A trolley of mass 300 kg carrying a sandbag of 25 kg
is moving uniformly with a speed of 27 km/h on a Fig. 5.15
frictionless track. After a while, sand starts leaking
out of a hole on the floor of the trolley at the rate of
0.05 kg s–1. What is the speed of the trolley after the entire sand bag is empty ?
5.20 A body of mass 0.5 kg travels in a straight line with velocity v =a x3/2 where a = 5 m–1/2 s–1.
What is the work done by the net force during its displacement from x = 0 to
x=2m?
5.21 The blades of a windmill sweep out a circle of area A. (a) If the wind flows at a
velocity v perpendicular to the circle, what is the mass of the air passing through it
in time t ? (b) What is the kinetic energy of the air ? (c) Assume that the windmill
converts 25% of the wind’s energy into electrical energy, and that A = 30 m2, v = 36
km/h and the density of air is 1.2 kg m–3. What is the electrical power produced ?
5.22 A person trying to lose weight (dieter) lifts a 10 kg mass, one thousand times, to a
height of 0.5 m each time. Assume that the potential energy lost each time she
lowers the mass is dissipated. (a) How much work does she do against the gravitational
force ? (b) Fat supplies 3.8 × 107J of energy per kilogram which is converted to
mechanical energy with a 20% efficiency rate. How much fat will the dieter use up?
5.23 A family uses 8 kW of power. (a) Direct solar energy is incident on the horizontal
surface at an average rate of 200 W per square meter. If 20% of this energy can be
converted to useful electrical energy, how large an area is needed to supply 8 kW?
(b) Compare this area to that of the roof of a typical house.

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 CHAPTER SIX

SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier chapters we primarily considered the motion
of a single particle. (A particle is ideally represented as a
6.1 Introduction point mass having no size.) We applied the results of our
6.2 Centre of mass study even to the motion of bodies of finite size, assuming
6.3 Motion of centre of mass that motion of such bodies can be described in terms of the
6.4 Linear momentum of a motion of a particle.
system of particles Any real body which we encounter in daily life has a
6.5 Vector product of two vectors finite size. In dealing with the motion of extended bodies
6.6 Angular velocity and its (bodies of finite size) often the idealised model of a particle is
relation with linear velocity inadequate. In this chapter we shall try to go beyond this
6.7 Torque and angular inadequacy. We shall attempt to build an understanding of
momentum the motion of extended bodies. An extended body, in the
6.8 Equilibrium of a rigid body first place, is a system of particles. We shall begin with the
6.9 Moment of inertia consideration of motion of the system as a whole. The centre
6.10 Kinematics of rotational of mass of a system of particles will be a key concept here.
motion about a fixed axis We shall discuss the motion of the centre of mass of a system
of particles and usefulness of this concept in understanding
6.11 Dynamics of rotational
motion about a fixed axis the motion of extended bodies.
A large class of problems with extended bodies can be
6.12 Angular momentum in case
of rotation about a fixed solved by considering them to be rigid bodies. Ideally a
axis rigid body is a body with a perfectly definite and
unchanging shape. The distances between all pairs of
Summary
particles of such a body do not change. It is evident from
Points to Ponder
this definition of a rigid body that no real body is truly rigid,
Exercises
since real bodies deform under the influence of forces. But in
many situations the deformations are negligible. In a number
of situations involving bodies such as wheels, tops, steel
beams, molecules and planets on the other hand, we can ignore
that they warp (twist out of shape), bend or vibrate and treat
them as rigid.

6.1.1 What kind of motion can a rigid body have?

Let us try to explore this question by taking some examples
of the motion of rigid bodies. Let us begin with a rectangular

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 93

most common way to constrain a rigid body so

that it does not have translational motion is to
fix it along a straight line. The only possible
motion of such a rigid body is rotation. The line
or fixed axis about which the body is rotating is
its axis of rotation. If you look around, you will
come across many examples of rotation about
an axis, a ceiling fan, a potter’s wheel, a giant
wheel in a fair, a merry-go-round and so on (Fig
Fig 6.1 Translational (sliding) motion of a block down
an inclined plane.
6.3(a) and (b)).
(Any point like P1 or P2 of the block moves
with the same velocity at any instant of time.)

block sliding down an inclined plane without any

sidewise movement. The block is taken as a rigid
body. Its motion down the plane is such that all
the particles of the body are moving together,
i.e. they have the same velocity at any instant
of time. The rigid body here is in pure
translational motion (Fig. 6.1).
In pure translational motion at any
instant of time, all particles of the body have
the same velocity.
Consider now the rolling motion of a solid
metallic or wooden cylinder down the same
(a)
inclined plane (Fig. 6.2). The rigid body in this
problem, namely the cylinder, shifts from the
top to the bottom of the inclined plane, and thus,
seems to have translational motion. But as Fig.
6.2 shows, all its particles are not moving with
the same velocity at any instant. The body,
therefore, is not in pure translational motion.
Its motion is translational plus ‘something else.’

Fig. 6.2 Rolling motion of a cylinder. It is not pure

translational motion. Points P1, P2, P3 and P4
have different velocities (shown by arrows)
(b)
at any instant of time. In fact, the velocity of
Fig. 6.3 Rotation about a fixed axis
the point of contact P3 is zero at any instant,
(a) A ceiling fan
if the cylinder rolls without slipping.
(b) A potter’s wheel.

In order to understand what this ‘something Let us try to understand what rotation is,
else’ is, let us take a rigid body so constrained what characterises rotation. You may notice that
that it cannot have translational motion. The in rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis,

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94 PHYSICS

Fig. 6.5 (a) A spinning top

(The point of contact of the top with the
ground, its tip O, is fixed.)
Axis of oscillation

Axis of
rotation
from blades
Fig. 6.4 A rigid body rotation about the z-axis (Each
point of the body such as P 1 or
P2 describes a circle with its centre (C1
or C2) on the axis of rotation. The radius of
the circle (r1or r 2 ) is the perpendicular
distance of the point (P1 or P2 ) from the
axis. A point on the axis like P3 remains
stationary).

every particle of the body moves in a circle, Fig. 6.5 (b) An oscillating table fan with rotating
blades. The pivot of the fan, point O, is
which lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis
fixed. The blades of the fan are under
and has its centre on the axis. Fig. 6.4 shows rotational motion, whereas, the axis of
the rotational motion of a rigid body about a fixed rotation of the fan blades is oscillating.
axis (the z-axis of the frame of reference). Let P1
In some examples of rotation, however, the
be a particle of the rigid body, arbitrarily chosen axis may not be fixed. A prominent example of
and at a distance r1 from fixed axis. The particle this kind of rotation is a top spinning in place
P1 describes a circle of radius r1 with its centre [Fig. 6.5(a)]. (We assume that the top does not
C1 on the fixed axis. The circle lies in a plane slip from place to place and so does not have
perpendicular to the axis. The figure also shows translational motion.) We know from experience
another particle P2 of the rigid body, P2 is at a that the axis of such a spinning top moves
distance r2 from the fixed axis. The particle P2 around the vertical through its point of contact
moves in a circle of radius r2 and with centre C2 with the ground, sweeping out a cone as shown
on the axis. This circle, too, lies in a plane in Fig. 6.5(a). (This movement of the axis of the
perpendicular to the axis. Note that the circles top around the vertical is termed precession.)
described by P1 and P2 may lie in different planes; Note, the point of contact of the top with
both these planes, however, are perpendicular ground is fixed. The axis of rotation of the top
to the fixed axis. For any particle on the axis at any instant passes through the point of
like P 3 , r = 0. Any such particle remains contact. Another simple example of this kind of
stationary while the body rotates. This is rotation is the oscillating table fan or a pedestal
expected since the axis of rotation is fixed. fan [Fig.6.5(b)]. You may have observed that the

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 95

axis of rotation of such a fan has an oscillating Thus, for us rotation will be about a fixed axis
(sidewise) movement in a horizontal plane about only unless stated otherwise.
the vertical through the point at which the axis The rolling motion of a cylinder down an
is pivoted (point O in Fig. 6.5(b)). inclined plane is a combination of rotation about
While the fan rotates and its axis moves a fixed axis and translation. Thus, the
sidewise, this point is fixed. Thus, in more ‘something else’ in the case of rolling motion
general cases of rotation, such as the rotation which we referred to earlier is rotational motion.
of a top or a pedestal fan, one point and not You will find Fig. 6.6(a) and (b) instructive from
one line, of the rigid body is fixed. In this case this point of view. Both these figures show
the axis is not fixed, though it always passes motion of the same body along identical
through the fixed point. In our study, however, translational trajectory. In one case, Fig. 6.6(a),
we mostly deal with the simpler and special case the motion is a pure translation; in the other
of rotation in which one line (i.e. the axis) is fixed. case [Fig. 6.6(b)] it is a combination of translation
and rotation. (You may try to reproduce the two
types of motion shown, using a rigid object like
a heavy book.)
We now recapitulate the most important
observations of the present section: The motion
of a rigid body which is not pivoted or fixed in
some way is either a pure translation or a
combination of translation and rotation. The
motion of a rigid body which is pivoted or fixed
Fig. 6.6(a) Motion of a rigid body which is pure
in some way is rotation. The rotation may be
translation.
about an axis that is fixed (e.g. a ceiling fan) or
moving (e.g. an oscillating table fan [Fig.6.5(b)]).
We shall, in the present chapter, consider
rotational motion about a fixed axis only.

6.2 CENTRE OF MASS

We shall first see what the centre of mass of a
system of particles is and then discuss its
significance. For simplicity we shall start with
a two particle system. We shall take the line
Fig. 6.6(b) Motion of a rigid body which is a joining the two particles to be the x- axis.
combination of translation and
rotation.
Fig 6.6 (a) and 6.6 (b) illustrate different motions of
the same body. Note P is an arbitrary point of the
body; O is the centre of mass of the body, which is
defined in the next section. Suffice to say here that
the trajectories of O are the translational trajectories
Tr1 and Tr2 of the body. The positions O and P at
three different instants of time are shown by O1, O2,
and O3, and P 1, P 2 and P3, respectively, in both
Figs. 6.6 (a) and (b) . As seen from Fig. 6.6(a), at any
instant the velocities of any particles like O and P of
the body are the same in pure translation. Notice, in
this case the orientation of OP, i.e. the angle OP makes
Fig. 6.7
with a fixed direction, say the horizontal, remains
the same, i.e. α1 = α2 = α3. Fig. 6.6 (b) illustrates a case
of combination of translation and rotation. In this case, Let the distances of the two particles be x1
at any instants the velocities of O and P differ. Also, and x2 respectively from some origin O. Let m1
α1, α2 and α3 may all be different. and m2 be respectively the masses of the two

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96 PHYSICS

particles. The centre of mass of the system is

m (y1 + y 2 + y 3 ) y1 + y 2 + y 3
that point C which is at a distance X from O, Y = =
where X is given by 3m 3
Thus, for three particles of equal mass, the
m 1 x1 + m 2 x 2
X = (6.1)
centre of mass coincides with the centroid of the
m1 + m 2 triangle formed by the particles.
In Eq. (6.1), X can be regarded as the mass- Results of Eqs. (6.3a) and (6.3b) are
weighted mean of x1 and x2. If the two particles generalised easily to a system of n particles, not
have the same mass m1 = m2 = m, then necessarily lying in a plane, but distributed in
space. The centre of mass of such a system is
mx 1 + mx 2 x 1 + x 2
X = = at (X, Y, Z ), where
2m 2
Thus, for two particles of equal mass the X =
∑mi xi (6.4a)
centre of mass lies exactly midway between M
them.
If we have n particles of masses m1, m2, Y =
∑ m i yi (6.4b)
...mn respectively, along a straight line taken as M
the x- axis, then by definition the position of the
centre of the mass of the system of particles is and Z =
∑ m i zi (6.4c)
given by. M
n

∑ mi xi
Here M = ∑mi is the total mass of the
m x + m 2 x 2 + ... + m n x n
X= 1 1 = i =1
=
∑ mx
i i
(6.2) system. The index i runs from 1 to n; mi is the
n
m1 + m 2 +... + m n
∑ mi ∑ m i mass of the ith particle and the position of the
i =1 ith particle is given by (xi, yi, zi).
where x1, x2,...xn are the distances of the Eqs. (6.4a), (6.4b) and (6.4c) can be
particles from the origin; X is also measured from combined into one equation using the notation
the same origin. The symbol ∑ (the Greek letter of position vectors. Let ri be the position vector
sigma) denotes summation, in this case over n of the ith particle and R be the position vector of
particles. The sum the centre of mass:
∑ mi =M r = x ɵi + y ɵj + z k
i i i i

is the total mass of the system. and R = X ɵi + Y ɵj + Z k

Suppose that we have three particles, not
lying in a straight line. We may define x– and y–
axes in the plane in which the particles lie and R=
∑ m i ri
represent the positions of the three particles by Then M (6.4d)
coordinates (x1,y1), (x2,y2) and (x3,y3) respectively. The sum on the right hand side is a vector
Let the masses of the three particles be m1, m2 sum.
and m3 respectively. The centre of mass C of Note the economy of expressions we achieve
the system of the three particles is defined and by use of vectors. If the origin of the frame of
located by the coordinates (X, Y) given by reference (the coordinate system) is chosen to

m 1x 1 + m 2 x 2 + m 3 x 3 be the centre of mass then ∑ mi ri = 0 for the

X = (6.3a) given system of particles.
m1 + m 2 + m 3
A rigid body, such as a metre stick or a
m 1y1 + m 2y2 + m 3y3 flywheel, is a system of closely packed particles;
Y = (6.3b) Eqs. (6.4a), (6.4b), (6.4c) and (6.4d) are therefore,
m1 + m 2 + m 3
applicable to a rigid body. The number of
For the particles of equal mass m = m1 = m2 particles (atoms or molecules) in such a body is
= m 3, so large that it is impossible to carry out the
m (x1 + x 2 + x 3 ) x1 + x 2 + x 3 summations over individual particles in these
X = = equations. Since the spacing of the particles is
3m 3

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 97

small, we can treat the body as a continuous Let us consider a thin rod, whose width and
distribution of mass. We subdivide the body into breath (in case the cross section of the rod is
n small elements of mass; ∆m1, ∆m2... ∆mn; the rectangular) or radius (in case the cross section
ith element ∆mi is taken to be located about the of the rod is cylindrical) is much smaller than
point (xi, yi, zi). The coordinates of the centre of its length. Taking the origin to be at the
mass are then approximately given by geometric centre of the rod and x-axis to be
along the length of the rod, we can say that on
X =
∑ (∆m i )x i , Y = ∑ (∆m i )yi , Z = ∑ (∆m i )zi account of reflection symmetry, for every
∑ ∆m i ∑ ∆m i ∑ ∆m i element dm of the rod at x, there is an element
of the same mass dm located at –x (Fig. 6.8).
As we make n bigger and bigger and each
∆m i smaller and smaller, these expressions
The net contribution of every such pair to
become exact. In that case, we denote the sums
over i by integrals. Thus, the integral and hence the integral itself

∑ ∆m i → ∫ dm = M , is zero. From Eq. (6.6), the point for which the

integral itself is zero, is the centre of mass.
∑ ( ∆m i )x i → ∫ x dm ,
Thus, the centre of mass of a homogenous thin
rod coincides with its geometric centre. This can
be understood on the basis of reflection symmetry.
∑ ( ∆m i )yi → ∫ y dm , The same symmetry argument will apply to
homogeneous rings, discs, spheres, or even
and ∑ (∆m i )zi → ∫ z dm thick rods of circular or rectangular cross
Here M is the total mass of the body. The section. For all such bodies you will realise that
coordinates of the centre of mass now are for every element dm at a point (x, y, z ) one can
1 1 1 always take an element of the same mass at
M∫ ∫ y dm and Z = M ∫ z dm
X= x dm , Y = (6.5a)
M the point (–x, –y, –z ). (In other words, the origin
The vector expression equivalent to these is a point of reflection symmetry for these
three scalar expressions is bodies.) As a result, the integrals in Eq. (6.5 a)
all are zero. This means that for all the above
1
M∫
R= r dm (6.5b) bodies, their centre of mass coincides with their
geometric centre.
If we choose, the centre of mass as the origin
of our coordinate system, u Example 6.1 Find the centre of mass of
R= 0 three particles at the vertices of an
equilateral triangle. The masses of the
i.e., ∫ r dm = 0 particles are 100g, 150g, and 200g
respectively. Each side of the equilateral
or ∫ x dm = ∫ y dm = ∫ z dm = 0 (6.6) triangle is 0.5m long.
Often we have to calculate the centre of mass of
Answer
homogeneous bodies of regular shapes like rings,
discs, spheres, rods etc. (By a homogeneous body
we mean a body with uniformly distributed
mass.) By using symmetry consideration, we can
easily show that the centres of mass of these
bodies lie at their geometric centres.

Fig. 6.8 Determining the CM of a thin rod. Fig. 6.9

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98 PHYSICS

With the x – and y–axes chosen as shown in Fig. concurrence of the medians, i.e. on the centroid
6.9, the coordinates of points O, A and B forming G of the triangle. ⊳
the equilateral triangle are respectively (0,0),
(0.5,0), (0.25,0.25 3 ). Let the masses 100 g, u Example 6.3 Find the centre of mass of a
150g and 200g be located at O, A and B be uniform L-shaped lamina (a thin flat plate)
respectively. Then, with dimensions as shown. The mass of
the lamina is 3 kg.
m 1x 1 + m 2 x 2 + m 3 x 3
X =
m1 + m 2 + m 3 Answer Choosing the X and Y axes as shown
in Fig. 6.11 we have the coordinates of the
100 (0 ) + 150(0.5) + 200(0.25) gm vertices of the L-shaped lamina as given in the
=
(100 + 150 + 200) g figure. We can think of the
L-shape to consist of 3 squares each of length
75 + 50 125 5 1m. The mass of each square is 1kg, since the
= m= m= m
450 450 18 lamina is uniform. The centres of mass C1, C2
and C3 of the squares are, by symmetry, their
100(0) + 150(0) + 200(0.25 3) gm geometric centres and have coordinates (1/2,1/2),
Y = (3/2,1/2), (1/2,3/2) respectively. We take the
450 g
masses of the squares to be concentrated at
these points. The centre of mass of the whole
50 3 3 1
= m= m= m L shape (X, Y) is the centre of mass of these
450 9 3 3 mass points.
The centre of mass C is shown in the figure.
Note that it is not the geometric centre of the
triangle OAB. Why? ⊳

u Example 6.2 Find the centre of mass of a

triangular lamina.

Answer The lamina (∆LMN ) may be subdivided

into narrow strips each parallel to the base (MN)
as shown in Fig. 6.10

Fig. 6.11

Hence

X =
[1(1/ 2) + 1(3 / 2) + 1(1/2)] kg m 5
= m
Fig. 6.10 (1 + 1 + 1) kg 6

By symmetry each strip has its centre of [1(1/2) + 1(1/ 2) + 1(3 /2)] kg m 5
mass at its midpoint. If we join the midpoint of Y = = m
all the strips we get the median LP. The centre (1 + 1 + 1) kg 6
of mass of the triangle as a whole therefore, has The centre of mass of the L-shape lies on
to lie on the median LP. Similarly, we can argue the line OD. We could have guessed this without
that it lies on the median MQ and NR. This calculations. Can you tell why? Suppose, the
means the centre of mass lies on the point of three squares that make up the L shaped lamina

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 99

of Fig. 6.11 had different masses. How will you Thus, the total mass of a system of particles
then determine the centre of mass of the lamina? times the acceleration of its centre of mass is
⊳ the vector sum of all the forces acting on the
system of particles.
6.3 MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS Note when we talk of the force F1 on the first
Equipped with the definition of the centre of particle, it is not a single force, but the vector
mass, we are now in a position to discuss its sum of all the forces on the first particle; likewise
physical importance for a system of n particles. for the second particle etc. Among these forces
We may rewrite Eq.(6.4d) as on each particle there will be external forces
exerted by bodies outside the system and also
MR = ∑ m i ri = m1r1 + m 2 r2 + ... + m n rn (6.7) internal forces exerted by the particles on one
Differentiating the two sides of the equation another. We know from Newton’s third law that
with respect to time we get these internal forces occur in equal and opposite
dR dr dr dr pairs and in the sum of forces of Eq. (6.10), their
M = m1 1 + m 2 2 + ... + m n n contribution is zero. Only the external forces
dt dt dt dt
contribute to the equation. We can then rewrite
Eq. (6.10) as
or
MA = Fext (6.11)
M V = m1 v1 + m 2 v 2 + ... + m n vn (6.8)
where Fext represents the sum of all external
where v1 ( = dr1 /dt ) is the velocity of the first
forces acting on the particles of the system.
particle v 2 ( = dr 2 dt ) is the velocity of the Eq. (6.11) states that the centre of mass of
a system of particles moves as if all the mass
second particle etc. and V = dR / dt is the of the system was concentrated at the centre
velocity of the centre of mass. Note that we of mass and all the external forces were
assumed the masses m 1, m 2, ... etc. do not applied at that point.
change in time. We have therefore, treated them Notice, to determine the motion of the centre
as constants in differentiating the equations of mass no knowledge of internal forces of the
with respect to time. system of particles is required; for this purpose
Differentiating Eq.(6.8) with respect to time, we need to know only the external forces.
we obtain To obtain Eq. (6.11) we did not need to specify
the nature of the system of particles. The system
dV dv1 dv 2 dv n
M = m1 + m2 + ... + m n may be a collection of particles in which there
dt dt dt dt may be all kinds of internal motions, or it may
or be a rigid body which has either pure
translational motion or a combination of
MA = m 1a1 + m 2 a 2 + ... + m n an (6.9)
translational and rotational motion. Whatever
where a1 ( = dv1 /dt ) is the acceleration of the is the system and the motion of its individual
particles, the centre of mass moves according
first particle, a 2 ( = dv2 /dt ) is the acceleration to Eq. (6.11).
Instead of treating extended bodies as single
of the second particle etc. and A (= d V / dt ) is
particles as we have done in earlier chapters,
the acceleration of the centre of mass of the we can now treat them as systems of particles.
system of particles. We can obtain the translational component of
Now, from Newton’s second law, the force their motion, i.e. the motion of the centre of mass
acting on the first particle is given by F1 = m1a1 . of the system, by taking the mass of the whole
The force acting on the second particle is given system to be concentrated at the centre of mass
and all the external forces on the system to be
by F2 = m 2 a 2 and so on. Eq. (6.9) may be written
acting at the centre of mass.
as This is the procedure that we followed earlier
MA = F1 + F2 + ... + Fn (6.10) in analysing forces on bodies and solving

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100 PHYSICS

problems without explicitly outlining and where F is the force on the particle. Let us
justifying the procedure. We now realise that in consider a system of n particles with masses m1,
earlier studies we assumed, without saying so, m2,...mn respectively and velocities v1 , v 2 ,.......vn
that rotational motion and/or internal motion
respectively. The particles may be interacting
of the particles were either absent or negligible.
and have external forces acting on them. The
We no longer need to do this. We have not only
found the justification of the procedure we linear momentum of the first particle is m1v1 ,
followed earlier; but we also have found how to of the second particle is m 2 v 2 and so on.
describe and separate the translational motion
For the system of n particles, the linear
of (1) a rigid body which may be rotating as
momentum of the system is defined to be the
well, or (2) a system of particles with all kinds
vector sum of all individual particles of the
of internal motion.
system,
P = p1 + p2 + ... + pn
= m1 v1 + m 2 v 2 + ... + m n vn (6.14)
Comparing this with Eq. (6.8)
P=MV (6.15)
Thus, the total momentum of a system of
particles is equal to the product of the total
mass of the system and the velocity of its
centre of mass. Differentiating Eq. (6.15) with
respect to time,
dP dV
Fig. 6.12 The centre of mass of the fragments =M = MA (6.16)
dt dt
of the projectile continues along the
same parabolic path which it would Comparing Eq.(6.16) and Eq. (6.11),
have followed if there were no dP
explosion. = Fext (6.17)
dt
Figure 6.12 is a good illustration of Eq. (6.11). This is the statement of Newton’s second law
A projectile, following the usual parabolic of motion extended to a system of particles.
trajectory, explodes into fragments midway in Suppose now, that the sum of external
air. The forces leading to the explosion are forces acting on a system of particles is zero.
internal forces. They contribute nothing to the Then from Eq.(6.17)
motion of the centre of mass. The total external
dP
force, namely, the force of gravity acting on the = 0 or P = Constant (6.18a)
body, is the same before and after the explosion. dt
The centre of mass under the influence of the Thus, when the total external force acting
external force continues, therefore, along the on a system of particles is zero, the total linear
same parabolic trajectory as it would have momentum of the system is constant. This is
followed if there were no explosion. the law of conservation of the total linear
momentum of a system of particles. Because of
6.4 LINEAR MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OF Eq. (6.15), this also means that when the
PARTICLES total external force on the system is zero
Let us recall that the linear momentum of a the velocity of the centre of mass remains
constant. (We assume throughout the
particle is defined as
discussion on systems of particles in this
p=mv (6.12) chapter that the total mass of the system
Let us also recall that Newton’s second law remains constant.)
written in symbolic form for a single particle is Note that on account of the internal forces,
dp i.e. the forces exerted by the particles on one
F= (6.13) another, the individual particles may have
dt

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 101

complicated trajectories. Yet, if the total external

force acting on the system is zero, the centre of
mass moves with a constant velocity, i.e., moves
uniformly in a straight line like a free particle.
The vector Eq. (6.18a) is equivalent to three
scalar equations,
Px = c1, Py = c2 and Pz = c3 (6.18 b) (a) (b)
Here Px, Py and Pz are the components of the
total linear momentum vector P along the x–, y– Fig. 6.14 (a) Trajectories of two stars, S1 (dotted line)
and z–axes respectively; c 1 , c 2 and c 3 are and S2 (solid line) forming a binary
constants. system with their centre of mass C in
uniform motion.
(b) The same binary system, with the
centre of mass C at rest.

move back to back with their centre of mass

remaining at rest as shown in Fig.6.13 (b).
In many problems on the system of
particles, as in the above radioactive decay
problem, it is convenient to work in the centre
of mass frame rather than in the laboratory
frame of reference.
(a) (b)
In astronomy, binary (double) stars is a
common occurrence. If there are no external
forces, the centre of mass of a double star
Fig. 6.13 (a) A heavy nucleus radium (Ra) splits into
moves like a free particle, as shown in Fig.6.14
a lighter nucleus radon (Rn) and an alpha
particle (nucleus of helium atom). The CM (a). The trajectories of the two stars of equal
of the system is in uniform motion. mass are also shown in the figure; they look
(b) The same spliting of the heavy nucleus complicated. If we go to the centre of mass
radium (Ra) with the centre of mass at frame, then we find that there the two stars
rest. The two product particles fly back are moving in a circle, about the centre of
to back. mass, which is at rest. Note that the position
of the stars have to be diametrically opposite
As an example, let us consider the to each other [Fig. 6.14(b)]. Thus in our frame
radioactive decay of a moving unstable particle, of reference, the trajectories of the stars are a
like the nucleus of radium. A radium nucleus combination of (i) uniform motion in a straight
disintegrates into a nucleus of radon and an line of the centre of mass and (ii) circular
alpha particle. The forces leading to the decay orbits of the stars about the centre of mass.
are internal to the system and the external As can be seen from the two examples,
forces on the system are negligible. So the total separating the motion of different parts of a
linear momentum of the system is the same system into motion of the centre of mass and
before and after decay. The two particles motion about the centre of mass is a very
useful technique that helps in understanding
produced in the decay, the radon nucleus and
the motion of the system.
the alpha particle, move in different directions
in such a way that their centre of mass moves
6.5 VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
along the same path along which the original
decaying radium nucleus was moving We are already familiar with vectors and their
[Fig. 6.13(a)]. use in physics. In chapter 5 (Work, Energy, Power)
If we observe the decay from the frame of we defined the scalar product of two vectors. An
reference in which the centre of mass is at rest, important physical quantity, work, is defined as
the motion of the particles involved in the decay a scalar product of two vector quantities, force
looks particularly simple; the product particles and displacement.

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102 PHYSICS

We shall now define another product of two A simpler version of the right hand rule is
vectors. This product is a vector. Two important the following : Open up your right hand palm
quantities in the study of rotational motion, and curl the fingers pointing from a to b. Your
namely, moment of a force and angular stretched thumb points in the direction of c.
momentum, are defined as vector products. It should be remembered that there are two
angles between any two vectors a and b . In
Definition of Vector Product Fig. 6.15 (a) or (b) they correspond to θ (as shown)
A vector product of two vectors a and b is a and (3600– θ). While applying either of the above
vector c such that rules, the rotation should be taken through the
(i) magnitude of c = c = ab sin θ where a and b smaller angle (<1800) between a and b. It is θ
are magnitudes of a and b and θ is the here.
angle between the two vectors. Because of the cross (×) used to denote the
(ii) c is perpendicular to the plane containing vector product, it is also referred to as cross product.
a and b. • Note that scalar product of two vectors is
(iii) if we take a right handed screw with its head commutative as said earlier, a.b = b.a
lying in the plane of a and b and the screw The vector product, however, is not
perpendicular to this plane, and if we turn commutative, i.e. a × b ≠ b × a
the head in the direction from a to b, then The magnitude of both a × b and b × a is the
the tip of the screw advances in the direction same ( ab sin θ ); also, both of them ar e
of c. This right handed screw rule is perpendicular to the plane of a and b. But the
illustrated in Fig. 6.15a. rotation of the right-handed screw in case of
Alternately, if one curls up the fingers of a × b is from a to b, whereas in case of b × a it
right hand around a line perpendicular to the is from b to a. This means the two vectors are
plane of the vectors a and b and if the fingers in opposite directions. We have
are curled up in the direction from a to b, then a × b = −b × a
the stretched thumb points in the direction of • Another interesting property of a vector
c, as shown in Fig. 6.15b.
product is its behaviour under reflection.
Under reflection (i.e. on taking the plane
mirror image) we have
x → − x , y → −y and z → − z . As a result all
the components of a vector change sign and
thus a → −a , b → −b . What happens to
a × b under reflection?
a × b → ( −a ) × ( − b) = a × b
Thus, a × b does not change sign under
reflection.
• Both scalar and vector products are
distributive with respect to vector addition.
Thus,
a.( b + c) = a.b + a.c
a × ( b + c) = a × b + a × c
(a) (b) • We may write c = a × b in the component
form. For this we first need to obtain some
elementary cross products:
Fig. 6.15 (a) Rule of the right handed screw for (i) a × a = 0 (0 is a null vector, i.e. a vector
defining the direction of the vector with zero magnitude)
product of two vectors.
(b) Rule of the right hand for defining the
This follows since magnitude of a × a is
direction of the vector product. a 2 sin 0° = 0 .

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 103

From this follow the results

ˆi ˆj ˆ
k
(i) ˆi × ˆi = 0, ˆj × ˆj = 0, k
ˆ ×k
ˆ =0
a×b= 3 −4 5 = 7ˆi − ˆj − 5k
ˆ
(ii) ˆi × ˆj = k
ˆ −2 1 −3
Note that the magnitude of ˆi × ˆj is sin900
Note b × a = −7ˆi + ˆj + 5k
ˆ ⊳
or 1, since î and ĵ both have unit
magnitude and the angle between them is 900. 6.6 ANGULAR VELOCITY AND ITS RELATION
WITH LINEAR VELOCITY
Thus, ˆi × ˆj is a unit vector. A unit vector
In this section we shall study what is angular
perpendicular to the plane of î and ĵ and velocity and its role in rotational motion. We
related to them by the right hand screw rule is have seen that every particle of a rotating body
moves in a circle. The linear velocity of the
k̂ . Hence, the above result. You may verify particle is related to the angular velocity. The
similarly,
relation between these two quantities involves
ˆj × kˆ = ˆi and k ˆ × ˆi = ˆj a vector product which we learnt about in the
From the rule for commutation of the cross last section.
product, it follows: Let us go back to Fig. 6.4. As said above, in
rotational motion of a rigid body about a fixed
ˆj × ˆi = − k ˆ × ˆj = −ˆi, ˆi × k
ˆ, k ˆ = − ˆj axis, every particle of the body moves in a circle,
Note if ˆi, ˆj, k
ˆ occur cyclically in the above
vector product relation, the vector product is
positive. If ˆi, ˆj, k
ˆ do not occur in cyclic order,
the vector product is negative.
Now,
a × b = (a ˆi + a ˆj + a k
x y
ˆ ) × (b ˆi + b ˆj + b k
z x y
ˆ)
z

= a x by k
ˆ − a b ˆj − a b k
x z y x
ˆ + a b ˆi + a b ˆj − a b ˆi
y z z x z y

= (a yb z − a zby )i + (a zb x − a x b z ) j + (a x by − a yb x )k
We have used the elementary cross products
in obtaining the above relation. The expression
for a × b can be put in a determinant form which
is easy to remember.
ˆi ˆj kˆ
a × b = ax ay az
bx by bz

u Example 6.4 Find the scalar and vector Fig. 6.16 Rotation about a fixed axis. (A particle (P)
products of two vectors. a = of the rigid body rotating about the fixed
(z-) axis moves in a circle with centre (C)
and b = on the axis.)
Answer
which lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis
a i b = (3ˆi − 4 ˆj + 5k
ˆ )i( −2ˆi + ˆj − 3k
ˆ) and has its centre on the axis. In Fig. 6.16 we
redraw Fig. 6.4, showing a typical particle (at a
= −6 − 4 − 15
point P) of the rigid body rotating about a fixed
= −25 axis (taken as the z-axis). The particle describes

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104 PHYSICS

a circle with a centre C on the axis. The radius and points out in the direction in which a right
of the circle is r, the perpendicular distance of handed screw would advance, if the head of the
the point P from the axis. We also show the screw is rotated with the body. (See Fig. 6.17a).
linear velocity vector v of the particle at P. It is The magnitude of this vector is ω = dθ dt
along the tangent at P to the circle.
referred as above.
Let P′ be the position of the particle after an
interval of time ∆t (Fig. 6.16). The angle PCP′
describes the angular displacement ∆θ of the
particle in time ∆t. The average angular velocity
of the particle over the interval ∆t is ∆θ/∆t. As
∆t tends to zero (i.e. takes smaller and smaller
values), the ratio ∆θ/∆t approaches a limit which
is the instantaneous angular velocity dθ/dt of
the particle at the position P. We denote the
instantaneous angular velocity by ω (the
Greek letter omega). We know from our study Fig. 6.17 (a) If the head of a right handed screw
of circular motion that the magnitude of linear rotates with the body, the screw
velocity v of a particle moving in a circle is advances in the direction of the angular
related to the angular velocity of the particle ω velocity ω. If the sense (clockwise or
by the simple relation υ = ω r , where r is the anticlockwise) of rotation of the body
radius of the circle. changes, so does the direction of ω.
We observe that at any given instant the
relation v = ω r applies to all particles of the
rigid body. Thus for a particle at a perpendicular
distance ri from the fixed axis, the linear velocity
at a given instant vi is given by
vi = ω ri (6.19)
The index i runs from 1 to n, where n is the
total number of particles of the body.
For particles on the axis, r = 0 , and hence
v = ω r = 0. Thus, particles on the axis are
stationary. This verifies that the axis is fixed.
Note that we use the same angular velocity
ω for all the particles. We therefore, refer to ω
as the angular velocity of the whole body.
We have characterised pure translation of
a body by all parts of the body having the same Fig. 6.17 (b) The angular velocity vector ω is directed
velocity at any instant of time. Similarly, we along the fixed axis as shown. The linear
may characterise pure rotation by all parts of velocity of the particle at P is v = ω × r.
the body having the same angular velocity at It is perpendicular to both ω and r and
any instant of time. Note that this is directed along the tangent to the circle
described by the particle.
characterisation of the rotation of a rigid body
about a fixed axis is just another way of saying We shall now look at what the vector
as in Sec. 6.1 that each particle of the body moves product ω × r corresponds to. Refer to Fig.
in a circle, which lies in a plane perpendicular 6.17(b) which is a part of Fig. 6.16 reproduced
to the axis and has the centre on the axis. to show the path of the particle P. The figure
In our discussion so far the angular velocity shows the vector ω directed along the fixed (z–)
appears to be a scalar. In fact, it is a vector. We axis and also the position vector r = OP of the
shall not justify this fact, but we shall accept particle at P of the rigid body with respect to
it. For rotation about a fixed axis, the angular the origin O. Note that the origin is chosen to
velocity vector lies along the axis of rotation, be on the axis of rotation.

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 105

Now ω × r = ω × OP = ω × (OC + CP) If the axis of rotation is fixed, the direction

But ω × OC = 0 as ω is along OC of ω and hence, that of α is fixed. In this case
the vector equation reduces to a scalar equation
Hence ω × r = ω × CP
dω
α= (6.22)
The vector ω × CP is perpendicular to ω, i.e. dt
to the z-axis and also to CP, the radius of the
circle described by the particle at P. It is 6.7 TORQUE AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM
therefore, along the tangent to the circle at P.
In this section, we shall acquaint ourselves with
Also, the magnitude of ω × CP is ω (CP) since
two physical quantities (torque and angular
ω and CP are perpendicular to each other. We momentum) which are defined as vector products
shall denote CP by r⊥ and not by r, as we did of two vectors. These as we shall see, are
earlier. especially important in the discussion of motion
Thus, ω × r is a vector of magnitude ω r⊥ of systems of particles, particularly rigid bodies.
and is along the tangent to the circle described
by the particle at P. The linear velocity vector v 6.7.1 Moment of force (Torque)
at P has the same magnitude and direction.
We have learnt that the motion of a rigid body,
Thus,
in general, is a combination of rotation and
v =ω × r (6.20)
translation. If the body is fixed at a point or along
In fact, the relation, Eq. (6.20), holds good
a line, it has only rotational motion. We know
even for rotation of a rigid body with one point
fixed, such as the rotation of the top [Fig. 6.6(a)]. that force is needed to change the translational
In this case r represents the position vector of state of a body, i.e. to produce linear
the particle with respect to the fixed point taken acceleration. We may then ask, what is the
as the origin. analogue of force in the case of rotational
We note that for rotation about a fixed motion? To look into the question in a concrete
axis, the direction of the vector ω does not situation let us take the example of opening or
change with time. Its magnitude may, closing of a door. A door is a rigid body which
however, change from instant to instant. For
can rotate about a fixed vertical axis passing
the more general rotation, both the
magnitude and the direction of ω may change through the hinges. What makes the door
from instant to instant. rotate? It is clear that unless a force is applied
the door does not rotate. But any force does not
6.6.1 Angular acceleration
do the job. A force applied to the hinge line
You may have noticed that we are developing cannot produce any rotation at all, whereas a
the study of rotational motion along the lines force of given magnitude applied at right angles
of the study of translational motion with which to the door at its outer edge is most effective in
we are already familiar. Analogous to the kinetic producing rotation. It is not the force alone, but
variables of linear displacement (s) and velocity how and where the force is applied is important
(v) in translational motion, we have angular in rotational motion.
displacement (θ ω) in
θ ) and angular velocity (ω The rotational analogue of force in linear
rotational motion. It is then natural to define motion is moment of force. It is also referred to
in rotational motion the concept of angular as torque or couple. (We shall use the words
acceleration in analogy with linear acceleration moment of force and torque interchangeably.)
defined as the time rate of change of velocity in We shall first define the moment of force for the
translational motion. We define angular special case of a single particle. Later on we
acceleration α as the time rate of change of
shall extend the concept to systems of particles
angular velocity. Thus,
including rigid bodies. We shall also relate it to
dω a change in the state of rotational motion, i.e. is
α= (6.21)
dt angular acceleration of a rigid body.

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106 PHYSICS

of the line of action of F from the origin and

F⊥ ( = F sin θ ) is the component of F in the
direction perpendicular to r. Note that τ = 0 if
r = 0, F = 0 or θ = 00 or 1800 . Thus, the moment
of a force vanishes if either the magnitude of
the force is zero, or if the line of action of the
force passes through the origin.
One may note that since r × F is a vector
product, properties of a vector product of two
vectors apply to it. If the direction of F is
reversed, the direction of the moment of force
is reversed. If directions of both r and F are
reversed, the direction of the moment of force
remains the same.
6.7.2 Angular momentum of a particle
Just as the moment of a force is the rotational
analogue of force in linear motion, the quantity
angular momentum is the rotational analogue
Fig. 6.18 τ = r × F, τ is perpendicular to the plane of linear momentum. We shall first define
containing r and F, and its direction is angular momentum for the special case of a
given by the right handed screw rule. single particle and look at its usefulness in the
context of single particle motion. We shall then
If a force acts on a single particle at a point extend the definition of angular momentum to
P whose position with respect to the origin O is systems of particles including rigid bodies.
given by the position vector r (Fig. 6.18), the Like moment of a force, angular momentum
moment of the force acting on the particle with is also a vector product. It could also be referred
respect to the origin O is defined as the vector to as moment of (linear) momentum. From this
product term one could guess how angular momentum
τ=r×F (6.23) is defined.
The moment of force (or torque) is a vector Consider a particle of mass m and linear
quantity. The symbol τ stands for the Greek momentum p at a position r relative to the origin
letter tau. The magnitude of τ is O. The angular momentum l of the particle with
τ = r F sinθ (6.24a) respect to the origin O is defined to be
where r is the magnitude of the position vector l=r×p (6.25a)
r, i.e. the length OP, F is the magnitude of force The magnitude of the angular momentum
F and θ is the angle between r and F as vector is
shown. l = r p sin θ (6.26a)
Moment of force has dimensions M L2 T -2. where p is the magnitude of p and θ is the angle
Its dimensions are the same as those of work between r and p. We may write
or energy. It is, however, a very different physical
l = r p ⊥ or r⊥ p (6.26b)
quantity than work. Moment of a force is a
vector, while work is a scalar. The SI unit of where r⊥ (= r sinθ) is the perpendicular distance
moment of force is newton metre (N m). The of the directional line of p from the origin and
magnitude of the moment of force may be
p ⊥ ( = p sin θ ) is the component of p in a direction
written
perpendicular to r. We expect the angular
τ = (r sin θ )F = r⊥ F (6.24b) momentum to be zero (l = 0), if the linear
or τ = r F sin θ = rF⊥ (6.24c) momentum vanishes (p = 0), if the particle is at
the origin (r = 0), or if the directional line of p
where r⊥ = r sinθ is the perpendicular distance passes through the origin θ = 00 or 1800.

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 107

The physical quantities, moment of a force

and angular momentum, have an important An experiment with the bicycle rim
relation between them. It is the rotational
Take a
analogue of the relation between force and linear
bicycle rim
momentum. For deriving the relation in the and extend
context of a single particle, we differentiate its axle on
l = r × p with respect to time, both sides.
T ie two
dl d
= ( r × p) s t r i n g s
dt dt at both ends
Applying the product rule for differentiation A and B,
to the right hand side, as shown
in the
d dr dp adjoining
( r × p) = ×p+r×
dt dt dt figure. Hold
Now, the velocity of the particle is v = dr/dt both the
and p = m v s t r i n g s
Initially After
together in
dr one hand such that the rim is vertical. If you
Because of this × p = v × m v = 0,
dt leave one string, the rim will tilt. Now keeping
as the vector product of two parallel vectors the rim in vertical position with both the strings
in one hand, put the wheel in fast rotation
vanishes. Further, since dp / dt = F,
around the axle with the other hand. Then leave
dp one string, say B, from your hand, and observe
r× =r×F =t what happens.
dt
The rim keeps rotating in a vertical plane
d and the plane of rotation turns around the string
Hence ( r × p) = τ A which you are holding. We say that the axis
dt
of rotation of the rim or equivalently
or (6.27) its angular momentum precesses about the
string A.
Thus, the time rate of change of the angular The rotating rim gives rise to an angular
momentum of a particle is equal to the torque momentum. Determine the direction of this
acting on it. This is the rotational analogue of angular momentum. When you are holding the
the equation F = dp/dt, which expresses rotating rim with string A, a torque is generated.
Newton’s second law for the translational motion (We leave it to you to find out how the torque is
generated and what its direction is.) The effect
of a single particle.
of the torque on the angular momentum is to
make it precess around an axis perpendicular
Torque and angular momentum for a system to both the angular momentum and the torque.
of particles Verify all these statements.
To get the total angular momentum of a system
of particles about a given point we need to add
vectorially the angular momenta of individual
particles. Thus, for a system of n particles, particle has mass mi and velocity vi ) We may
write the total angular momentum of a system
of particles as
(6.25b)
The angular momentum of the ith particle
is given by
li = ri × pi This is a generalisation of the definition of
where ri is the position vector of the ith particle angular momentum (Eq. 6.25a) for a single
with respect to a given origin and p = (mivi) is particle to a system of particles.
the linear momentum of the particle. (The Using Eqs. (6.23) and (6.25b), we get

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108 PHYSICS

dL d dl Note that like Eq.(6.17), Eq.(6.28b) holds

dt
=
dt
( l )= ∑i dt = ∑τ (6.28a) good for any system of particles, whether it is a
i rigid body or its individual particles have all
where τ i is the torque acting on the ith particle; kinds of internal motion.
τi = ri × Fi Conservation of angular momentum
The force Fi on the ith particle is the vector
If τext = 0, Eq. (6.28b) reduces to
Fiext
sum of external forces acting on the particle dL
int
=0
and the internal forces F exerted on it by the
i
dt
other particles of the system. We may therefore or L = constant. (6.29a)
separate the contribution of the external and Thus, if the total external torque on a system
the internal forces to the total torque of particles is zero, then the total angular
momentum of the system is conserved, i.e.
τ = ∑ τ i = ∑ ri × Fi as remains constant. Eq. (6.29a) is equivalent to
i i three scalar equations,
τ = τext + τ int , Lx = K1, Ly = K2 and Lz = K3 (6.29 b)
Here K1, K2 and K3 are constants; Lx, Ly and
where τext = ∑ ri × Fi ext Lz are the components of the total angular
i momentum vector L along the x,y and z axes
respectively. The statement that the total
and τ int = ∑ ri × Fiint angular momentum is conserved means that
i
each of these three components is conserved.
We shall assume not only Newton’s third law
Eq. (6.29a) is the rotational analogue of
of motion, i.e. the forces between any two particles
Eq. (6.18a), i.e. the conservation law of the total
of the system are equal and opposite, but also that
linear momentum for a system of particles.
these forces are directed along the line joining the Like Eq. (6.18a), it has applications in many
two particles. In this case the contribution of the practical situations. We shall look at a few of
internal forces to the total torque on the system is the interesting applications later on in
zero, since the torque resulting from each action- this chapter.
reaction pair of forces is zero. We thus have, τint =
0 and therefore τ = τext. u Example 6.5 Find the torque of a force
Since τ = ∑ τ i , it follows from Eq. (6.28a) + – about the origin. The force acts on
that a particle whose position vector is .

dL
= τ ext (6.28 b) Answer Here r = ˆi − ˆj + kˆ
dt
and F = 7ˆi + 3ˆj − 5k
ˆ.
Thus, the time rate of the total angular
momentum of a system of particles about a We shall use the determinant rule to find the
point (taken as the origin of our frame of torque τ = r × F
reference) is equal to the sum of the external
torques (i.e. the torques due to external forces)
acting on the system taken about the same
point. Eq. (6.28 b) is the generalisation of the
single particle case of Eq. (6.23) to a system of
particles. Note that when we have only one or ⊳
particle, there are no internal forces or torques.
Eq.(6.28 b) is the rotational analogue of Example 6.6 Show that the angular
dP u momentum about any point of a single
= Fext (6.17) particle moving with constant velocity
dt remains constant throughout the motion.

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 109

Answer Let the particle with velocity v be at acceleration nor angular acceleration. This means
point P at some instant t. We want to calculate (1) the total force, i.e. the vector sum of the
the angular momentum of the particle about an forces, on the rigid body is zero;
arbitrary point O. n
F1 + F2 + ... + Fn = ∑F i =0 (6.30a)
i =1

If the total force on the body is zero, then

the total linear momentum of the body does
not change with time. Eq. (6.30a) gives the
condition for the translational equilibrium
of the body.
(2) The total torque, i.e. the vector sum of the
torques on the rigid body is zero,
n

τ1+ τ2 + ... + τn = ∑ τi = 0 (6.30b)

Fig 6.19 i =1

If the total torque on the rigid body is zero,

The angular momentum is l = r × mv. Its the total angular momentum of the body does
magnitude is mvr sinθ, where θ is the angle
not change with time. Eq. (6.30 b) gives the
between r and v as shown in Fig. 6.19. Although
condition for the rotational equilibrium of the
the particle changes position with time, the line
body.
of direction of v remains the same and hence
One may raise a question, whether the
OM = r sin θ. is a constant.
Further, the direction of l is perpendicular rotational equilibrium condition [Eq. 6.30(b)]
to the plane of r and v. It is into the page of the remains valid, if the origin with respect to which
figure.This direction does not change with time. the torques are taken is shifted. One can show
Thus, l remains the same in magnitude and that if the translational equilibrium condition
direction and is therefore conserved. Is there [Eq. 6.30(a)] holds for a rigid body, then such a
any external torque on the particle? ⊳ shift of origin does not matter, i.e. the rotational
equilibrium condition is independent of the
6.8 EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY location of the origin about which the torques
We are now going to concentrate on the motion
are taken. Example 6.7 gives a proof of this result
of rigid bodies rather than on the motion of in a special case of a couple, i.e. two forces
general systems of particles. acting on a rigid body in translational
We shall recapitulate what effect the equilibrium. The generalisation of this result to
external forces have on a rigid body. (Henceforth n forces is left as an exercise.
we shall omit the adjective ‘external’ because Eq. (6.30a) and Eq. (6.30b), both, are vector
unless stated otherwise, we shall deal with only equations. They are equivalent to three scalar
external forces and torques.) The forces change equations each. Eq. (6.30a) corresponds to
the translational state of the motion of the rigid n n n
body, i.e. they change its total linear ∑ Fix =0, ∑ Fiy = 0 and ∑ Fiz = 0 (6.31a)
i =1 i =1 i =1
momentum in accordance with Eq. (6.17). But
this is not the only effect the forces have. The where Fix, Fiy and Fiz are respectively the x, y and
total torque on the body may not vanish. Such z components of the forces Fi. Similarly, Eq.
a torque changes the rotational state of motion (6.30b) is equivalent to three scalar equations
of the rigid body, i.e. it changes the total angular n n

momentum of the body in accordance with ∑ τix = 0, ∑ τiy = 0 and (6.31b)

i =1 i =1
Eq. (6.28 b).
A rigid body is said to be in mechanical where τix, τiy and τiz are respectively the x, y and
equilibrium, if both its linear momentum and z components of the torque τi .
angular momentum are not changing with time, Eq. (6.31a) and (6.31b) give six independent
or equivalently, the body has neither linear conditions to be satisfied for mechanical

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110 PHYSICS

equilibrium of a rigid body. In a number of

problems all the forces acting on the body are
coplanar. Then we need only three conditions
to be satisfied for mechanical equilibrium. Two
of these conditions correspond to translational
equilibrium; the sum of the components of the
forces along any two perpendicular axes in the
plane must be zero. The third condition
corresponds to rotational equilibrium. The sum
of the components of the torques along any axis Fig. 6.20 (b)
perpendicular to the plane of the forces must
be zero. The force at B in Fig. 6.20(a) is reversed in
The conditions of equilibrium of a rigid body Fig. 6.20(b). Thus, we have the same rod with
two forces of equal magnitude but acting in
may be compared with those for a particle, which
opposite diretions applied perpendicular to the
we considered in earlier chapters. Since rod, one at end A and the other at end B. Here
consideration of rotational motion does not apply the moments of both the forces are equal, but
to a particle, only the conditions for translational they are not opposite; they act in the same sense
equilibrium (Eq. 6.30 a) apply to a particle. Thus, and cause anticlockwise rotation of the rod. The
for equilibrium of a particle the vector sum of total force on the body is zero; so the body is in
all the forces on it must be zero. Since all these translational equilibrium; but it is not in
forces act on the single particle, they must be rotational equilibrium. Although the rod is not
concurrent. Equilibrium under concurrent fixed in any way, it undergoes pure rotation (i.e.
rotation without translation).
forces was discussed in the earlier chapters.
A pair of forces of equal magnitude but acting
A body may be in partial equilibrium, i.e., it in opposite directions with different lines of
may be in translational equilibrium and not in action is known as a couple or torque. A couple
rotational equilibrium, or it may be in rotational produces rotation without translation.
equilibrium and not in translational When we open the lid of a bottle by turning
equilibrium. it, our fingers are applying a couple to the lid
Consider a light (i.e. of negligible mass) rod [Fig. 6.21(a)]. Another known example is a
(AB) as shown in Fig. 6.20(a). At the two ends (A compass needle in the earth’s magnetic field as
and B) of which two parallel forces, both equal shown in the Fig. 6.21(b). The earth’s magnetic
field exerts equal forces on the north and south
in magnitude and acting along same direction
poles. The force on the North Pole is towards
are applied perpendicular to the rod. the north, and the force on the South Pole is
toward the south. Except when the needle points
in the north-south direction; the two forces do
not have the same line of action. Thus there is
a couple acting on the needle due to the earth’s
magnetic field.

Fig. 6.20 (a)

Let C be the midpoint of AB, CA = CB = a.

the moment of the forces at A and B will both
be equal in magnitude (aF ), but opposite in
sense as shown. The net moment on the rod will
be zero. The system will be in rotational
equilibrium, but it will not be in translational
equilibrium; ∑F ≠ 0 Fig. 6.21(a) Our fingers apply a couple to turn
the lid.

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 111

length. This point is called the fulcrum. A see-

saw on the children’s playground is a typical
example of a lever. Two forces F1 and F2, parallel
to each other and usually perpendicular to the
lever, as shown here, act on the lever at
distances d1 and d2 respectively from the fulcrum
as shown in Fig. 6.23.

Fig. 6.21(b) The Earth’s magnetic field exerts equal

and opposite forces on the poles of a Fig. 6.23
compass needle. These two forces form
a couple. The lever is a system in mechanical
equilibrium. Let R be the reaction of the support
u Example 6.7 Show that moment of a
at the fulcrum; R is directed opposite to the
couple does not depend on the point about forces F1 and F2. For translational equilibrium,
which you take the moments.
R – F1 – F2 = 0 (i)
Answer
For considering rotational equilibrium we
take the moments about the fulcrum; the sum
of moments must be zero,
d1F1 – d2F2 = 0 (ii)
Normally the anticlockwise (clockwise)
moments are taken to be positive (negative). Note
R acts at the fulcrum itself and has zero moment
Fig. 6.22 about the fulcrum.
In the case of the lever force F1 is usually
Consider a couple as shown in Fig. 6.22 some weight to be lifted. It is called the load and
acting on a rigid body. The forces F and -F act its distance from the fulcrum d1 is called the
respectively at points B and A. These points have load arm. Force F2 is the effort applied to lift the
position vectors r1 and r2 with respect to origin load; distance d2 of the effort from the fulcrum
O. Let us take the moments of the forces about is the effort arm.
the origin. Eq. (ii) can be written as
The moment of the couple = sum of the d1F1 = d2 F2 (6.32a)
moments of the two forces making the couple or load arm × load = effort arm × effort
= r1 × (–F) + r2 × F The above equation expresses the principle
= r2 × F – r1 × F of moments for a lever. Incidentally the ratio
= (r2–r1) × F F1/F2 is called the Mechanical Advantage (M.A.);
But r1 + AB = r2, and hence AB = r2 – r1. F1 d 2
The moment of the couple, therefore, is M.A. = F = d (6.32b)
AB × F. 2 1

Clearly this is independent of the origin, the If the effort arm d2 is larger than the load
point about which we took the moments of the arm, the mechanical advantage is greater than
forces. ⊳ one. Mechanical advantage greater than one
means that a small effort can be used to lift a
6.8.1 Principle of moments large load. There are several examples of a lever
An ideal lever is essentially a light (i.e. of around you besides the see-saw. The beam of a
negligible mass) rod pivoted at a point along its balance is a lever. Try to find more such

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112 PHYSICS

examples and identify the fulcrum, the effort and The CG of the cardboard is so located that
effort arm, and the load and the load arm of the the total torque on it due to the forces m1g, m2g
lever in each case. …. etc. is zero.
You may easily show that the principle of If ri is the position vector of the ith particle
moment holds even when the parallel forces F1 of an extended body with respect to its CG, then
and F2 are not perpendicular, but act at some the torque about the CG, due to the force of
angle, to the lever. gravity on the particle is τi = ri × mi g. The total
gravitational torque about the CG is zero, i.e.
6.8.2 Centre of gravity
τ g = ∑ τi = ∑r
i × mi g = 0 (6.33)
Many of you may have the experience of We may therefore, define the CG of a body
balancing your notebook on the tip of a finger. as that point where the total gravitational torque
Figure 6.24 illustrates a similar experiment that on the body is zero.
you can easily perform. Take an irregular- We notice that in Eq. (6.33), g is the same
shaped cardboard having mass M and a narrow for all particles, and hence it comes out of the
tipped object like a pencil. You can locate by trial summation. This gives, since g is non-zero,
and error a point G on the cardboard where it
can be balanced on the tip of the pencil. (The ∑m r i i = 0. Remember that the position vectors
cardboard remains horizontal in this position.) (ri) are taken with respect to the CG. Now, in
This point of balance is the centre of gravity (CG) accordance with the reasoning given below
of the cardboard. The tip of the pencil provides Eq. (6.4a) in Sec. 6.2, if the sum is zero, the origin
a vertically upward force due to which the must be the centre of mass of the body. Thus,
cardboard is in mechanical equilibrium. As the centre of gravity of the body coincides with
shown in the Fig. 6.24, the reaction of the tip is the centre of mass in uniform gravity or gravity-
equal and opposite to Mg and hence the
cardboard is in translational equilibrium. It is
also in rotational equilibrium; if it were not so,
due to the unbalanced torque it would tilt and
fall. There are torques on the card board due to
the forces of gravity like m1g, m2g …. etc, acting
on the individual particles that make up the
cardboard.

Fig. 6.25 Determining the centre of gravity of a body

Fig. 6.24 Balancing a cardboard on the tip of a of irregular shape. The centre of gravity G
pencil. The point of support, G, is the lies on the vertical AA1 through the point
centre of gravity. of suspension of the body A.

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 113

free space. We note that this is true because = 30 cm, PG = 5 cm, AK1= BK2 = 10 cm and K1G =
the body being small, g does not K2G = 25 cm. Also, W= weight of the rod = 4.00
vary from one point of the body to the other. If kg and W 1 = suspended load = 6.00 kg;
the body is so extended that g varies from part R1 and R 2 are the normal reactions of the
to part of the body, then the centre of gravity support at the knife edges.
and centre of mass will not coincide. Basically, For translational equilibrium of the rod,
the two are different concepts. The centre of R1+R2 –W1 –W = 0 (i)
mass has nothing to do with gravity. It depends Note W1 and W act vertically down and R1
only on the distribution of mass of the body. and R2 act vertically up.
In Sec. 6.2 we found out the position of the For considering rotational equilibrium, we
centre of mass of several regular, homogeneous take moments of the forces. A convenient point
objects. Obviously the method used there gives to take moments about is G. The moments of
us also the centre of gravity of these bodies, if R2 and W1 are anticlockwise (+ve), whereas the
they are small enough. moment of R1 is clockwise (-ve).
Figure 6.25 illustrates another way of For rotational equilibrium,
determining the CG of an irregular shaped body –R1 (K1G) + W1 (PG) + R2 (K2G) = 0 (ii)
like a cardboard. If you suspend the body from It is given that W = 4.00g N and W1 = 6.00g
some point like A, the vertical line through A N, where g = acceleration due to gravity. We
passes through the CG. We mark the vertical take g = 9.8 m/s2.
AA1. We then suspend the body through other With numerical values inserted, from (i)
points like B and C. The intersection of the R1 + R2 – 4.00g – 6.00g = 0
verticals gives the CG. Explain why the method or R1 + R2 = 10.00g N (iii)
works. Since the body is small enough, the = 98.00 N
method allows us to determine also its centre From (ii), – 0.25 R1 + 0.05 W1 + 0.25 R2 = 0
of mass. or R1 – R2 = 1.2g N = 11.76 N (iv)
From (iii) and (iv), R1 = 54.88 N,
u Example 6.8 A metal bar 70 cm long and R2 = 43.12 N
4.00 kg in mass supported on two knife- Thus the reactions of the support are about
edges placed 10 cm from each end. A 6.00 55 N at K1 and 43 N at K2. ⊳
kg load is suspended at 30 cm from one
end. Find the reactions at the knife-edges. u Example 6.9 A 3m long ladder weighing
(Assume the bar to be of uniform cross 20 kg leans on a frictionless wall. Its feet
section and homogeneous.) rest on the floor 1 m from the wall as shown
in Fig.6.27. Find the reaction forces of the
Answer wall and the floor.

Answer

Fig. 6.26

Figure 6.26 shows the rod AB, the positions

of the knife edges K1 and K2 , the centre of
gravity of the rod at G and the suspended load
at P.
Note the weight of the rod W acts at its
centre of gravity G. The rod is uniform in cross
section and homogeneous; hence G is at the
centre of the rod; AB = 70 cm. AG = 35 cm, AP Fig. 6.27

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114 PHYSICS

The ladder AB is 3 m long, its foot A is at from the axis, the linear velocity is υi = ri ω . The
distance AC = 1 m from the wall. From
kinetic energy of motion of this particle is
Pythagoras theorem, BC = 2 2 m. The forces
1 1
on the ladder are its weight W acting at its centre ki = m iυi2 = m i ri2ω 2
2 2
of gravity D, reaction forces F1 and F2 of the wall
and the floor respectively. Force F 1 is where mi is the mass of the particle. The total
perpendicular to the wall, since the wall is kinetic energy K of the body is then given by
frictionless. Force F 2 is resolved into two the sum of the kinetic energies of individual
components, the normal reaction N and the particles,
force of friction F. Note that F prevents the ladder n
1 n
from sliding away from the wall and is therefore K = ∑ ki = ∑ (m i ri2ω 2 )
i =1 2 i =1
directed toward the wall.
For translational equilibrium, taking the Here n is the number of particles in the body.
forces in the vertical direction, Note ω is the same for all particles. Hence, taking
N–W=0 (i) ω out of the sum,
Taking the forces in the horizontal direction, 1 n

F – F1 = 0 (ii) K = ω 2 ( ∑ m i ri2 )
2 i =1
For rotational equilibrium, taking the
moments of the forces about A, We define a new parameter characterising
the rigid body, called the moment of inertia I ,
2 2 F1 − (1/2) W = 0 (iii) given by
Now W = 20 g = 20 × 9.8 N = 196.0 N n
I = ∑ m i ri2 (6.34)
From (i) N = 196.0 N i =1

From (iii) F1 = W 4 2 = 196.0 / 4 2 = 34.6 N With this definition,

1 2
From (ii) F = F1 = 34.6 N K= Iω (6.35)
2
Note that the parameter I is independent of
F2 = F 2 + N 2 = 199.0 N
the magnitude of the angular velocity. It is a
The force F2 makes an angle α with the characteristic of the rigid body and the axis
horizontal, about which it rotates.
Compare Eq. (6.35) for the kinetic energy of
tan α = N F = 4 2 , α = tan −1(4 2 ) ≈ 80 ⊳
a rotating body with the expression for the
kinetic energy of a body in linear (translational)
6.9 MOMENT OF INERTIA
motion,
We have already mentioned that we are
1
developing the study of rotational motion parallel K= m υ2
2
to the study of translational motion with which
Here, m is the mass of the body and v is its
we are familiar. We have yet to answer one major
velocity. We have already noted the analogy
question in this connection. What is the between angular velocity ω (in respect of
analogue of mass in rotational motion? We shall rotational motion about a fixed axis) and linear
attempt to answer this question in the present velocity v (in respect of linear motion). It is then
section. To keep the discussion simple, we shall evident that the parameter, moment of inertia
consider rotation about a fixed axis only. Let us I, is the desired rotational analogue of mass in
try to get an expression for the kinetic energy of linear motion. In rotation (about a fixed axis),
a rotating body. We know that for a body rotating the moment of inertia plays a similar role as
about a fixed axis, each particle of the body moves mass does in linear motion.
in a circle with linear velocity given by Eq. (6.19). We now apply the definition Eq. (6.34), to
(Refer to Fig. 6.16). For a particle at a distance calculate the moment of inertia in two simple cases.

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 115

(a) Consider a thin ring of radius R and mass change in its rotational motion, it can be
M, rotating in its own plane around its centre regarded as a measure of rotational inertia of
with angular velocity ω. Each mass element the body; it is a measure of the way in which
of the ring is at a distance R from the axis, different parts of the body are distributed at
and moves with a speed Rω. The kinetic different distances from the axis. Unlike the
energy is therefore, mass of a body, the moment of inertia is not a
1 1 fixed quantity but depends on distribution of
K= Mυ 2 = MR 2ω 2 mass about the axis of rotation, and the
2 2
orientation and position of the axis of rotation
Comparing with Eq. (6.35) we get I = MR 2 with respect to the body as a whole. As a
for the ring. measure of the way in which the mass of a
rotating rigid body is distributed with respect to
the axis of rotation, we can define a new
parameter, the radius of gyration. It is related
to the moment of inertia and the total mass of
the body.
Notice from the Table 6.1 that in all
cases, we can write I = Mk2 , where k has
the dimension of length. For a rod, about
the perpendicular axis at its midpoint,
k 2 = L2 12 , i.e. k = L 12 . Similarly, k = R/2
for the circular disc about its diameter. The
length k is a geometric property of the body and
axis of rotation. It is called the radius of
Fig. 6.28 A light rod of length l with a pair of
masses rotating about an axis through
gyration. The radius of gyration of a body
the centre of mass of the system and about an axis may be defined as the distance
perpendicular to the rod. The total mass from the axis of a mass point whose mass is
of the system is M. equal to the mass of the whole body and whose
moment of inertia is equal to the moment of
(b) Next, take a rigid rod of negligible mass of inertia of the body about the axis.
length of length l with a pair of small masses, Thus, the moment of inertia of a rigid body
rotating about an axis through the centre of depends on the mass of the body, its shape and
mass perpendicular to the rod (Fig. 6.28). size; distribution of mass about the axis of
Each mass M/2 is at a distance l/2 from rotation, and the position and orientation of the
the axis. The moment of inertia of the masses axis of rotation.
is therefore given by From the definition, Eq. (6.34), we can infer
(M/2) (l/2)2 + (M/2)(l/2)2 that the dimensions of moments of inertia are
Thus, for the pair of masses, rotating about ML2 and its SI units are kg m2.
the axis through the centre of mass The property of this extremely important
perpendicular to the rod
quantity I, as a measure of rotational inertia of
I = Ml 2 / 4
the body, has been put to a great practical use.
Table 6.1 simply gives the moment of inertia of
The machines, such as steam engine and the
various familiar regular shaped bodies about
specific axes. (The derivations of these automobile engine, etc., that produce rotational
expressions are beyond the scope of this motion have a disc with a large moment of
textbook and you will study them in higher inertia, called a flywheel. Because of its large
classes.) moment of inertia, the flywheel resists the
As the mass of a body resists a change in its sudden increase or decrease of the speed of the
state of linear motion, it is a measure of its inertia vehicle. It allows a gradual change in the speed
in linear motion. Similarly, as the moment of and prevents jerky motions, thereby ensuring
inertia about a given axis of rotation resists a a smooth ride for the passengers on the vehicle.

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116 PHYSICS

Table 6.1 Moments of inertia of some regular shaped bodies about specific axes

Z Body Axis Figure I

(1) Thin circular Perpendicular to M R2

ring, radius R plane, at centre

(2) Thin circular Diameter M R2/2

ring, radius R

(3) Thin rod, Perpendicular to M L2/12

length L rod, at mid point

(4) Circular disc, Perpendicular to M R2/2

radius R disc at centre

(5) Circular disc, Diameter M R2/4

radius R

(6) Hollow cylinder, Axis of cylinder M R2

radius R

(7) Solid cylinder, Axis of cylinder M R2/2

radius R

(8) Solid sphere, Diameter 2 M R2/5

radius R

6.10 KINEMATICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION translation. We wish to take this analogy further.
ABOUT A FIXED AXIS In doing so we shall restrict the discussion only
We have already indicated the analogy between to rotation about fixed axis. This case of motion
rotational motion and translational motion. For involves only one degree of freedom, i.e., needs
example, the angular velocity ω plays the same only one independent variable to describe the
role in rotation as the linear velocity v in motion. This in translation corresponds to linear

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 117

motion. This section is limited only to kinematics.

We shall turn to dynamics in later sections.
We recall that for specifying the angular
displacement of the rotating body we take any
particle like P (Fig.6.29) of the body. Its angular
displacement θ in the plane it moves is the
angular displacement of the whole body; θ is
measured from a fixed direction in the plane of
motion of P, which we take to be the x′-axis,
chosen parallel to the x-axis. Note, as shown,
the axis of rotation is the z – axis and the plane
of the motion of the particle is the x - y plane.
Fig. 6.29 also shows θ 0 , the angular
displacement at t = 0.
We also recall that the angular velocity is
the time rate of change of angular displacement,
ω = dθ/dt. Note since the axis of rotation is fixed,
there is no need to treat angular velocity as a Fig.6.29 Specifying the angular position of a rigid
vector. Further, the angular acceleration, α = body.

dω/dt. u Example 6.10 Obtain Eq. (6.36) from first

The kinematical quantities in rotational principles.
motion, angular displacement (θ ), angular
velocity ( ω ) and angular acceleration ( α ) Answer The angular acceleration is uniform,
respectively are analogous to kinematic hence
quantities in linear motion, displacement (x ),
dω
velocity (v) and acceleration (a). We know the = α = constant (i)
kinematical equations of linear motion with dt
uniform (i.e. constant) acceleration: Integrating this equation,
v = v0 + at (a)
ω = ∫ α dt + c
1
x = x 0 + υ0t + at 2 (b) = α t + c (as α is constant)
2
At t = 0, ω = ω0 (given)
υ 2 = υ02 + 2ax (c) From (i) we get at t = 0, ω = c = ω0
Thus, ω = αt + ω0 as required.
where x0 = initial displacement and v0= initial With the definition of ω = dθ/dt we may
velocity. The word ‘initial’ refers to values of the integrate Eq. (6.36) to get Eq. (6.37). This
quantities at t = 0 derivation and the derivation of Eq. (6.38) is left
The corresponding kinematic equations for as an exercise.
rotational motion with uniform angular
acceleration are:
u Example 6.11 The angular speed of a
motor wheel is increased from 1200 rpm to
ω = ω0 + αt (6.36) 3120 rpm in 16 seconds. (i) What is its
angular acceleration, assuming the
1
θ = θ0 + ω 0t + αt2 (6.37) acceleration to be uniform? (ii) How many
2 revolutions does the engine make during
and ω 2 = ω02 + 2α (θ – θ0 ) (6.38) this time?
Answer
where θ0= initial angular displacement of the (i) We shall use ω = ω0 + αt
rotating body, and ω0 = initial angular velocity ω0 = initial angular speed in rad/s
of the body.

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118 PHYSICS

= 2π × angular speed in rev/s It is, however, necessary that these

correspondences are established on sound
2π × angular speed in rev/min dynamical considerations. This is what we now
=
60 s/min turn to.
Before we begin, we note a simplification
2π × 1200 that arises in the case of rotational motion
= rad/s
60 about a fixed axis. Since the axis is fixed, only
= 40π rad/s those components of torques, which are along
the direction of the fixed axis need to be
Similarly ω = final angular speed in rad/s
considered in our discussion. Only these
2π × 3120 components can cause the body to rotate about
= rad/s the axis. A component of the torque
60
perpendicular to the axis of rotation will tend to
= 2π × 52 rad/s turn the axis from its position. We specifically
= 104 π rad/s assume that there will arise necessary forces of
constraint to cancel the effect of the
∴ Angular acceleration perpendicular components of the (external)
torques, so that the fixed position of the axis
ω − ω0 will be maintained. The perpendicular
α= = 4 π rad/s2 components of the torques, therefore need not
t
be taken into account. This means that for our
The angular acceleration of the engine calculation of torques on a rigid body:
= 4π rad/s2 (1) We need to consider only those forces that
(ii) The angular displacement in time t is lie in planes perpendicular to the axis.
given by Forces which are parallel to the axis will give
1 2 torques perpendicular to the axis and need
θ = ω 0t + αt not be taken into account.
2
(2) We need to consider only those components
1 of the position vectors which are
= (40π × 16 + × 4π × 162 ) rad
2 perpendicular to the axis. Components of
position vectors along the axis will result in
= (640π + 512π ) rad
torques perpendicular to the axis and need
= 1152π rad
not be taken into account.
1152π
Number of revolutions = = 576 ⊳ Work done by a torque
2π
6.11 DYNAMICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION
ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
Table 6.2 lists quantities associated with linear
motion and their analogues in rotational
motion. We have already compared kinematics
of the two motions. Also, we know that in
rotational motion moment of inertia and torque
play the same role as mass and force
respectively in linear motion. Given this we
should be able to guess what the other
analogues indicated in the table are. For Fig. 6.30 Work done by a force F 1 acting on a
example, we know that in linear motion, work particle of a body rotating about a fixed
done is given by F dx, in rotational motion about axis; the particle describes a circular path
a fixed axis it should be τ dθ , since we already with centre C on the axis; arc P1P′1(ds1)
gives the displacement of the particle.
know the correspondence d x → dθ and F → τ .

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 119

Table 6.2 Comparison of Translational and Rotational Motion

Linear Motion Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis

1 Displacement x Angular displacement θ
2 Velocity v = dx/dt Angular velocity ω = dθ/dt
3 Acceleration a = dv/dt Angular acceleration α = dω/dt
4 Mass M Moment of inertia I
5 Force F = Ma Torque τ = I α
6 Work dW = F ds Work W = τ dθ
2
7 Kinetic energy K = Mv /2 Kinetic energy K = Iω2/2
8 Power P = F v Power P = τω
9 Linear momentum p = Mv Angular momentum L = Iω

Figure 6.30 shows a cross-section of a rigid If there are more than one forces acting on
body rotating about a fixed axis, which is taken the body, the work done by all of them can be
added to give the total work done on the body.
as the z-axis (perpendicular to the plane of the
Denoting the magnitudes of the torques due to
page; see Fig. 6.29). As said above we need to
the different forces as τ1, τ2, … etc,
consider only those forces which lie in planes
perpendicular to the axis. Let F1 be one such dW = (τ1 + τ 2 + ...) dθ
typical force acting as shown on a particle of Remember, the forces giving rise to the
the body at point P1 with its line of action in a torques act on different particles, but the
plane perpendicular to the axis. For convenience angular displacement dθ is the same for all
we call this to be the x′–y′ plane (coincident particles. Since all the torques considered are
with the plane of the page). The particle at P1 parallel to the fixed axis, the magnitude τ of the
describes a circular path of radius r1 with centre total torque is just the algebraic sum of the
C on the axis; CP1 = r1. magnitudes of the torques, i.e., τ = τ1 + τ2 + .....
In time ∆t, the point moves to the position We, therefore, have
P 1′ . The displacement of the particle ds 1 ,
dW = τ dθ (6.39)
therefore, has magnitude ds 1 = r 1 d θ and
direction tangential at P1 to the circular path This expression gives the work done by the
as shown. Here dθ is the angular displacement total (external) torque τ which acts on the body
rotating about a fixed axis. Its similarity with
of the particle, dθ = ∠P1CP1′ .The work done by
the corresponding expression
the force on the particle is
dW= F ds
dW1 = F1. ds1= F1ds1 cosφ1= F1(r1 dθ)sinα1 for linear (translational) motion is obvious.
where φ1 is the angle between F1 and the tangent Dividing both sides of Eq. (6.39) by dt gives
at P1, and α1 is the angle between F1 and the
dW dθ
radius vector OP1; φ1 + α1 = 90°. P = =τ = τω
dt dt
The torque due to F1 about the origin is or P = τω (6.40)
OP 1 × F 1. Now OP 1 = OC + OP 1. [Refer to This is the instantaneous power. Compare
Fig. 6.17(b).] Since OC is along the axis, the torque this expression for power in the case of rotational
resulting from it is excluded from our motion about a fixed axis with that of power in
consideration. The effective torque due to F1 is the case of linear motion,
τ1= CP × F1; it is directed along the axis of rotation P = Fv
and has a magnitude τ1= r1F1 sinα , Therefore, In a perfectly rigid body there is no internal
dW1 = τ1dθ motion. The work done by external torques is

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120 PHYSICS

therefore, not dissipated and goes on to increase Answer

the kinetic energy of the body. The rate at which
work is done on the body is given by Eq. (6.40).
This is to be equated to the rate at which kinetic
energy increases. The rate of increase of kinetic
energy is
d  Iω2  (2ω ) dω
=I
dt  2  2 dt
We assume that the moment of inertia does
not change with time. This means that the mass
of the body does not change, the body remains
rigid and also the axis does not change its
position with respect to the body.

Since α = dω /dt , we get

d  Iω2 
 2  = I ω α
Fig. 6.31
dt
(a) We use I α=τ
Equating rates of work done and of increase
the torque τ=FR
in kinetic energy,
= 25 × 0.20 Nm (as R = 0.20m)
τω = I ω α
= 5.0 Nm
τ = Iα (6.41) I = Moment of inertia of flywheel about its
Eq. (6.41) is similar to Newton’s second law
for linear motion expressed symbolically as MR 2
axis =
F = ma 2
Just as force produces acceleration, torque 20.0 × (0.2)2
produces angular acceleration in a body. The = = 0.4 kg m2
2
angular acceleration is directly proportional to
α = angular acceleration
the applied torque and is inversely proportional
= 5.0 N m/0.4 kg m2 = 12.5 s–2
to the moment of inertia of the body. In this
(b) Work done by the pull unwinding 2m of the
respect, Eq.(6.41) can be called Newton’s second
cord
law for rotational motion about a fixed axis.
= 25 N × 2m = 50 J
u (c) Let ω be the final angular velocity. The
Example 6.12 A cord of negligible mass is 1 2
kinetic energy gained = Iω ,
wound round the rim of a fly wheel of mass 2
20 kg and radius 20 cm. A steady pull of since the wheel starts from rest. Now,
25 N is applied on the cord as shown in
Fig. 6.31. The flywheel is mounted on a ω 2 = ω02 + 2αθ , ω0 = 0
horizontal axle with frictionless bearings. The angular displacement θ = length of
(a) Compute the angular acceleration of unwound string / radius of wheel
the wheel. = 2m/0.2 m = 10 rad
(b) Find the work done by the pull, when ω 2 = 2 × 12.5 × 10.0 = 250 (rad/s )2
2m of the cord is unwound.
(c) Find also the kinetic energy of the ∴
wheel at this point. Assume that the (d) The answers are the same, i.e. the kinetic energy
wheel starts from rest. gained by the wheel = work done by the force.
(d) Compare answers to parts (b) and (c). There is no loss of energy due to friction. ⊳

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 121

6.12 ANGULAR MOMENTUM IN CASE OF For computing the total angular momentum
ROTATION ABOUT A FIXED AXIS of the whole rigid body, we add up the
contribution of each particle of the body.
We have studied in section 6.7, the angular
momentum of a system of particles. We already Thus
know from there that the time rate of total We denote by L ⊥ and L z the components of
angular momentum of a system of particles
about a point is equal to the total external torque L respectively perpendicular to the z-axis and
on the system taken about the same point. When along the z-axis;
the total external torque is zero, the total angular L ⊥ = ∑ OCi × m i vi (6.42a)
momentum of the system is conserved.
where mi and vi are respectively the mass and
We now wish to study the angular momentum
the velocity of the ith particle and Ci is the centre
in the special case of rotation about a fixed axis.
of the circle described by the particle;
The general expression for the total angular
momentum of the system of n particles is
N
and
L= ∑ ri × pi (6.25b)
i =1 or Lz = Iω k ˆ (6.42b)
We first consider the angular momentum of
The last step follows since the perpendicular
a typical particle of the rotating rigid body. We
distance of the ith particle from the axis is ri; and
then sum up the contributions of individual
by definition the moment of inertia of the body
particles to get L of the whole body.
For a typical particle l = r × p. As seen in the about the axis of rotation is I = ∑ m i ri2 .
last section r = OP = OC + CP [Fig. 6.17(b)]. With
p=mv, Note L = L z + L ⊥ (6.42c)
The rigid bodies which we have mainly
l = ( OC × m v ) + (CP × m v )
considered in this chapter are symmetric about
The magnitude of the linear velocity v of the the axis of rotation, i.e. the axis of rotation is
particle at P is given by v = ωr⊥ where r⊥ is the one of their symmetry axes. For such bodies, for
length of CP or the perpendicular distance of P a given OCi, for every particle which has a
from the axis of rotation. Further, v is tangential velocity vi , there is another particle of velocity
at P to the circle which the particle describes.
–vi located diametrically opposite on the circle
Using the right-hand rule one can check that
with centre Ci described by the particle. Together
CP × v is parallel to the fixed axis. The unit
vector along the fixed axis (chosen as the z-axis) such pairs will contribute zero to L ⊥ and as a
is k̂ . Hence result for symmetric bodies L ⊥ is zero, and
CP × m v = r⊥ (mv ) k
ˆ hence
= mr⊥2ω kˆ (since υ = ωr⊥ ) L = L z = Iωk
ˆ (6.42d)
Similarly, we can check that OC × v is For bodies, which are not symmetric about
perpendicular to the fixed axis. Let us denote the axis of rotation, L is not equal to Lz and hence
the part of l along the fixed axis (i.e. the z-axis) L does not lie along the axis of rotation.
by lz, then Referring to Table 6.1, can you tell in which
l z = CP × m v = mr⊥2ω k
ˆ cases L = Lz will not apply?
Let us differentiate Eq. (6.42b). Since k̂ is a
and l = l z + OC × m v fixed (constant) vector, we get
We note that lz is parallel to the fixed axis,
d d  ˆ
but l is not. In general, for a particle, the angular (L z ) =  (I ω ) k
momentum l is not along the axis of rotation, dt dt
i.e. for a particle, l and ω are not necessarily Now, Eq. (6.28b) states
parallel. Compare this with the corresponding
dL
fact in translation. For a particle, p and v are = τ
always parallel to each other. dt

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122 PHYSICS

As we have seen in the last section, only We have already derived this equation using
those components of the external torques which the work - kinetic energy route.
are along the axis of rotation, need to be taken
into account, when we discuss rotation about a 6.12.1 Conservation of angular momentum
fixed axis. This means we can take τ = τ k
ˆ. We are now in a position to revisit the principle
of conservation of angular momentum in the
Since L = L z + L ⊥ and the direction of Lz (vector
context of rotation about a fixed axis. From Eq.
k̂ ) is fixed, it follows that for rotation about a (6.43c), if the external torque is zero,
fixed axis, Lz = Iω = constant (6.44)
For symmetric bodies, from Eq. (6.42d), Lz
dL z may be replaced by L .(L and Lz are respectively
= τk
ˆ (6.43a)
dt the magnitudes of L and Lz.)
This then is the required form, for fixed axis
dL ⊥ rotation, of Eq. (6.29a), which expresses the
and =0 (6.43b)
dt general law of conservation of angular momentum
Thus, for rotation about a fixed axis, the of a system of particles. Eq. (6.44) applies to many
component of angular momentum perpendicular situations that we come across in daily life. You
may do this experiment with your friend. Sit on a
to the fixed axis is constant. As L z = I ω k
ˆ , we
swivel chair (a chair with a seat, free to rotate
get from Eq. (6.43a), about a pivot) with your arms folded and feet not
d resting on, i.e., away from, the ground. Ask your
(I ω ) = τ (6.43c) friend to rotate the chair rapidly. While the chair
dt
is rotating with considerable angular speed
If the moment of inertia I does not change with stretch your arms horizontally. What happens?
time, Your angular speed is reduced. If you bring back
d dω your arms closer to your body, the angular speed
(I ω ) = I = Iα increases again. This is a situation where the
dt dt
and we get from Eq. (6.43c), principle of conservation of angular momentum
is applicable. If friction in the rotational
τ = Iα (6.41)

Fig 6.32 (a) A demonstration of conservation of

angular momentum. A girl sits on a Fig 6.32 (b) An acrobat employing the principle of
swivel chair and stretches her arms/ conservation of angular momentum in
brings her arms closer to the body. her performance.

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 123

mechanism is neglected, there is no external A circus acrobat and a diver take advantage
torque about the axis of rotation of the chair and of this principle. Also, skaters and classical,
hence Iω is constant. Stretching the arms Indian or western, dancers performing a
increases I about the axis of rotation, resulting in pirouette (a spinning about a tip–top) on the toes
decreasing the angular speed ω. Bringing the of one foot display ‘mastery’ over this principle.
arms closer to the body has the opposite effect. Can you explain?

SUMMARY

1. Ideally, a rigid body is one for which the distances between different particles of the
body do not change, even though there are forces on them.
2. A rigid body fixed at one point or along a line can have only rotational motion. A rigid
body not fixed in some way can have either pure translational motion or a combination
of translational and rotational motions.
3. In rotation about a fixed axis, every particle of the rigid body moves in a circle which
lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis and has its centre on the axis. Every Point in
the rotating rigid body has the same angular velocity at any instant of time.
4. In pure translation, every particle of the body moves with the same velocity at any
instant of time.
5. Angular velocity is a vector. Its magnitude is ω = dθ/dt and it is directed along the axis
of rotation. For rotation about a fixed axis, this vector ω has a fixed direction.
6. The vector or cross product of two vector a and b is a vector written as a× b. The
magnitude of this vector is absinθ and its direction is given by the right handed screw
or the right hand rule.
7. The linear velocity of a particle of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis is given by
v = ω × r, where r is the position vector of the particle with respect to an origin along the
fixed axis. The relation applies even to more general rotation of a rigid body with one
point fixed. In that case r is the position vector of the particle with respect to the fixed
point taken as the origin.
8. The centre of mass of a system of n particles is defined as the point whose position
vector is

R=
∑ m i ri
M

9. Velocity of the centre of mass of a system of particles is given by V = P/M, where P is the
linear momentum of the system. The centre of mass moves as if all the mass of the
system is concentrated at this point and all the external forces act at it. If the total
external force on the system is zero, then the total linear momentum of the system is
constant.

10. The angular momentum of a system of n particles about the origin is

n
L = ∑ ri × pi
i = 1

The torque or moment of force on a system of n particles about the origin is

τ = ∑ ri × Fi
1

The force Fi acting on the ith particle includes the external as well as internal forces.
Assuming Newton’s third law of motion and that forces between any two particles act
along the line joining the particles, we can show τint = 0 and

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124 PHYSICS

dL
= τ ext
dt
11. A rigid body is in mechanical equilibrium if
(1) it is in translational equilibrium, i.e., the total external force on it is zero : ∑F i =0 ,
and
(2) it is in rotational equilibrium, i.e. the total external torque on it is zero :

∑ τ i = ∑ ri × Fi = 0 .
12. The centre of gravity of an extended body is that point where the total gravitational
torque on the body is zero.
13. The moment of intertia of a rigid body about an axis is defined by the formula I = ∑ m i ri2
where ri is the perpendicular distance of the ith point of the body from the axis. The
1
kinetic energy of rotation is K = Iω2 .
2

POINTS TO PONDER
1. To determine the motion of the centre of mass of a system no knowledge of internal
forces of the system is required. For this purpose we need to know only the external
forces on the body.
2. Separating the motion of a system of particles as the motion of the centre of mass, (i.e.,
the translational motion of the system) and motion about (i.e. relative to) the centre of
mass of the system is a useful technique in dynamics of a system of particles. One
example of this technique is separating the kinetic energy of a system of particles K as
the kinetic energy of the system about its centre of mass K′ and the kinetic energy of the
centre of mass MV2/2,
K = K′ + MV2/2
3. Newton’s Second Law for finite sized bodies (or systems of particles) is based in Newton’s
Second Law and also Newton’s Third Law for particles.
4. To establish that the time rate of change of the total angular momentum of a system of
particles is the total external torque in the system, we need not only Newton’s second
law for particles, but also Newton’s third law with the provision that the forces between
any two particles act along the line joining the particles.
5. The vanishing of the total external force and the vanishing of the total external torque
are independent conditions. We can have one without the other. In a couple, total
external force is zero, but total torque is non-zero.
6. The total torque on a system is independent of the origin if the total external force is
zero.
7. The centre of gravity of a body coincides with its centre of mass only if the gravitational
field does not vary from one part of the body to the other.

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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 125

8. The angular momentum L and the angular velocity ω are not necessarily parallel vectors.
However, for the simpler situations discussed in this chapter when rotation is about a
fixed axis which is an axis of symmetry of the rigid body, the relation L = Iω
ω holds good,
where I is the moment of the inertia of the body about the rotation axis.

EXERCISES

6.1 Give the location of the centre of mass of a (i) sphere, (ii) cylinder, (iii) ring, and (iv)
cube, each of uniform mass density. Does the centre of mass of a body necessarily lie
inside the body ?
6.2 In the HCl molecule, the separation between the nuclei of the two atoms is about
1.27 Å (1 Å = 10-10 m). Find the approximate location of the CM of the molecule,
given that a chlorine atom is about 35.5 times as massive as a hydrogen atom and
nearly all the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus.
6.3 A child sits stationary at one end of a long trolley moving uniformly with a speed V
on a smooth horizontal floor. If the child gets up and runs about on the trolley in
any manner, what is the speed of the CM of the (trolley + child) system ?
6.4 Show that the area of the triangle contained between the vectors a and b is one half
of the magnitude of a × b.
6.5 Show that a.(b × c) is equal in magnitude to the volume of the parallelepiped formed
on the three vectors , a, b and c.
6.6 Find the components along the x, y, z axes of the angular momentum l of a particle,
whose position vector is r with components x, y, z and momentum is p with
components px, py and pz. Show that if the particle moves only in the x-y plane the
angular momentum has only a z-component.
6.7 Two particles, each of mass m and speed v, travel in opposite directions along parallel
lines separated by a distance d. Show that the angular momentum vector of the two
particle system is the same whatever be the point about which the angular momentum
is taken.
6.8 A non-uniform bar of weight W is suspended at rest by two strings of negligible
weight as shown in Fig.6.33. The angles made by the strings with the vertical are
36.9° and 53.1° respectively. The bar is 2 m long. Calculate the distance d of the
centre of gravity of the bar from its left end.

Fig. 6.33

6.9 A car weighs 1800 kg. The distance between its front and back axles is 1.8 m. Its
centre of gravity is 1.05 m behind the front axle. Determine the force exerted by the
level ground on each front wheel and each back wheel.

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126 PHYSICS

6.10 Torques of equal magnitude are applied to a hollow cylinder and a solid sphere, both
having the same mass and radius. The cylinder is free to rotate about its standard
axis of symmetry, and the sphere is free to rotate about an axis passing through its
centre. Which of the two will acquire a greater angular speed after a given time.
6.11 A solid cylinder of mass 20 kg rotates about its axis with angular speed 100 rad s-1.
The radius of the cylinder is 0.25 m. What is the kinetic energy associated with the
rotation of the cylinder? What is the magnitude of angular momentum of the cylinder
about its axis?
6.12 (a) A child stands at the centre of a turntable with his two arms outstretched. The
turntable is set rotating with an angular speed of 40 rev/min. How much is the
angular speed of the child if he folds his hands back and thereby reduces his
moment of inertia to 2/5 times the initial value ? Assume that the turntable
rotates without friction.
(b) Show that the child’s new kinetic energy of rotation is more than the initial
kinetic energy of rotation. How do you account for this increase in kinetic energy?
6.13 A rope of negligible mass is wound round a hollow cylinder of mass 3 kg and radius
40 cm. What is the angular acceleration of the cylinder if the rope is pulled with a
force of 30 N ? What is the linear acceleration of the rope ? Assume that there is no
slipping.
6.14 To maintain a rotor at a uniform angular speed of 200 rad s-1, an engine needs to
transmit a torque of 180 N m. What is the power required by the engine ?
(Note: uniform angular velocity in the absence of friction implies zero torque. In
practice, applied torque is needed to counter frictional torque). Assume that the
engine is 100% efficient.
6.15 From a uniform disk of radius R, a circular hole of radius R/2 is cut out. The centre
of the hole is at R/2 from the centre of the original disc. Locate the centre of gravity
of the resulting flat body.
6.16 A metre stick is balanced on a knife edge at its centre. When two coins, each of mass
5 g are put one on top of the other at the 12.0 cm mark, the stick is found to be
balanced at 45.0 cm. What is the mass of the metre stick?
6.17 The oxygen molecule has a mass of 5.30 × 10-26 kg and a moment of inertia of
1.94 ×10-46 kg m2 about an axis through its centre perpendicular to the lines joining
the two atoms. Suppose the mean speed of such a molecule in a gas is 500 m/s and
that its kinetic energy of rotation is two thirds of its kinetic energy of translation.
Find the average angular velocity of the molecule.

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 CHAPTER SEVEN

GRAVITATION

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Early in our lives, we become aware of the tendency of all
material objects to be attracted towards the earth. Anything
7.1 Introduction
thrown up falls down towards the earth, going uphill is lot
7.2 Kepler’s laws
more tiring than going downhill, raindrops from the clouds
7.3 Universal law of
above fall towards the earth and there are many other such
gravitation
phenomena. Historically it was the Italian Physicist Galileo
7.4 The gravitational
constant (1564-1642) who recognised the fact that all bodies,
7.5 Acceleration due to
irrespective of their masses, are accelerated towards the earth
gravity of the earth with a constant acceleration. It is said that he made a public
7.6 Acceleration due to demonstration of this fact. To find the truth, he certainly
gravity below and above did experiments with bodies rolling down inclined planes and
the surface of earth arrived at a value of the acceleration due to gravity which is
7.7 Gravitational potential close to the more accurate value obtained later.
energy A seemingly unrelated phenomenon, observation of stars,
7.8 Escape speed planets and their motion has been the subject of attention
7.9 Earth satellites in many countries since the earliest of times. Observations
7.10 Energy of an orbiting since early times recognised stars which appeared in the
satellite sky with positions unchanged year after year. The more
Summary interesting objects are the planets which seem to have regular
Points to ponder motions against the background of stars. The earliest
Exercises recorded model for planetary motions proposed by Ptolemy
about 2000 years ago was a ‘geocentric’ model in which all
celestial objects, stars, the sun and the planets, all revolved
around the earth. The only motion that was thought to be
possible for celestial objects was motion in a circle.
Complicated schemes of motion were put forward by Ptolemy
in order to describe the observed motion of the planets. The
planets were described as moving in circles with the centre
of the circles themselves moving in larger circles. Similar
theories were also advanced by Indian astronomers some
400 years later. However a more elegant model in which the
Sun was the centre around which the planets revolved – the
‘heliocentric’ model – was already mentioned by Aryabhatta
(5th century A.D.) in his treatise. A thousand years later, a
Polish monk named Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543)

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128 PHYSICS

proposed a definitive model in which the planets of the ellipse (Fig. 7.1a). This law was a
moved in circles around a fixed central sun. His deviation from the Copernican model which
theory was discredited by the church, but allowed only circular orbits. The ellipse, of
notable amongst its supporters was Galileo who which the circle is a special case, is a closed
had to face prosecution from the state for his curve which can be drawn very simply as
beliefs. follows.
It was around the same time as Galileo, a Select two points F1 and F2. Take a length
nobleman called Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) of a string and fix its ends at F1 and F2 by
hailing from Denmark, spent his entire lifetime pins. With the tip of a pencil stretch the string
recording observations of the planets with the taut and then draw a curve by moving the
naked eye. His compiled data were analysed
pencil keeping the string taut throughout.(Fig.
later by his assistant Johannes Kepler (1571-
7.1(b)) The closed curve you get is called an
1640). He could extract from the data three
ellipse. Clearly for any point T on the ellipse,
elegant laws that now go by the name of Kepler’s
laws. These laws were known to Newton and the sum of the distances from F1 and F2 is a
enabled him to make a great scientific leap in constant. F1, F 2 are called the focii. Join the
proposing his universal law of gravitation. points F 1 and F 2 and extend the line to
intersect the ellipse at points P and A as shown
7.2 KEPLER’S LAWS in Fig. 7.1(b). The midpoint of the line PA is
The three laws of Kepler can be stated as the centre of the ellipse O and the length PO =
follows: AO is called the semi-major axis of the ellipse.
1. Law of orbits : All planets move in elliptical For a circle, the two focii merge into one and
orbits with the Sun situated at one of the foci the semi-major axis becomes the radius of the
circle.
B 2. Law of areas : The line that joins any planet
to the sun sweeps equal areas in equal
intervals of time (Fig. 7.2). This law comes from
the observations that planets appear to move
2b slower when they are farther from the sun
P S S' A
than when they are nearer.

C
2a
Fig. 7.1(a) An ellipse traced out by a planet around
the sun. The closest point is P and the
farthest point is A, P is called the
perihelion and A the aphelion. The
semimajor axis is half the distance AP.

Fig. 7.2 The planet P moves around the sun in an

elliptical orbit. The shaded area is the area
Fig. 7.1(b) Drawing an ellipse. A string has its ends ∆A swept out in a small interval of time ∆t.
fixed at F1 and F2. The tip of a pencil holds
the string taut and is moved around.

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GRAVITATION 129

3. Law of periods : The square of the time period the law of areas. Gravitation is a central force
of revolution of a planet is proportional to the and hence the law of areas follows.
cube of the semi-major axis of the ellipse traced
out by the planet. ⊳ Example 7.1 Let the speed of the planet
at the perihelion P in Fig. 7.1(a) be vP and
Table 7.1 gives the approximate time periods
the Sun-planet distance SP be rP. Relate
of revolution of eight* planets around the sun
{rP, vP} to the corresponding quantities at
along with values of their semi-major axes. the aphelion {rA, vA}. Will the planet take
Table 7.1 Data from measurement of equal times to traverse BAC and CPB ?
planetary motions given below
confirm Kepler’s Law of Periods Answer The magnitude of the angular
(a ≡ 10
Semi-major axis in units of 10 m. momentum at P is Lp = mp rp vp, since inspection
T ≡ Time period of revolution of the planet tells us that r p and v p are mutually
in years(y). perpendicular. Similarly, LA = mp rA vA. From
Q ≡ The quotient ( T2/a3 ) in units of
angular momentum conservation
10 -34 y2 m-3.)
mp rp vp = mp rA vA
Planet a T Q vp rA
or = ⊳
Mercury 5.79 0.24 2.95 vA rp
Venus 10.8 0.615 3.00
Earth 15.0 1 2.96 Since rA > rp, vp > vA .
Mars 22.8 1.88 2.98 The area SBAC bounded by the ellipse and
Jupiter 77.8 11.9 3.01 the radius vectors SB and SC is larger than SBPC
Saturn 143 29.5 2.98 in Fig. 7.1. From Kepler’s second law, equal areas
Uranus 287 84 2.98 are swept in equal times. Hence the planet will
Neptune 450 165 2.99 take a longer time to traverse BAC than CPB.
7.3 UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION
The law of areas can be understood as a Legend has it that observing an apple falling from
consequence of conservation of angular a tree, Newton was inspired to arrive at an
momentum whch is valid for any central universal law of gravitation that led to an
force . A central force is such that the force explanation of terrestrial gravitation as well as
on the planet is along the vector joining the of Kepler’s laws. Newton’s reasoning was that
Sun and the planet. Let the Sun be at the the moon revolving in an orbit of radius Rm was
origin and let the position and momentum subject to a centripetal acceleration due to
of the planet be denoted by r and p earth’s gravity of magnitude
respectively. Then the area swept out by the
V2 4π 2 Rm
planet of mass m in time interval ∆ t is (Fig. am = = (7.3)
Rm T2
7.2) ∆ A given by
∆A = ½ (r × v∆t) (7.1)
where V is the speed of the moon related to the
Hence
time period T by the relation V = 2π Rm / T . The
∆A /∆t =½ (r × p)/m, (since v = p/m)
= L / (2 m) (7.2) time period T is about 27.3 days and Rm was
where v is the velocity, L is the angular already known then to be about 3.84 × 108m. If
momentum equal to ( r × p). For a central we substitute these numbers in Eq. (7.3), we get
force, which is directed along r, L is a constant a value of am much smaller than the value of
acceleration due to gravity g on the surface of
as the planet goes around. Hence, ∆ A /∆t is a
the earth, arising also due to earth’s gravitational
constant according to the last equation. This is attraction.

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130 PHYSICS

This clearly shows that the force due to The gravitational force is attractive, i.e., the
earth’s gravity decreases with distance. If one force F is along – r. The force on point mass m1
assumes that the gravitational force due to the due to m2 is of course – F by Newton’s third law.
earth decreases in proportion to the inverse Thus, the gravitational force F12 on the body 1
square of the distance from the centre of the
due to 2 and F21 on the body 2 due to 1 are related
earth, we will have am α Rm
−2
; g α R−
E
2
and we get as F12 = – F21.
Before we can apply Eq. (7.5) to objects under
g R2
= m2 3600 (7.4) consideration, we have to be careful since the
am RE law refers to point masses whereas we deal with
in agreement with a value of g 9.8 m s-2 and extended objects which have finite size. If we have
the value of am from Eq. (7.3). These observations a collection of point masses, the force on any
led Newton to propose the following Universal Law one of them is the vector sum of the gravitational
of Gravitation : forces exerted by the other point masses as
Every body in the universe attracts every other shown in Fig 7.4.
body with a force which is directly proportional
to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
The quotation is essentially from Newton’s
famous treatise called ‘Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy’ (Principia for short).
Stated Mathematically, Newton’s gravitation
law reads : The force F on a point mass m2 due
to another point mass m1 has the magnitude
m1 m 2
|F | = G (7.5)
r2
Equation (7.5) can be expressed in vector form as

F= G
m1 m 2
r 2 ( )
– rɵ = – G
m1 m 2 ɵ
r2
r
Fig. 7.4 Gravitational force on point mass m1 is the
vector sum of the gravitational forces exerted
m1 m 2 ɵ by m2, m3 and m4.
= –G 3
r
r
The total force on m1 is
where G is the universal gravitational constant,
Gm 2 m1 ɵ Gm 3 m1 ɵ Gm 4 m1 ɵ
F1 = r 21 + r 31 + r 41
rɵ is the unit vector from m1 to m2 and r = r2 – r1 2
r21 2
r31 2
r41
as shown in Fig. 7.3.
⊳ Example 7.2 Three equal masses of m kg
each are fixed at the vertices of an
equilateral triangle ABC.
(a) What is the force acting on a mass 2m
placed at the centroid G of the triangle ?
(b) What is the force if the mass at the
O vertex A is doubled ?
Take AG = BG = CG = 1 m (see Fig. 7.5)
Answer (a) The angle between GC and the
positive x-axis is 30° and so is the angle between
Fig. 7.3 Gravitational force on m1 due to m2 is along GB and the negative x-axis. The individual forces
r where the vector r is (r2– r1). in vector notation are

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GRAVITATION 131

cases, a simple law results when you do that :

(1) The force of attraction between a hollow
spherical shell of uniform density and a
point mass situated outside is just as if
the entire mass of the shell is
concentrated at the centre of the shell.
Qualitatively this can be understood as
follows: Gravitational forces caused by the
various regions of the shell have components
along the line joining the point mass to the
centre as well as along a direction
prependicular to this line. The components
Fig. 7.5 Three equal masses are placed at the three prependicular to this line cancel out when
vertices of the ∆ ABC. A mass 2m is placed
summing over all regions of the shell leaving
at the centroid G.
only a resultant force along the line joining
the point to the centre. The magnitude of
Gm (2m ) ˆ
FGA = j this force works out to be as stated above.
1 (2) The force of attraction due to a hollow
Gm (2m ) ˆ spherical shell of uniform density, on a
FGB =
1
(
−i cos 30ο − ˆj sin 30ο ) point mass situated inside it is zero.
Qualitatively, we can again understand this
Gm (2m ) ˆ
FGC =
1
(
+ i cos 30ο − ˆj sin 30ο ) result. Various regions of the spherical shell
attract the point mass inside it in various
From the principle of superposition and the law directions. These forces cancel each other
of vector addition, the resultant gravitational completely.
force FR on (2m) is
FR = FGA + FGB + FGC 7.4 THE GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT
(
FR = 2Gm 2 ˆj + 2Gm 2 −ˆi cos 30ο −ˆj sin 30ο ) The value of the gravitational constant G entering
the Universal law of gravitation can be
( )
+ 2Gm 2 ˆi cos 30ο − ˆj sin 30ο = 0 determined experimentally and this was first done
Alternatively, one expects on the basis of by English scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798.
symmetry that the resultant force ought to be The apparatus used by him is schematically
zero. shown in Fig.7.6
(b) Now if the mass at vertex A is doubled
then

For the gravitational force between an extended Fig. 7.6 Schematic drawing of Cavendish’s
object (like the earth) and a point mass, Eq. (7.5) is not experiment. S1 and S2 are large spheres
directly applicable. Each point mass in the extended which are kept on either side (shown
object will exert a force on the given point mass and shades) of the masses at A and B. When
the big spheres are taken to the other side
these force will not all be in the same direction. We
of the masses (shown by dotted circles),
have to add up these forces vectorially for all the point the bar AB rotates a little since the torque
masses in the extended object to get the total force. reverses direction. The angle of rotation can
This is easily done using calculus. For two special be measured experimentally.

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132 PHYSICS

The bar AB has two small lead spheres all the shells exert a gravitational force at the
attached at its ends. The bar is suspended from point outside just as if their masses are
a rigid support by a fine wire. Two large lead concentrated at their common centre according
spheres are brought close to the small ones but to the result stated in section 7.3. The total mass
on opposite sides as shown. The big spheres of all the shells combined is just the mass of the
attract the nearby small ones by equal and earth. Hence, at a point outside the earth, the
opposite force as shown. There is no net force gravitational force is just as if its entire mass of
on the bar but only a torque which is clearly the earth is concentrated at its centre.
equal to F times the length of the bar,where F is For a point inside the earth, the situation
the force of attraction between a big sphere and is different. This is illustrated in Fig. 7.7.
its neighbouring small sphere. Due to this
torque, the suspended wire gets twisted till such
time as the restoring torque of the wire equals
the gravitational torque . If θ is the angle of twist
of the suspended wire, the restoring torque is
proportional to θ, equal to τθ. Where τ is the
restoring couple per unit angle of twist. τ can be
measured independently e.g. by applying a
known torque and measuring the angle of twist.
The gravitational force between the spherical
balls is the same as if their masses are Mr
concentrated at their centres. Thus if d is the
separation between the centres of the big and Fig. 7.7 The mass m is in a mine located at a depth
its neighbouring small ball, M and m their d below the surface of the Earth of mass
masses, the gravitational force between the big ME and radius RE. We treat the Earth to be
sphere and its neighouring small ball is. spherically symmetric.
Mm Again consider the earth to be made up of
F =G (7.6)
d2 concentric shells as before and a point mass m
If L is the length of the bar AB , then the situated at a distance r from the centre. The
torque arising out of F is F multiplied by L. At point P lies outside the sphere of radius r. For
equilibrium, this is equal to the restoring torque the shells of radius greater than r, the point P
and hence lies inside. Hence according to result stated in
the last section, they exert no gravitational force
Mm on mass m kept at P. The shells with radius ≤ r
G L =τ θ (7.7)
d2 make up a sphere of radius r for which the point
Observation of θ thus enables one to P lies on the surface. This smaller sphere
calculate G from this equation. therefore exerts a force on a mass m at P as if
Since Cavendish’s experiment, the its mass Mr is concentrated at the centre. Thus
measurement of G has been refined and the the force on the mass m at P has a magnitude
currently accepted value is Gm (M r )
G = 6.67×10-11 N m2/kg2 (7.8) F = (7.9)
r2
We assume that the entire earth is of uniform
7.5 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY OF
THE EARTH 4π 3
density and hence its mass is M E = RE ρ
3
The earth can be imagined to be a sphere made
where ME is the mass of the earth RE is its radius
of a large number of concentric spherical shells
and ρ is the density. On the other hand the
with the smallest one at the centre and the
largest one at its surface. A point outside the 4π
mass of the sphere Mr of radius r is ρ r 3 and
earth is obviously outside all the shells. Thus, 3

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GRAVITATION 133

hence its distance from the centre of the earth is

(R E + h ). If F (h) denoted the magnitude of
the force on the point mass m , we get from
G m ME Eq. (7.5) :
= r (7.10)
RE 3
If the mass m is situated on the surface of GM E m
earth, then r = RE and the gravitational force on F (h ) = (7.13)
(R E + h )2
it is, from Eq. (7.10)
M Em The acceleration experienced by the point
F =G (7.11) mass is F (h )/ m ≡ g(h ) and we get
R E2
The acceleration experienced by the mass F (h ) GM E
g(h ) = = . (7.14)
m, which is usually denoted by the symbol g is m (R E + h )2
related to F by Newton’s 2nd law by relation
This is clearly less than the value of g on the
F = mg. Thus
GM E
F GM E surface of earth : g = R 2 . For h << RE , we can
g= = (7.12) E
m R E2 expand the RHS of Eq. (7.14) :
Acceleration g is readily measurable. RE is a GM E
= g (1 + h / R E )
−2
g(h ) = 2
known quantity. The measurement of G by R E (1 + h / R E )2

Cavendish’s experiment (or otherwise), combined h

with knowledge of g and RE enables one to For R <<1 , using binomial expression,
E
estimate ME from Eq. (7.12). This is the reason
 2h 
why there is a popular statement regarding g (h ) ≅ g 1 −
R E 
. (7.15)
Cavendish : “Cavendish weighed the earth”. 

7.6 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY BELOW Equation (7.15) thus tells us that for small
AND ABOVE THE SURFACE OF EARTH heights h above the value of g decreases by a
factor (1 − 2h / RE ).
Consider a point mass m at a height h above the
surface of the earth as shown in Fig. 7.8(a). The Now, consider a point mass m at a depth
radius of the earth is denoted by RE . Since this d below the surface of the earth (Fig. 7.8(b)),
point is outside the earth, so that its distance from the centre of the
earth is ( RE − d ) as shown in the figure. The
earth can be thought of as being composed
of a smaller sphere of radius (R E – d ) and a
spherical shell of thickness d. The force on
m due to the outer shell of thickness d is
zero because the result quoted in the
previous section. As far as the smaller
sphere of radius ( R E – d ) is concerned, the
point mass is outside it and hence according
to the result quoted earlier, the force due to
this smaller sphere is just as if the entire
mass of the smaller sphere is concentrated
at the centre. If Ms is the mass of the smaller
sphere, then,
Ms/ME = ( RE – d)3 / RE3 ( 7.16)
Since mass of a sphere is proportional to be
Fig. 7.8 (a) g at a height h above the surface of the cube of its radius.
earth.

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134 PHYSICS

close to the surface of earth, at distances from

the surface much smaller than the radius of the
earth. In such cases, the force of gravity is
practically a constant equal to mg, directed
towards the centre of the earth. If we consider a
Ms ME point at a height h1 from the surface of the earth
and another point vertically above it at a height
h2 from the surface, the work done in lifting the
particle of mass m from the first to the second
position is denoted by W12
W12 = Force × displacement
Fig. 7.8 (b) g at a depth d. In this case only the smaller
sphere of radius (RE–d) contributes to g. = mg (h2 – h1) (7.20)
Thus the force on the point mass is If we associate a potential energy W(h) at a
point at a height h above the surface such that
2
F (d) = G Ms m / (RE – d ) (7.17)
W(h) = mgh + Wo (7.21)
Substituting for Ms from above , we get
(where Wo = constant) ;
F (d) = G ME m ( RE – d ) / RE3 (7.18) then it is clear that
and hence the acceleration due to gravity at W12 = W(h2) – W(h1) (7.22)
a depth d, The work done in moving the particle is just
the difference of potential energy between its
F (d )
g(d) = is final and initial positions.Observe that the
m constant Wo cancels out in Eq. (7.22). Setting h
F (d ) GM E = 0 in the last equation, we get W ( h = 0 ) = Wo.
g (d ) = = (RE − d ) . h = 0 means points on the surface of the earth.
m R E3 Thus, Wo is the potential energy on the surface
RE − d of the earth.
=g = g(1 − d / R E ) (7.19) If we consider points at arbitrary distance
RE
from the surface of the earth, the result just
Thus, as we go down below earth’s surface, derived is not valid since the assumption that
the acceleration due gravity decreases by a factor the gravitational force mg is a constant is no
(1 − d / RE ). The remarkable thing about longer valid. However, from our discussion we
know that a point outside the earth, the force of
acceleration due to earth’s gravity is that it is
gravitation on a particle directed towards the
maximum on its surface decreasing whether you
centre of the earth is
go up or down.
G ME m
F= (7.23)
7.7 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY r2
We had discussed earlier the notion of potential where ME = mass of earth, m = mass of the
energy as being the energy stored in the body at particle and r its distance from the centre of the
its given position. If the position of the particle earth. If we now calculate the work done in
lifting a particle from r = r1 to r = r2 (r2 > r1) along
changes on account of forces acting on it, then
a vertical path, we get instead of Eq. (7.20)
the change in its potential energy is just the
amount of work done on the body by the force. r2 GMm
W12 = ∫ dr
As we had discussed earlier, forces for which the r1 r2
work done is independent of the path are the
conservative forces.  1 1
= −G ME m  −  (7.24)
The force of gravity is a conservative force  r2 r1 
and we can calculate the potential energy of a In place of Eq. (7.21), we can thus associate
body arising out of this force, called the a potential energy W(r) at a distance r, such that
gravitational potential energy. Consider points

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GRAVITATION 135

G ME m
W (r ) = − + W1 , (7.25)
r
valid for r > R ,
so that once again W12 = W(r 2 ) – W(r 1).
Setting r = infinity in the last equation, we get
W ( r = infinity ) = W1 . Thus, W1 is the potential
energy at infinity. One should note that only the
difference of potential energy between two points
has a definite meaning from Eqs. (7.22) and
(7.24). One conventionally sets W1 equal to zero,
so that the potential energy at a point is just the
amount of work done in displacing the particle
from infinity to that point.
We have calculated the potential energy at
a point of a particle due to gravitational forces Fig. 7.9
on it due to the earth and it is proportional to
the mass of the particle. The gravitational The gravitational potential at the centre of
potential due to the gravitational force of the
earth is defined as the potential energy of a
the square (r = 2 l/2 is)
particle of unit mass at that point. From the Gm
U (r ) = − 4 2 . ⊳
earlier discussion, we learn that the gravitational l
potential energy associated with two particles
of masses m1 and m2 separated by distance by a 7.8 ESCAPE SPEED
distance r is given by
If a stone is thrown by hand, we see it falls back
Gm1m 2 to the earth. Of course using machines we can
V =– (if we choose V = 0 as r → ∞ )
r shoot an object with much greater speeds and
It should be noted that an isolated system of with greater and greater initial speed, the object
particles will have the total potential energy that scales higher and higher heights. A natural
equals the sum of energies (given by the above query that arises in our mind is the following:
equation) for all possible pairs of its constituent ‘can we throw an object with such high initial
particles. This is an example of the application speeds that it does not fall back to the earth?’
of the superposition principle. The principle of conservation of energy helps
us to answer this question. Suppose the object
⊳ Example 7.3 Find the potential energy of did reach infinity and that its speed there was
a system of four particles placed at the Vf . The energy of an object is the sum of potential
vertices of a square of side l. Also obtain and kinetic energy. As before W1 denotes that
the potential at the centre of the square. gravitational potential energy of the object at
infinity. The total energy of the projectile at
infinity then is
Answer Consider four masses each of mass m
at the corners of a square of side l ; See Fig. 7.9.
We have four mass pairs at distance l and two mV f2
E ( ∞) = W1 + (7.26)
diagonal pairs at distance 2 l
2
Hence, If the object was thrown initially with a speed
Vi from a point at a distance (h+RE) from the
G m2 G m2 centre of the earth (RE = radius of the earth), its
W (r ) = − 4 −2
l 2l energy initially was
1 GmM E
2G m2  1  G m2 E (h + R E ) = mVi2 – + W1 (7.27)
=−  2 +  = − 5.41 2 (h + R E )
l  2 l

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136 PHYSICS

By the principle of energy conservation ⊳

Eqs. (7.26) and (7.27) must be equal. Hence Example 7.4 Two uniform solid spheres
2 of equal radii R, but mass M and 4 M have
mVi2 GmM E mV
= a centre to centre separation 6 R, as shown
f
– (7.28)
2 (h + R E ) 2 in Fig. 7.10. The two spheres are held fixed.
The R.H.S. is a positive quantity with a A projectile of mass m is projected from the
minimum value zero hence so must be the L.H.S. surface of the sphere of mass M directly
Thus, an object can reach infinity as long as Vi towards the centre of the second sphere.
is such that Obtain an expression for the minimum
speed v of the projectile so that it reaches
mVi2 GmM E the surface of the second sphere.
– ≥0 (7.29)
2 (h + R E )

The minimum value of Vi corresponds to the

case when the L.H.S. of Eq. (7.29) equals zero.
Thus, the minimum speed required for an object
to reach infinity (i.e. escape from the earth)
corresponds to Fig. 7.10

Answer The projectile is acted upon by two

1
2
( )
m Vi2
min
=
GmM E
h + RE (7.30) mutually opposing gravitational forces of the two
spheres. The neutral point N (see Fig. 7.10) is
defined as the position where the two forces
If the object is thrown from the surface of cancel each other exactly. If ON = r, we have
the earth, h = 0, and we get
GMm 4G M m
=
2GM E r2 (6 R −r )2
(Vi )min = (7.31) (6R – r)2 = 4r2
RE
6R – r = ±2r
r = 2R or – 6R.
The neutral point r = – 6R does not concern
Using the relation g = GM E / RE2 , we get us in this example. Thus ON = r = 2R. It is
sufficient to project the particle with a speed
(Vi )min = 2gR E (7.32) which would enable it to reach N. Thereafter,
the greater gravitational pull of 4M would
suffice. The mechanical energy at the surface
Using the value of g and RE, numerically of M is
(Vi) min≈11.2 km/s. This is called the escape
1 GMm 4G M m
speed, sometimes loosely called the escape Ei = m v2 − − .
velocity. 2 R 5R
Equation (7.32) applies equally well to an At the neutral point N, the speed approaches
object thrown from the surface of the moon with zero. The mechanical energy at N is purely
g replaced by the acceleration due to Moon’s potential.
gravity on its surface and rE replaced by the G M m 4G M m
EN = − − .
radius of the moon. Both are smaller than their 2R 4R
values on earth and the escape speed for the From the principle of conservation of
moon turns out to be 2.3 km/s, about five times mechanical energy
smaller. This is the reason that moon has no
atmosphere. Gas molecules if formed on the
surface of the moon having velocities larger than 1 2 GM 4GM GM GM
v − − =− −
this will escape the gravitational pull of the 2 R 5R 2R R
moon. or

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GRAVITATION 137

2G M  4 1  traverses a distance 2π(RE + h) with speed V. Its

v2 =  −  time period T therefore is
R  5 2
2π ( R E + h ) 2π (R E + h )3 / 2
 3G M 
1/2 T = = (7.37)
v =  ⊳ V G ME
 5R  on substitution of value of V from Eq. (7.35).
A point to note is that the speed of the projectile Squaring both sides of Eq. (7.37), we get
is zero at N, but is nonzero when it strikes the
T 2 = k ( RE + h)3 (where k = 4 π2 / GME) (7.38)
heavier sphere 4 M. The calculation of this speed
is left as an exercise to the students. which is Kepler’s law of periods, as applied to
motion of satellites around the earth. For a
7.9 EARTH SATELLITES satellite very close to the surface of earth h can
be neglected in comparison to RE in Eq. (7.38).
Earth satellites are objects which revolve around Hence, for such satellites, T is To, where
the earth. Their motion is very similar to the
motion of planets around the Sun and hence T0 = 2π R E / g (7.39)
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are equally If we substitute the numerical values
applicable to them. In particular, their orbits g ≃ 9.8 m s-2 and RE = 6400 km., we get
around the earth are circular or elliptic. Moon is
the only natural satellite of the earth with a near 6.4 × 106
T0 = 2π s
circular orbit with a time period of approximately 9.8
27.3 days which is also roughly equal to the Which is approximately 85 minutes.
rotational period of the moon about its own axis.
⊳ Example 7.5 The planet Mars has two
Since, 1957, advances in technology have enabled
many countries including India to launch artificial moons, phobos and delmos. (i) phobos has
earth satellites for practical use in fields like a period 7 hours, 39 minutes and an orbital
telecommunication, geophysics and meteorology. radius of 9.4 ×103 km. Calculate the mass
We will consider a satellite in a circular orbit of mars. (ii) Assume that earth and mars
of a distance (RE + h ) from the centre of the earth, move in circular orbits around the sun,
where RE = radius of the earth. If m is the mass with the martian orbit being 1.52 times
of the satellite and V its speed, the centripetal the orbital radius of the earth. What is
force required for this orbit is the length of the martian year in days ?

mV 2 Answer (i) We employ Eq. (7.38) with the sun’s

F(centripetal) = (7.33)
(RE + h ) mass replaced by the martian mass Mm
2
directed towards the centre. This centripetal force 2 4π 3
is provided by the gravitational force, which is T = R
GM m
2 3
G m ME 4π R
F(gravitation) = ( R + h )2 (7.34) Mm = 2
E G T
where ME is the mass of the earth.
4 × ( 3.14) × ( 9.4) × 10
2 3 18
Equating R.H.S of Eqs. (7.33) and (7.34) and
=
cancelling out m, we get × ( 459 × 60)
-11 2
6.67 × 10
G ME
V2 = (7.35) 4 × ( 3.14 ) × ( 9.4 ) × 10
2 3 18
(RE + h ) Mm =
6.67 × ( 4.59 × 6) × 10
2 -5
Thus V decreases as h increases. From = 6.48 × 1023 kg.
equation (7.35),the speed V for h = 0 is (ii) Once again Kepler’s third law comes to our
V 2 (h = 0) = GM / R E = gRE (7.36) aid,
2 3
where we have used the relation TM R MS
2
= 3
g = GM / RE 2 . In every orbit, the satellite TE R ES

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138 PHYSICS

where RMS is the mars -sun distance and RES is  1  1 

−13 2
the earth-sun distance. = 10  d  
 ( 24 × 60 × 60) 2   (1 / 1000) 3 km3 
∴ TM = (1.52)3/2 × 365
= 1.33 ×10–14 d2 km–3
= 684 days
Using Eq. (7.38) and the given value of k,
We note that the orbits of all planets except
the time period of the moon is
Mercury and Mars are very close to being
T 2 = (1.33 × 10-14)(3.84 × 105)3
circular. For example, the ratio of the semi-
T = 27.3 d ⊳
minor to semi-major axis for our Earth is,
Note that Eq. (7.38) also holds for elliptical
b/a = 0.99986. ⊳
orbits if we replace (RE+h) by the semi-major axis
⊳ Example 7.6 Weighing the Earth : You of the ellipse. The earth will then be at one of
the foci of this ellipse.
are given the following data: g = 9.81 ms–2,
RE = 6.37×106 m, the distance to the moon R
7.10 ENERGY OF AN ORBITING SATELLITE
= 3.84×108 m and the time period of the
moon’s revolution is 27.3 days. Obtain the Using Eq. (7.35), the kinetic energy of the satellite
mass of the Earth ME in two different ways. in a circular orbit with speed v is
1
Answer From Eq. (7.12) we have K iE = m v2
2
2
g RE
ME = Gm M E
G =
2(RE + h ) , (7.40)

=
(
9.81 × 6.37 × 10 )
6 2 Considering gravitational potential energy at
infinity to be zero, the potential energy at distance
-11
6.67 × 10 (R +h) from the centre of the earth is
= 5.97× 1024 kg. e

The moon is a satellite of the Earth. From G m ME

P .E = − (7.41)
the derivation of Kepler’s third law [see Eq. (R E + h )
(7.38)]
The K.E is positive whereas the P.E is
2 3
4π R negative. However, in magnitude the K.E. is half
T2 =
G ME the P.E, so that the total E is

4π2R 3
G m ME
ME = E = K .E + P .E = − (7.42)
GT 2 2(R E + h )
4 × 3.14 × 3.14 × ( 3.84 ) × 10 The total energy of an circularly orbiting
3 24
= satellite is thus negative, with the potential
× ( 27.3 × 24 × 60 × 60)
-11 2
6.67 × 10 energy being negative but twice is magnitude of
24
= 6.02 × 10 kg the positive kinetic energy.
Both methods yield almost the same answer, When the orbit of a satellite becomes
the difference between them being less than 1%. elliptic, both the K.E. and P.E. vary from point
⊳ to point. The total energy which remains
constant is negative as in the circular orbit case.
⊳ This is what we expect, since as we have
Example 7.7 Express the constant k of Eq.
(7.38) in days and kilometres. Given discussed before if the total energy is positive or
k = 10–13 s2 m–3. The moon is at a distance zero, the object escapes to infinity. Satellites
of 3.84 × 105 km from the earth. Obtain its are always at finite distance from the earth and
time-period of revolution in days. hence their energies cannot be positive or zero.

Answer Given
k = 10–13 s2 m–3

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GRAVITATION 139

The change in the total energy is

⊳ Example 7.8 A 400 kg satellite is in a circular
∆E = Ef – Ei
orbit of radius 2RE about the Earth. How much
energy is required to transfer it to a circular
orbit of radius 4RE ? What are the changes in
G M E m  G M E m R E

the kinetic and potential energies ? = =
8 RE  R2  8
 E 
Answer Initially, g m RE 9.81 × 400 × 6.37 × 106
∆E = = = 3.13 × 109 J
G ME m 8 8
Ei = −
4 RE The kinetic energy is reduced and it mimics
While finally ∆E, namely, ∆K = Kf – Ki = – 3.13 × 109 J.
G ME m
The change in potential energy is twice the
Ef = − change in the total energy, namely
8 RE
∆V = Vf – Vi = – 6.25 × 109 J ⊳

SUMMARY

1. Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational force of attraction between
any two particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r has the magnitude
m 1m 2
F =G 2
r
where G is the universal gravitational constant, which has the value 6.672 ×10–11 N m2 kg–2.
2. If we have to find the resultant gravitational force acting on the particle m due to a number of
masses M1, M2, ….Mn etc. we use the principle of superposition. Let F1, F2, ….Fn be the individual
forces due to M1, M2, ….Mn, each given by the law of gravitation. From the principle of superposition
each force acts independently and uninfluenced by the other bodies. The resultant force FR is
then found by vector addition
n
FR = F1 + F2 + ……+ Fn = ∑ Fi
i =1
where the symbol ‘Σ’ stands for summation.
3. Kepler’s laws of planetary motion state that
(a) All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one of the focal points
(b) The radius vector drawn from the Sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time
intervals. This follows from the fact that the force of gravitation on the planet is central
and hence angular momentum is conserved.
(c) The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major
axis of the elliptical orbit of the planet
The period T and radius R of the circular orbit of a planet about the Sun are related
by
 4 π2  3
T2 =  R
G M 
 s

where Ms is the mass of the Sun. Most planets have nearly circular orbits about the Sun. For
elliptical orbits, the above equation is valid if R is replaced by the semi-major axis, a.
4. The acceleration due to gravity.
(a) at a height h above the earth’s surface
G ME
g(h ) =
(R E + h)
2

G ME  2h 
≈ 1 − R  for h << RE
R E2 E

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140 PHYSICS

 2h  G ME
g(h ) = g (0) 1 − where g (0) =
 R E  R E2
(b) at depth d below the earth’s surface is
G ME  d   d 
g (d ) = 1 − R  = g (0 ) 1 − R 
R E2 E E

5. The gravitational force is a conservative force, and therefore a potential energy function can be
defined. The gravitational potential energy associated with two particles separated by a distance
r is given by
G m1 m 2
V =−
r
where V is taken to be zero at r → ∞. The total potential energy for a system of particles is the
sum of energies for all pairs of particles, with each pair represented by a term of the form given
by above equation. This prescription follows from the principle of superposition.
6. If an isolated system consists of a particle of mass m moving with a speed v in the vicinity of a
massive body of mass M, the total mechanical energy of the particle is given by
1 GMm
E= m v2−
2 r
That is, the total mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies. The total
energy is a constant of motion.
7. If m moves in a circular orbit of radius a about M, where M >> m, the total energy of the system is
GMm
E =−
2a
with the choice of the arbitrary constant in the potential energy given in the point 5., above.
The total energy is negative for any bound system, that is, one in which the orbit is closed, such
as an elliptical orbit. The kinetic and potential energies are
GMm
K=
2a
GMm
V =−
a
8. The escape speed from the surface of the earth is
2 G ME
ve = = 2 gRE
RE
and has a value of 11.2 km s–1.
9. If a particle is outside a uniform spherical shell or solid sphere with a spherically symmetric
internal mass distribution, the sphere attracts the particle as though the mass of the sphere or
shell were concentrated at the centre of the sphere.
10. If a particle is inside a uniform spherical shell, the gravitational force on the particle is zero. If a
particle is inside a homogeneous solid sphere, the force on the particle acts toward the centre of the
sphere. This force is exerted by the spherical mass interior to the particle.

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GRAVITATION 141

POINTS TO PONDER
1. In considering motion of an object under the gravitational influence of another object
the following quantities are conserved:
(a) Angular momentum
(b) Total mechanical energy
Linear momentum is not conserved
2. Angular momentum conservation leads to Kepler’s second law. However, it is not special
to the inverse square law of gravitation. It holds for any central force.
3. In Kepler’s third law (see Eq. (7.1) and T2 = KS R3. The constant KS is the same for all
planets in circular orbits. This applies to satellites orbiting the Earth [(Eq. (7.38)].
4. An astronaut experiences weightlessness in a space satellite. This is not because the
gravitational force is small at that location in space. It is because both the astronaut
and the satellite are in “free fall” towards the Earth.
5. The gravitational potential energy associated with two particles separated by a distance
r is given by
G m1 m 2
V =– + constant
r
The constant can be given any value. The simplest choice is to take it to be zero. With
this choice
G m1 m 2
V =–
r
This choice implies that V → 0 as r → ∞. Choosing location of zero of the gravitational
energy is the same as choosing the arbitrary constant in the potential energy. Note that
the gravitational force is not altered by the choice of this constant.
6. The total mechanical energy of an object is the sum of its kinetic energy (which is always
positive) and the potential energy. Relative to infinity (i.e. if we presume that the potential
energy of the object at infinity is zero), the gravitational potential energy of an object is
negative. The total energy of a satellite is negative.
7. The commonly encountered expression m g h for the potential energy is actually an
approximation to the difference in the gravitational potential energy discussed in the
point 6, above.
8. Although the gravitational force between two particles is central, the force between two
finite rigid bodies is not necessarily along the line joining their centre of mass. For a
spherically symmetric body however the force on a particle external to the body is as if
the mass is concentrated at the centre and this force is therefore central.
9. The gravitational force on a particle inside a spherical shell is zero. However, (unlike a
metallic shell which shields electrical forces) the shell does not shield other bodies outside
it from exerting gravitational forces on a particle inside. Gravitational shielding is not
possible.

EXERCISES
7.1 Answer the following :
(a) You can shield a charge from electrical forces by putting it inside a hollow conductor.
Can you shield a body from the gravitational influence of nearby matter by putting
it inside a hollow sphere or by some other means ?
(b) An astronaut inside a small space ship orbiting around the earth cannot detect
gravity. If the space station orbiting around the earth has a large size, can he hope
to detect gravity ?
(c) If you compare the gravitational force on the earth due to the sun to that due
to the moon, you would find that the Sun’s pull is greater than the moon’s pull.
(you can check this yourself using the data available in the succeeding exercises).
However, the tidal effect of the moon’s pull is greater than the tidal effect of sun.
Why ?

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142 PHYSICS

7.2 Choose the correct alternative :

(a) Acceleration due to gravity increases/decreases with increasing altitude.
(b) Acceleration due to gravity increases/decreases with increasing depth (assume the
earth to be a sphere of uniform density).
(c) Acceleration due to gravity is independent of mass of the earth/mass of the body.
(d) The formula –G Mm(1/r 2 – 1/r 1 ) is more/less accurate than the formula
mg(r2 – r1) for the difference of potential energy between two points r2 and r1 distance
away from the centre of the earth.
7.3 Suppose there existed a planet that went around the Sun twice as fast as the earth.
What would be its orbital size as compared to that of the earth ?
7.4 Io, one of the satellites of Jupiter, has an orbital period of 1.769 days and the radius
of the orbit is 4.22 × 108 m. Show that the mass of Jupiter is about one-thousandth
that of the sun.
7.5 Let us assume that our galaxy consists of 2.5 × 1011 stars each of one solar mass. How
long will a star at a distance of 50,000 ly from the galactic centre take to complete one
revolution ? Take the diameter of the Milky Way to be 105 ly.
7.6 Choose the correct alternative:
(a) If the zero of potential energy is at infinity, the total energy of an orbiting satellite
is negative of its kinetic/potential energy.
(b) The energy required to launch an orbiting satellite out of earth’s gravitational
influence is more/less than the energy required to project a stationary object at
the same height (as the satellite) out of earth’s influence.
7.7 Does the escape speed of a body from the earth depend on (a) the mass of the body, (b)
the location from where it is projected, (c) the direction of projection, (d) the height of
the location from where the body is launched?
7.8 A comet orbits the sun in a highly elliptical orbit. Does the comet have a constant (a)
linear speed, (b) angular speed, (c) angular momentum, (d) kinetic energy, (e) potential
energy, (f) total energy throughout its orbit? Neglect any mass loss of the comet when
it comes very close to the Sun.
7.9 Which of the following symptoms is likely to afflict an astronaut in space (a) swollen
feet, (b) swollen face, (c) headache, (d) orientational problem.
7.10 In the following two exercises, choose the correct answer from among the given ones:
The gravitational intensity at the centre of a hemispherical shell of uniform mass
density has the direction indicated by the arrow (see Fig 7.11) (i) a, (ii) b, (iii) c, (iv) 0.

Fig. 7.11

7.11 For the above problem, the direction of the gravitational intensity at an arbitrary
point P is indicated by the arrow (i) d, (ii) e, (iii) f, (iv) g.
7.12 A rocket is fired from the earth towards the sun. At what distance from the earth’s
centre is the gravitational force on the rocket zero ? Mass of the sun = 2×1030 kg,
mass of the earth = 6×1024 kg. Neglect the effect of other planets etc. (orbital radius
= 1.5 × 1011 m).
7.13 How will you ‘weigh the sun’, that is estimate its mass? The mean orbital radius of
the earth around the sun is 1.5 × 108 km.
7.14 A saturn year is 29.5 times the earth year. How far is the saturn from the sun if the
earth is 1.50 × 108 km away from the sun ?
7.15 A body weighs 63 N on the surface of the earth. What is the gravitational force on it
due to the earth at a height equal to half the radius of the earth ?

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GRAVITATION 143

7.16 Assuming the earth to be a sphere of uniform mass density, how much would a
body weigh half way down to the centre of the earth if it weighed 250 N on the
surface ?
7.17 A rocket is fired vertically with a speed of 5 km s-1 from the earth’s surface. How far
from the earth does the rocket go before returning to the earth ? Mass of the earth
= 6.0 × 1024 kg; mean radius of the earth = 6.4 × 106 m; G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2.
7.18 The escape speed of a projectile on the earth’s surface is 11.2 km s–1. A body is
projected out with thrice this speed. What is the speed of the body far away from
the earth? Ignore the presence of the sun and other planets.
7.19 A satellite orbits the earth at a height of 400 km above the surface. How much
energy must be expended to rocket the satellite out of the earth’s gravitational
influence? Mass of the satellite = 200 kg; mass of the earth = 6.0×1024 kg; radius of
the earth = 6.4 × 106 m; G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2.
7.20 Two stars each of one solar mass (= 2×1030 kg) are approaching each other for a
head on collision. When they are a distance 109 km, their speeds are negligible.
What is the speed with which they collide ? The radius of each star is 104 km.
Assume the stars to remain undistorted until they collide. (Use the known value
of G).
7.21 Two heavy spheres each of mass 100 kg and radius 0.10 m are placed 1.0 m apart on
a horizontal table. What is the gravitational force and potential at the mid point of
the line joining the centres of the spheres ? Is an object placed at that point in
equilibrium? If so, is the equilibrium stable or unstable ?

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