JCBPS; Section D; November 2015 – January 2016, Vol. 6, No.

1; 36-48 E- ISSN: 2249 –1929

Journal of Chemical, Biological and Physical Sciences

An International Peer Review E-3 Journal of Sciences
Available online at www.jcbsc.org

Section D: Environmental Sciences

CODEN (USA): JCBPAT Research Article

Assessment of drinking water quality to investigate

reasons behind water borne gastroenteritisat Tissar
Village Tehsil Shigar, Baltistan Pakistan

Ajaz Ali, Khadim Hussain, Syed Jarrar Hussain,Nasir Hussain,

Environmental Protection Agency, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan;Department of Environmental Sciences

Karakorum International UniversityGilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan

Received: 18 November 2015; Revised: 08 December 2015; Accepted: 12 December 2015

Abstract: The present study was undertaken to investigate the reasons behind the
water borne epidemic at Tissar Village Tehsil Shigar Baltistan. Some physical,
biological and chemical parameters were examined from source, nallah, and water
distribution network. Total seven sampling sites were selected for monitoring.Study
was conducted during the second week of August2013 and water samples were taken
using random sampling technique, from source, nallah, different mohallah (Prono and
Thamocho) kohl locations andfrom different community taps. Water temperature, pH,
electrical conductivity (EC), Turbidityof each water sample was measured using
portable testing meters and personal sense of observations for specific parameters like
color, odor and taste. Microbiological analysis was performed in situ using Waqtech
Portable Water Testing Kit through Membrane Filtration (MF) technique
recommended by WHO to analyze water samples to detect E. Coli as indicator of
pathogenic microorganisms in drinking water samples. However chemical analyses
(Nitrate and Nitrite) of samples were carried out by using HannaPhotometer. The test
results of all the seven collected samples revealed that water is exceedingly
contaminated with highest number of colonies (E. coli) up to 217 at Prono Mohallah
Kuhl location 1 and not fit for drinking purposes according to WHO guidelines except
the sample collected from the main nallah. Samples from Prono and Thamocho are
also chemically contaminated with nitrates (65mg/l) thus exceeding the prescribed

36 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2015 – January 2016; Vol.6 No.1; 36-48.
Assessment … Ajaz Ali et al.

limits of WHO guidelines. Temperature ranged from 12°C to 20 °C, pH value

recorded was 7-8, EC value was between 94.9-98.7, turbidity fluctuates between <40-
<60 NTUs, color was cloudy while taste and odor were not objectionable. Sanitary
inspection of channels and storage vessels showed that the water sources are highly
contaminated with human and animal feaces. The main reason behind this
contamination is traditional Chaksa and poor hygienic practices of the community.
Keywords:E. coli, Epidemic, Chaksa, National Environmental Quality Standards,
World Health Organization, Environmental Protection Agency.

INTRODUCTION

Water quality is a rising global concern. Polluted water and insufficient sanitation kill two children
every minute worldwide. Water quality is the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of
water in relationship to a set of standards. The primary uses considered for such characterization are
parameters which relate to drinking water, safety of human contact, and for health of ecosystem.
Interest in water analysis is due to the massive importance of water to all categories of living things. It
is necessary for the healthy development of man, animals and plants 1.As water contains minerals,
important for human as well as for other living beings, so it is an essential component for survival of
life on earth2. Water quality changes due to physical, biological and chemical conditions that occur as
results of physical and anthropogenic activities 3. According to Khan& Yaser4 in Pakistan, a large
percentage of rural and urban population does not have access to safe drinking water. During 2004 to
2005, about 38.5 million people in Pakistan lacked access to safe drinking water sources which may
rise to 52.8 million people by 2015. About 200,000 children die annually as a result of diarrheal
disease alone according to an estimate5.
Moreover, reports also indicate that poor water quality is a cause of around 30 to 40 percent of all
reported diseases and deaths in Pakistan respectively while diarrhea is major cause of deaths in infants
and children under ten years of age6Drinking water quality has been debated throughout the world7-8
.The usual source of drinking water is the streams, rivers, wells and boreholes which are mostly
untreated and associated with various health risks 9.During a study conducted in Karachi, out of
hundreds of samples of water no one was found safe for drinking purposes10). Another study in district
Kohat (KPK) conducted by Ahmad et al11.Analyzed 18 samples collected from different sites to test
physiochemical parameters i.e. pH, TDS, alkalinity, Electrical conductivity etc. Results indicate that
most of the samples were contaminated.According to Khalown12, Water pollution in Pakistan is
increasing rapidly by micro-organisms, agro-chemical wastes, municipal wastes and industrial wastes
introduced into a distribution system through the raw water. It has been indicated that water pollution
has become a serious problem in Pakistan.
According to a UNICEF report 20 to 40 percent beds are occupied in the hospitals of Pakistan by the
patients suffering from water-related diseases.In terms of human health the most dangerous water
pollutants are pathogenic microorganism13. It is estimated that 250 million cases of waterborne
diseases are reported worldwide14 and annually 25 million deaths are blamed due to waterborne
diseases13. Diarrhea is a waterborne disease which affects 40% children under five years old. Due to
prevalence of diarrhea among 1.5 billion cases in developing countries, 4 million ends with

37 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2015 – January 2016; Vol.6 No.1; 36-48.
Assessment … Ajaz Ali et al.

death15According to Basavaraja Simpi et al16.It is very necessary to check quality of drinking water at
regular intervals, because due to its contamination human population suffers from various water borne
diseases. The main cause of water related diseases is the presence of pathogenic organism in drinking
water. Water born infections such as diarrhea, Cholera, Typhoid, and Hepatitis are endemic in Gilgit-
Baltistan. Various epidemiological studies and hospital records indicates high prevalence of water
born infections in the populations, among which children are the most affected group 17.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Sampling: Sampling activity for water quality assessment was carried out during the second week of
August, 2013.Total four sampling points were selected and samples were taken through random
sampling technique from source, Porono mohallah kohl location 1, Porono mohallah kohl location 2,
and Porono mohallah community tap. Water temperature, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), Turbidity,
of each water sample was measured using portable testing meters and personal sense of observations
for specific parameters like color, odor and taste. Microbiological analysis was performed in situ using
Waqtech Portable Water Testing Kit through Membrane Filtration (MF) technique recommended by
WHO to analyze water samples to detect E. Coli as indicator of pathogenic microorganisms in
drinking water samples. However for chemical analysis samples were transported as per recommended
procedure to Environmental Protection Agency laboratory and analysis was carried out using Hanna
Photometer.

PARAMETERS TESTED

Temperature:
Temperature of all the samples was measured by using thermometer provided by Waqtech Water
Testing Kit.
PH:
Potatest pH meter provided by Waqtech Water Testing Kit was used to measure pH of water samples.
First cap of pH meter was removed then “On” button was pressed. Electrode was dipped about 2cm in
to the sample. After stirred once let to stabilize reading. pH reading was noted.
Turbidity:
Nephrometric Turbidity tubes were used to measure turbidity of water samples. First the three tubes
were connected together, then water was poured gradually into the tubes. Look water from the top of
the tube across at bottom of the tube. Read level of water where cross just disappear and recorded the
value.
Electrical Conductivity:
EC of drinking water samples was calculated by using conductivity meter 18. Electrode of the
conductivity meter was dipped in each sample and conductivity of the sample was calculated when a
flash has been appeared on the screen. Before taking each reading electrode was washed with distilled
water and then dried with soft tissue papers.

38 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2015 – January 2016; Vol.6 No.1; 36-48.
Assessment … Ajaz Ali et al.

Microbial Analysis:
Waqtech Water Testing Kit was used for microbial analyses, which employ the Membrane Filtration
Technique and membrane Lauryl Sulphate Broth as medium. A 100ml volume of water was sucked
through the membrane (fitted in the sterile membrane unit) with the help of Vacuum Pump. The
membrane was then placed on the absorbent pad saturated with Membrane Lauryl Sulphate Broth in
sterile Aluminum Petri Dish. The plates were than incubated for 18 hours at 40-44 C. After incubation
period all yellow colonies on the membrane were counted and reported in per 100 ml of water.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

Nitrate: Using the dropper, filled the cuvette with 6ml of sample, up to half of its height, and replaced
the cap. Placed the cuvette into the holder and closed the lid. Pressthe zero key. The display showed “-
0.0-” and ready for measurement. Removed the cuvette and added the content of one packet of HI
93728-0 reagent. Replaced the cap and immediately shacked vigorously up and down for exactly 10
seconds. Continue to mix by inverting the cuvette gently for 50 seconds. Re-inserted the cuvette into
the instrument. Pressed timer and the display showed the countdown to the measurement, waited for 4
minutes and 30 seconds and pressed Read. When the timer ends the meter performed the reading. The
instrument displayed the results in mg/L of nitrate-nitrogen. Press up and down buttons to access the
second level functions. Pressed Chem Frm key to convert the result in mg/L of Nitrate (NO 3-)
Nitrite: Select the Nitrite HR method. Filled the cuvette up to the mark with 10 ml of unreacted
sample and replaced the cap. Placed the cuvette into the holder and close the lid. Pressed the Zero key
which displayed “-0.0” and the meter is zeroed, ready for measurement. Remove the cuvette. Added
the content of one packet of HI 93708-0 reagent. Replaced the cap and shacked gently until completely
dissolved. Re-inserted the cuvette into the instrument. Pressed Timer which displayed countdown prior
to the measurement, waited for 10 minutes and pressed Read? When timer ended the meter performed
the reading. The instrument displayed concentration in mg/L of nitrite. Press up and down keys to
access second level functions. Press Chem Frm key to convert the result in mg/L of Nitrogen-nitrogen
(NO2- -N) and Sodium Nitrite (NaNO2).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Temperature: According to Jayaraman et al19. The temperature drinking water is often not a major
concern to consumers especially in terms of drinking water quality. The quality of water with respect
to temperature is usually left to the individual taste and preference and there are no set guidelines for
drinking water temperature. Examination of water samples taken from source nallah was 13°C while
rest of all the samples has 18°C, 20°C,14°C, 19°C, 12°C, and 16°C respectively. Minimum
temperature value recorded was 12°C and maximum was 20°C. The observed temperature variation of
the sampled water from 9°C to 25 °C in a study conducted by Shedayi et al20at drinking water quality
of Nomal, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. Of the seven samples one were at higher side. This deviation
from limitation may be because of the timing of the sampling.
PH: pH is most important in determining the corrosive nature of water. Lower the pH value higher is
the corrosive nature of water. pH was positively correlated with electrical conductance and total
alkalinity 21. pH values recorded from source nallah was 7.6, while other values of pH recorded were
39 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2015 – January 2016; Vol.6 No.1; 36-48.
Assessment … Ajaz Ali et al.

7.8, 7, 8, 6.6, 7.2, 7.7 respectively. WHO has recommended 6.5 to 8.5 value of pH for drinking water.
Minimum 6.6 and maximum 8 pH values was recorded in the water samples.Similar results have been
found in other countries by 22, pH values ranges from 7.5 to 8.4. The maximum pH value (8.4) was
recorded in the month of April (summer) and minimum (7.5) in the month of October. The mean pH
of private and public borehole water samples stood at 5.42 and 7.34 respectively in Nigeria by 23, in
their study comparative analysis of public and private borehole water supply sources in urban local
government area of Akwa Ibom state. Similarly, Shedayi et al20.Recorded pH value of 7.1 in a study of
drinking water quality of Nomal Gilgit-Baltistan Pakistan. It indicated that pH value of all collected
samples fall within safe limit of drinking water quality in WHO standards while in this study the pH
values were also within the prescribed limits of WHO.
Detail results of analyzed parameters are shown in table 1.
Table1: showing consolidated results of physio-chemical and microbiological parameter

Sampling PARAMETERS TESTED

S#
Location Temp pH Turbidity E. coli EC Color Odor Taste Nitrate Nitrite
Source No No 22.7 2.7
1 13°C 7.6 <60 NTU 0col 96.9 cloudy
(Nallah) obj obj mg/l mg/l
Prono
No No 65
2 Mohallah 18°C 7.8 <40 NTU 217col 98.7 cloudy 4 mg/l
obj obj mg/l
kohl
Prono
Mohallah No No 48
3 20°C 7 <47 NTU 170col 95.6 cloudy 2 mg/l
community obj obj mg/l
tape
Thamocho
No No 63 4.4
4 Mohallah 14°C 8 <50 NTU 98.6 cloudy
148col obj obj mg/l mg/l
location-1
Thamocho
No No 61
5 Mohallah 19°C 6.6 <54 NTU 168col 94.9 cloudy 4 mg/l
obj obj mg/l
location-2
Thamocho
No No 59 4.3
6 Mohallah 12°C 7.2 <58 NTU 112col 96.2 cloudy
obj obj mg/l mg/l
location-3
Thamocho
No No 60.2 4.1
7 Mohallah 16°C 7.6 <56 NTU 121col 97.5 cloudy
obj obj mg/l mg/l
location-4

40 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2015 – January 2016; Vol.6 No.1; 36-48.
Assessment … Ajaz Ali et al.

(n-7)

TML-4 16

TML-3 12

TML-2 19

TML-1 14

PMCT 20

PMK 18

SN 13

0 5 10 15 20
Temperature

Fig 1: showing temperature levels at different sampling points

(n-7)

TML-4 7.6
TML-3 7.2
TML-2 6.6
TML-1 8
PMCT 7
PMK 7.8
SN 7.6
0 2 4 6 8
pH

Fig 2: showing pH levels at different sampling points

41 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2015 – January 2016; Vol.6 No.1; 36-48.
Assessment … Ajaz Ali et al.

(n-7)

TML-4 56
TML-3 58
TML-2 54
TML-1 50
PMCT 47
PMK 40
SN 60
0 20 40 60
Turbidity

Fig 3: showing turbidity levels at different sampling points.

Turbidity:
Turbidity may indicate the presence of disease causing organisms. These organisms include bacteria,
viruses, parasites that can cause nausea, cramps, and diarrhea and associated headaches24.
Turbidity values observed from the water samples of source nallah was <60 NTUs, while turbidity level
for rest of samples noted were <40 NTUs, <47 NTUs, <50 NTUs, <54NTUs, <58 NTUs, <56 NTUs
respectively. A little fluctuation in the findings of tested samples was observed, varied between <40–<60
NTUs.Maximum turbidity value <60 NTUs was found at source nallah while lowest values <40 NTUs
was found at Prono Mohallah kohl. According to WHO guidelines and NEQ standards the turbidity value
should be <5NTUs and all the analyzed samples exceeding the prescribed limits.In a similar study by
Naqvi et al25. turbidity value of the studied samples were exceeding the WHO guidelines as well as
PCRWR values except for samples MF 05, 08, 10, 11, 12, and 14, which had the turbidity values within
permissible limits.
Electrical Conductivity: Electrical conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct electric current in
water26.EC values determined from source nallah were 96.9μS/cm, while rest of sampling locations
has98.7, 95.6, 98.6, 94.9, 96.2, and 97.5μS/cm respectively. Maximum value recorded was 98.7μS/cm
and minimum was 94.9μS/cm.
According to WHO guidelineselectrical conductivityof drinking water must not exceed 400 μS/cm. EC
values of all the analyzed samples were within the prescribed standards of WHO. Studies by other
researchers27-28were also in accordance with the current study where Electrical conductivity of water
samples was well within the permissible limit of WHO guideline of 400μS/cm.

42 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2015 – January 2016; Vol.6 No.1; 36-48.
Assessment … Ajaz Ali et al.

(n-7)

TML-4 97.5
TML-3 96.2
TML-2 94.9
TML-1 98.6
PMCT 95.6
PMK 98.7
SN 96.9

93 94 95 96 97 98 99
Electrical Conductivity

Fig 4: showing EC levels at different samplings points

Microbial Analysis: Total coliform bacteria and faecal coliform Escherichia Coli (E. coli) are two types
of faecal indicator bacteria. Several bacteria can be classified as coliform, and are commonly found in
soil, on the surface of leaves, in decaying matter, and can grow in water distribution mains29. In the
current study faecal contamination were found in the samples with colonies (E. coli) up to 217 at Prono
Mohallah kohl while at source nallah no colonies (E. coli) were found.A previous study conducted by
Malick et al30, (1998) analyzed the drinking water quality in the city of Karachi. Results showed the
presence of Coliform bacteria in the main distribution lines. It indicates that water got contaminated from
the surrounding leaky sewerage pipelines. Secondly, the presence of faecal Coliform in the water of
branch lines feeding to consumers and stand posts, confirmed the mixing of sewage into drinking water
lines making it unfit for drinking. Other studies by Shedayi et al20 found 100 colonies in water tank, in
tape1;15 colonies, in well 67 colonies, in channel 2;17 colonies and in tap2; 5 coliform were analyzed in 1
ml of water sample. Tahir et al31 analyzed the drinking water quality in the rural areas of Rawalpindi.
Most of the water samples were found unfit for drinking purpose due to the presence of Coliform and E.
coli.
Nitrate and Nitrite: Contamination of drinking water by nitrate is an evolving public health concern
globally. Nitrate in groundwater is of concern not only because of its toxic potential, but also because it
may indicate serious ground pollution32. Ingested nitrate from dietary sources and drinking water can be
converted to nitrite and ultimately to N-nitroso compounds, many of which are known carcinogens 33-34.
Maximum value of nitrate and nitrite recorded was 65 at Prono Mohallah Kuhl, 4.4 at Thamocho
Mohallah location-1. Minimum nitrate level recorded was 22.7 at source nallah and nitrite level 2 at
Prono Mohallah community tape respectively. Both nitrate and nitrite levels were exceeding the
prescribed limits of HWO. In India a study was conducted by Simpi et a122.found of nitrate values ranged
from 2.1 mg/l to 12.8 mg/l. Maximum value (12.8mg/l) was observed in the month of August and
minimum (2.10 mg/l) in the month of December. Similarly, Begum et al35. investigated highest level of
nitrates at residential area, bridge and junction point while lowest level was found at upstream and tank
43 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2015 – January 2016; Vol.6 No.1; 36-48.
Assessment … Ajaz Ali et al.

inlet. A similar level of nitrite was found at the same sampling points because there was no anthropogenic
activities occurred.

(n-7)

TML-4 121
TML-3 112
TML-2 168
TML-1 148
PMCT 170
PMK 217
SN 0

0 50 100 150 200 250

E. coli

Fig 6: showing E. coli found in different sampling points

(n-7)

TML-4 60.2
Sampling locations

TML-3 59
TML-2 61
TML-1 63
PMCT 48
PMK 65
SN 22.7

0 20 40 60 80
Nitrate level

Fig 7: showing nitrate levels at different sampling points

44 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2015 – January 2016; Vol.6 No.1; 36-48.
Assessment … Ajaz Ali et al.

(n-7)

TML-4 4.1
Sampling locations TML-3 4.3
TML-2 4
TML-1 4.4
PMCT 2
PMK 4
SN 2.7
0 1 2 3 4 5
Nitrite

Fig 8: showing nitrite levels in different sampling points

CONCLUSION

Despite the availability of community piped water system and nallah the inhabitants of Tissar village are
used to get water from small water channels running adjacent to local Chaksa and agricultural runoff
which is highly contaminated with feacal matter. The most vulnerable group among community such as
old aged and young individuals use water from these contaminated channels for ablution and washing.
According to the test results and sanitary inspection of the water sources of the village transmission of
gastroenteritis is due to the consumption of contaminated water, washing of utensil, improperly prepared
foods or via close contact with individuals who are infected. The other reasons is sharing of personal
objects and use of highly contaminated water for ablutions, bathing and washing etc.

RECOMMENDATIONS

 It is highly recommended that the water from small water channels should be used for drinking,
washing, ablutions and bathing etc.
 Massive awareness sessions to be conducted among locals especially with the women folk which are
most vulnerable.
 Provision of medicines i.e. antibiotics, antiemetic, oral and intravenous rehydration solutions and
water disinfection tablets (chlorine tabs) on emergency basis.
 Health and hygienic education of local community can prevent transmission of epidemics in future.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We appreciate Assistant Director (Lab/R&D) and Scientific Officer (Lab) Environmental Protection
Agency for providing laboratory facilities, moral and technical support throughout the research work.

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Corresponding author: Ajaz Ali;

Environmental Protection Agency, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan;
Department of Environmental Sciences Karakorum International University,
Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan

48 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2015 – January 2016; Vol.6 No.1; 36-48.