Sequences

Paolo Rollan
August 24, 2021

§1 Introduction
For starters, a sequence is an ordered list of numbers that may be finitely or infinitely many.
Numbers in a sequence are called terms. Some examples of sequences include,
(i) 5, 10, 15, 20, 25
(ii) 2, 3, 5, 7, 11
(iii) 3, 9, 27, 81, . . .
Note that in the third example, the three dots after 81 means and so on hence the sequence goes
on forever. However, the sequence
1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , 100
does not go on forever since the sequence stops at the last term which is 100 hence the three dots
denotes the terms that are in the middle that aren’t mentioned.
In addition, a series is simply the sum of all the terms in a sequence.
In this handout, you’ll know some concepts behind sequences and series as well as some introductory
and contest problems. For clarifications and concerns, you can message me at https://m.me/
jmpbr.0.

§2 Sequences
As mentioned above, that a sequence is an ordered list of numbers. Usually, these involve a specific
formula or pattern in order to get these numbers in order (e.g. using a function). We will explain
common types of sequences that you’ll usually interact with.

§2.1 Arithmetic Sequence

An arithmetic sequence is a sequence in which the difference between consecutive terms is always
the same for other consecutive terms. For example, we let w, x, y, z to be consecutive terms in an
arithmetic sequence. It follows that x − w, y − x, and z − y all have equal value and its difference
is called the common difference.
Furthermore, an arithmetic sequence is always in the form

a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . .

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where a is the first term and d is the common difference.

With the pattern above, we can also tell that the formula for the nth term of an arithmetic sequence
{an } is
an = a1 + (n − 1)d
where a1 is the first term and d is the common difference.

Example 2.1
Find the 17th term of an arithmetic sequence given that its first term is 5 and its common
difference is 3.
Solution. We note that the first term a1 = 5 and the common difference d = 3 plugging
in these values, the value of the 17th term a17 is

a17 = 5 + (17 − 1) × 3 = 53 .

Example 2.2
The 23rd term of an arithmetic sequence is 111. If its common difference is 5, find the value
of the first term.
Solution. To plug in to the formula, we note that a23 = 111, n = 23, and d = 5. Plugging
them to the formula, we have

111 = a1 + (23 − 1) × 5,
a1 = 1.

Hence the first term of the sequence is 1 .

§2.1.1 Arithmetic Series

An arithmetic series is the sum of of the terms of an arithmetic sequence. The sum of the first n
terms of an arithmetic sequence is defined by the formula
n
a1 + a2 + . . . + an = (2a1 + (n − 1)d)
2
or if the last term is given,
( )
a1 + an
a1 + a2 + . . . + an = n
2

where a1 is the first term, d is the common difference, and an is the last term of our desired
sum.

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Example 2.3
An arithmetic sequence has a common difference of 3 and a first term of 2. Find the sum
of the first 15 terms of the sequence.
Solution. Using the formula above, we note that a1 = 2, d = 3, and n = 15. Plugging
these values, we obtain the sum
15
a1 + a2 + . . . + a15 = (2(2) + (15 − 1) × 3) .
2

Simplifying everything gives us the answer 345 .

Example 2.4
An arithmetic sequence has a first term of 4 and a tenth term of 67. Find the sum of the
first ten terms of the sequence.
Solution. Since the first and last terms are given, we know that a1 = 4, a10 = 67, and
n = 10 since there are ten terms. Plugging these to the formula, we get the sum
( )
4 + 67
a1 + a2 + . . . + a15 = 10
2

which sums up to 355 .

§3 Geometric Sequence
A geometric sequence is a sequence in which the ratio between consecutive terms is always the
same for other consecutive terms. Suppose that a, b, c, and d are consecutive terms in a geometric
b c d
sequence. It follows that , , and all have equal value and its ratio is called the common ratio.
a b c
Also, a geometric sequence is always in the form,
a, ar, ar2 , ar3 , . . .
where a is the first term and r is the common ratio.
With this pattern, we can say that the formula nth term of a geometric sequence an is
an = a1 rn−1
where a1 is the first term and r is the common ratio.

Example 3.1
A geometric sequence has a first term of 2 and a common ratio of 3. What is the sixth
term of the sequence?
Solution. Using the formula above, we note that a1 = 2, and r = 3. Solving for the sixth
term a6 , we obtain
a6 = 2 × 36−1
which is equal to 486 .

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Example 3.2
1
The sixth term of a geometric sequence is 48. If its common ratio is , compute the value
2
of the first term.
1
Solution. Using the formula once more, we note that a6 = 48 and r = . Solving for the
2
first term a1 , we have ( )6−1
1
48 = a1 ×
2
3
which simplifies to .
2

§3.0.1 Geometric Series

A geometric series is the sum of the terms of a geometric sequence. The formula for the first n
terms of a geometric sequence is defined as

a1 (1 − rn )
a1 + a2 + a3 + . . . + an =
1−r
where a1 is the first term, and r is the common ratio.
Also, unlike an arithmetic series, taking the sum of infinitely many terms of a geometric series (or
simply an infinite geometric series) can be obtained with the formula
a1
a1 + a2 + a3 + . . . =
1−r
where again, a1 is the first term and r is the common ratio. However, it is noted that |r| < 1 in
order to get a desired value for the infinite sum. Otherwise, the value of the sum itself approaches
infinity.

Remark. We can show that if |r| < 1, then the sum does not approach infinity with the conver-
gence test or with some geometric presentation.

Example 3.3
Compute the sum of the first 5 terms of a geometric sequence given that the first term is
3 and the common ratio is 5.
Solution. We note that with the given values, we have a1 = 3 and r = 5. Using the
formula above, we obtain the sum

1 − 55
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 = 3 ×
1−5

which simplifies to 2443 .

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Example 3.4
Evaluate the infinite geometric series,
1 1 1
1+ + + + ....
2 4 16

1
Solution. We first observe that the common ratio in this geometric series is just by
2
dividing consecutive terms. Now, using the formula for the sum of an infinite geometric
series and with the first term being 1, our desired sum is 1 1 which is equal to 2 .
1−
2

§4 Harmonic Sequence
A harmonic sequence is a sequence whose terms are the reciprocals of an arithmetic sequence.
Suppose we have an arithmetic sequence with terms

a, a + d, a + 2d, . . . , a + (n − 1)d

where a is the first term and d is the common difference. This tells us that the terms of a harmonic
sequence are
1 1 1 1
, , ,..., .
a a + d a + 2d a + (n − 1)d
Now with this pattern, we can see that the nth term for a harmonic sequence is defined by
1
hn =
a1 + (n − 1)d

where hn is the nth for the harmonic sequence, a1 is the first term for the arithmetic sequence, and
d is the common difference. Note that if we take the reciprocal of a harmonic sequence, we get
back to the original arithmetic sequence.

Example 4.1
1 1
Consider a harmonic sequence {hn } with h1 = and h2 = . Find the value of h7 .
2 5
Solution. If we take the reciprocals of h1 and h2 , we get the first two terms of an arithmetic
sequence as 2 and 5 which eventually gives a common difference of 3. Using the formula
above to get h7 , we have
1
h7 =
2 + (7 − 1) × 3
1
which simplifies to .
20

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Example 4.2
An arithmetic sequence has a first term of 3 and a third term of 5. Find the ninth term of
its harmonic sequence.
Solution. Since we can write the nth term of an arithmetic sequence an as an = a1 +(n−1)d,
we note the system

a1 = 3,
a1 + 2d = 5.

Solving the system eventually gives us the common difference d = 1. Solving for the ninth
term of the harmonic sequence h9 , we have
1
h9 =
3 + (9 − 1) × 1

1
which simplifies to .
11

§5 Sequences Defined By Other Formulas

Sequences can be also defined with other explicit formulas as well! Generally, we can get the nth
term of a sequence with the concept of functions.

Example 5.1
A sequence {an } is defined by an = n2 + 2n − 3 for all n ≥ 1. Find the value of a5 .
Solution. We can obtain the value of a5 just by plugging in n = 5 to the formula given.
Plugging in n = 5 to n2 + 2n − 3 gives us the result 32 .

Example 5.2
A sequence {bn } is defined by bn = 3n + 1 for all n ≥ 1. Find the value of b1 + b2 + b3 .
Solution. Substituting n = 1, 2, and 3 to the formula we obtain 4, 10, and 28 respectively.
Adding all the values we obtain the final answer 4 + 10 + 28 which is 42 .

§5.1 Recursive Sequences

A sequence {an } can be defined recursively or simply, a recursive sequence is when small values of
an are given (usually only a0 or a1 and yes, a sequence can start at a0 ) and all the remaining terms
are then defined with a formula usually with the help of the given terms.

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Example 5.3
A sequence {an } is defined recursively such that a1 = 1 and for all n ≥ 2, an = 3an−1 + 1.
Compute a4 .
Solution. Note that if we substitute n = 2, we have

a2 = 3a1 + 1

and since a1 = 1, we note that a2 = 4.

Also for n = 3 we have
a3 = 3a2 + 1
and since a2 = 4, we arrive at a3 = 3(4) + 1 = 13. Finally, for a4 , we note that a4 = 3a3 + 1
and since a3 = 13, a4 is just simply 3(13) + 1 which is 40 .

§5.1.1 Fibonacci Sequence

Possibly the most famous sequence defined recursively is the Fibonacci sequence. In this sequence,
we can generate a new term in this sequence by adding the previous two terms. Suppose that Fn
denotes the nth Fibonacci number. This sequence is defined recursively by F0 = 0, F1 = 1, and for
all n ≥ 2,
Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 .
In addition, there is an explicit formula that can generate the nth Fibonacci number called Binet’s
Formula! For all n ≥ 0 the nth Fibonacci number can be expressed as
(( √ )n ( √ )n )
1 1+ 5 1− 5
Fn = √ −
5 2 2

§5.2 Generating Patterns

Given the terms of a sequence, we can also derive a general formula for the nth term of the sequence.
This usually involves some intuition and computation.

Example 5.4
Find the general term of the sequence (in terms of n) given the first five terms of the
sequence {an } are 3, 7, 11, 15, and 19.
Solution. This sequence resembles an arithmetic sequence! We also know that the first
term of the sequence is 3 and the common difference is 4. Also, since the general term for
an arithmetic sequence is a1 + (n − 1)d substituting a1 = 3 and d = 4 gives us 3 + 4(n − 1)
which simplifies to an = 4n − 1 .

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§6 Problem Set
Note that some problems with ⋆ are kind of challenging. Also, some problems come from past math
contests. Happy solving!
1. Find the tenth term of an arithmetic sequence given that its first term is 5 and the common
difference is 4.
2. The seventh term of an arithmetic sequence is 26. If the common difference of the sequence is
2, compute the first term.
1
3. Consider a geometric sequence with a first term of 128 and a common ratio of . Find the fifth
2
term.
4. A geometric sequence has a first term of 7 and a common ratio of −2. Find the fifth term.
5. Consider an arithmetic sequence {an } where a1 = 3 and a2 − a1 = 7. Compute a1 + a2 + a3 +
. . . + a10 .
1 1 1 1
6. Compute the value of the infinite geometric series: + + + + . . ..
3 9 27 81
7. A sequence {an } is defined by an = n3 + 3n − 1 for all n ≥ 1. Compute a5 .
8. A sequence {an } is defined recursively such that a1 = 1 and for all n ≥ 1, an+1 = 5an + 3.
Compute a10 .
9. For all n ≥ 0, let Fn be the nth Fibonacci number. In terms of some constant k, determine the
k th even Fibonacci number.
10. (2011 AMC10 P4) Let X and Y be the sums of the arithmetic sequences:

X = 10 + 12 + 14 + . . . + 100,
Y = 12 + 14 + 16 + . . . + 102.

What is the value of Y − X?

11. ⋆ (2018 PMO Qualifying P1) Five numbers are inserted between 4 and 2916 so that the resulting
seven numbers form a geometric sequence. What is the the fifth term of this geometric sequence?
12. ⋆ (MMC G10 Division Finals D1) Three numbers form an arithmetic sequence with common
difference 3. If the first is decreased by 2, the second is doubled, and the third is multiplied
by 5, the new numbers form a geometric sequence with distinct terms. Give the three original
numbers (in order).
13. ⋆ (2017 MMC Regionals P3P1) Suppose a, b, and c form an arithmetic sequence. Prove that
b2 + bc + c2 , c2 + ca + a2 , and a2 + ab + b2 also form an arithmetic sequence.
14. ⋆ (2005 AIME II P3) An infinite geometric series has sum 2005. A new series, obtained by
squaring each term of the original series, has 10 times the sum of the original series. The
m
common ratio of the original series is where m and n are relatively prime integers. Find
n
m + n.
15. ⋆ (2012 AIME I P2) The terms of an arithmetic sequence add to 715. The first term of the
sequence is increased by 1, the second term is increased by 3, the third term is increased by 5,
and in general, the kth term is increased by the kth odd positive integer. The terms of the new
sequence add to 836. Find the sum of the first, last, and middle terms of the original sequence.

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§7 Sources
• https://brilliant.org/wiki/terminology-of-sequences-and-series/
• https://artofproblemsolving.com/wiki/index.php/Arithmetic_sequence
• https://artofproblemsolving.com/wiki/index.php/Geometric_sequence
• https://artofproblemsolving.com/wiki/index.php/Binet%27s_Formula
• https://www.iit.edu/sites/default/files/2021-02/convergence_test.pdf
• https://pmo.ph/downloads/
• https://artofproblemsolving.com/wiki/index.php/AMC_10_Problems_and_Solutions
• https://artofproblemsolving.com/wiki/index.php/AIME_Problems_and_Solutions