STEEL DESIGNERS’

MANUAL
FOURTH EDITION

Prepared for the

CONSTRUCTIONAL STEEL RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANISATION

CROSBY LOCKWOOD LONDON

Granada Publishing Limited

First published 1955 by Crosby Lockwood

3 Upper James Street London WIR 4BP

Second impression 1956

Third impression 1956
Fourth impression 1957
Fifth impression 1959

Second edition 1960

Reprinted with further revision 1962

Third edition 1966

Reprinted with minor corrections 1967

ELBS edition first published 1966

Second ELBS edition 1972

Copyright © Fourth edition 1972 Constructional Steel Research and Development Organisation

No part of this publication may be

All rights reserved.
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
permission of the publishers.

Text set in 10/1

1 pt. IBM Press Roman, printed by photolithography,
and bound in Great Britain at The Pitman Press, Bath
 FOREWORD TO THE FOURTH EDITION

The Steel Designers’ first published in 1955, at the instigation of the

Manual was
British Steel Producers’ Conference and the British Iron & Steel Federation, in
order to bridge the gap between the field of structural analysis and the practical
application of steelwork in constructional engineering.
This new edition is in essence a metric version of the Third Edition, first published
in 1966. The contents have been revised to take into account B.S. 4360: Part 2: 1969,
Weldable structural steels, and B.S. 449: Part 2: 1969, The use of structural steel in
building, both of which are in metric units. Where co-ordinated metric dimensions
are not in operation, as in the case of steel sections, metric equivalents of the Imperial
units have been employed. It should, however, be noted that as metric angles will
be available with effect from January 1973, details are included of both the Imperial
angles and the metric angles which will replace them.
It is hoped that this edition will be as acceptable to students and practising
engineers in the metric environment as its predecessors have been in the Imperial
system.

DIRECTOR
CONSTRADO

May, 1972
List of contributors of new chapters and those who have undertaken the
revision of existing chapters in the Third and Fourth Editions.

ALLWOOD, f.i.struct.e.
B. O.
PROFESSOR SIR JOHN F. BAKER, o.b.e., f.r.s., m.a., sc.d.,

D.SC., F.I.C.E., F.I.STRUCT.E.

W. BATES, F.I.STRUCT.E.
J. H. CROSS, M.I.STRUCT.E.
E. P. GALLAGHER, M.ENG., M.i.c.E.
G. B. GODFREY, M.I.C.E., F.I.STRUCT.E.
GRAY, O.B.F., B.sc. (eng.), M.i.c.E., m.i.struct.e.
C. S.
PROFESSOR J. HEYMAN, m.a., ph.d., f.i.c.e.
H. V. HILL, M.SC., M.I.C.E,, M.I.STRUCT.E.

L. G. JOHNSON, M.A., F.I.STRUCT.E.

F. W. LAMBERT, m.i.c.e., m.i.struct.e.

S. J. McM INN, M.ENG., PH.D., M.I.C.E., M.I.STRUCT.E.

W. BASIL SCOTT, f.i.struct.e.
SIR FREDERICK S. SNOW, c.b.e., f.i.c.e., f.i.mech.e.,
P P.I.STRUCT.E.
R. W. TURNER, m.i.c.e,, m.i.struct.e.

F. E. S. WEST, M.M., M.PHIL., M.I.C.E., m.i.struct.e.

D. D. -WILLIAMS, f.i.struct.e.
 1
1

CONTENTS

PAGE

FOREWORD TO THE FOURTH EDITION

LIST OF CONTRIB UTORS
iv
INTRODUCTION
THE WORK OF THE STEEL STRUCTURES RESEARCH COMMITTEE
x

^
1 BENDING AND AXIAL STRESSES
2 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
OR ENCASTRE BEAMS 39
3 FIXED, BUILT-IN

CONTINUOUS BEAMS 31
4

5 CANTILEVER AND SUSPENDED SPAN CONSTRUCTION 61

6 PROPPED CANTILEVERS 67

7 THE DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 81

8 THE DEFLECTION OF COMPOUND GIRDERS 1 03

9 BEAMS IN TORSION 107

10 FORCES IN PLANE FRAMES 1 19

1 1 THE DEFLECTION OF FRAMED STRUCTURES 1 35

12 INFLUENCE LINES 155

13 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 195

{a) The Area-Moment Method 195

(fe) Moment Distribution 225

(c) The Slope Deflection Method 276

14 SLOPES AND DEFLECTIONS IN RIGID FRAMES 289
15 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES 299
16 RIGID FRAME CHARTS 345
17 VIERENDEEL GIRDERS 413
18 FRAMING FOR SINGLE-STOREY SHEDS 429
19 SPACE FRAMES 44
20 DESIGN OF ANGLE STRUTS 487
21 engineering WORKSHOP DESIGN 497
22 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN 53
23 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION coc
 PAGE

24 FOUNDATIONS 613

25 STEEL PILING 639

26 GIRDERS 645

27 MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF PLATE GIRDERS 681

28 CONNECTIONS 701

29 SURFACE PREPARATION OF STRUCTURAL STEELWORK 799

30 DESIGN OF MULTI-STOREY STANCHIONS 809

31 WIND ON MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS 847

32 FLOORS 869

33 FLOOR PLATES 879

34 WELDING PRACTICE 883

35 STEEL SHEET ROOFING AND CLADDING 887

36 STEEL WINDOWS AND PATENT GLAZING 903

37 WALLS 911

38 USE OF COMPUTERS IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN 921

39 FIRE-RESISTING CONSTRUCTION 935

40 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 973

BRITISH STANDARDS 1077
INDEX 1079
 INTRODUCTION

of Manual were
and the subsequently revised Second Edition
this
The First Edition
prepared under the joint authorship of:

M.I.Struct.E.
Charles S. Gray, O.B.E., B.Sc.(Eng.), M.I.C.E.,

Lewis E. Kent, O.B.E., B.Sc.(Eng.), M.I.C.E., P.PJ. Struct. E.

W. E. Mitchell, PP.I.Struct.E.

G. Bernard Godfrey, M.I.C.E., F.I.Struct.E.

Several chapters by other contributors were also included.

This principle was extended in the Third Edition and twelve entirely new chapters
were contributed by authors having special knowledge and experience of the particular
subjects.
This Fourth Edition has been mainly based on the metrication of the Third
Edition with the co-operation of the original authors where revision of content was
required in the light of recent developments. The material has been largely prepared
by a small working party consisting of W. Bates and W. Basil Scott under the chair-
manship of D. T. Williams. A complete list of the names of the authors and of those
responsible for the revision of existing chapters for both the Third and Fourth
editions is to be found on page vi.
As in previous editions, the aim has been to present up-to-date practice in the
design of steel-framed buildings in as concise a form as possible. Although not
intended to be a textbook on structural theory, basic principles have been included
where appropriate in order to provide a background for the worked examples. Some
of the chapters dealing with more theoretical subjects already treated in numerous
textbooks have been omitted to allow greater coverage of less commonly treated
subjects.
A number of examples illustrate the use of more than one method of solution in
order that their relative merits may be compared.
By kind permission of the British Standards Institution references are made to
British Standards throughout the Manual and aU material is in accordance with
current Specifications and
Codes of Practice at the time of going to print. It must
be emphasised, however, that these are revised from time to time and it is important
to ensure that the
most recent publication is used. Copies of Standards may be
obtained from the BSI Sales Department, Newton House, 101 Pentonville
Road
London N 1 9ND.
 THE WORK OF THE STEEL STRUCTURES RESEARCH
COMMITTEE
by
Sir John
Baker
Formerly Technical Officer to the Committee

Most of the chapters in this Manual deal with elastic theory and the “elastic” design methods
but Chapter 22 gives an outline of the plastic theory of structures, the study of which began
30 years ago, ar\d of the plastic or “collapse” method of design which is coming more and
more into prominence for certain types of structure in place of the long established elastic
method.
These two methods of design, elastic and plastic, are fundamentally different but it would
be surprising, in the practical world of engineering, if there had not been a link connecting them.
This link was provided in the years from 1929 to 1936 when the Steel Structures Research
Committee was attempting to produce for the British Steel Industry, an improved method of
structural design.
All the methods of steelwork design now available are based on, or have been profoundly
influenced by the work of this Committee. It is frequently alleged that whilst Britain is pre-
eminent in science it is backward in the application of science. However, since the Committee
began its work, not only has this country been in the forefront of steel structural research, but
it has led the world in the derivation and the application of the most advanced methods of

steelwork design and construction.

Following the realisation that building codes were based on too restrictive assumptions, the
Steel Structures Research Committee embarked in 1929 on a comprehensive investigation of
the application of modern theory to the design of all forms of steel structures although, in the
event, its work was confined almost entirely to the multi-storey steel building frame. At the
time the Committee began its work the construction of steel frames in this country was regulated
generally by the London County Council (General Powers) Act, 1909, although some cities had
their own regulations, a study of which showed curious discrepancies, particularly in regard to
the live loads for which buildings of various usages had to be designed.
The “Code of Practice for the use of Structural Steel in Building” published in the
Committee’s First Report (1) in 1931 was accepted practically unchanged by the London County
Council and became the first British Standard No. 449 and so controlled the design of steel
structures in this country until the revision of the “simple method” of design as set out in the
present edition.
While this Code of Practice was based mainly on the data in the hands of engineers at that
time it incorporated the results of some new investigations. For instance a careful survey was
made of the live loads in certain London office buildings (4) and Sir Thomas Stanton provided
new data on wind loads. The most important investigation was into the strength of struts. As a
result, the Perry formula was adopted, as it has been since for every British Standard dealing
with steel compression members, with the values of the constants representing yield stress and
imperfections recommended by Andrew Robertson. This formula gave the safe working load on
a pin-ended strut. The Code allowed an effective length less than the storey height to be assumed
for an intermediate length of a continuous stanchion. An attempt was made to deduce
satisfactory values for effective length in any practical frame (5); later investigation of the
behaviour of actual buildings showed that this concept of “effective length”, though it
stubbornly persists in building regulations, is really untenable.
The review of existing regulations left no doubts in the minds of the Committee that the
method of designing steel-framed buildings then in common use, and still surviving as the
“simple method” of B.S. 449, had no firm rational basis. No advance leading to economies
could, therefore, be made until the real behaviour under load of the steel-framed building was

X
 THE STEEL STRUCTURES RESEARCH COMMITTEE xi

embarked on a comprehensive research programme in

understood. To this end the Committee
successful tests of actual buildings were made. The barrier to success in the past
which the first
instrument for measuring strains in steelwork accurate
had of course, been the lack of an
enough and yet robust enough to stand
up to the rigorous conditions experienced on actual
the city street. The first move therefore was the design of
buildings in the field, or rather in
with moderate success in the first tests on a full scale frame,
such a strain-gauge ( 6 ). It was used
Museum, South Kensington, but it was too expensive for wide use and full
the New Geological
not come until the discovery of the remarkable acoustic gauge, the Maihak of
success did
German design. With this accurate and robust instrument the Committee’s experimental work
went ahead with great speed. Exhaustive tests were made on special two bay, three storey
a

Experimental Frame constructed throughout of 8 in. x 4 in. x 18 lb. joists, on three

representa-

tive buildings then under construction, the Cumberland Hotel, the Euston office block and a
residential flats buildihg, Latymer Court. On these last three, tests were made on the bare
steelwork, after floors had been laid, stanchions' cased and finally after walls and partitions
had
been constructed, so that the effect of cladding on the stresses in the steelwork could be
determined. This work is fully described in the Committee’s Second (2) and Final (3) Reports.
These tests showed quite clearly that the behaviour of an actual building was radically different
from that assumed in the design methods then in common use. Though in every case the members
were joined together by the usual bolted or riveted cleated connections, assumed in design to be
hinges,' the behaviour of each structure approximated closely to that of a rigidly jointed frame.
Thus, when a vertical load was applied to a beam, appreciable restraining moments were
developed at the ends, with corresponding bending moments in the stanchion lengths. In one
of the Experimental Frames where the 8 in. x 4 in. I beams framed into the web of a stanchion,
the connection consisting of a in. x 3 in. x ,4 in. angle bracket 4 in. long with a similar top

cleat, 5 in. diameter black bolts being used throughout, the “equivalent eccentricity”, that is
the istance from the stanchion axis of the end of a similarly loaded simply supported beam
which would have given rise to the same stanchion stresses, was as much as 10 in., five times
what would have been assumed by the most conservative designer at that time. In the bare frame
of the hotel building the equivalent eccentricity was as much as 44 in., in the office building
34 in. and in the flats building 13 in.; these eccentricities were increased, in general, in the finished
clothed buildings. They clearly gave rise to large restraining moments at the ends of the beams
which reduced the maximum stresses in the beams by 17 to 25 per cent but they also were
many times those assumed in design.
responsible for large bending stresses in the stanchions,
Furthermore these bending stresses were appreciable not only in the stanchion lengths into
which the beam framed but in those further removed thus making nonsense of the usual
assumption of pin-ended struts and, as has already been mentioned, of the concept of effective
length.
The problem facing the Committee was to deduce a practical design method for what was a
highly redundant structure, by virtue of the near rigidity of the connections. The behaviour of
the connections was clearly a critical factor and Dr. C. Batho, Professor of Civil Engineering at
Birmingham University, concentrated on its elucidation. Accounts of his work on bolted and
riveted connections of all kinds will be found in all three of the Committee’s Reports. He
was
able to produce data on the restraining moments which could be relied upon from
any practical
cleated connection, so making economical beam design a simple matter.
These data covered not only the use of rivets, common in those days, but high tensile black
bolts with controlled torque. In fact the Steel Structures
Research Committee solved all the
problems more than thirty years ago, designed and used two different forms
of torque-control
spanner and even drew up regulations for the substitution of high
tensile steel bolts for rivets.
Yet British industry made no use of this pioneer work
for which it had paid, but waited twenty
years until it had to pay again to the American
licensors who had, in the meantime, patented the
devices.
While the design of the beams was simple and produced
economies, stanchion design was a
inuch tougher proposition. However, for the
first time the stress distribution in a continuous
stanchion was understood and so the most
rigorous conditions, which did not, of course, occur
wnen a 1 floors were loaded, could be picked out.
A design method was derived (7) which was
rational; it did not depend
on unjustifiable assumptions of pin-ends or call for wild guesses
of
”•
inevitably it was more time-consuming in the design office
than the
however, it did not lead to compensating economies
beSme Tn
^ rigorous worst loading conditions inherent in the method,
a timid
ittee insistedm addition on an unnecessarily high load factor of 2.
The result has been
XU THE STEEL STRUCTURES RESEARCH COMMITTEE
that though the S.S.R.C. method is permitted under the clause “Semi-rigid design” in
B.S. 449: 1969, it has been very little used. Disappointing though this is, the engineers
responsible for the method of stanchion design are likely to have the compensation of seeing
their work widely used after a lapse of thirty years since it forms the basis of the method of
design advocated by the Joint Committee of The Institution of Structural Engineers and The
Institute of Welding in their Report “Fully rigid-multi-storey welded steel frames” (December
1964).
It is hoped that this brief account has drawn attention to the wealth of information, the only
information available, of the true behaviour and stress distribution in multi-storey steel framed
buildings, contained in the three Reports of the Steel Structures Research Committee. Every
ambitious steelwork designer should study the Reports. They are probably to be found in many
works’ libraries and in some university and public libraries but they are not otherwise widely
available. This is because early in World War II Her Majesty’s Stationery Office store containing
the only supply of the Reports was bombed and destroyed. For this reason a summary of the
Committee’s work was published in 1954 (8) and is still in print.
Finally it can be said that the Committee’s work had possibly its greatest influence in that
out of it grew the plastic method of design. Whatever can be claimed for the Committee’s
final Recommendations for Design there is no doubt that the elastic behaviour of redundant
structures, on which they depended, is too complicated to form the basis of a really compre-
hensive and satisfactory method of design. This was very clear to those who, for seven years, had
carried out the investigations for the Committee. So when these were completed in 1936, the
investigators turned their attention to the behaviour of structures carried out of the the elastic
into the plastic range and so to collapse. Out of this grew the successful plastic method of design
described in Chapter 22.

REFERENCES
1. First Report of the Steel Structures Research Committee. H.M.S.O. (1931).
2. Second Report of the Steel Structures Research Committee. H.M.S.O. (1934).
3. Final Report of the Steel Structures Research Committee. H.M.S.O. (1936).
4. WHITE, C. M. Survey of Live Loads, First Report S.S.R.C. H.M.S.O. (1931).
5. BAKER, J. F. A Note on the Effective Length of a Pillar, Second Report S.S.R.C HM S O
(1934).
6. BAKER, J. F. Examination of Building in Course of Erection, First Report S.S.R.C HM S O
(1931).
7. BAKER, J. F. & LEADER WILLIAMS, E. The Design of Stanchions in Building Frames
Final Report S.S.R.C. H.M.S.O. (1936).
8. BAKER, J. F. The Steel Skeleton, Vol. 1. Cambridge U.P. (1954).
 1. BENDING AND AXIAL STRESSES
Ordinary Beam Theory

The theory involved in the derivation of the formula for the moment of
resistance
assumptions;
(M.R.) of a beam section is based on the following

The beam must have one axis of symmetry,

section say, a vertical axis, in
(i)

the plane of which a bending moment is applied.

Simple or circular bending is assumed. This is the type produced by
equal
(ii)

and opposite pure couples and in which shear is absent, as depicted by the

portion of the beam shown in Fig. 1.

(iii) Sections of the beam which are plane before bending remain plane after

bending.
(iv) The any fibre is proportional to its strain.
stress in

(v) Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (E) is constant.

BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

2 BENDING AND AXIAL STRESSES
The results of the beam theory can be expressed as follows:
M^f^E
I y R
where =M the bending moment,
/= the moment of inertia,
/= the stress at any point,
y= the vertical distance from the neutral axis to the point under
consideration
and R = the radius of curvature of the beam.

In using this expression / will normally represent a maximum stress, so that y,

in that case, will be the distance from the neutral axis to an extreme fibre, top or
bottom of the section as the case may be.
The expression
^ /

can be written

But — = Z, the modulus of section. Hence:

M=fZ (1)
The foregoing remarks apply, in theory, only to beams subjected to circular
bending. When shear is present there are shear strains, but as such strains are very
small compared with those due to bending, they are normally neglected in practice.
Consequently, the bending stresses in any beam with one axis of symmetry and
subjected to bending only may be found from the standard formula, = ^. M
If, however, a member is considered which is not symmetrical about its xx axis,

say, a ‘T’-bar, then two values of Z will exist and the maximum compressive stress
will be different from the maximum tensile stress.

Example 1. The ‘T’-bar shown in Fig. 2 is subjected to a B.M. of 10 kNm.

Calculate the maximum compressive and tensile stresses.
 3
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING
modulus in terms of tension,
Zf, the section

=Ixx=122A=z 191.4 cm^

yt 4.14

modulus in terms of compression

Zc, the section

^xx 792.5
= 71.4 cm^
>’c 11.10

Now/=M/Z.
Therefore, the maximum tensile stress,

10 kNm = 52.2 N/mm^

191.4 cm^

while the maximum compressive stress.

_ 4/ _ 10 kNm
14.0 N/mm^
"Zc ”71.4 cm^

Unsymmetrical Bending
shows the section of a rolled-steel beam which
Fig. 3 is subjected to an oblique
force P acting
through the C.G. of the beam.
The resulting B.M. M
may be resolved into two
components along the principal axes xx and yy, so
that
Mxx = M . sin 6 1

Myy cos d)

Consequently, the stress at any fibre in the beam

may be found from the expression

X
/=M (± ^ sin 0 ± cos 0 ) .
. (3)
\ hx lyy
)

where the positive values represent compressive

stresses and the negative, tensile. In another form, the
expression becomes

Fig. 3

f= + ^^yy
• (4)
-'yy

The same expressions may be employed for other

symmetrical sections provided
that the force is assumed to act at the C.G.
of the section.
R should be noted that for most universal beams the resultant
stress /increases
rapidly as the angle 0 (Fig.
3) departs from 90°. However, this effect is not so
marked with universal columns.
 =

BENDING AND AXIAL STRESSES

Z-polygons
In the expression

f m(^ sin0 + 7
^- cos 6
j
yxx hy /

the section modulus

^xx- ^yy
2=
lyy .y . s\nd Ixx-X . cos 6

Hence, for any given direction of loading and for any given point in a section Z
is a constant. Thus the value Z is a measure of the strength of a section for
bending in any direction.
Equation (5) is a ‘straight line’
equation, so that the variation in Z
for the critical points in any section
j

I\
may be easily represented on a figure

I \
known as a Z-polygon.
\ Consider Fig. 4, which shows a
I
I \ rectangle ABCD with its xx and yy
\ axes produced in both directions.
j
With 0, the centroid of the section,
J \ /
\ as origin, set off to some scale OE and
I
p OG equal to the maximum value of
I
^ Zxx, i.e. with y relative to AB or CD.

y Similarly, set off OF and OH equal to

C the maximum value of Zyy ,

i.e. with x
/

^
yK \ /
j
relative to BC or DA.
Z-line for the point B,
Then EF is the
FG the Z-line
'''tiile the full figure
\ / r\i vnrsKi
Z POLYGON
\ / £'F’G/f is known as the Z-polygon for
\ / FOR the rectangle.
\ / RECTANGLE Now, if a moment Af is applied to
\ / the rectangle in the plane JO, then KO,
which intercepted by the Z-polygon,
y is

Q is the value of Z appropriate to the

moment. If this
particular plane of the
4^ value = Zj^q, then the maximum stress
Fig.
in the section may be found from the expression.

f=JL
^KO
It will be appreciated that the value of the intercept LO could equally well be
used, as LO is equal to KO.
The Z-polygon provides several sources of information. For example, it is
obvious that the plane of maximum strength is along the axis yy. There are two
planes of minimum strength, i.e. PP and QQ, along which the distance from the
origin to the polygon is least.
Fig. 5 shows Z-polygons for a 305 x 127 mm mm
x 48 kg universal beam, and a
305 mm x 305 mm
x 97 kg universal column.
 BENDING AND AXIAL STRESSES 5

Pure Tension or Compression

When a tensile force P is applied axially to a member the resultant stress in any
fibre is uniform and is given by the expression

where A - the cross-sectional area of the member.

Similarly, when a compressive force is applied the resultant stress in any fibre,

(6B)

Bending and Axial Stresses

When a member is subjected to bending and axial forces, as shown in Fig. 6, the
resulting maximum fibre stresses

~ +
f
Jmax A 7 (7 )
^xx
6 BENDING ANT) AXIAL STRESSES
Asimilar effect may be obtained in an eccentrically loaded column. Consider
Fig. 7 which shows the cross-section of a column which is symmetrical about both
,

thejvA' and^_y axes. If a compressive force Pis applied on the 77 axis at a distance

Stress
r
Diagram

Stress
^xx Diagram
'max/
Zxx
Fig. 6

± Bx from the xx axis then the resultant fibre stress at any distance 7 from the
XX axis

'xx
W
^ Mxx.y

If the force Pis applied on the xx axis at a distance ± Cv from the yy axis then
the resultant stress,
 GENERAL EXPRESSION FOR STRESS
When the force compressive or tensile and eccentric about both axes,
may be
then the fibre stress at any point
^ ‘ ^ ‘ ^
f- ± (9)
^ ^xx hy
When y and x are maxima, equation (9) becomes

f =+
~ ~7 ~ 7 ( 10 )
J
Jmax
AA ^>xx

Having given the formulae for a symmetrical section, it is convenient to consider

the effect of any type of force acting eccentrically on any cross-section.

General Expression for Stress

Consider the cross-section of a compression member shown in Fig. 8, xx zndyy
being any rectangular axes through the centroid.

Fig. 8

Suppose that a force P is applied longitudinally to the member, its eccentricity

about the xx zndyy axes being and Cy respectively. Then the effect upon the
member is the same as if P is
applied at the centroid and moments andMyy,
equal to P . and P . Cy respectively, are applied about the xx and
yy axes
respectively.
If assumed that the member is not stressed beyond
It IS
the elastic limit, then the
unittStress/at any point ==a + bx + cy, where
x and j are the co-ordinates of the

Consider an element of area dA,

having a total stress off.dA.
Then Sf- dA = aJdA +bfx dA + cfy dA . .
8 BENDING AND AXIAL STRESSES
Since xx and yy pass through the centroid

/;c . c?.4 = 0 and . cL4 = 0.

Hence P = a^dLA =aA

P (a)
or . . .

Similarly,

Mxx =ff.dA.y = afy dA + bfxy dA + . . cfy^ . dA

~ bixy (dxx
...(b)
Myy = Jf dA X = ajx dA + bjx'^
. . . . dA + cjxy dA .

= Cixy + blyy . . .
(c)

Now,
^yydxx ~ ^Ixx^yy ^^xx^xy (c X Ixx)

Mxxixy ~ blxy^ ^^xx^xy Q) X Ixy)

Subtracting,

^yy^xx ~ Mxxixy ~ ^(Jxx^yy ~ ^xy )

Myylxx - Mxx^
whence ^ ^ (d)
^xx^yy ^xy
Similarly;
_ ^xx^yy ~ Myyixy
^
(e)
T
^xx^yy
T _r2
^xy

Employing equations (a), (d) and (e),

f = a + bx + cy
_ P Myyixx Mxxixy Mxxlyy — Myy Ixy
4.
^^ y (11 A)
II
^xx^yy —I"^
^xy II — ^xy
^xx^yy I

If the numerator and denominator of the coefficient of x are divided by Ixx and
those for y are divided by lyy, the expression becomes
lyy — MxxiJxy /Ixx^
P Mvv- ^Mxx — MyylJxyjlyy)
^ y (IIB)
-yy
- \^xy
(^c: /Ixx} Ixx ~ ^Ixy llyy)

Either formula may be used but the latter avoids the differences of large
quantities which in slide-rule calculations may lead to appreciable errors.

Bending about Principal Axes

wiU be noted that equations (1 1 A) and (1 IB) are related to any pair of
It

rectangular axes xx and yy which are chosen for convenience of calculation. Some
designers prefer to work from principal axes, especially if the values of / are known
for these axes, but normally there is very little to choose between the amount of
calculation for each method.
Suppose that uu and vv are the appropriate principal axes, then equation (9)
becomes
^ A. Myy u
+ E. +
f= " .

J A ^ r T ( 12 )
^UU
where v and u are measured normal to the uu and vv axes respectively.
 9
bending about principal axes
subjected
22.1 mm angle shown in Fig 9
Example 2. The 229 mm x 102 mm x
is

free to deflect both

to a B.M^of 25 kNm in the
plane of the yy axis and it is

downwards and laterally although the legs are restrained so that they remain
parallel to their original position. Calculate
the maximum stress.
10 BENDING AND AXIAL STRESSES
The properties of the section given in B.S.4; Part 1 1970 are as follows.

ly^y. = 3 606 cm’ lyy = 447 cm'’

= 3 747 cm^ 1^ = 306 cm’

Cv = 8.73 cm Cy = 2.41 cm
Tan 0 = 0.21, i.e.0 = ll°52'

Consequently,
sin 0 = 0.2056

cos 0 = 0.9786

Muu ~Mxx cos 1

1° 52' = 24.47 kNm
My;, sin 1
1° 52' = 5.14 kNm
The principal problem is to find the point of maximum stress. Now the stress in
any fibre of a member subjected to bending is directly proportional to the distance
of that fibre from the neutral axis. Therefore, if the neutral axis is located the most
highly stressed fibre is that most remote from it.

Consider point A, the co-ordinates of which, with respect to the uu and vv axes,
are v and u respectively.

- ^UU- V Myy.U
f .

lA j j
'uu •'w

_ 24.47 kNm x 101.3 mm 5.14 kNm x 57.9 mm

3 747 cm’
~ 306 cm’
= — 31.12 N/mm^
Considering point B,

_ 24.47 kNm x 80.8 mm 5.14 kNm x 41.4 mm

“
3 lAl cm’ 306 cm’
= -1-122.31 N/mm^
Considering point C,

_ 24.47 kNm X 143.3 mm 5.14 kNm x 5.1 mm

"
3 747 cm’ 306 cm’
= — 102.11 N/mm^
Now there is a constant variation of stress from Aio B and from B to C.
Consequently, the neutral axis is located by joining the points of zero stress in AB
and BC. It is evident that the point most remote from the neutral axis and therefore
most highly stressed, is D.

f. - ~ 2 4.47 kNm x 137 .2 mm 5.14 kNm x 25.9 mm

3 747 cm’
“ 306 cm’
= — 133.10 N/mm^
i.e. the stress is tensile.
 11
LOCATION OF NEUTRAL AXIS
of the applied
*e
It is worth noting that although the plane observ B-ff;
axis. Further, it will be
the olane of bending is at right angles to the neutral
e P
had the neutral axis been assumed to be located at right angles to .

that
sections, the resulting stresses at A,
a B
bending as in the case of symmetrical would have
in addition, the stress at^
Sd have been incorrect numerically and,
actually tensile.
been given as compressive whereas it is
the stresses have been computed on
the
Nevertheless, it must be repeated that
twist.
deflect in any manner but not to It,
assumption that the section is free to
however, lateral deflection is prevented,
owing to restraint offered by the load or
only is permitted, then the sti esses will be
any other medium, and vertical deflection
given by using the applied moment in
conjunction with the appropriate
correctly
section moduli for the XX axis.
Example 2 will be
Example 3. As an alternative solution the angle section in

analysed using equation (1 IB).

First calculate the value of Ixy.

tan 2e=- " ^yy

OCX

’xy
Jyy — Ixx
Therefore 2Ixy
~ tan
26(/yy — Jxx)

= + 0.439 7(447 - 3 606) cm'^

and Ixy = - 694.5 cm'’

Macts in the plane of the yy axis.

Hence Mxx = 25 kNm. Myy = 0.

For point D, the co-ordinates are: x= 2.5 mm, y = —1 38.4 mm

Therefore,

y._ ^xxQxyl^xx) .x+- -^xx

_ .

~ y
^yy ~ i^xy^ Mxx) ^xx Mxy^ Myy)
['-694.5 cwy]
—25 kNm X
3 606 cm'^
^
X 2.5 mm 25
xi
kNm
,
X
, oo
—138.4 mm
.i

^ J .

'(-694.5 cm^)""' (—694.5 cm'*)^

447 cm'^ 3 606 cm'* —
3 606 cm'* 447 cm'*
= + 3.84N/mm^ — 136,9 N/mm^
= — 133.06 N/mm^
which agrees very closely with the previous result.

Location of Neutral Axis

In Example 2 a method of locating the neutral axis was given. Now the neutral
axisis the line running through points of zero stress. In sections
subjected to
bending only, i.e. with no longitudinal load P, one point of zero stress is the
 .

12 BENDING AND AXIAL STRESSES

centroid of the section. If equation (1 lA) or (1 IB) is equated to zero, omitting the
term PjA, the ratio yjx is obtained which gives the tangent of the angle 0 which the
neutral axis makes with the xx axis of the section.
Hence, if equation (11 A) is used.

(13)
Mxxlyy — Myyixy
Now the stress in any fibre of a member subjected to bending is directly
proportional to the distance of that fibre from the neutral axis. Therefore, provided
a member is subjected to bending only, the stress at any fibre,

f- MNA PNA • (14)

InA
where Af and / have the usual significance andyyy^ is the lever arm about the neutral
axis Ai4.
When, in addition to bending, a member is subjected to an axial force P, the stress
at any fibre, including the centroid, due toP = P/k. Hence, the neutral axis shifts
parallel to the position it occupies when there is only bending, the perpendicular
distance travelled being

P.. ^NA
A Mna
The neutral axis may with reference to the principal axis uu by
also be located
employing equation (12) without the i&xm PjA. If the angle between the neutral
and principal axes is 6, then

=
•
^uu
tan 6
Mull •
^v\>

Example 4. Calculate the maximum stress in the angle section of Examples 2 and
3 using equations (13) and (14). See Fig. 9.

Now . = Myyixx-Mxxhy
Mxxlyy — Myyixy

0 — (25 kNm x —694.5 cm'’)

(25 kNm X 447 cm'*) — 0

694.5
-1.554
447
Therefore 0 = -57° 12'
sin 0= — 0.840 6

sin 20 = -0.910 7
cos0 = + 0.541 7
3rid M^j^ =M cos 0

= 25 kNm X 0.541 7
= 13.54 kNm
PNA for this point is found to be -72.9 mm, either by calculations or sealine
from Fig. 9.
 LOCATION OF NEUTRAL AXIS
It may be shown that

= COS^ 4'^xx sin^ <plyy — sin 2(t)Ixy

(-694.5 cm'’)
= (0.541 7)^ X 3 606 cm'^ + (-0.840 6)^ x 447 cm'’ + 0.910 7 x

= 1 058 + 316 — 633

= 741 cm'’

13.54 kNm x -72.9 mm

Then f- ^NA • yNA
-
^NA 741 cm'’

= -133.2 N/mm^

TTie Grcle of Inertia

Unsymmetrical sections subjected to bending may be analysed graphically by

using a construction known as the Circle of Inertia. The method of analysis is best
described by taking a practical example.

Example 5. The member shown in Fig. 10, which consists of two 229 mm x
89 mm x 33 kg B.S. Channels, is subjected to a B.M. of 23 kNm in the plane of the
YY axis and 34 kNm in the plane of the XX axis.
The properties of each channel section, given in B.S, 4: Part 1, are as follows:

Ixx = 3 387 cm'’ lyy = 285 cm'’

Cx =0 Cy = 2.53 cm

Cross-sectional area^l = 41.73 cm^

The centroid of the cross-section of the member could be calculated in the usual
way, but, obviously, it lies midway between the centroids of the individual channel
sections.
Therefore, for the whole member, mentioning the left-hand channel first:

~ 3 387 cm'’ + (41 .73 cm^ x 4.46 cm x 4.46 cm) +

^XX
+ 285 cm'’ + (41.73 cm^ x 4.46 cm x 4.46 cm)
= 5 332 cm^

Iyy = 285 + (41.73 cm^ x 6.99 cm x 6.99 cm) + 3 387 +

= 7 708 cm'’ + (41.73 cm^ x 6.99 cm x 6.99 cm)

^XY = (>1 X -X X - y) + (A X X X y)
= 2 X 41.73 cm^ x 6.99 cm x 4.46 cm
= 2 602 cm'’

Note that a symmetrical section such as a channel has no value I^y about its own
centroid, as the xx and yy axes are principal axes.
Now the Circle of Inertia may be drawn.
From the centroid of the member, O,
a andfl6 to
set off vertically, i.e. along the YY axis,
some scale to represent and/yy respectively.
/j^j^
14 BENDING AND AXIAL STRESSES
Let be a diameter of the circle of inertia, c being the centre. Then any
Ob
diameter can represent any pair of rectangular axes in the plane of the cross-section
of the member. From a, and scaling horizontally, set off ad equal to IxY^ scaling to
the right as the product of inertia is positive.

AH Dimensions in mm
Fig. 10
 .

DEFLECTION 15

the values of the

Draw the diameter ecdf thxongh. d. Then/J and de represent
moments of inertia /{/[/ and/p^p- about the principal axes. When
scaled

= 3 660 cm'* and 1^ = 9 370 cm'* -

are respectively
Draw lines through/ and O and through e and 0. Then these lines
the principal axes UU and VV.
Now set off the values of Mxx some scale on the YY and XX axes
Myy lo
respectively. Then ^<9 is the resultant of these moments and also
the resultant of

Mw andMuM which are represented hy gh andg^/‘ respectively.

Therefore,
Myy = 1 6.7 kNm
and Muu = 37.7 kNm-
When the values of v and u have been scaled for each corner of the member, the
fibre stresses may be calculated.

V _^Myy. U
Now lyy
^UU
Hence,
^ +
37.7 kNm X 130.6 mm + 16.7 kNm x 74.9 mm
JA - 3
3 660 cm'* 9 370 cm'’

= + 149.9 N/mm^

3 660 9 370
- 74.0 N/mm^
37.7 X 113.3 16.7 X 145.6
3 660 9 370

- 142.7 N/mm^
37.7 X 111.0 16.7 X 122.4
3 660 9 370

- 92.6 N/mm^
37.7 X 63.3 16.7 X 197.6
9 370
= - 30.0 N/mm^

Deflection
The value and direction of the deflection of members with
unsymmetrical
sections may be obtained by calculating the resultant of the deflections about
the
principal axes. As an alternative, a direct
calculation, normal to the neutral axis
may be made when the neutral axis has been located. However, the
position of the
neutol axis varies with the plane of loading
whereas the principal axes are functions
ot the section, and therefore
are constant for any loading.
16 BENDING AND AXIAL STRESSES
Example 6. Calculate the deflection in the 229 mm x 1 02 mm x 22. 1 mm
angleemployed for Examples 2 to 4 assuming that the moment Mxx of 2S kNm is
caused by a U.D.L. of 80 kN over a span of 2.5 m.
Now for a U.D.L.
5WL^ _ WL 5L^
384E7 8 48.£'/

5L^
= M.
48EI
Assume that jF = 2.1 x 10^ N/mm^
Considering the uu axis,

( 5 X (2.5 m)^ \
^uu N/mm^
\48 X 2.1 X 10^ x j

5 X (2.5 m)^
= 24.47 kNm
(48 X 2.1 X 10^ N/mm^ X 3 747 cm'*

= 2.02 mm
Considering the vv axis,

/
5 X (2.5 m)^
dvii
~ Mpv
48 X 2.1 X 10® N/mm^ xly^,

5 X (2.5 m)^
= 5.14 kNm
(48x2.1 X 10® N/mm^ x 306 cm'

= 5.19 mm
The resultant deflection,

d/VA =V(c^u+dy„)
= 5.57 mm
 2. SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

ALTHOUGH it is assumed that every reader of this book has an elementary knowledge
of the theory of structures, it is advisable to consider
the calculations required in
obtaining the shear forces (S.F.s) and bending moments (B.M.s) in
simply supported
beams, not so much for their own sake but because these quantities, obtainable by

simple statics, form the basis of many other calculations required for the analysis of
built-in beams, continuous beams and other indeterminate
structures.

It should be noted that appropriate formulae for simple beams

and cantilevers
under various types of loads are presented in tabular form on pp, 29-38.
beams, it is necessary to calculate the support reactions
In the case of simple
before the bending moments can be evaluated. This procedure is reversed for
built-in or continuous beams. The following rules relate to the S.F. and B.M.

diagrams for beams, viz.:

1. The shear force at any section is the algebraic sum of normal forces acting to
one side of the section.
2. Shear is considered positive when the shear force calculated as above is

upwards to the left of the section.

3. The B.M. at any section is the algebraic summation of the moments about
that section of all forces to one side of the section.
4. Moments are considered positive when the middle of a beam sags with respect
to its ends or when tension occurs in the lower fibres of the beam.
5. Under point loads only, the S.F. diagram will consist of a series of horizontal
and vertical lines, whilst the B.M. diagram will consist of sloping straight lines,
changes of slope occurring only at the loads.
6. For uniformly distributed loads (U.D.L.s) the S.F. diagram will consist of
sloping straight lines, whilst the B.M. diagram will consist of second-degree
parabolas. ' *

7. The maximum B.M. occurs at the point of zero shear, where such exists, or at
the point where the shear-force curve crosses the base line.

Loading, Shear Force and Bending Moment

The relationship between loading, S.F. and B.M. may be derived graphically by
considering Fig. 1,

l^ABC represents the intensity of loading upon a beam simply supported at A

and 5, then the total area enclosed by the curve and the base
A5
will represent the
total load on the span.

If a second curve DEF is constructed

at any point represents the
on a base line GD
such that the ordinate X
area of the load intensity curve to, say, the right of the
point, then it follows that the curve
DEF
represents the total load to any point and
me ordinate FG will equal the total load on the beam. If this curve is
then amended
by the addition of the reactions as shown, then
by the definition given earlier the
curve DEFHJ will be the shear force diagram for the given loading, since the ordinate
atany point will be the algebraic sum to the
right of the section of the downward
load and the upward reaction.

17
1 8 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
If then the total load oxvqDEFG is treated in a similarmanner and a third curve
KLM is constructed on a base line KN such that the ordinate Y at any point
represents the area of the total load curve to the right of the point, then
the curve

KLM represents the total moment about of the load Bto the right of the point and

INTENS/TY OF LOADING

TOTAL LOAD CURVE

WITH RESPECT TO B

SHEAR DIAGRAM

TOTAL MOMENT CURVE

WITH RESPECT TO B

M
BENDING
MOMENT DIAGRAM

the ordinate MY represents the moment of IP about B. If this curve then corrected
is

by the line KM representing the effect of the moment of about B, then the
curve KLMO will be the bending moment diagram for the beam.
If the load intensity curve be called a primitive curve, then the shear curve is
known as thesum curve of the load intensity curve and the bending moment curve
will be the sum curve of the shear curve. The proof of this is as follows.
Consider any section XX and a portion of load AB distant jc from the section
as shown in Fig. 2.
The shear at XX due to this portion of the load will be the hatched area ^5CD,
and hence the total load up to XX will be represented by the total area of the load
 loading, shear force and bending moment 19

point. Hence the sum curve of the load intensity curve will
intensity curve to that
shear curve.
be by definition, the total
Consider the bending moment at XX.
The B.M. at this point due to the portion
of load AB
= the given portion of load x a:. Then if E and F
are the corresponding

LOAD INTENSITY
CURVE

SHEAR DIAGRAM

BENDING
MOMENT DIAGRAM

points on the shear curve, the difference of the ordinates at E and F represents the
load on the portion AB.

Therefore load on AB = FF,

and B.M. at XX due to this load = FFj x x.

That is shaded portion of the shear curve represents the B.M. at

to say, the XX
due to the portion AB of the load. Hence the total B.M. at XX
due to the load to
the right equals the total area of the shear diagram to XX.
The sum curve of a horizontal straight line is a sloping straight line and the sum
curve of a sloping straight line is a parabola of the second degree, wliilst the sum
curve of this will be a parabola of the tliird degree, etc.
The sum curveis obtained graphically as shown in Fig. 3.

Divide the primitive curve into a number of small parts 1 , Find the
2, 3, ... .

mid-points of these divisions and project horizontally to a vertical line passing AB

through the origin. From any point P on the base line
CA produced draw a
corresponding ray diagram 1 For the shear diagram draw parallels to the
2, 3, ... ,

respective rays across the relevant spaces, to

give a connected line as shown, which
IS the approximate first sum curve of the primitive curve. The true sum curve is a
line joining the mid-points of each of the
divisions of the sum curve illustrated.
The procedure then repeated to produce the
is moment diagram which is the
second sum curve.
The scales of the respective load, shear and moment diagrams are related as
0 ows. Let 25 mm = h' kN/m be the scale of the load intensity diagram, and let
20 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

Pi, the polar distance used for the construction

of the shear curve, be measured on
the space scale. Then the shear force scale is 25 mm
= PiW kN. Similarly, if P 2 is
the polar distance used for the construction of the moment curve, again measured
on the space scale, the B.M. scale is 25 mm = P 2 P 1
kNm.
IP

Point of Maximum B.M.

At the point where the B.M. is a mathematical maximum (or minimum) the
tangent to the B.M. curve must be horizontal and therefore the ray corresponding
to this must be horizontal. This ray, however, is related to the ordinate of the
also
shear diagram, and since the pole is taken on the base hne produced it follows that

the shear force ordinate at this point must be zero for the line to the pole to be
horizontal. Thus we have the rule that the maximum B.M. occurs where the shear
is zero.

Mathematical Approach
The foregoing relationship between loading, shear force and bending moment,
derived graphically, may be expressed mathematically as follows:

Let the intensity of load at a distance x from the origin be F(x). Then:

the shear at the point = Jf(x) dx + Ci

and the B.M. = j" F(x)x . dx + CiX + €2 -

The integration constants Ci and Cj represent the effects of the base lines //f
and KOM in Fig. 1
 AREAS AND CENTRES OF GRAVITY 21

Areas and Centres of Gravity

It
of the load intensity diagram represents
has been noted earlier that the area
beam. The area and the position of its centre of gravity may
the total load on the

be found by link and

vector polygons or by Simpson’s Rule. Using this information,

the reactions may be

calculated.

To apply Simpson’s Rule it is necessary to divide the loaded length into an even
number of equal parts and the required area is approximately (to within about
0.1 per cent of the true value as given by integration) equal to the sum of the
extreme ordinates plus four times the sum of the odd ordinates plus twice the sum
of the remaining even ordinates all multiplied by one-third of the common distance
between them.

yLOAD INTENSITY CURVE

Thus if the base is divided into n equal parts of length D, and the extreme
ordinates are jVo andj^ we have:

Area = ^D{[yo +y7il +4lyi +^3 +^5 + . . .

+y(„ _ ;)]
+ 2\y^ +74 +76 + . . .
+7(n - 2)1} •

Further, the distance of the centre of gravity of the load from one end is given
by:

_ _ SMx)
^ 2(^)
where 2(Ax) is the summation of moments about that end of the individual parts
of the loading diagram
and 2(^) is the total area of the diagram.

Simpson s Rule will be applied to the beam shown in Fig. 4.

Tabulating:

^= 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
7 = 25.0 25.6 25.8 26.0 26.0 25.6 24.8 23.6 20.8 13.6 1.0
^7 = 0 12.8 25.8 39.0 52.0 64.0 74.4 82.6 83.2 61.2 5.0
22 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
^(Ax) = i:(xy)

= I X 0.5{(0 + 5) + 4(12.8 + . . . + 61.2) + 2(25.8 + . . . + 83.2)}

= 252.4

S(^) = SO)
= \x 0.5{(25 + 1) + 4(25.6 + . . . + 13.6) + 2(25.8 + . . . + 20.8)}

= 113.0.

Hence the distance of the centroid from

252.4
113.0
= 2.23 m
Taking moments about the left support A,

Rg X 5 = SAx
252 4
Whence Rq = = 50.48 kN

and = 113.0 -50.48 = 62.52 kN

S.F. and B.M. Diagrams

Having stated the basic principles relating to simply supported beams, two
examples will be given, the first utilising the arithmetical approach and the second
the algebraic approach to analysis.

60,kA/ 40kN
LOAD DIAGRAM
2-0 m 0‘8m ^
4- OtT)

^ O SHEAR DIAGRAM
% va

Example 1. It is required to draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams for the beam
shown in Fig. 5 and to calculate the area and the position of the centre of gravity
of the B.M. diagram.
 S.F. AND B.M. DIAGRAMS 23

Taking-moments about B,
X 4= 40x0.8 + 60x2.8

and
= 50kN

The total load = 100 kN. Hence:

^5 = 100 -50 = 50 kN
The can now be drawn as shown. It will be observed that the curve
S.F. diagram
crosses the base line under the 60 kN point load, i.e. at C, and
consequently this will
be the point at wliich the B.M. has its maximum value.

The B.M. at C = Me X 1.2 = 50 X 1.2

= 60 kNm
Similarly, Mj} - Rj^y. 3.2 — 60 x 2

= Rb X 0.8

= 40 kNm
It is useful to note that theB.M. at any point is numerically equal to the area of
the S.F. diagram on either side of that point. Considering the S.F. diagram to the
left of D,
M/) = 50x 1.2 + (-10 X 2.0)

= 40 kNm as found before.

The area of the B.M. diagram may be found by dividing it into three triangles and
a rectangle as shown.

60 20 X 2 40 X 0.8
Thus ^
ZA^ _
=
X 1.2
r + 40 X 2 +
, ,

T —
+ r
,

= 36 + 80 + 20+ 16

= 152 kNm^
The moment of the area of the B.M. diagram about the left support A
'^Ax= (36x^^U^| + 80 X 1.2 + 1
20 X 1.2 + 16x ^1.2 + 2.0 + ^
= 28.8 + 176 + 37.4 + 55.5

= 297.7 kNm^
Therefore, the distance to the C.G. of the B.M. diagram from the left support >1:

_ _ XAx _ 297.7
^ 1.96m
'LA 152
Example 2. It is required to draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams for the beam shown
^ ^ calculate the area
and the position of the C.G. of the B.M. diagram.
Tn
00 kN varying at a constant rate from 10 kN/m at A
carries a load of 1
0 Jn
0 kN/m at B. Hence the load
may be considered as being of two components,
one a uniformly
distributed load (U.D.L.) of 10 kN/m and the other a triangular-
s ape load varying from zero
at A to 30 kN/m at B, the total weight of each of the
24 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
components being respectively 40 kN and 60 kN. The C.G. of the U.D.L. is in the
middle of the beam while that of the triangular load occurs one-third of the distance
from B to A.
Taking moments about B,
4 4
—
Ra X 4 = 40 X — + 60 X

and
~ ^
Rb = 100-40
= 60kN

Now the load to any point ;c ft. from A towards B

-in
- 10xx j.
+ — XXX —X
JLf Zt

= 10x + 3.75x2

Then the point of zero S.F. and maximum B.M. occurs where

Ra -(10x + 3.75x2) = 0

or where lOx + 3.75x2 = 40

i.e. at 2.193 m from .<4.

Alternatively, elementary differentiation may be used to find the point of

maximum B.M.;

Mx=Ra XX— lOxxxy— ^xxx^x-^

= 40x-5x 2 - 1.25x2
 S.F. AND B.M. DIAGRAMS 25

Maximum B.M. occurs when =0 ,

dx

e. when 40 - 1 Ox: - Z.lSx^ =0

j

Qj. lOx + 3.75x:^ = 40

Whence jc = 93 m, as before.
2. 1

The S.F. diagram may now be drawn.

The maximum B.M. = 40x - — 1 .25x:^

= 40x2.193-5 x 2.1932 - 1.25 x 2.193^

= 87.7 -24.1 - 13.2

= 50.4 kNm
lA=[33-3kNm^

Consider Fig. 7.
The area of the B.M, diagram

= LA = Mdx
V

= j ( 40a- — 5a2 — 1 . 25 a^ )c?a

J 0

40a2 5a^ 1 . 25 a'’

2 3 4 0

= 320- 106.7 -80

= 133.3 kNm2
The moment of the area of the B.M. diagram about the support A
= DAa =-1^Mx dx
I

*4

(40a2 - 5a^ 1 . 25 a'’)c?a

0

40a^ 5 a'’ 1 . 25 a^
-0
= 853.3 - 320 - 256
= 277.3 kNm^
26 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
Hence, the distance from the support A to the C.G. of the B.M. diagram.

=x= _ 277.3 = 2.08 m

Syf 133.3

should be noted that the B.M. curve is a composite one resulting from the
It

addition of the second-degree parabola associated with a U.D.L. and the third-degree
parabola associated with a triangular load. The area under a second-degree parabola
or under the third-degree parabola for this particular triangular load = WL^ 112. The
total IP in the example =100 kN. Hence, the area under the curve should be
100 X 4 X 4/12 = 133.3 kNm^, which checks the result calculated above.

Examples of Sum Curve

The area relationships between the load and moment curves
intensity, shear
derived on pages 17—20 are useful in the case of a beam continuously supported,
such as a stiff foundation carrying imposed point or partially distributed loads, as
the examples shown in Figs. 8 and 9 indicate.

Example 1.

It is necessary to find the net load intensity diagram as shown in Fig. 8.

Then:

Shear at 5= area of load curve to left of B

= 60 kN/m X 2 m= 120 kN
Shear at C= area of load curve to left of C
= 120 kN - (90 kN/m x 2 m) = 120 - 180 = -60 kN
etc.
Since the load intensity diagram composed of horizontal straight lines, the
is

shear diagram will consist of sloping straight lines

and is drawn as shown.
Points of zero shear occur at G, H
and J and at each of these the tangent to the
B.M. curve will be horizontal and the B.M. value a maximum or minimum.
Then:
B.M. at jB = area of shear curve to left of B

120kNx2m =
2
120 kNm
B.M. at G = area of shear curve to left of G

120 kNx 3.33 m “ 200

-
2
kNm

B.M. at C= 200 kNm - — = 1 80 kNm

B.M. ati7= 180 kNm 150 kNm

The principle of symmetry operates, and the values for the remaining points D,
J and will be the same as those calculated for C, G and B respectively.
 EXAMPLES OF SUM CURVE 27

Since the shear diagram is composed of sloping straight lines, the B.M. diagram

will be composed
of second-degree parabolas, and is drawn as shown. Note that the
reversal of slopes in the shear diagram. The
slopes of the parabolas change with the
B.M. diagram
will be a smooth curve throughout.

Stiff rectangular base

a—
/ 300 kN ISOkN I
300 kN

u 2-Om
1 m 2'Om
1
'
1 1

Z-Om
K>1 1

2'Om
1^1
2‘Om
1 K

^
'

DOWNWARD
LOADING
1 J 1 ^771

UPWARD LOADING

!
\90kNfm
FINAL LOADING \

60kNfm
SHEAR DIAGRAM

60ki^
1

1-3307 l60,N \ oL - ^
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

Fig. 8

Example 2.

Consider as an alternative
an example with point loads of 300 kN in lieu of the
oa s istributed over thetwo lengths of 6 ft. The downward loads are thus two
point oads of 300 kN each, and
the upward load is 600 kN uniformly distributed,
sing the summation of
areas as before for the shear due to the uniform load and
there will be a step in the shear diagram at each of the point
is as shown in Fig. 9.
Th R ^ based upon the areas of the shear diagram and
is it should be
noted^th at
steps in the latter are accompanied by cusps in the former.
28 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
ZOOkN ISOkN ^
300 kN
I
uniformly i

1
s
distributed 1
1
1

T r
30/n
i 1 i t

4‘Om
f i “n
I
t t 1

J-0/77
)
1

1
1 1

be observed that the B.M. diagram in Fig. 8 could be obtained from that
It will

in Fig.9 by calculating the moments at D and E and on the line joining these
ordinates constructing a parabola of height IPL/8 (-45 kNm), where )V = 180 kN,
as shown on the shear diagram, and Z, = 2 m.
 LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

29
 LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

'max.

DEFLECTION

30
LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

31
LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

32
 J

SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

LOADING

MOMENT

M = ^

SHEAR
n u
R^=‘Rq- 2

DEFLECTION
^mox.
_
— PL^
''max. ^£-W
48E1

LOADING

-o-Cj. b
R4 a>c

MOMENT

^max.

Ra = Pb/L Rb= Po/l „ _ P(b-h2c)

SHEAR
^A^ I

dmaa:.olwous occurs within For centra! deflection

WHnb$ t derived from the formula

^
~ piffja /a j37
DEFLECTION
centre
4 Q£j[ l ^\l} m ^be adjacent diagram.
This vaiue is always within
<’•5% of the maximum value.

34
 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

35
 1 8

S/MPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

to

I Ak
P

C
i
P

D
; M
P

E F ~LB il/4
P P P P P P P
I W 1
(n-/) forces
w Bi\
5
-L
^A

When n is odd.
MczMet^ A/^-At-=^ (n^-i) PL
M/nax.*"
8n
I When n is even.
Mmax.^'^'^^l8

tt
^B
FA’~f^B-(r*-l)Pl2
I
Ra»Rb--2P
i J^max.
f
^
When n is odd
I
hi 63P13
fnax. iQQQEi When n is even
s n[z-L (l+i)]

-.'©•.'••.a. 'i o. :•<, >-4s

ntenten W/n SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM -

b
K H*- ^/n ^/n L^/n H— ^/n -^^/n- H
K L H
When n > 10, consider the load uniformly distributed
The reaction at the supfXirts = W/2,but the maximum S.F
at the ends of the W beam = aa
2n
The value of the maximum bending moment "•C.WL

The value of the deflection at the centre of the span

Value of n A C Ar

2 0 -2500 0-1250 0-0/05

J 0 3333 O-ti ii 0-0//
4 0 3750 0-1250 0- 0/24
S 0-4000 0-1200 0-0/26
6 0-4167 0-/250 0-0/27
7 0-4286 0-/224 0-0/28
8 0-4375 0 -/250 0-0/23
9 0-4444 0-/236 0-0/29
iO 0-4500 0-/250 0-0/29

36
 « ^
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

LOADING

MOMENT
Mqa “ ^ •^/l ^CB M ,b/i (Mq anthctockwise)
ShQar diagram when M/^ f^M^
f^A f^B ^A
Ma-Mq
SHEAR
RA^f^B=M/L Ra’^-Pb' L

1
As shown a>h.
0
i 1

Q)
f ^
DEFLECTION

men Ma •^Mq,
‘*C—J£Z (l-l) ML^
H
Omaxr’-
For antl~clockw/se moments 5£/
the deflections are reversed.
End degree parabola. Complement of parabola.
load*VK^y\
LOADING

i 5#
\fig
r L 4
— —
1 «x
-j w^^/l

A40MENT
{m^-EnP+m) Mx^^ (m~3m^4nP-Em‘*)
^max .
^cx. = ^
SHEAR

DEFLECTION
T
'

c{.._ «
f

e iw£
'
^ r—T—
je4Ei "jMf/
L
 LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION
 3. FIXED, BUILT-IN OR ENCASTRE BEAMS
beam under the action
are firmly held so that they cannot rotate
When the ends of a
or encastre beam.
of the superimposed loads, the beam is known as a fixed, built-in
the or positive B.M.
The B.M. diagram for such a beam is in two parts, viz.: free

diagram, which would have resulted had the ends been simply supported,
i.e. free

to rotate, and the fixing or negative B.M. diagram which results from
the restraints

imposed upon the ends of the beam.

Normally, the supports for built-in beams are on the same level and the ends of
the beams are horizontal. This type will be considered first.

Beams with Supports at the same Level

The conditions for solution, derived by Mohr, are two, viz.:

(i) The area of the fixing or negative B.M. diagram is equal to that of the free or
positive B.M. diagram.
(ii) The centres of gravity of the two diagrams lie in the same vertical line, i.e. are
equidistant from a given end of the beam.

LOAD
r 1
LOAD
DIAGRAM

BENDING
MOMENT
DIAGRAM
Ma

Fig. 1

Fig. 1 shows a typical B.M. diagram for a beam. built-in

ACDB is the diagram of the free moment and the trapezium is the
diagram of the fixing moment Mi, the portions shaded representing
the final
diagram.

Let As - the area of the free B.M. diagram

and Af = the area of the fixing moment diagram.
Then from condition (i) above, Aj - A/, while from condition
(ii) their centres of
gravity lie in the same vertical line, say, distance jc from the left-hand
support A.
AE = the fixing moment
BF = the fixing moment M^.
Therefore M^Mb xL =A/
and
Ma+Mb~^
39
 M

40 FIXED, BUILT-IN OR ENCASTRE BEAMS

£"5 and take area moments
Divide the trapezium AEFIS by drawing the diagonal
about the support A.

, _ ( 4 xL L \ , ( Mb xL 2L
Then

=I^(Ma+2Mb)

Ma + ~ (b)

But Ma+Mb=^ (a)

Also, Xs=/4f

Subtracting (a) from (b) and substituting ioxAf

Kf _ 6A5X 2(4 j

6AsX
Similarly
~1F'
It will be seen, therefore, that the fixing moments for any built-in beam on level
supports can be calculated provided that the area of the free B.M. diagram and the
position of its centre of gravity are known.
For point loads, however, the principle of reciprocal moments provides the
simplest solution.

LOAD
DIAGRAM

BENDING
.<>L MOMENT
DIAGRAM

With reference to Fig. 2,

Wab b Wab'‘

,, Wab a Wa^b

i.e moments are in reciprocal proportion

the fbcing to the distances of the ends of
the beam from the point load.
 IN FIXED BEAMS 4
SHEAR FORCES
loads, this principle is applied to each load in turn
In the case of several isolated
and the results summated.
given on ,
. .

It should be noted that

appropriate formulae for built-in beams are

pp. 43 to 49.

Beams with Supports at Different Levels

The ends are assumed, as before, to be horizontal.

similar to the bent
The bent form of the unloaded beam as shown in Fig. 3 is
the beam at the
form of two simple cantilevers which can be achieved by
cutting

LOAD
DIAGRAM

BENDING
MOMENT
DIAGRAM

centre C, and placing downward and upward loads at the free ends of the
cantilevers such that the deflection at the end of each cantilever is c?/ 2 .

d_P{Ll2f
Therefore (being the standard deflection
2 3EI ’

formula)

\2EId
or ^p_ •

This load would cause a B.M. at >1 or B equal to

„ L llEId L SEId

The solution in any given case consists of adding to the ordinary diagram of
B.M.s, the B.M. diagram A iDCEjBi.
Shear Forces in Fixed Beams
must be noted that in the case of fixed beams, it is necessary
It
to evaluate the
B.M.s before the S.F.s can be determined. This
is the converse of the procedure in
the case of simply supported beams.
The S.F. at the ends of a beam is found in the following manner:

S.F.^ - the simple support reaction at A -Mb

L
S.F .5 - the simple support reaction at
5 --
1

L
42 FIXED, BUILT-IN OR ENCASTRE BEAMS
where and iWg are the numerical values of the moments at the ends of the beam.
These formulae must be followed exactly with respect to the signs shown since
ifil^ is smaller thanMjg the signs will adjust themselves.
It will be seen that for symmetrical loads where =Mb, the reactions will be
the same as for simply supported beams.
As an example, consider Fig. 4
360 kN
^ LOAD
i- 4-Om C"
V
2‘Om ^ ? X DIAOHAM
1

•
6-Ofn
BENDING
TTTl e MOMENT
^ r\
4a0^kN
1T DIAGRAM

Sir
O'
1 SHEAR
T
DIAGRAM
N
SI
'Vl

T
Fig. 4

llAB were simply supported, then the maximum M, at C, would be:

~
Wab 360 X 4 X 2
6
= 480 kNm
while would be 120 kN andR^ 240 kN.
By the principle of reciprocal moments (p. 26)
= 160 kNm and Mg = 320 kNm
Now Ma could be considered as being caused by a downward force at B equal
to Ma/L = 26.67 kN, which would have to be balanced at A, for the equilibrium of
vertical loads, by an upward force of 26.67 kN. Similarly could be caused by a
downward force of 53.33 kN at^, with an upward balancing force of 53.33 kN
at B.
Hence, the final shear force at A
= the simple support reaction at ^4 +

= 120 + 26.67 - 53.33 = 93.3 kN

Similarly, the final shear force at B
= the simple support reaction at R+
= 240 + 53.33 - 26.67 = 266.7 kN
A simple rule to remember is that the shear force is greater than the simple
support reaction at the fixed end which has the greater numerical fixing
moment.
LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION
 BUILT-IN BEAMS

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

d - Wll H - l'4WlI
°max.- 382EI °max. - ja4EI
when X/ O' S2SL

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION
 BUILT-IN BEAMS
total load=W complement o
parabola

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

Any symmetrical load W

LOADING

symmetrical diagram

Mg c

MOMENT
M^^Mg^-As/L
where A^. is the area of the 'free'
bending moment diagram

SHEAR

Ra =Rb = V//2

'><" ]
The figure shown
. is half the bending
_y I
moment diagram

DEFLECTION

Omax. ot C
Where A/ is the area of the fixing
moment diagram
46
 LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

47
LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION
 built-in beams

LOAD PER SPAN^W^

COLUMN

,^/n CONTINUOUS BEAM

I ^/n-^ ^/n ^ ^/n ^/n
/
^/n ^/n -^^/n '

-LjJ- When n > 10, consider the load uniformly distributed

The load on the outside stringers is carried directiy by the supports
The continuous beam is assumed to be horizontal at each support
The reaction at the supports for each span =
W/^, but the maximum
shear force in any span of the continuous beam =
moment at each support =— B.WL
The value of the fixing
The value of the maximum positive moment for each span — C.WL
The value of the maximum deflection for each span =^0-0026

Value of n
2 0062S
J 00370
4 00469
5 00400
6 00439
7 00406
8 00430
9 00413
10
0042S
 4. CONTINUOUS BEAMS

solution of this type of beam consists, in the first instance, of the evaluation
THE
of the fixing or negative moments the supports.
at
is the use of Clapeyron’s Theorem of Three
Moments.
The most general method
beam and
The theorem applies only to any two adjacent spans in a continuous
the same level,
in its simplest form deals with a beam which has all the supports at
and has a constant section throughout its length.
The proof of the theorem results in the following expression;

Ma xli +2M5 (Zi +Li)+Mc^L2 ^

where iW;4 ,Mb andTWc are the numerical values of the moments at the supports
A, B and C respectively and the remaining terms are as illustrated in Fig. 1.

1- p- —
ZD- - I
Any /oacf
1
system
1 f
...J-
|

^2
[
T

In a continuous beam the conditions at the end supports are usually known, and
these conditions provide starting points for the solution.
The types of end conditions are three in number, viz.:

1. Simply supported.
2. Partially fixed, e.g. a cantilever.

3. Completely fixed, i.e. the end of the beam is horizontal as in the case of a
fixed beam.

One example of each of the above types will be worked out in full.
The S.F. at the end of any span is calculated after the support moments have
been evaluated, in the same manner as for a fixed beam, each span being treated
separately.
It is essential to note the difference between S.F. and reaction at any support,
e.g. with reference to Fig. 1 the S.F. at support B due to span AjB is a certain

51

faculty OF
^3,
he Uf^VER^TY LFBRARy
^JODHPUR

Call No
52 CONTINUOUS BEAMS
amount, while that at support B due to span BC is another amount, but the reaction
at the support is sum of these two amounts.
the
If the section of the beam is not constant over its whole length, but remains
constant for each span, the expression for the moments is rewritten as follows:

(Ai xxi ^2 XX2 \

+ 2Mb + Me X -p — 6 .,.

<2 1^1 y-h L‘2. ^ -^2 /

in which /i = moment of inertia for span Lx and = moment of inertia for span
Z2.

LOAD
DIAGRAM

BENDING
MOMENT
DIAGRAM

1 SHEAR
DIAGRAM

Fig. 2

Example 1. A two-span continuous beam^l^C, of constant cross-section, is

simply supported at A and C and loaded as shown in Fig. 2.
Applying Clapeyron’s theorem.

Li = 2.0 m
Z-2 = 3.0 m

10x2 2x2
j- = ~
10,^, -
Ai
8
X— kNm^

200 X 1 X 2 3
A2 2 ^2~ kNm^

Xi = 1.0 m
X2 ±0 m
3

Therefore Ma X 2 + 2Mb(2 + 3) +Mc X 3 =6 /^x ^200x41

1

13x2 irrr
 CONTINUOUS BEAMS 53

Since A and C are simple supports

Mj^ =Mc — 0 .

Therefore

Q ~
S.F.^ = 5 + = 5 _ 27.17 = - 22.17 kN

S.F .5 for span .<45 = 5 + 27.17 = 32.17 kN

^3
S.Fc =
^
.
+ 9jr 1^ 11 = 133.33
3
-

_ 18.11 = 1 15.22 kN

S.F .5 for span 5C = ^+ 18.11 = 66.67 + 18.11 =84.78 kN

Note that the negative reaction at A means that the end A will tend to lift off
its support and will have to be held down.

S C D E
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

Fig. 3
 1

54 CONTINUOUS BEAMS
Example 2. A three-span continuous beam ABODE is simply supported at A,
cantilevered at the endZ), and loaded as shown in Fig. 3. The section is not
constant but varies as follows;

7^5 = 8 500 cm'’

I^C ~ 6 500 cm'’
Ice = 5 500 cm'’
Applying Clapeyron’s theorem and noting that since the moments of inertia are
given in cm units the B.M.s and spans must also be given in cm units
Ma=0
Mjd = 60 kNm = 60 X 10^ kNcm

X
^ = 303.75 kNm^ = 303.75 x 10^ kNcm^

3.75^x 2
^ ZQ ^ ^ = 218.75 X 10^ kNcm^

^ 220x 3.75 ^ 3.75 X 2 ^ 257 8 I kNm^ = 257.81 x . lO'’ kNcm^

o 3
First considering spans and BC
2Mn / -3:^ + _L2l| X 10^ +717/-
^ I 1 x 10^ =
18 500 6 500] ^<^16 500

_ / 303.75 X 2.25 218.75 x 1.875 4

) ^
1 4.5 X 8 500 3.75 x 6 500 /

Therefore 0.220717^ + 0.058717(7 = 2 076 (i)

Next considering spans BC and CD

Mb
3.75
6 500
X 10^ +2Mc
3.75
6 500
.

5
3.75
500
X 10 ^ +60 (
[5
—500 I
X 10^

_ 218.75 X 1.875 257.81 x 1.875

X 10"
I 3.75 X 6 500 3.75 x 5 500
Therefore 0.058717^ + 0.252Mc = 2 406 - 409 = 1 997 .
.( 2 )
From equations ( 1) and ( 2)
Mb = 78.33 kNm
7l7c = 61.23 kNm
= 60 +
0-78.33
S.Fj4 = 60- 17.4 = 42.6 kN
4.5
S.F.^ for span ^5 = 60 + 17.4 = 77.4 kN
78.33-61.23
S.F.^ for span5C = 70 + = 70 + 4.56 = 74.56 kN
3.75
S.F .(7 for span BC = 70 -4.56 = 65.44 kN

_ 61.23-60
S.F.^ for span CD "
TfS
,

—
110 + 0.3 = 110.3 kN
S.F.£) for span CD = 110-0.3 = 109.7 kN
 I .

CONTINUOUS BEAMS 55

Example A two-span continuous beam ABC, of constant cross-section, is

3.

built-in horizontally at A and C,

supported at the same level at B, and loaded as
shown in Fig. 4.
The effect of a fixed end is the same as that which would be produced if there
had been, on the side of the support opposite to the span, another span
of equal
length to, and carrying the same load as, the span, except that this imaginary
span

iscompletely reversed from the actual span.

The effect can best be imagined if mirrors were to be placed at and C when the A
span AB would be mirrored into the span ABx and the span BC
into the span CCi
Interpreted, this mearis that the negative moment at each of the points Bx and
Cl is equal to the negative moment at B.

70 kN/m IZ_ JSkNjm-j

J -O/w ^ 3 ‘5m

Fig. 4

Applying Clapeyron’s theorem,

A (area of free B.M. diagram on span B^A) - - ^ x \

8 3

= ^|^kNm^ = 157.5 kNm^

A2 ( >5
AB) =
^ kNm^ = 157.5 kNm^

122.5 x 3.5 3.5 x2

A3 ( » ” g x-^—
= 125 kNm^
A4 ( J5
55
»
55 CCi)=125kNm2
 CONTINUOUS BEAMS
First considering spans 5i A and ^5

, (630x 1. 5 630x 1.5

X 3.0 + 2/1^4 (3.0 + 3.0) +Mb x 3.0 = 6
jj ^^3j 4x3.0

Note:— Afgj =A(g

Therefore % + = 1 57.5 kNm

Secondly considering spans AB and BC.

.5 125x1.75
Mji X 3.0 + 2Mb(3.0 + 3.5) +Mc x 3.5 -6 ~
^ ^ ^ 2 0) 3.5

Ma + 4.33Mb + 1.17Mc = 282.5 I

Thirdly considering spans BC and CCi

r ^ /l 25 X 1 .75 1 25 X 1 .75 \
Mb X 3.5 + 2Mc(3.5 + 3.5) x 3.5 - 6 I I

Note:— Afcj ~Mb

Therefore + 2Mc = 107.1 kNm (

From equations (i), (ii) and (iii)

Ma =57.01 kNm
Mb = 43.47 kNm
Me = 31.84 kNm
57 01
S.F^ = 105 + - -
^
—
— 43 47
= 105 + 4.513 = say, 109.5 kN

S.¥.b for span A5= 105 -4.513= 100.5 kN

31 84 — 43 47
S.F^^ = 61.25 + -
- = 61.25 - 3.32 = 57.93 kN
33
S.F.^ for span 5C = 61 .25 + 3.32 = 64.57 kN
It should be noted that further examples of continuous beams are dealt with in

Chapter 13, “Methods of Structural Analysis.”

Formulae for continuous beams are given in the pages immediately following
this chapter.
 EQUAL SPAA/ CONT/NUOUS BEAA4S
UN/F0RA4LY DISTRIBUTED LOADS
Moment — coefficient x x W L
Reaction = coefficient X W
where W is the U.D.L. on one span only and L is one span

-0/2S

0080 002S 0080

-ooso -ooso

O-OJtf

0-005

-0‘0S4 +0014
0074
 EQUAL SPAN CONT/NUOUS BEAMS .

CENTRAL POINT LOADS

Moment — coefficient x W X L
Reaction — coefficient x W
where IV is the Load on one span only and L is one span

w -
0-/88

-0-094

-0 07S

0-339

0-420
0 2/0
-

0-3/9

0-0S4

Ch00?\

58
 EQUAL SPAN CONTINUOUS BEAMS
POINT LOADS AT THIRD POINTS OF SPANS
Moment sr coefficient x W x L
Reaction coefficient x W
where Wis the total load on one span only & L is one span

•^1
Wfz
\
W/2

07/7
i -o-y
iJf
A—
W/2

0///
i
W/2

-0083
0139

Wl2
k -0133 * i -0/33 i i

0 05tf 0//P 0-3S7

0072 ^/2 m
00721

0-423]

004a\

0 089 +0024

04399

59
 5. CANTILEVER AND SUSPENDED-SPAN
CONSTRUCTION

It is shown in the foregoing chapters manual that the general

and elsewhere in this

effect of the application of end-restraints to built-in beams and propped cantilevers,

or of continuity in beams of more than one span, is to reduce the magnitude of the
maximum bending moments. The notable exception to this statement is provided
by the beam with a uniformly distributed load continuous over two equal spans,
where the resulting internal support moment is — WLj^, numerically equal to the
maximum free bending moment in a simply-supported beam. By contrast, when a
beam with a central point load is built-in at its ends, the maximum bending moment
is halved. For uniformly distributed loads, however, beams built-in or completely

continuous over many spans do not provide the greatest economy as the support
moments are - moments at mid-span are + WL/IA. For other
h!L/12 while the
types of load the variations in bending moment can be even more erratic.
Only cantilever and suspended-span construction can acliieve a more even
distribution of moments. Although the principles of this form of construction have
been known were patented and exploited by Gerber in Europe a century
since they
ago, this system could be said to have been sadly neglected in Great Britain since

the erection of the Forth Railway Bridge.

The method offers distinct advantages where the loading pattern is constant, as
for purlins and side-rails. Being statically determinate, the bending moments are

unaffected by the sinking of supports, such as might occur in areas of mining

subsidence.
Consider the simple example shown in Fig. 1. The beam CB cantilevers out to
the point h where hinged to the suspended-span Ah.
it is

Now the free moment under the point load F

and so the BM diagram for Ah may be drawn, as shown in Fig. lb.

The reaction produced by the load P at the hinge

Therefore, the moment produced at the support B

Pac
Mb - -Rh . c-
Lx
and thsBM diagram for hBC may be drawn also as shown in Fig. lb.

61
 CANTILEVER AND SUSPENDED-SPAN CONSTRUCTION 63

To draw the SF diagrams it is necessary to calculate the reactions at A and C

Mb _ _ Pac
Rc =

The resulting diagrams for Ah and hBC are shown in Fig. 1 c.

It should be particularly
noted that the shearing forces on either side of the
hinge h are of the same sign and
magnitude from D
to B. It may therefore be
deduced that the BM diagram has a constant slope through the point of
contraflexure formed by the hinge.
When the BM and SF diagrams are combined, as Id and e respectively,
in Figs.

it will be seen how simple the calculations are for this form of construction.

Similar treatment may be applied to uniformly distributed loads. Consider the

example shown in Fig. 2, where the load is w
per unit length.
Then the max. free moment in the suspended span Ah

and the BM diagram for Ah may be drawn, as shown in Fig. 2b.

The reaction produced by the suspended-span at h

wLi
Rh = -Ra
~T
The moment produced at the support B is therefore

MB = -Rh.c-'-~-

The remainder of the BM diagram can now be drawn, as shown in Fig. 2b.
The i'F’ diagrams are shown in Fig. 2c.
BM diagram may be drawn first by drawing the two free
Alternatively, the
moment diagrams for the spans AB and BC and then merely drawing the restraint
diagram through the point of contraflexure corresponding to the hinge h.

Fig. 3
64 CANTILEVER AND SUSPENDED-SPAN CONSTRUCTION
The same kind of procedure may be followed for any number of spans and any
loading, typical examples being shown in Figs. 3 and 4.

For uniformly distributed loads, the greatest economy can be achieved when
the maximum moments are reduced to ± 1PZ,/16. This can be achieved in a structure,
say with five spans, by reducing the lengths of the end spans to 0.8535 of the length
of the three interior spans, as shown in Fig. 5. When the spans are all made equal.

U.D.L. W per span L

Fig. 5

moments in the end suspended spans are greater than lVL/16.

as in Fig. 6, the free
The appropriate members can either be made stronger throughout or compounded
in the zone of maximum moment.
 L

CANTILEVER AND SUSPENDED-SPAN CONSTRUCTION

U.D.L. W per span L

O^OJSL—
« I— H — 0-/57Z. — )r-0-l2SL
—
—L L L L

r 0 0858 iVL rO OSHWL r ^ P 09S7 WL

-O'OasawL
16
0 4 I42 W
^
rO-5232 W rO-S 625 W

O'Sasaw ^o- 476aw 0-4375 w

Fig. 8

U.D.L. W per span L

0 2035 \r-Oi57L -H \^203SL

ooasawL rOosnwL

— ooasawL
'

0‘4I42W rOS232W

h
osasaiv V-n.
^o- 476 bw
Fig. 9
 6. PROPPED CANTILEVERS

BEAMS which one end and simply supported at the other are known
are built-in at

as propped cantilevers.
NormaUy, the ends of the beams are on the same level, in
which case bending moments and reactions may
be derived in two ways, viz.: by
employing the Theorem of Three Moments or by deflection formulae.

Solution by Theorem of Three Moments

A5 in Fig. 1.
Consider the propped cantilever
Tire bending momentB may
at be found by using the Theorem of Three
Moments, and assuming that AB is one span of a two-span continuous beam A5C
which is symmetrical in every way about B.
Then the loads onAB and BC will produce free B.M.s whose areas are Ai and
A2 respectively, the C.G.s of the areas being distances Xi and x-i from A and C
respectively.

PROPPED
CANTILEVER

Now MaL^ + msiLi +L 2 )+ McL 2 = 6

But Li = 1-2 ~ say,L,

II II
p
Ai = A 2 = say, A
and
Xx =X 2 - say, x.
Hence, 2M5(2L) = 6x2(^)
and 2Ax
Mb= .

67
68 PROPPED CANTILEVERS
Therefore the moment at the fixed end of a propped cantilever = 3>AxjLP',

where A = the area of the free B.M. diagram, >45 being considered as a
simply-supported beam,
X = the distance from the prop to the C.G. of the free B.M. diagram
and L = the span.
The reactions at each support may be found by employing a modified form of
the formula used for beams built-in at both ends, viz.;

S.F.^ = the simple support reaction at >4 —

Mn
S.F,^ = the simple support reaction at B -v—

where A is the propped end and B is built-in.

Example The beam >45 shown in Fig. 2 is propped at >4 and built-in at 5. It is
1.

required to draw the B.M. and S.F. diagrams for the symmetrical triangular load of
100 kN.

Consider the free B.M. diagram. At any point x from >4 between >4 and the
centre of the beam,

Hence, the maximum B.M., at the centre.

WL 100 X 4
= 66.67 kNm
6 6
 SOLUTION BY DEFLECTION FORMULAE 69

diagram
The area A of the free B.M.

*2 ^

= 2IV — - 12x4''
.4
0 ^
=200(1
^ -0.167)
Jo
= 166.7 kNm^
The C.G. of the free B.M. diagram is in the centre of the beam, i.e. 2 m. from A.

-
3Ax 3 X 166.7 x 2
Hence, Me 4x4
= 62.5 kNm

Following normal convention this value is negative;

_ W
Mb =50-
_ 62.5
S.F.^ =y-^ = 34.375 kN

S.F.fi = 50 = 50 + 15.625 = 65.625 kN

The B.M. and S.F. diagrams may now be drawn.

Solution by Deflection Formulae

When this method of solution is employed the propping force is found first and
the B.M.s follow. The method is best explained by an example.

Example 2. Consider the propped cantilever shown in Fig. 3 which carries a

uniformly distributed load of 40 kN.
Let the force in the prop be F.

40 kN^ 40 kN^ w yskN

1

A
^

B
r
B B
1
J’Om 1
LOADING DIAGRAM COMPONENTS OF LOADING DIAGRAM
/SkN

kNm

45

Fig. 3
70 PROPPED CANTILEVERS
Assume removed. Then the deflection at A will equal WL^I8EI,
that this prop is

this being the standard deflection formula for a U.D.L. Now if the prop is assumed
to be back in position then the upward deflection due to the prop will be FL^ISEI.
Since A is on the same level as B,

WL^
3EI SEI’

3H-' 120
whence E’=S.F.^=^=^=15kN
_5W 200_-,
and S-F-5 " 1“ 25 kN
“s'

Without the prop the moment at B due to the load is — WLjl, whilst the moment
at B due to the prop alone is FL = 3IiT,/8.
Hence the final moment at B
WL 40x3,-,_
= Mb = WL h 2'^8 )
^kNm--15kNm
The S.F. and B.M. diagrams may now be drawn.

Encastre Beams and Propped Cantilevers

There is one further method in which the fixing moment may be determined in
a propped cantilever, i.e. from a knowledge of the fixing moments in a similar
encastre beam, as will be shown in the following example.

Example 3. Fig. 4 shows the B.M. diagram for an encastre beam >1.5, 3.0 m.
long, carrying a point load of 250 kN at 1.25 m. from>l.

t.25m
i LOADING
^ J’Om Bg DIAGRAM

I
B.M.
vb
i
Jc DIAGRAM
O
Fig. 4

Now if the fixing moment is released, then it may be shown that the fixing
moment Mq is increased by half the numerical value of .

Therefore, for the propped cantilever shown in Fig. 5,

Mb = 76 + = 1 29.2 kNm

It will be appreciated that for symmetrical loading, the single fixing moment for

apropped cantilever is one and a half times as great as the fixing moment at either
end of a similar encastre beam.
 SINKING OF SUPPORTS 71

250 kN
l^25m
=1 LOADING
<tA 3-0 m B DIAGRAM

It should be noted that formulae for various propped cantilevers are given on
pp. 72-79 inc.

Sinking of Supports
When the supports for a loaded propped cantilever do not maintain the same
unloaded condition, the B.M.s and S.F.s may be obtained by
relative levels as in the
using the deflection method of Example 2. When the prop sinks the load which it
takes is reduced, while the fixing moment at the other end is increased. Two
special cases arise: the first when the prop sinks so much that no load is taken by
the prop, and the second when the built-in end sinks so much that the fixing
moment is reduced to zero, i.e. the cantilever resembles a simply supported beam.
 j

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

IV/iere
^ and are the simple
support reactions for the beam
fM^ being considered positive
DEFLECTION

72
LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

73
 PROPPED CANTILEVERS

LOADING

^
^•S77b\>-

y
OI2aWb

Ma kr^
Ma r>]
Awab
"s

j / 3L
Between u, / u
C ancf A, Mx =Rs.x-^/x-b)^
MOMENT

^A=- ^^(j<i^lSaL+20L^)
'f'M^ax, ^ '^^~SL ^

3 Hq
R^
B
SHEAR

f>B ‘^(^1- -’‘J RA = ^z(SL^-b')

Ra = w-Rb Rb = ^ (t>'+SaL^)

2W
21V
I 1
r
%A C: Bi WA C B[\
LOADING
^-t
-3-^

h
U
—
rr rl
^1

L-
r u *
^
^B
1

\
I*

h
u
L-—
u
H f^B

MOMENT

SHEAR

74
 PROPPED CANTILEVERS
W^w.a

¥ bTcd
LOADING

KVjH >
MOMENT
Mb=-2 Ma=’- ^
p = Vl

SHEAR
Jtyg/0

DEFLECTION

wifp^
-»max.= ~
"s^itT

Bk C D Bk 'CD
LOADING
—4 '<3r-^i6 K“

KVjH
a/m e:
MOMENT Mq=-2Ma **— Mq r.-2MA^-M

SHEAR

«x = p _ JA/

'
RB-p(i+m

Jcfo
DEFLECTION

’^o=-ifi[‘-(°+p)+p‘(^+
’
t • I
^)]
— /V
of ?ox.-- -
7
A/Z.^

75
LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

76
 PROPPED CANTILEVERS

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

11
 PROPPED CANTILEVERS

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

DEFLECTION

78
 L =

PROPPED CANTILEVERS

P
i-i E FBh
f<.AC: D
LOADING

MOMENT

SHEAR

n^r.MP Rr,= 2£E

^A 64 5 64

m <^max. yO‘4ieL^
DEFLECTION

dmoxrO-0221

Any symmetrical load W

<m <i/L-n

LOADING *jr-D -*

AreaRx^ AreaS \^B (Z)

I
a=L Ma=-M/2 E1--A/
CG.of ^
KCirea S rx\-M
lArea 0 a> 0423 L Mq^
MOMENT H Ac= Area of free B.M.Diagram Q)
u a=0 423
O' 423L .J-A/
a, ^
+i-—
®o'^23L
I

i“^
> ^ M^y=^i2-6n+3n^}
SHEAR

I^A=4+'^
4 L Rb=^-'^
° 2 L
McA=fl2-e'>-l-9n^-3nV
TAy«/ ,1
MQQ='^^(2-3n+n^)
max.
^a\ \Rb

DEFLECTION ^max. occurs at point corresponding

n ^n -
-R^^Rb=
A'~ B —
M+M/^
^ ^-iS-

fo X on B.M. diagram, the area R In Cose /, /?* 3M/2L

Leing equal to the area 0 Case 3, R = M/L
dmax. =
El
i
L
79
 7. THE DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

The calculated deflectionof a beam is limited by B.S. 449 to If 360 of the span,
floors or roofs,
calculated on loads other than the dead weight of the structural
together with steelwork and the weight of casing.

In the case of a simply supported beam, the uniformly

distributed load Wj) in

tons, to produce this deflection is

WD=Cf

where C = tabulated load coefficient = -

J X
—JOU3S4E —
77
-
75
XL/ X
TnB
J U

E = Young’s Modulus taken as 2.1 x 10^ N/mm^

L = Length of span in metres

/= Moment of Inertia in cm'*

The load Wjy will be less than the tabular load if the span exceeds 1 0 x the beam
depth for Grade 55 steel, 12.17 x the beam depth for Grade 50 steel or 16.97 x the
beam depth for Grade 43 steel.

In such cases it is necessary to confirm not only that the total load
is within the

capacity of the beam, but also that the loads to be considered for deflection
purposes do not exceed Wq.
The table below gives limiting values of the span to depth ratio for uniformly
loaded, simply supported beams for the different grades of steel for various ratios
of Wd to It^r, where

Wd = load considered for deflection purposes, and

Wt = total load on beam.

Grade of Maximum Limiting Values of Span to Depth Ratio for Wd/Wt

n
Steel Stress in
Nfmm^ 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5

165 16.97 18.86 21.21 24.24 28.28 33.94

155 18.06 20.07 22.58 25.80 cltHltM 36.12
140 20.0 22.22 25.0 28.57 msKsm 40.0
12.17 13.52 15.21 17.39 20.28 24.34
215 13.02 14.47 18.60 21.70 26.04

^91 265
10.0
10.57
11.11
11.74
12.50
13.21
14.29
15.10
16.67
17.62
20.0
21.14

If the
appropriate span to depth ratio is exceeded, then the relevant deflection
wi exceed 1 /360th of the span
unless the bending stress is reduced.

81
82 THE DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
The most common methods of evaluating the deflection in any given case are
three in number, although it is true to say that all these methods are variations of
the same root principle.
They are:
(a) A mathematical method commonly called the method of slope-deflection.
(b) The area-moment method, first expounded by Mohr, and commonly called
Mohr’s theorem.
(c) A graphical
method, which is really a graphical interpretation of the
area-moment method.

Before starting to deal with these methods in detail, it is interesting to consider

the deflection in the case of circular bending, which it will be remembered is the
type of bending assumed in the Ordinary Beam Theory.
The portion AB of the beam shown in Fig. 1 on page , 1 ,
bends in a circular arc
and by the geometry of the circle shown in Fig. 1 above.

y(2R-7)=|x|

is extremely small compared with the other quantities, and may be neglected.

Therefore 2Ry = —
and
^ 8/?-

1
n t

y=-
ML^
Therefore
8EI

so that the maximum deflection in circular bending = ML^ I8EI.

 MATHEMATICAL METHOD 83

of the beam constant, M must be constant for circular bending

is
If the section

to occur. If, as is more usual, M varies throughout the span, then / must vary so as
to keep the ratio Mjl
constant. This is not a practical proposition, although it is

approached in the case of compound beams and plate girders where the plates are
curtailed. A later example will illustrate this point.
The three methods will now be dealt with more fully.

Mathematical Method
It is necessary, first of all, to arrive at a convention of signs.
In Fig. 2, X is positive to the right andy is

positive upwards. The slope dy/dx is positive, so

that slopes upwards to the right are positive. The
curvature shownsuch that dy/dx increases asx:
is

increases, therefore, d'^yjdx^ willbe positive in

this case. The type of bending illustrated in Fig. 1
will have been caused by what are considered
positive B.M.s. Therefore positive B.M.s are
associated with ^d^y/dx^.
Now the rate of change of the slope, i.e.
d^y/dx^, is the curvature and in the Beam Theory
curvature, i.e. IjR, is equal ioM/EI.
Fig. 2 Therefore,

d V_ M or
Eld^y _
= M.
dx^ El dx^

This method is most easily applied to cases in wliich the B.M. at any point can
be represented by a simple expression.

Example 1. Consider the case of the simply supported beam with a U.D.L. over
the whole span, as in Fig. 3.

wLx
B.M. at X =

Eld'^y _ wLx wx^

dx^ 2 ~ 2
'

Integrating,

Eldy __ wLx^ wx^

+ C,.
dx A 6
dy/dx = 0 at midspan, when x = L/2. Therefore,

(d'Y ^

when =- wZ,’
Cl •

24

Therefore Eldy __ wLx^ rvx^ wL^

dx 24
•
84

— THE DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

\ typical section

,
.unit load w

j
1

From this expression the slope, dy/dx, at any point, can be found.
The slopes at the two ends of the beam are found by substituting jc = 0 and
x=L in the expression.
In the first case, if x= 0, then
Eldy _ wL^
’
dx 24

whence
dy _ wL^
dx 24EJ
which by the convention previously referred to, means that the slope is negative
or upwards to the left.
In the second case, \ fx=L, then

Eldy _ wL^ wL^ _ wL^

dx 4 ~~6 14
whence
dx 24EI
i.e.the same value as in the first case, because the beam is symmetrically loaded,
but of the opposite sign, indicating a slope upwards to the right.
Integrating the main expression again.

wLx^ wx^ wL^x

EIy =
12 w 24
When X - 0, y= 0. Therefore Q = 0 and
j^j^^__wLx^ wx'^ wL^x
^
12
~ 24 “ '24 ’

for maximum deflection x = L/2. Whence,

5wZ,'’_ 5m^
^ 384EI 3MEI
the well-known result, although the minus sign is usually omitted.
The diagrams
shown on pages 29 to 38, 43 to 49 and 72 to 79 show downward deflections
as
positive in accordance with normal practice.
 THE AREA-MOMENT METHOD 85

The Area-Moment Method

The area-moment method of analysis as used at the present time is usually
attributed to Mohr who published his method of elastic loads in 1868. However, it
was Professor C. E. Greene, of the University of Michigan who, in 1 872, introduced
the principles as they are now known. Subsequently, another German, Professor
H. F. B. Miiller-Breslau, extended the method to highly indeterminate structures.
A method of deriving the appropriate formulae will now be demonstrated.
Consider the cantilever ABC in Fig. 4 which is built in at A and carries a point
load at C. Under the action of the load, the cantilever will no longer be horizontal
except at A, the slope and consequent deflection varying from A to C. At B, for
example, a short distance ds from A, the slope will be d0 and the deflection dy.
Now it is well known that

M_f_£
I y R
Ignoring the middle term,

El R
where M= the bending moment
E = the modulus of elasticity of the materia]
/= the moment of inertia
R = the radius of curvature of the member.

centro/d of B.M. dtagrom

86 THE DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
Referring to Fig. 4, it will be seen that

ds=R . d6 (where d6 is measured in radians)

JO ^ J
or

M . ds
~Er
Consequently, the total change in slope from x4 to C will be

= M.ds
6 {a)
El

Returning to the short length ds between A and B, it will be seen that the
C due to the bending of that short length alone may be found
deflection di at
from the equation

di =dd Xi
M . Xids
.

Er~
Consequently, the total vertical deflection d over the whole length of the
cantilever may be found from the equation
M .X .ds
ib)
C El

In similar circumstances, where the deflection of a member is in a horizontal

direction, the appropriate equation is

d=
M .y . ds
(c)
El
In equations (fl) and (b)M . ds is the area of the B.M. diagram, whilst in equation
(h) X is arm between the centroid of the B.M. diagram and the point of
the lever
deflection under consideration. It was from these data that Mohr and Greene
developed the theorems of slope and deflection which may be expressed as follows:
Theorem I. The change in slope between any two points say, A and C in Fig. 4,
in an originally straight member is equal to the area between corresponding points
in the B.M. diagram, divided by EL

i.e. id)

where XA = the area of the B.M. diagram.

Theorem II. The deflection of a point say, C in Fig. 4, in an originally straight
member under flexure, in the direction perpendicular to the original axis of the
member, measured from the tangent at a second point on the member say, .4 in
Fig. 4 is equal to the statical moment of the B.M. diagram, divided by El, taken
about the first point C.

i.e.
ie)

where x = the lever arm between the centroid of the B.M. diagram and C.
 THE AREA-MOMENT METHOD 87

Note that where the B.M. diagram can be divided into convenient
in cases

eeometrical shapes, the formulae are

more easily expressed in the form shown in

equations (d) and (e) than (a)

and (ft) respectively.

Fig. 5

The application of the theorems to a beam is demonstrated in Fig. 5,ds being

the angular change between A and C measured in radians, wluch is equal to the area
of the B.M. diagram, divided by El; and d being the deflection, in this case upwards,
measured perpendicular to the original axis of the member, of the point C from a
tangent at A, which is equal to the statical moment of the B.M. diagram about C,
divided by EL
Now the angle 0^ is equal to the sum of the angles 0^ and Oq the ends of the
beam. It be observed that 6^ :0c ~
will ~ from which it is obvious that the
angular change at either end of a beam can be obtained by calculating the support
reaction at that end when the beam is loaded with its B.M. diagram, divided by El.
Some standard slopes and moments for beams are shown in Fig. 6, the beams in
each case being of constant section throughout.
Example 2. A 254 mm x 146 mm x 31 kg U.B. is loaded with a single point load
as shown in Fig. l.E =2.\ x 10^ N/mm^. 7 = 4 427 cm'’. It is required to find the
deflection under the load, the maximum deflection and the deflection at the centre
of the span.

Wab _ 1 20 X 1 X 2
B.M. at C= = 80 kNm
L 3

Considering the B.M. diagram as a load; taking moments about A and rearranging.
88 THE DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

~Ma -Mb -505 £//4

Ma = Mb =eB Et/L

t20kN
—k LOAD
L_ hOm
J’Om
2’Om — : DIAGRAM

BENDING
MOMENT
DIAGRAM
 THE AREA-MOMENT METHOD 89

Deflection at centre of span:

x 80 = 60 kNm
B.M. at centre of span =
^
w
Secondary B.M. = (53.3 x 1.5)
o 1 cN - /60xl.5
I
— “ x
l.5\
I

= 79.95 - 22.5

= 57.45 kNm^
57.45 X 10'^
U X W Nmm^
XlXlllXi _ O
Therefore
lucicjuiv. deflection
.

2.1 X
j
1
10
nS
I

m
N/mm
/
1772
xTTrTrvT 1734
4 427 x 10 mm5 6.18
1
mm

Deflection under the load:

— /so X 2 2\
Secondary B.M. = (53.3 x 2)
12^3)
= 106.6 - 53.3 = 53.33 kNm^

- 53.33 X 10^^ Nmm^

Therefore deflection =
2.1 X 10^ N/mm^ X 4 427x 10^ mm^
5. /5 mm
Maximum deflection:
It is first necessary to find the position of maximum deflection. Since

, „
deflection = Secondary
El
—
it follows that the maximum deflection occurs where the secondary Af is a maximum.
As in all other cases of loading, the maximum B.M. occurs at the point of zero shear.
The point of zero shear will always occur between the load and the centre of the
span.

Let X= the distance of the point X of zero secondary shear from B. Then:

B.M.at A=jx 80 = 40x

Therefore 40x x = 20x2 = 53.33 whence x = .632 m

j 1

Secondary B.M. = (53.33 x .632) x

1
- ^53.33
_ 53.33 x 1.632 x 2 ,
2 52.99 kNm^

Maximum = _ 57.99 x 10 *^
deflection o.z^mm
2.1 x4 427x10’
It be seen that the maximum variation between all three values is
will

approximately 8 per cent of the

maximum deflection.
t can be
proved that the maximum deflection, under any system of loading
w tever, never occurs further than
0.0774E from the centre of the span, provided
nat the beam on simple supports.
rests
If the slope
at any point is required, use is made of the first proposition
previously referred
to. It is necessary to have a reference point from which all
90 THE DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
slopes can be measured, and this obviously is the point of zero slope, i.e. where the
beam is horizontal. This is the point of maximum deflection.
The slopes at the ends of the beam will now be determined.
Slope at end B:
Slope atX = 0
80x 1.632 oo
B.M. atX =
r.
= 65.28 kNm
1XT

Area of B.M. diagram between X and B

65.28 X 1.632
= 53.33 kNm^
2
This is confirmed by the fact that this area must be equal to the reaction at B when
the B.M. diagram is considered as a load.

Therefore:

Slope at 5n = + — ^=+
53.33
El
tt-;
2.1
—X 10
53.33 x 10^
—
^
TFT = + 0-006 radian
X 4 427 X 10
The slope is positive because the area is measured to the right of X and is

therefore positive.

Slope at end A:
The total area of the B.M. diagram

= 2
— — “ ^20 kNm-^
_80x3 2

Consequently the area of the B.M. diagram between X and A

= 120 - 53.33 = 66.67 kNm^
66.7 66.7x 10^
Therefore Slope at A = —
El 2.1x10^x4 427 x 10'*

= — 0.0075 radian
The slope is negative because the area is measured to the left of X.

Slope at C:
The area of the B.M. diagram between X and C
80 -I- 65.28
X (2 - 1 .632)

= 26.7 kNm^
C is to the left of X, hence
26.7 26.7 X 10^
Slope at C=
El 2.1 x 4 427x 10’

= 0.0029 radian.

A number of further examples will now be worked out to illustrate the application
of the principles of the theory of deflection.
 SIMPLE BEAMS 91

70kNs^
96kN\^
—
A B C
S’Om l-Qm

LOAD DIAGRAM

BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

— Ih46mm
t_

r i
^

DEFLECTED FORM
Fig. 8

Simple Beams
Example 3. To find the deflection at Cof the cantilevered beam shown in
Fig. 8.

E = 2.1 X 10^ N/mm^ I is constant and = 4 427 cm'’

The first step is to find the slope at B nf the span AB, assuming that there is no
load on the cantilevered portion.

area of half B.M. diagram

Slope =

_ j
/ 60 X 5 X 3 X 10^ \
"^\2.1 x4 427x lOV
= 0.0108 radian
92 THE DEFLECnOX OF BEA1»IS
The slope is posith'e as v.'iU be seen from Fig. 2.
were no load on the cantiie^'ered portion BC, then the slope at B vrould
If there
be continued along BC at a constant value. Since, in the case of reiatrreiy small
angles of slope, the tangent of the angle is, for ail praaical purposes, equal to the
angle, then the slope would cause an upv.-ard defieaion at C equal to

0.0108 X 1.8 X 10^ =19.5 mm

The load on the cantilever, hov/evei, causes the beam to rotate at B so that the
deflection at C, with respect to B, is composed of two parts, viz. that due to the
rotationand that due to the load.
The rotation at B due to the load on the cantilever is MLj3EI, where is the M
bending moment at B due to the load on the cantilever, and L is the length of the
spznAB. Therefore:

77.4 X 5 7/.4 X 5 X 10^

Slope at 5= 0.0132 radian
3EI 3x2.1 X 4 427 X 10^

The slope is negative.

The dov,'nward deflection at C due to this slope
= 0.0132 X 1.8 X 10^ = 23.8 mm
The downward deflection at Cwith respect to B, due to the load on the
cantilever.

'70 X 1.8^ 8x 1.8^1 10’=

.

"
L 8 3 J ^2.1 X 4 427 X 10^
= 7.16 mm
The net result is a dovmward deflection at C
= 19.5 -23.8-7.16 =- 11.46 mm

Fixed Beams
The next example deals v/ith a beam fixed at each end. but before w'orlting the
example, the general application of the area-moment method to fixed beams will
be considered.
The deflectionat any point of a fixed beam is given by the difference betw’een
the dovmward deflection due to the load had the beam been simply supported, and
the upward deflection due to the fixing moments.
any fixed beam, the centroids of the areas of the free moment and
Since, in
fixing moment diagrams lie on the same vertical line, it foUov/s that v/hen these
areas are considered as loads, the reactions to the areas must be equal and opposite.
Therefore when the areas are considered as loads, there are no resultant reactions
and the maximum deflection v/ill occur at a point where the area of the free
moment diagram equals the area of the fixing moment diagram, v/orking from the
same end of the beam.
Example 4. Consider the simple case of a fixed beam of span L, carrying a total
U.D.L. of W as shov/n in Fig. 9.
 FIXED BEAMS 93

LOADING DIAGRAM

BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

Fig. 9

The maximum free B.M. = M,/8, while the fixing moments at each end = WLjll.
The fixing moment diagram thus has a constant height of WL/\ 2. The maximum
deflection obviously occurs at the centre of the span.

Working from one end, the area of the free-moment diagram to this point
\ 2 WL ,

while the area of the fixing moment diagram

L_ WL'^
12^2 24
to the same point.
The maximum deflection in an encastre beam is given by the difference between
the moments of the areas to one side of, and taken about, the point of maximum
deflection, in this case the centre.
It must be remembered, however, that since, in all cases, the moment is equal to
Reaction Moment minus Load Moment, where the Reaction and the Load refer to
the areas of the appropriate B.M. diagrams, and as the reactions cancel out as
previously maximum deflection is given, numerically and with the
shown, then the
by deducting from the moment of the free moment diagram, the
correct sign,

moment of the fixing moment diagram both taken about the point of maximum
deflection.

Thus, in the case under consideration, the maximum deflection

. i {(WL^ 3L\ (WL^ L

El [\24 ’'16/ (24 ^^4 384£’/’
/J
In this particular case,and indeed for any case of symmetrical loading, the
result could also have been arrived at in the following manner.
The central deflection due to the free
moment diagram only

5 WL^
384 El ’

while the deflection

due to the fixing moment diagram (circular bending since is M
net aetolection
^
~ WLf\ 2, giving a deflection of WL^ I96EI, and the

/ 5 WL^\
\384’' El 3MEr
j
 — H 1

94 THE DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

Example 5. To find the position and value of the maximum deflection of the
beam loaded as shown in Fig. 10.
£ = 2.1x10® N/mml 7= 1 522 cm^.
LOADING DIAGRAM PART B.M. DIAGRAM

The free moment diagram can be divided into an isosceles triangle of height
37.5 kN at C, on which is superimposed over the length CB a parabola, of
maximum height 18.75 kN.
The area of the free moment diagram
37.5 x 5 2x 18.75 x 2.5
2 3
= 93.75 +31.25 = 125 kNm^

Therefore ^ '

2
x 5 = 1 25 kNm^
whence = 50 kNm (1)
Taking area moments about A, the moment of the fixing moment diagram,
which can be divided into two triangles as shown, must equal the moment of the
free moment diagram.

Hence XyXy + AffiXyX^ = (93.75 x 2.5) + (31.25 x 3.75)

whence M^. + 'EMq = 84.4 kNm (2)

From the two equations = 15.6 kNm andAf^

= 34.4 kNm.
The maximum deflection will occur at X, at a distance x from A such that the
areas of the free moment and fixing moment diagrams above the length x are equal.
(See Fig. 10.)

h —
EL
h
Fig. 1
 FIXED BEAMS 95

will be necessary to digress for a while in order to establish

At this point it

certain properties of a part of a parabola. See Fig. 1 1

If a parabola of height H is constructed on a base L, then the area over a length

end
kL measured from one
= 2k^(3-2k)x^

while the C.G. of this

portion of area from the same end (x in the figure)

Reverting to the parabola in the example

H= 18.75 kNm
L= 2.5 m (the half span on which the parabola is constructed)

and kL 1

The area of the fixing moment diagram on the length x

I8.8x^
= 15.6x +
10

while the area of the free moment diagram on the same length

75(5.0 - x) 1
37.5 +
37.5 X 2.5 5.0
•(x - 2.5)
2
2 r
+ 2 - 1 X
2.5

= 62.5 - 75x + 37.5x2 _ 4x2

The- two areas must be equal, so that

15.6x + 1 .88x2 = _ 4;c 2 + 37.5x2 - 75x + 62.5
whence x = 2.79 m
The values of the individual small portions of areas are:

Free moment diagram (a) triangle = 46.875 kNm2

(b) trapezium = 10.24
(c) parabola = 1.16 »

58.28 »

Fixing moment diagram (a) rectangle = 43.6 kNm2

(b) triangle =14.68 »

58.28
Taking moments about X, the maximum deflection
_ 102
2;J7Y^[46.87x 1.12 + 10.24x0.14 + 1.16x0.1 - 43.6 x 1.395 - 14.68x0.93]
~ 6.36 mm.
 :

96 THE DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

Example 6. A post is fixed at the base and hinged at the top. It carries an
applied B.M. at an intermediate point. See Fig. 12. Find the maximum deflection in
the portion AB, the deflection at B, and the maximum deflection in the portion
BC.
jfT = 2. 1 X 1
0^ N/mm^. / = 8 500 cm'*.
The first step is to find the reaction at A.
Suppose the reaction at A to be removed, then the B.M. diagram would appear
as shown in Fig 12 (b).
The deflection at A due to this B.M. diagram is given by

Moment of B.M. diagram about >1 _ 60 x 3.5 x 4.25 _ 892.5

El Tl eT
If the reaction at A is now replaced, the deflection at A due to

_1 RAy^2\6_72RA
3 El 3 El El

Therefore for there to be no resultant deflection at>l

12Ra _ 892.5
El ' El
whence i?^=^12.4kN
The final B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 12 (c).

The B.M. diagram is now considered as a load and taking moments about C, the
secondary reaction at A

^14.4xH^xi^j - ^29x^x2.72) + ^31 x^x4.33)

= -

= 13.2 kNm^
The maximum deflection between A and B is given at a distance x from A such
on the length x is equal to the reaction at A.
that the area of the B.M. diagram

3 y y
Hence
1

x — = 13.2, whence x = 1 .46 m

and the maximum deflection

|^(13.2x 1.46)- ('l3.2x^jj x 10*^

"" “
(2.1 X 10^) X (8 500 X 10'*)

i.e. a deflection to the right.

It is desirable to differentiate, by signs, between deflections to the right or to

the left of the original vertical line of the post. If the post is viewed from the right,

the secondary B.M. is of the type that corresponds to negative deflection.

Accordingly, deflection to the right is considered negative and, conversely, that to

the left is considered positive.

 CONTINUOUS BEAMS 97

A A l2-4kN
-Q

(VSOkNm
B
5
O
va

LOADING B.M. DIAGRAM FINAL BM DEFLECTED

DIAGRAM FOR NO DIAGRAM FORM
REACTION AT A

Fig. 12

The deflection at B
l2
(13.2x2.5)- X 10
= — 0.04 mm
(2.1 X 10®) X (8 500 X 10^)

i.e. again a deflection to the right.

The maximum between B and C occurs at a distance of Xj below B
deflection
such that the area of the positive B.M. diagram on AB is equal to the sum of the
reaction and the area of the negative B.M. diagram on the length Xj.

2.34 - X,
Hence 29 + 29
2 2 2.34

whence xf -4.68x, +4.13 = 0, and X] = 1.18 m

and the maximum deflection

(13.2x 3.68) - (si x^ X 2.0 A + (l 4.4x +(29-1 4 4)(i-^ . X 10

12

(2.1 X 10®) X (8 500 X 10“’)

~ + 0.68 mm.
This deflection is to the left.

Continuous Beams
Example 7. To find the positions
and values of the maximum deflections in the
spans of a continuous beam.
The slopes and deflections
in any span of a continuous beam can readily be
ermined by the use of
the
Jeparately after the negative area-moment method, each span being treated
moments at the points of support have been found.
98

l60kN

2-2Sm 1

4-S/n
2-2Sr7
=
THE DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
lOOkN

B
l‘2Sn>\ 1-2510 \l-2Sn
i

3-7Sn
i
lOOkN
— 260kN

3-75n
UH.

D
GOkN

TZSto
'

BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM.

Fig. 13

Span AB:

[/xv = 8 500 cm^]

There are two B.M. diagrams in the span, one of wlrich is positive and the other
negative. Considering the B.M. diagrams as loads, the secxindart' reaction at^

/I80x4.5 l\ - /I09x4.5 A
= [-T- ^2)
= 202.5 - 81.8 = 120.7 kNm-

The maximum deflection occurs at the point of maximum secondary BAl. wliich
occurs at X, at a distance from A such that the net area of the B.M. diagram on
the length equals the secondary reaction.

Therefore

whence

The maximum deflection is found by the application of the principles pre\iously

set out and

(1 20.7 X 2.08) ^1
'>0.7 x X 10*-
j
(2.1 X 10^) X (8 500 X lO-’;)

=— 9.4 mm
 CONTINUOUS BEAMS 99

Span BC:
r/yy = 6 195 cm'^]
Considering the B.M. diagrams as loads,
the secondary reaction at B

125 X 2.5 77 X 3.75 32 x 3,75

_ _ ^ 2_j
= ^ ^
^ j ^

= - 28.2 kNm^

while the secondary reaction at C

125 X 2.5 X 3.75 32 x 3.75
^
^
_ p7 ^
_ ^
^ J_j
j

= - 8.2 kNm^

The fact that both secondary reactions are negative quantities means that the
beam is hogging at each end, so that there will either be one point of maximum
upward deflection or three points of maximum deflection: two upwards towards
the ends of the span, and one downwards towards the centre. The latter circumstance
^\'ill apply in the case under consideration.
The point of maximum deflection nearest to B will occur at a point Z at a
distance x from B such that

28.2 + 50A''' =x(109-4.3Ar)

Therefore - 09x
1 + 28 .2 = 0
whence x= 0.3 m
The corresponding upward deflection

(2.1 X 10^) X (6 195 X 10“’)

- + 0.39 mm
The point of maximum deflection
nearest to C will occur at a point Zi, at a
distance Xj from C such that

8.2 + 5Qxi^= 77xi +4.3xi^

Therefore
54.3xf - 77xi + 8.2 = 0
whence
Xj = 0.1 1 m.
100 THE DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
The corresponding upward deflection

/l25 0.1l2\ 0.1]^\ 0. 11^ 1

-8.2x0.11)- H-^77x-^j 4-(^0.9x- "3 xlO 12
(2.1 X 10^) X (6 195 X lO'^)

= 0.05 mm.
The point of maximum deflection nearest the centre is more easily found by
working from the end C and will occur at a point at a distance from C such
that

8.2 + + 125(x2 - 1.25) = a-2

8.2 + 78.1 + 125jc2 - 156.2 = 11 + 4.3^

Therefore 4.3x2^— 48jc2 + 70 = 0

whence JC 2 = 1.75 m
The corresponding maximum downward deflection

[^(-8.2 X 1.75) - X 0.875^ -

/125x0.52\ ^/77x 1.752\ ^ /l4.9xl.752 1

I 2/ I2 / I 2 ''3
X 10^2

(2.1 X 105)x(6 195 X 10^)

= — 2.06 mm
Span CD:
[4;,. = 5 749 cm"]
Since the negative moments at the ends of the span are so nearly equal, it may be
assumed, for all practical purposes, that an average negative moment of 76 kNm
obtains throughout the length of the span and that the maximum deflection occurs
at the centre.
If that assumption is made, the maximum deflection

(384'' El )
\ 8 £’/ /

5 X 260 X 3.753 76x 3.753]

r
,

^ ”
384 8 J
(2,1 X 10') X (5 749 X 10“)

= — 3.75 mm

Propped Cantilevers
It is required to find the position and amount of the maximum deflection in the
propped cantilever shown in Fig. 14.
 .

PROPPED CANTILEVERS 101

JL

The load IV, which is distributed in the form of a second-degree parabola,

produces the B.M. diagram illustrated.
NowiWg = — 3IVZ,/20 while the free B.M. at any point x ft. from 4, considering
AB to be a simply supported beam

WLIx^ 2x^ x\
2 \L^ ^ L)

Hence, for the propped cantilever,

IVl/x'^ 2x:^ x\ /31VL x\

lp-7^ vj- \-2on)
m /lox'’ 20x^ lx
20 L
Let xjL = m.

Now d^y
El

dy =
_ IVL^ /lO/w^ 20/77*’ Ini^
Hence EI^ + C
dx 20 \ 5
Wlien x = L,

dy
the slope^ = 0 and m= 1

Therefore 0 = (2 - 5 + 3^+0
whence
c=-k.
The deflection a maximum when
is the slope is zero. Hence,

0 = 2m^ — 5 /77
*’

TTiis equation is satisfied when m = 0.4268 or 1

 H

102 THE deflection: of BEA}.^S

Hence. lEe maximum defiectioi! occurs at a i>3mt 0.425SL from tt; prop .4.

= V.'L^ fm' .
EIv '~6
Nov>'. '
”20 K”! r
TiTen .x = 0 V = 0 and therefore D = 0.
- f £E1 Im
y = a = 2QE/V3 rrr --
6 -f)
For maximum defection, m = 0.426S. Therefore,

0.036T42T'.X^
=
—
G
 8 THE DEFLECTION OF COMPOUND GIRDERS
WITH CURTAILED FLANGE PLATES

for the maximum deflection of a simply supported beam of prismatic

The formula
section is

WL^
d = k.
El

where A: is depending on the form which the load

a constant W
takes. When the
deflection is naturally
centre of a beam is reinforced with curtailed flange plates the
due to the extra plates requires special
not so great, but the reduction of deflection
calculations. It can be shown that the appropriate formula for the
deflection of a

beam provided with one curtailed plate per flange as in Fig. 1 ,

is

d
WL^
EIo
k - — —
n

where n =Ii/Io and m =alL, Iq being the original moment of inertia of the beam
and/i being the total moment of inertia when the curtailed flange plates are added,
while the function of varies with the type of loading, k being the constant
as above.

Fig. 1

Suppose that the beam of Fig. provided with a central point load W. Then
1 is
the B.M. diagram, / diagram and M/I diagram appropriate to the beam are shown in
Fig. 2, F" being assumed to be constant and therefore ignored.
Considering the left half of the M/I diagram and taking moments about the
left-hand support.

m
I
6

103
104 THE DEFLECTION OF COMPOUND GIRDERS

J L

I DIAGRAM

Hence,

WL 3 r 1 “ n - 1 1 /
d=
El _48 n '

16
ym-m 2 .

+
3 jj

In a similar manner formulae for other loadings may be calculated. Five examples
are shown in Fig. 3, each having one curtailed plate on each flange.
When an additional curtailed plate is added on each flange the amount of

deflection is still further reduced and the appropriate formula can be expressed as;

n - 1
0 - fitn)

It is desirable to make a small table as shown in Fig. 4 to calculate the value of

d. In this table the values of n and m are functions of the beam. The values of D, E
and F are calculated from the appropriate formulae for f{m) given in Fig. 3. The
values G, H and J are the deflection reduction coefficients for each individual plate.
It will be appreciated when considering the second plate that the first plate

contributes to the value of /j and that the value G for the first plate has already
been calculated. Allowance for this is made in calculating the value of 4){n - \)jn.
Thus the value for the second plate isB - A. Similarly, for the third plate the
value is C- 5, and so on.
THE DEFLECTION OF COMPOUND GIRDERS 105

WL^ r
k-{G^H + J) .

Fig. 4

450kN
1 06 THE DEFLECTION OF COMPOUND GIRDERS
As an example, the maximum deflection of the beam shown in Fig. 5 will be
calculated.
Allowing for rivet holes, the properties of the beam are as follows;

/o = 1 64 000 cm^ h = 239 000 cm'^ 1 2 = 320 000 cm^

fli
= 7.2 m a 2 = 3.6 m
Hence =/i//o = 1.455 and «2 -I7JI0 - 1-947

mi = ffi/L = 0.6 and m2 =a 2jL = 0.3.

The beam carries two loads, viz.: its own, assumed to be 40 kN uniformly
distributed, and a central point load of 450 kN. Now the central deflection of a
prismatic beam with a uniformly distributed load is 5WL^I384EI, while that for a
central point load is 8WL^I384EI. Hence, as the uniformly distributed load is small
compared with the point load, it could be considered with little inaccuracy to be
concentrated at the centre of the beam, when the equivalent load would be
40 X I = 25 kN. Therefore, the beam will be analysed assuming that it carries only
a central point load of 475 kN.
The appropriate calculations are tabulated in Fig. 6.

Plate n - 1 « - 1
n (p.
.

n
m f(w) <p. .f(m)
No. n ^
1

1 1.455 0.313 0.313 0.6 0.0195 0.0061

2 1.947 0.486 0.173 0.3 0.0137 0.0024

. f(m) = 0.0085

Fig. 6

The values of f(m) for each plate is obtained from the appropriate formula in
Fig. 3, viz.: (l/16)[mi - trii^ + mi^/3].

475 X 10^ NX 12^ X 10^ mm^

(0.02083 -0.0085)
2.1 X 10® N/mm^ x 164 000 x 10“^ mm
= 29.4 mm.
 9. BEAMS IN TORSION

Definitions

In \Z5S, Saint-Venant^ showed that when the ends

of a straight cylindrical bar are
free to rotate under the action of two equal and
opposite couples, the twist per unit
is known as uniform
length is constant throu^out the bar. Consequently, this action
torsion. If, however, some other section, such as a broad flanged
beam, is restrained
at the ends and a couple is applied somewhere along its length, the angle of twist

varies. This action is known as non-uniform torsion. The two types are shown in

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 .-Uniform and non-uniform torsion

Saint-Venant noted that all plane sections of cylinders remained plane after being
twisted, while all radii remained straight. Now the fibres of such bars are deformed
into helices, but for all practical purposes it may
be assumed that they retain their
original length. Consequently, the only stresses induced are shear stresses. As shown
in Fig. 2, the tangential shear stresses, which vary uniformly in magnitude from zero
at the longitudinal axis to a maximum at the circumference, are accompanied by
equal shear stresses parallel with the longitudinal axis.
Saint-Venant also discovered that even quite simple non-circular solid sections
warp when twisted, some areas becoming concave and others convex. For
example
 .

108 BEAMS IN TORSION

an equilateral triangle behaves as shown in Fig. 3. Under these conditions, radial
lines from the centre of rotation do not remain straight and the distribution of shear
stresses is not linear.

Warptd profitt
Stress distribution
Fig. 3.— Warped triangular section

The sections which remain plane after twisting may be defined as follows:

1 Round bars or cylindrical tubes.

2 Open sections comprising two thin rectangles, the centre lines of which
intersect at a point, e.g. angle or tee sections.
3 Thin-walled hollow sections, the resultants of the sides of which intersect in
one point, as shown in Fig. 4.

d tff

Fig. 4.— Hollow sections which remain plane

hollow sections, including rectangular hollow sections of

All other solid or
constant wall thickness, rolled steel beams and channels, warp when twisted.

Uniform Torsion
Straight round bars

Figure 5 shows a straight round bar subjected to pure torsion, which twists the
outside fibres along AB
through an angle 0 to a position AB'
Therefore,

where q = the shear stress at the circumference

and G = the modulus of rigidity.
 UNIFORM TORSION 109

The radius OB twists through an angle 6' to the position OB' Hence,

0'=— radian .... (2)

where L = the length of the bar

and R - the radius.
From (1) and (2),

q=4>G=— xG .... (3)

The relationship between the applied torque T and the induced shear stresses q
may be found from a consideration of Fig. 6.

Fig. 6.— Shear-stresses induced by torque

The total shearing force on the elementary ring of radius r

and thickness dr is

q X 2vrdr
The moment of this force about
the polar axis is

dT = q' X 2-nrdr x r

= qr/R
Hence, the moment of torsional resistance over the whole section is

7’=2tt|JVdr=I,f?3

•
•
( 4)
 .

no BEAMS IN TORSION
Now the polar moment of inertia Ip of a cylinder is (n/32) Z)'*. Therefore equation
(4) may be expressed as

T = q^
R
TR
or q=- ... (5)

Readers should note the close analogy which exists between this standard
expression for torsion and that for bending, viz:

- _My _M
I be ~ Jbt
j

Considering Fig. 5 and substituting from equation (3) in (5),

...tl
*

Therefore, the angle of torsion per unit length of bar is

T
(6)

This is the value given in Table 1

TABLE 1

Expression for
Expression for
Type of section
Position of maximum angular rotation
maximum shear
shear stress per unit length in
stress
radians

Solid circular bar of On the external surface ler 327’

diameter D G-nD*
Hollow shaft On the external surface \(>DT 32T
o.d.=D n(D‘' - d'') Gn{D‘'- d^)
i.d. = d

Tube On the external surface T T

r = mean radius 2nr^t 2G-nr^t
t = wall thickness

Equilateral triangle In the middle of the sides 207’ 46.27’

s = side Gs”
Square In the middle of the sides 4.5T 1.2T
s = side Gs”
Solid regular hexagon In the middle of the sides 5.327’ 8.697’
D = diameter of in- GD^
scribed circle

Solid regular octagon In the middle of the sides 5.417’ 9.267’

D = diameter of in- GD‘'
scribed circle

Hollow shafts

In considering hollow shafts, i.e. tubes with very thick walls, the same arguments
can be used as for solid round bars. However, in this case, the polar moment of
 111
UNIFORM TORSION
and internal diameters
inertia is (j,l32)(lf -<f), where Z) and d are the external
of the shaft.
Consequently,

n.T 32

16D
and q = Tx

Hollow sections
the walls of which may
Consider Fig. 7, showing a hollow section of any shape,
be of variable or constant thickness but which are so thin
compared with the other
fibres may be
dimensions that the variation in stress between the inner and outer
ignored.

The shear flow around the section, represented by the product qt is constant.
Hence, where the wall is thin, the stress is high.
On an element tdu, the tangential force is qtdu. The moment of this force about
the centre of rotation O is qtrdu, where r is the perpendicular dropped from the
force to 0. The sum of the moments of all the elements around the U-axis is equal
to the torque T, that is

r= qtrdu rdu
^
The integral represents twice the area^l enclosed by the U-axis.
Tlierefore, T=2Aqt

and q =
T
2At
. ... (7 )

This is known as Bredt’s first formula.^

To calculate the angle of twist, use is made of Stokes’s Law:
qdu = 2GdA
112 BEAMS IN TORSION
Substituting from equation (7), the angle of twist per unit length,

(8 )

The reciprocal of the expression in brackets is analogous to the polar moment of

inertia in equation (6). For non-circular sections, the symbol K is normally used
instead of Ip.

Hence, (9)

This is Bredt’s second formula.^

It must be noted that Bredt’s two formulas can be used only for hollow sections.

Tubes

For tubes, equation (7) becomes

. . . . ( 10 )

where r = the mean radius, i.e. to the centre of the wall.

47rV
Also

= 2nt^t

Hence, e =
2
^Per unit length ( 11 )

Rectangular hollow sections

For rectangular hollow sections, some examples of which are shown in Fig. 8.

= ^
(12a)
ltdbd

= T
and qjj {\2b)
2t}jbd

4b^d^ _ 2b^d^ tfjt^

2^ j^2^ btd + dti)
ib k

The effect of corners. The internal angles of square or rectangular hollow sections
should be rounded to give a free flow of stress. Angular external corners do not
influence the stresses.
 3

UNIFORM TORSION 1 1

Fig. 8.— Types of rectangular hollow sections

Timoshenko^ gives the following formula for the determination of the factor of
concentration of stress, in terms of q, for internal angles;

(14)

\og/f

where p = the perimeter of the U-axis,

and Te, ri = the external and internal radii respectively of the corner.

Taper tubes

As taper tubes of constant wall thickness do not warp, they are comparatively
easy to design.
Consider the short taper tube in Fig. 9, Let the radius at the origin be Tq and
at
the free end Vi .

Fig. 9.— Taper tube

1 14 BEAMS IN TORSION
Then, using equations (10) and (11), at any point distance z from the origin,

and 0 = —T— 3-
ILiTir t
per unit length

With constant torque, the total angle of twist at the free end will be

, _ T
^ 2G-nt]r^

L dr
d2 =
.

But,
ro-rx

= TL
Hence e' 3
2G7Tt(r,
^(/'o-0)J,

If the average radius is then

TLr,m
e' = (15)
2GTir^^t

Sections which warp

Saint-Venant demonstrated that the differential equation of torsion could be

applied tosome of the more simple geometrical shapes, e.g. an equilateral triangle.
Subsequently, Weber produced solutions for regular hexagons and octogons.
Appropriate formulas are quoted in Table 1. Unfortunately, exact solutions do not
exist for the sections normally rolled or extruded for use in structures. In Great
Britain, however, a number of investigators, in particular Professor W. Fisher Cassie
and his associates,'*’ ® have used the membrane theory or relaxation methods to pro-
duce accurate torsional constants A" for rolled steel sections. In the United States
similar investigations have been carried out,^ while the K
values for universal beams,
channels and Z-sections have been published by the Bethlehem Steel Company. ’
The British Constructional Steelwork Association have profited especially from
the American work in producing two publications® which deal exhaustively with
design problems associated with the combined bending and torsion of beams and
girders. While the torsional properties of British Standard sections are given in
chapter 40, pp. 1020—1023, the reader is referred to the B.C.S.A. publications for
detailed information on design.
In Germany, the K
values for all standard rolled sections have been calculated by
Bomscheuer Anheuser.^’^°

The Rectangle. When a square bar is subjected to torsion, plane sections warp
into four concave and four convex zones, the shear stresses induced being of
maximum value at the centre of the sides and zero at the corners, as shown in Fig. 10.
The effect of torsion on a rectangular bar or plate is similar, but the stresses
induced in the middle of the long sides are greater than those in the middle of the
short sides. In addition, if the ratio of depth d to breadth b exceeds 1.45, there are
only two concave and two convex zones produced during warping.
 115
UNIFORM TORSION

Fig. 10.— Shear stresses in twisted square bar

Saint-Venant derived the following formulas for the maximum shear stresses:

In the long side. (16a)

In the short side, .... (166)

The corresponding formula for the angle of twist per unit length is

T
e = (17)
^b^dG

in which K = ^b^d.

The values of a and /3 derived by Saint-Venant are given in Table 2. When d/b
exceeds 10, the values are always assumed to be y.

TABLE 2

dib 1
1 1.5 1.75 2 i
2.5 3 4

a 0.208 0.231 0.239 0.246 0.258 0.267 0.282

p 0.141 0.196 0.214 0.229 0.249 0.263 0.281
dlb 5 6 7 8 9 10 oo

a 0.291 0.299 0.304 0.307 0.310 0.312 0.333

0.291 0.299 0.303 0.307 0.310 0.313 0.333

Comparison of sections

member will be subjected to heavy torque, a closed section such as a tube or

If a

rectangular hoUow section should be used. It can readily be shown that a closed
section is much more effective than an open member. Consider, for example, the
tube and slit tube shown in Fig. 1 1
For the tube, using equations (10) and (1
1),

T
27rr"f

and 6 =
T
IGirr^t
116 BEAMS IN TORSION

Fig. 1 1 .—Comparison of closed and open sections

The slit tube is analysed as a rectangle, the ‘depth’ being the projected length of
the perimeter.
Therefore,

_ T T
^
j X b^d 3X X lur

T _ T
^
jX b^dG ^x X 27rrG

Then the ratio of shear stress in the tube to that in the open section is:

T TXpx27rr 1 t

while the ratio of twist is

T ^x P X InrG _ 1

IGTirh ^ T 3 ^ 7*2

It will be observed that if the thickness of the walls is one-tenth of the mean
radius, then the shear stress in the slit tube is thirty times that in the entire tube,
while the an^e of twist is three hundred times as great.

Non-Uniform Torsion
All the foregoing formulas have been based on the assumptions that the members
were subjected only to equal and opposite torques at the ends and that they could
warp without hindrance, where appropriate. If conditions are such that these
assumptions do not apply the members are subjected to non-uniform torsion.
The two publications already mentioned® should be consulted for information on
this rather more complex subject.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 117

SAINT-VENANT, B. de. ‘Mdmoire sur la torsion des prismes.’ Mimoires des savants
1
itrangers, p. 253, (1855).

2 BREDT, R. ‘Studien zur Dehnungselasticitat’. Z. VDI, pp. 785 and 813, (1896).
3. TIMOSHENKO, S. Strength of Materials, Vol. 2. MacmiUan.

4 CASSIE, Prof. W. F., and DOBIE, Dr. W. B. ‘The torsional stiffness of structural sections.’
The Structural Engineer, (March 1948).
5. DOBIE, Dr. W. B., and GENT, Dr. A. R. ‘Accuracy of determination of the elastic torsional
methods and the membrane analogy.’
properties of non-circular sections using relaxation
The Structural Engineer, (September 1952).
6. EL DARWISH, I. A., and JOHNSTON, B. G. ‘Torsion of structural shapes.’ Journal of the
Structural Division, Proceedings A.S.C.E., (February 1965).
7. HEINS, C. P., and SEABURG, P. A. Torsion analysis of rolled steel sections. Bethlehem Steel
Corporation, 1963.
8. TERRINGTON, Dr. J. S. Combined bending and torsion of beams and girders. Publication
No. 31 (First part), 1968, and Publication No. 31 (Second part), 1970. British
Constructional Steelwork Association.
9. BORNSCHEUER, Prof. F. W., and ANHEUSER, L. ‘Tafeln der Torsionskenngrossen fiir die
Walzprofile der DIN 1025— 1021.' Der Stahlbau (March
1961).
10. BORNSCHEUER, Prof. F. W. ‘Schweissanschliisse torsionsbeanspruchter Trager mit/, U
undZ Queischnitten.' Schweissen und Schneiden, (March 1961).
 10. FORCES IN PLANE FRAMES

frame composed of straight bars between node points, assumed to be

A PERFECT is

frictionless pin joints, arranged in such a manner as to give direct forces only in the
several bars.This result will be achieved if the frame consists of an assemblage of
triangles formed by the bars, so that the
total number of bars is 27V - 3, where TV is

the number of nodes, when all the external

forces in the members of such a frame

can be determined by simple statics in the following alternative ways:

(a) graphically by the use of the reciprocal diagram;

(b) by the method of sections or moments;
(c) by trigonometry or joint resolution;
(d) from B.M. and S.F. diagrams;
(e) by resolution;
(f) from the equilibrium polygon.

It is self-evident that the external forces acting on any frame, that is to say the
loads and reactions, must form a system of forces in equilibrium. Further, since
direct forces only are to be induced in the frame members all external forces must
act at node points in the frame, and all the forces, internal and external, at each

node also constitute separately systems of forces in equilibrium.

(a) Graphical Solution

Two figures consisting of lines and points lying in a plane are said to be
reciprocal when: (1) to any node of one figure at which a given number of
lines meet there is a corresponding polygon in the other figure bounded by
the same number of sides, (2) to every line in one figure there corresponds a
parallel line in the other figure, and (3) to every line in one figure joining the

nodes there corresponds a line in the other figure separating the polygons
corresponding to those nodes. Then, if the first figure represents a framework
with loads acting on it, the second or reciprocal figure will give the forces
acting on the frame and the forces in the members of the frame. The reciprocal
figure in fact, an assembly of force polygons for the various nodes combined
is,

into one diagram, and is commonly called a force diagram. Each line in the
figure,taken in opposite directions, represents two forces: one in each of two
separate force polygons. Consider the truss shown in Fig. 1 The reactions at .

the supports, by the principle of symmetry, are 250 kN each, whence the
load line is set down 1—6 and point O
determined. Points in the force
diagram are then found in the order a, b, c, d, e and
f. The nature of the
forces in the members is determined from the force polygons for the
joints.
For example, the force polygon for joint is Z
la, aO, and the
01, arrows
indicate the direction of the forces for this joint, being
determined from
the known force 01 acting upwards. Similarly for joint Y the force
polygon is al, 12, 2b, ab, the known directions being al, which is la
reversed, and 12.

119
120 FORCES IN PLANE FRAMES

AH loads lOOkN each

LOADED FRAME

Fig. 1

It should be noted that no more than two unknowns, corresponding to the

two conditions for equilibrium of a coplanar concurrent system of forces, can

exist at any one node if the solution is to be by simple statics. Each line in the
diagram, e.g. \a, is used twice, once for each polygon and in opposite
directions.
 FORCES IN PLANE FRAMES 121

(b) Solution by Method of Sections or Moments

The basis of this method is the general case of equilibrium of non-
concurrent forces. In Fig. 2 if ABCDE represents a portion of the frame

shown in Fig. 1 by an imaginary section XX, then the forces in the bars
cut
cut by this sectionmust hold in equilibrium all forces to one side of the
section. All such sections must be drawn to cut three bars in conformity with

the three conditions

for equilibrium, 2^= 0, = 0 and 2M = 0, that is, th
summation of the vertical
components in the bars BD, BE and CE must hr
equa and opposite
to the vertical force at the section; the horizontal
components must summate
to zero and the moments of the forces in the bars
122 FORCES IN PLANE FRAMES
taken about any convenient point must balance the moment of the external
forces to one side of the section taken about the same point. Thus by taking
moments about where two of the bars meet, e.g. point 0, the moment
a point
BE also taken about O, Fq£ x y must equal
of the force in the remaining bar
the moment about that point of the external forces at A and C.
Consider Fig. 3.

Section Member Moments about Moments

1-1 AB C + 250kNx7.5
(Intersection of - Fy^B ^ 0.707 X 7.5m = 0.
BC and CE) FyjB - 250 X 1 .41 4 = 354 kN acting
i.e. F
towards y4, 45 is compression.
BC A -100 kNx 7.5m +F5 CX 7.5m = 0.
(Intersection of Fbc = 100 kN acting away from C,
AB and CE) i.e. Fbc is tension.
CE B + 250 kN X 7.5m — Fcf x 7.5m = 0.
(Intersection of Fee = 250 kN acting away from C,
AB and BC) i.e. Fce is tension.
2-2 BD E -H250kNx 15m- 100 kNx 7.5m
(Intersection of Fbd X 8.34 = 0.
BE and CE)
„ 3 000
Fbd ~ 'g
^ = 360 kN compression.

BE X - 250 kN X 55.0 + 100 kN x 62.5

(Intersection of - Fbe X 0.707 X 70.0m = 0
BD and CE) =^151 kN tension.

The remaining members may be calculated in a similar manner, but when

dealing with the centre vertical it will be found impossible to draw a section
other than to cut four bars, and in this case the loads in the other three bars
must be known before the load in the centre vertical can be evaluated.

M L K J H

(c) Solution by Trigonometry or Joint Resolution

This method is particularly useful for the solution of girders with parallel
booms where the web members are inclined at constant angles. Consider the
girder shown in Fig. 4. At joint A the known force isR^, whence, for
equilibrium, the force in AB, F^b - ^FG ~ cot 6, whilst the force in AM
is F^m ~ PhG - cosec 0 Similarly, at joint
. M
the known force is
cosec 0 whence for equilibrium F^i =Fjf{ =Ry^ cot 0 whilst Fbm = P’hf-^^A-
,
,
 FORCES IN PLANE FRAMES 123

B theretwo known forces

are and Fbm^ whence the two unknown
At joint
forces may be determined.
The remaining joints are treated in a similar fashion
the method corresponds to the graphical construction
and it will be noted that
the equilibrium is calculated separately for each joint.
in that

T
b
L

Fig. 5

(d) Solution by B.M. and S.F. Diagrams

This is method useful for the solution of parallel boom
an alternative
girders. Consider the girder shown in Fig.
5, then, by the method of sections,
Fqd ~ B-M. at K divided by the depth between the booms whilst Fig^ = B.M.
at C divided by the
depth. Hence the B.M. diagram to some scale will
represent the boom forces or, if the B.M. diagram
is drawn with a polar
distance equal to the depth it will give the chord forces to the load scale.
The shear in any panel is resisted wholly by the web members since the
chords are horizontal, thus the
loads in the verticals are read directly from the
S-F. diagram whilst
the loads in the diagonals are found by resolving the
shearing force in the
direction of the diagonals.
1 24 FORCES IN PLANE FRAMES
(e) Solution by Resolution
This method consists of resolving the resultant force acting on any section
into components in the directions of the three bars cut by the sections and is
particularly useful in finding forces in web members in girders with non-
parallel flanges subjected to varying loads.
Consider Section XX in Fig. 6. The resultant load on this section is

Ra - Wi acting where shown: the resultant of FdE> ^BD andF^(7 must be in

Fig. 6

equilibrium with this load. Produce £>£" to cut the line of action of F at point
X and Join this to B, the point of intersection of the other two bars cut by the
section. Draw ec to represent F, ed parallel to DE, cd parallel to Bx to give
point d. Then draw hd parallel to BD and he parallel to BC, which gives the
force polygon for the four forces concerned.

(/) Solution from the Equilibrium Polygon

This method is method of sections, but applied to the
the application of the
forces delineated by the equilibrium polygon in lieu of the original loads and

Fig. 7
 FORCES IN KNEE-BRACED FRAMES 125

reactions and in consequence is of particular application to three-hinged arch

trusses. An example is illustrated in Fig.J, where is part of a frame

andFi and Fa are the forces in the segments of the equilibrium polygon.
Then

(moments about E).

Fde ~F2 ^ w'A (moments about B).

FbE ^ (moments about X).

Forces in Knee-braced Frames

Figure 8 gives sections through a knee-braced shed (a) with columns hinged at
their bases, (b) with columns fixed at their bases, with exaggerated diagrams of the

deformed shape under side-wind loading with the resulting B.M. diagram on the
columns, both knee-braces being assumed to act.
It is necessary first to find the reactions, and, considering case (a), there are four

unknowns to be found, a vertical and a horizontal force at each hinge, so that the

6M ON
COLUMN

B.M. ON
COLUMN

external forces are

an indeterminate system. The problem can only be rendered
s atically determinate
by a reduction of the unknowns to three or less, and the usual
practice in this matter
is to assume a relationship between the horizontal
forces at
e inges. These
are usually proportioned according to the stiffness of the
columns,
an ence, if of equal
section, length and moment of inertia, as is usually the case,
e CO umns
will share the horizontal load equally
between them and hence the
sOrizontal reactions are
known, and the vertical reactions can be found by simple
ICS. urning now to case (b), a further assumption is necessary regarding the
126 FORCES IN PLANE FRAMES
position of the points of contraflexure, normally taken as mid-way between the
base of the column and the knee-brace. These points having been determined, the
portion of the frame above them reduces to case (a).
In both cases the columns are subjected to direct and shear forces and bending
moments, and therefore cannot be evaluated by simple statics. The method of
calculating these values and the forces in the members of the frame is best explained
by the examination of a typical problem, as shown in Fig. 9 (a).
The wind loading stipulated in British Standard Code of Practice, C.P. 3:
Chapter V: Part 2: 1970 cannot be calculated without full knowledge of the
particular building since this depends on relative length, breadth and height. For the
purpose of this example, loads based on Chapter V (1952), but with metric
equivalents, have been used.
Basic horizontal external wind pressure, p = 720 N/m^ taken as positive blowing
from left to right. This is by both external walls, thus
considered as equally shared
giving horizontal external wind pressures of +0.5p on the windward face and +0.5p
on the leeward face. Suction pressures normal to the roof surfaces are assumed to
be — O.lp on the windward slope and — 0.45p on the leeward slope.
An internal pressure of ±0.2p has been allowed for in addition.
The following calculations result, forming the basis of Fig. 9 (b).

Wx - + 0.5p - 0.2p = + 0.3p

= 0.3 X 720 X 3.75 x 4.5 N = 3.65 kN
1^2
= -O.lp - 0.2p = — 0.3p
= 0.3 X 720 X 3.75 x 8.66 N = 7.02 kN
in direction shown in Fig. 9

h/j = - 0.45p - 0.2p = - 0.65p

= 0.65 X 720 X 3.75 x 8.66 N = 1 5.20 kN
in direction shown in Fig. 9

1^4 = + 0.5p + 0.2p = + 0.7p

= 0.7 X 720 X 3.75 x 4.5 N= 8.50 kN

Total horizontal load, left to right,

= 3.65 -t 0.5(1 5.20 - 7.02) + 8.50

= 16.24 kN
Whence ///, = 8.12 kN (a)

Total vertical load, upwards,

= 0.866(7.02 + 15.20)

= 19.24kN

Moment about left hinge,

_ (3.65 + 8.50) X 2.25 - 7.02 x 6.58 - 1 5.2 x 6.41

15

= 7.75 kN (downwards) .(b)

128 FORCES IN PLANE FRAMES
Moment about right hinge,

.. (3.65 + 8.50) X 2.25 + 7.02 x 6.41 + 1 5.2 x 6.58

Vl j5

= 11 .49 kN (downwards) (c)

These values and (c) are reactions at the points of contraflexure.

(a), (b)
The additional loads on the columns below these points are;

Ws = 0.3 X 720 X 3.75 x 3.0 N = 2.43 kN

We = 0.7 X 720 x 3.75 x 3.0 N = 5.67 kN

Taking these into consideration the reactions at the fixed bases will be:

Windward Column
Vertical reaction = — 1 1 .49 kN
Horizontal reaction = — 2.43 = — 10.55 kN
8.12 —
Fixing moment = —(8.12 x 3 + 2.43 x 1.5) = — 28.01 kNm

Leeward Column
Vertical reaction = — 7.75 kN
Horizontal reaction = — 8.12 — 5.67 = — 13.79 kN
Fixing moment = —(8.12 x 3 + 5.67 x 1 .5)
= — 32.86 kNm
In order to draw the force diagram for the roof truss, it is necessary to make
allowance for the B.M.s in the columns. This can be done in two ways: (a) by
removal of the columns and substitution in their place of systems of forces applied
at nodes, whose effect will be the same as that of the columns, and (b) by the
addition of temporary framework arranged so that moments in the columns cause
direct stresses only in the auxiliary frames.
The calculations for method (a) are shown in Fig. 9 (d) and (e). Considering the
windward column, the side wind load on this, which is W^ = 3.65 kN is divided
proportionally to the column lengths, as to 0.61 kN at the eaves, 1 .82 kN at the
knee-brace level, and 1 .22 kN at the hinge. These forces are then combined with the
reactions at the point of contraflexure, resulting in final forces at the hinge of
11.49 kN vertically downwards and 6.9 kN horizontally. This last force must be
transferred to the frame, and its effect about the knee-brace level is a horizontal
shear of 6.9 kN and a moment of 20.7 kNm; the two forces shown of 13.8 kN at
eaves and 20.7 kN at knee-brace level, will reproduce both the shear and the
moment. To these forces are then added algebraically the appropriate wind loads,
and the final truss reactions are shown on the extreme right of the diagram in Fig.
9 (d). Similarly, the forces on the leeward column are evaluated and the final truss
reactions shown in Fig.
9 (e).
These hold the truss in equilibrium against the applied wind loads, and
six forces
the force diagram is reproduced in Fig. 10.
The direct forces in the columns above the knee-brace are given directly by the
below this are 1 1 .49 kN and 7.75 kN tension
force diagram; the vertical forces
(windward and leeward respectively), the shears are 8.12 kN each. In addition, there
is a moment of 20.7 kNm at knee-brace level and a moment of opposite sign of
 FORCES IN KNEE-BRACED FRAMES 129

WINDWARD STANCHION Cd)

O-SHcJl^ - IZ^akN^ 14-^^
h 82k^L/^ 20 ‘7jcN / 8‘88
h82kN.
kTr
5,
O lh49kN
l'22kN __ 8-/2kN 6‘9kN
^Point of
Contraflexure
lh49kN lh49kN

Wind Loads Reactions Loads and Forces Final Truss

Reactions equivalent Reactions
Combined horizontal
force at hinge

LEEWARD STANCHION Ce)

\^ h42kN \ ill.
T42kN
— IO‘S7kN'^ ^l^99kN
5^

4’24kN \ 4>24kN \^ /5.85^A/\J ITSIkN

0 i
7>75kN
284kN 8d2kN 5'28kN
- ^ < — o
Point of' 1 i

Contraflexure 7^7SkN 7-75kN

Fig. 9 (d) and (e)

28.01 kNm at the base for the windward column, with corresponding figures
15.85 kNm and 32.86 kNm for the leeward column.
The solution for method (b) is show^ in Fig. 1 Any convenient framework
1 .

arrangement can be used as indicated by dotted lines; in this case the truss rafter has
been prolonged to meet the horizontal through the foot of the knee-brace, to enable
thewind loads previously calculated to bP used in conjunction with the previously
determined reactions at the points of contrgfjexure. The force diagram is then drawn
in the usual manner.
The forces given in the diagram are correct for all members other than the
columns, for these havebeep affected by tbe addition of the auxiliary framework.
To determine the force
in the columns, the auxiliary frames are removed and each
column considered separately.
Taking the windward column, then it is seen that
below the knee-brace
the direct force must equal the reaction, whilst in addition
there is amoment of maximum value 20.7 kNm at knee-brace level. For the upper
I^rtion of the column the direct force must be such that it will hold in equilibrium
c vertical
reaction and the vertical component of the force in the knee-brace,
t will be
found that the force diagram for method (a) can be constructed more
y than that for method (b), since there are four fewer joints to be considered
 Diagram.

Force

kN

In

Scale

Force
Diagram

'orce
132 FORCES IN PLANE FRAMES
and also since the diagram more compact; moreover, the first method gives column
is

forces directly, whereas the second does not. Both methods, of course, will give the
same final answers.
The method of treating knee-braced frames described here is approximate, but it
has been found satisfactory in practice. A more rigorous and accurate analysis would
involve a consideration of the theory associated with portal frames.

The Three-hinged Arch

The three-lringed arch or portal is the only arch construction in which the
horizontal reactions are statically determinate since there are three known points on
the equilibrium polygon, or as it is more usually known in the case of an arch, the
line of pressure.
The reactions and line of pressure can be found in tliree ways: (i) by drawing the
equilibrium polygon to pass through the three liinges, (ii) by calculation of vertical
reactions and horizontal tlunst and constructing the ray diagram accordingly, or
(iii) by superimposing upon the arch the free B.M. diagram caused by the loads acting
as on a beam spanning between the two outer hinges, the scale being such that the
B.M. diagram passes through the crown liinge.
The arch, XYZ, chosen for the examples is 1 8 m in span and carries 50 kN loads
at 3 m intervals. The left hinge, X, is 3 m higher than the right hinge, Z.
Method (i) (see Fig. 12)

The load line abcdef is set down, a trial pole taken and the construction explained
on page 133 then followed, resulting in the pole of the ray diagram being fixed at
is

point 7 in the force polygon, giving the reactions shown in Fig. 12, namely

Vi = 100 kN, Vji = 150 kN and //= 150 kN. The hatched diagram, i.e. the difference
between the equilibrium polygon (or line of pressure) and the line representing the
arch axis, is the B.M. diagram for the arch, and the B.M. under load CD is given by
the product of the polar distance jc of 1 50 kN and the vertical intercept between the
line of pressure and arch axis at that point, namely 0.75 m giving a B.M. of
112.5kNm.
It should be noted that the polar distance jc represents the horizontal thrust H,

and consequently the B.M. at any point in the arch is given by the product of the
horizontal thrust and the vertical intercept between the line of pressure and the arch
axis at the point.

Method (if)
The B.M. on the arch is zero at the hinge points X, Y and Z. Consequently, the
following equations may be evolved by taking moments to the left of Y and Z
respectively:

"LMy =I'^x6m — 50kNx3m — /7x3m = 0

ZMz = ki X 1 8 m — 250 kN x9m-i-Ffx3m = 0
whence = 100 kN, Ff = 150 kN and Vji =150 kN.

With these figures known the ray diagram abcdefgjka can be constructed and the
line of pressure drawn. The B.M.s on the arch can be found as for method (i) or may
 THE THREE-HINGED ARCH 133

by calculation, e.g. by taking moments of all forces to the right of

be obtained directly
load CD we have

Mcd = 150 kN X 9 m- 150 kN x 5.25 m - (50 kN x 3 m + 50 kN x 6 m)

= 1 1 2.5 kNm
Method {iii)

The free B.M. diagram, or B.M. diagram for the five loads on a span
of 18 is as m
shown, and the B.M. at the crown liinge is 600
kNm. For the B.M. diagram to pass

50kN50kNS0kN50kN50kN

FREE B.M. DIAGRAM

1
600kNm <5 75kNm = 4 5m
^
1

=4.0m I

^ 375kNm
Y
b— 6 0m l2-0m
B.M. DIAGRAM
Redrawn to pass through hinges

Fig. 12

tlirough thecrown hinge the moment of 600 kNm must be represented by the
verticaldistance of 4.0 m shown in the figure, that is, the space scale for moments
IS 150 kNm
per metre on the scale layout of the arch. The B.M. diagram is then
redrawn to this scale on the sloping
base line between the two end hinges and
superimposed on the line representing the arch axis, giving the same result as before.
T^e direct
compression and shear in the rib at any point can be obtained by
resolution from the line of pressure as, for example, between BC and CD the force
IS 150 kN which gives 145.5
kN rib compression and 36.4 kN shear as shown in
ig- 13. With regard to the B.M. it should be noted that tension on the underside of
1 34 FORCES IN PLANE FRAMES
the arch occurs when the line of pressure is above the arch axis and, conversely,
tension occurs on the top of the arch when the line is below the axis.
It will be noted that the reactions at the supports are compounded of the

horizontal thrust, equal at both ends, and the vertical reactions. The horizontal

thrusts at supports are in this case equal and opposite since there are no loads other
than vertical loads on the arch; should there be horizontal loads^or inclined loads
having horizontal components then the horizontal reactions will not be equal and
opposite and the horizontal thrust will not be constant across the arch. This can be

Fig. 14

shown if the arch previously considered is rotated so that the end hinges are in a
horizontal line, dimensions remaining unaltered as shown in Fig. 14. The
all

magnitudes of the reactions will be unaltered, since the layout of the force system
has not changed, but their vertical and horizontal components alter as indicated.
To deal with lattice or braced three-hinged arches, it is only necessary to calculate
the reactions by any of the methods indicated, and, this having been done, the
forces in the members of the frame can be found either graphically or analytically.
 11. DEFLECTION OF FRAMED STRUCTURES
Mathematical Method
When a structure isloaded, deflection will occur, and each of the loads on the
structure will move through a certain distance thereby doing a certain amount of
external work. Each of the members will become strained and in so doing will
absorb a certain amount of internal work. According to the Principle of Work, the
external work done on a structure must be equal to the internal work absorbed in
straining the structure, and by applying this principle the deflection of the structure
can be determined.
For the purpose of dealing with statically determinate plane frames in which all
the loads are applied at node points and in which the supports are assumed not to
move in the direction of the applied load, the mathematical treatment is relatively
simple, since the internal work is done only in elongating and shortening the
members of the frame.
Figure shows a simple bracket consisting of two members AjB and BC carrying
1

a load W. The supports^ and Care fixed in position.

Under the load W, AB will be in tension while BC will be in compression, and the
point B will deflect by an amount d, the frame taking up the position shown by the
dotted lines.

Let Li = length of member A5,

Ai = the cross-sectional area of member AB,

Fj = force in member .4F (tension considered positive),

Xi = extension of member AB (positive),

L2 = length of member BC,

A2 = cross-sectional area of member BC,

F2 = force in member BC (compression considered negative),

and X 2 = shortening of member BC (negative).
Then, if F is constant for both members,

FiFi
AiE
and Y
^ A2E
wow if the load
applied so as to increase gradually from zero
is

the work done will be the average

to the value W
force acting x the distance moved through
herefore the total work done in
and
straining the members
= 2F1X1 +-^F2 X 2

=i +1
2‘AiF 2'A2E'
 .

136 DEFLECTION OF FRAMED STRUCTURES

The plus sign is used because bothFj and x-i are negative.
Therefore, for any number of members, the total internal work done

2 ^ AE'
At the same time the external work done will \)q\W d.

Therefore, in the example

WAiE WAjE
NowFj and F2 will be proportional to W, and if t/j and U2 represent the

forces caused in AB and BC respectively when a unit load is placed at B, then

Ui = El fW and U2 =^’2 /^', consequently
U.'^Li U2^L2
d=W AiE ^ A2E
or in the general case

d=W V^
^ AE'
Figure 2 represents a more general case.
It is required to find the deflection of the point P in the direction C.
Consider the member {AB) and imagine that,
1 for the moment, all the other
members are rigid, i.e. suffer no deformation.
Then, if a unit load is applied at P in the direction C and causes a deflection di
at P, the external work done
= -7 X 1 X C?i.

The internal work done = \UiXi where

Ui = force in member 1 due to unit load at P

and = strain in member 1 due to unit load at P.
 137
MATHEMATICAL METHOD
Therefore,

|x 1 xdi =iUiXi

member had been strained by an

instead of placing unit load at P, the
1
If,

amount Xj, the deflection at P would have been d^.

Accordingly the following rule is derived;

in a given direction due

The deflection of any point in a framed structure
to an extension x in any one member
of the structure is equal to the load in
given point, acting in the given
that member caused by unit load at the
direction, multiplied by the extension x.

now be extended to cover all the members in the frame and

This rule can
consequently the total deflection = 5T7x.
In a loaded structure x will be the extension in any
member due to the force F
iy2

in the member caused by the loading and x = FLjAE, where A is the cross-sectional
area of the member.
Therefore the total deflection

A complete
determination of the movements of all node points in a girder
requires two deflection calculations for each joint, vertical and horizontal. The
graphical method referred to later gives a single displacement diagram
from which
the resultant movement of all the joints can be determined
at the same time. The
algebraic solution exact while the graphical solution, although limited by the size
is

of the drawing and the inherent inaccuracies in all

graphical work, is a great saver
of time.
Deflections due to temperature changes may be
calculated by treating the change
m length due to variation in temperature in
a similar manner to strain caused bv
^
stress.
138 DEFLECTION OF FRAMED STRUCTURES
Deflections due to the forced distortion of members may be calculated by
replacing FL/AE by the estimated or known change in length, increase in length
being positive and decrease negative.

Example 1. Calculate the vertical deflection of the central point P of the lower
boom of the Warren girder loaded symmetrically as shown in Fig. 3 (a).
£ = 2.1 X lO^N/mm^.

(b) (c)

Fig. 3

Figure 3 (b) shows the force diagram for all external loads, while Fig. 3 (c)
shows the force diagram due to unit vertical load at P.
In Fig. 4, for the purpose of this Example the members have not been designed
in detail,but their areas have been assumed on the basis of using stresses of 202 and
135 N/mm^ in the tension and compression members respectively, and, since the
girder symmetrically loaded, members having similar lengths and forces have been
is

taken together, the length of each being multiplied by 2.

 139
mathematical method
area length unit
force
force UxFx L
member F A L U
(kN) (mm^) (m) id^ Njmm

2x3-6 -2887 43-5

4A. IG. iJO’O 62h3

2x3-6 •8662 130-5

3C.2E. 3033 1449-7

1863-9 2x3-6 - -5775 58-0

OA.OG. -260-0

OB.OF. -260-0 1863-9 2x3-6 - -5775 58-0

OD. -346-7 24852 3-6 -N55 58-0

260-0 1242-6 2x3-6 -5775 87-0

AB.FG.

BC.EF -86-7 621-3 2x3-6 - -5775 58-0

CD.DE 86-7 414-2 2x3-6 -5775 87-0

TOTAL =580-0x10^

— indicates compression
Fig. 4

Therefore the vertical deflection at P

580 X 10'^ N/mm =
27.62 mm
2.1 X 10® N/mm^
Example 2. Calculate the horizontal deflection of the central point P of the lower
boom of the Warren Girder used in Example 1 and loaded as shown in Example 1.
£’=2.1 X 10® N/mm^.
Bearing in mind that the girder is symmetrical and is symmetrically loaded and
that the point at which the deflection is required is the central point of the bottom
flange,it will be obvious that, in relation to the centre-line of the girder, this point

willhave no deflection in a horizontal direction.

There will, however, be some resultant horizontal movement between this point
and the ends of the girder L and R, and it is really this horizontal movement that is
required. Accordingly, if it is required to find the resultant horizontal movement
between L and P, the point L
can be assumed to be fixed in position. In this case all
the horizontal reaction will be supplied at L and it will be obvious that with
a
horizontal unit load at P and the reaction to this load wholly supplied at
L, and
140 DEFLECTION OF FRAMED STRUCTURES
therefore equal to unity, the only members of the truss subject to forces are the two
members A 4 and C3. If the unit load U is applied at P in the direction towards L,
i.e. towards the left, then the forces in A 4 and C3 under this unit load will be
compressive.
The table corresponding to this unit loading is given below.

UFL
Force F AreaA Length L Unit Load
Member A
kN mm^ m U 10^ N/mm

A4 130.0 621.3 3.6 - 1.0 -75.33

C3 303.3 1 449.7 3.6 - 1.0 -75.33
Total = - 150.66 X 10^

Therefore, the horizontal deflection at P=— = _7 ] 7

2.1 X 10^ N/mm^
This means that the joint tends to move, in relation to L in the opposite direction
to the applied load, i.e. the point P tends to move away from L, or conversely the
point L tends to move away from the point P. The value of the calculated movement
is confirmed by the measurement of the horizontal distance between a and e in
Fig. 9 which equals 7.17 mm.
O
 141
mathematical method

force area length unit UxFxL

force A
member F A L
U
(kN) CmnP) Cm) id^ N /mm

2A 2S9‘8 621-3 3-6 '2887 43-46

1C 4330 i449-7 36 -8662 93-14

IE 239^8 1449-7 3-6 •8662 55-88

IG 86’6 621-3 3-6 -2887 14-49

- -5775
OA -5I9‘7 1863-9 3-6 58-/5

OB -5197 1863-9 3-6 -5775 58-/5

OD -346-5 2485-2 3-6 -1-155 57-97

OF -173-2 1863-9 3-6 -5775 19-37

06 -173-2 1863-9 3-6 -'5775 19-37

AB 519-7 1242-6 3-6 5775 86-95

BC 173-2 621-3 3-6 -5775 -57. 96

CD -173-2 4i4-2 3-6 -5775 -86-93

DE 173-2 414-2 3-6 -5775 86-93

EF -173-2 621-3 3-6 - -5775 57.96

FG 173-2 1242-6 3-6 -5775 28-98

— indicates compression
TOTAL 535-91x10^

Fig. 6
142 DEFLECTION OF FRAMED STRUCTURES
Example 3. Calculate the vertical deflection of the central point P of the lower
boom of the Warren girder used in Example 1 but loaded asymmetrically as shown
in Fig. 5 (a). E = 2.\ x 10^ N/mm^.
It should be noted that, as the areas of the members are the same as in Example

1, the stresses in the members under this alternate load will be varied.
Figure 5 (b) shows the force diagram for the external load. The force diagram for
vertical unit load at P is exactly as in Example 1 and consequently need not be
redrawn. Figure 6 gives the summation UFLfA.

Therefore the vertical deflection at P=

2.1 X 10^ N/mm'‘
= 25.52 mm

Graphical Method
The deflection of a framed structure may also be found by a graphical method
which consists of plotting, to an enlarged scale, the movements of the joints of the
structure. These diagrams are commonly referred to as Williot diagrams.

IV

b /

X
N
As an illustration of the method, consider the simple bracket of Fig. 1 ,
which is

redrawn in Fig. 7 (a).

Under the load the member AB stretches by an amount 51 while the member
,

5C contracts by an amount 52.

Assuming that the member AB can rotate about v4, and that member BC can
rotate about C, then with centres A and C and radii A 1 and C2 respectively, arcs
can be drawn to intersect at 5', which is the position taken up by the point 5 when
the load W is apphed.
In reality, the distances 51 and 52 are extremely small so that the arcs 15® and
25® can be replaced by straight lines at right angles to Al and C2 respectively. The
following construction, which is illustrated in Fig. 7 (b), will describe the method to
be used.
 GRAPHICAL METHOD 143

Set out, to a much 62 parallel to their respective

enlarged scale, the lengths b\ and
members, in value and
members AB and CB to represent the strains in those ^

direction. From 1 and 2 draw perpendiculars to 61 and 62

to intersect in 6 6 will .

be the displaced position of the point 6 and if bx is vertical and 6

^ is horizontal,
then they represent, respectively, the vertical and horizontal deflections
of the point
B.
The method will now be extended to deal with a Warren girder and the three
previous examples will be re-worked by the graphical method.

Example 4. The data is the same as in Example 1

For the graphical construction it is required to know the strains in each member,
and therefore another figure is required to arrive at these strains. See Fig. 8.

length area force strain

FL
Member L A F '^AE
Cm) Cmm^) CkN) Cmm)

2-14 3-6 621-3 /30-0 3-59

6-/0 3-6 1449-7 303-0 3-59
/• 15 3-6 1863-9 -260-0 -2-39
4-12 3-6 1863-9 -260-0 -2-39
8 3-6 2485-2 -346-7 - 2-39

J-IJ 3-6 1242-6 260-0 3-59

S-/i 3-6 621-3 -86-7 -2-39
7-9 3-6 414-2 86-7 3-59

- indicates compression

Fig. 8

It is inore convenient, when dealing with the graphical method, to letter the
“‘^1° number the members. For this reason the notation used
rSa
m big. 9 (a) different from that used in Fig.
is
3 (a).
The displacement diagram is shown
in Fig. 9 (b).
displacement diagram, it is necessary to relate
aU
must be a node pomt and it is assumed to be fixed in position. In addition tWs point
 GRAPHICAL METHOD 1 45

must lie on a line which is assumed not to rotate. This line may or may not be a

member of the frame. „

For the purpose of this Example, which is for a symmetrical frame, symmetrically
point and the line which
loaded, the point E" is a particularly convenient reference
is assumed not to rotate is the line
joining to the mid-point of member 8. In this
E
deal with
Example the principle of symmetry applies and it will only be necessary to
one hdf of the girder.
Accordingly the point e 9 (b) is the starting point and the first operation
in Fig.

is to find the displacement of the point D

with respect to the point E. The analogy
of the simple bracket will be apparent, because this displacement is concerned only
with the strains in the members 7 and 8, and, more precisely, with only half the
strain in member member is bisected, by the reference line.
8 since this
Set out e8 parallel to member 8 and equal to half the strain in member 8, and set
out e7 parallel to member 7 and equal to the strain in member 7. The values of the
strains are taken from Fig. 8. Draw 8d and 7d at right angles to e8 and e7 respectively
to meet at d. Then d is the displaced position of the point D with respect to the
point E, and d8 will represent the vertical deflection of D with respect to E.
The only difficulty concerns the directions in which the lines e8 and e7 are to be
drawn and the following simple rule will govern this matter.
Arrows are placed on the frame diagram, as shown in Fig. 9 (a), to represent the
forces in the members. If the deflection of D with respect to E is required, the two
members concerned are 7 and 8, and the directions of the forces in these members
at the point D are considered. The lines e8 and e7 on Fig. 9 (b) are then drawn in
the opposite directions to the respective arrows.
member 8 is a strut, it will tend to shorten and consequently
In other words, since
the point D will tend to move towards the right in relation to the point E, while
since member 7 is a tie, the point D will tend to move away from the point E.
Having found the displaced position of D, it is now possible to find the displace-
ment of C with respect to D. Draw dS and e6 on Fig. 9 (b) parallel to members 5
and 6 respectively. The directions of d5 and e6 are governed by the arrows at C.
Draw 5c and 6c at right angles to dS and e6 respectively to meet in c, which is the
displaced position of the point C
By similar means the points b and a, which
are the displaced positions of the
points and A respectively, are found.
B
The final vertical deflection of the point A with respect to the point E is the
vertical distance between a and e and scales 27.6 mm
as obtained by calculation in
Example 1 Similarly, the horizontal distance between a and e = 7.2
.
as mm
calculated in Example 2.
The used for the construction of the Williot diagram is too large to be
scale
applied directly to the truss drawing, but if a smaller
scale is used the displacement
may be indicated, although in an exaggerated manner, by the dotted lines
in Fig. 10.
This outline represents the shape of the deformed truss
on the basis that point E
is i.e. the same basis on which the Williot
fixed,
diagram was drawn. It is obvious,
however, that since points A and/ remain fixed in
elevation (although not laterally)
a correction must be made by moving
the broken outline downwards. The
corresponding correction can be made on the
Williot diagram by taking as a
reference point the point X, which lies
on the horizontal line through a and the
yerticd line through All displacements,
e. both horizontal and vertical, are measured
trom X and thus all joints can be located from the one diagram.
146 DEFLECTION OF FRAMED STRUCTURES

Fig. 10

Example 5. The data is the same as in Example 3.

In this case the loading is asymmetrical and accordingly the assumption that E8

remains vertical is not true. Therefore, the Williot diagram does not represent the
true conditions and a suitable correction diagram must be devised.
Figure 12 (a) shows the frame diagram with the arrows representing the forces.
Figure 12 (b) shows the displacement diagram which is drawn by applying the
principles described in Example 4, the strains being obtained from Fig. 1 1 The point .

e the starting point, and the points a and / represent the displaced positions of the
is

points .4 and J respectively. It will be seen that the vertical distances from a to e and
from/ to e are not equal, as, of course, they should be if the supports A and J are at
the same level.
Figure 1 3 shows the deformed shape of the truss on the basis that the point e is
fixed and the line e8 is vertical. In order that this deformed shape may correctly
represent the deflection of the various joints it is necessary to rotate the dotted line
figure about £" in a clockwise direction until the points A and J are on a horizontal
line.

In Fig. 13 let 0 be the angle relative to the fixed point E through which the
dotted outline must be rotated, then since the truss is a rigid frame all joints of the
truss are rotated through the same angle and the amount of displacement of any
joint is in direct proportion to the distance of that joint from the reference point.

For example, due to rotation about E, points B and F move horizontally to the
right, point B moving vertically upwards and point F vertically downwards.

The correction for each joint can be made graphically as follows:

Draw a vertical through e in Fig. 12 (b) to cut the horizontals through a and; in
fli and/i respectively. On ai]\ draw a replica of the truss to scale, as shown in chain
lines. Denote each of the joints in the truss by letters corresponding to the original
truss. This outline is a Mohr correction diagram and the final figure is a Williot-Mohr
diagram.
The displacement of any joint may then be determined by direct measurement
between points which correspond in the Mohr diagram and the Williot diagram, this
being most conveniently done by measuring both horizontal and vertical components.
For example the vertical deflection of the point E is given by the vertical distance
between cj and e on the Williot-Mohr diagram and measures 25.6 which mm
compares with 25.52 mm
obtained by calculation in Example 3. Similarly the
horizontal movement of B is the horizontal distance from bi to b.
 3

GRAPHICAL METHOD

area force .
FL
F strain
member L A
Cmm^) CkN) (mm)

62 h 259-8 7-/7

1449^7 433-0 5-/2

1449-7 259-8 3-07

621-3 86-6 2-39

1863-9 -5/9-7 -4-79

1863-9 -5/9-7 -4-79

2485-2 -346-5 -2-39

1863-9 -/73-2 -/-60

1863-9 -/73-2 -1-60

1242-6 5/9-7 7-/7

621-3 /73-2 4-78

414-2 -/73-2 -7-/7

414-2 /73-2 7-/7

621-3 -173-2 -4-78

1242-6 /73-2 2-39

 .

GRAPHICAL METHOD 149

the two
The principle of the Mohr correction diagram is further exemplified by
additional WiUiot-Mohr diagrams for the same truss shown in
Figs. 15 and 16.

In Fig. 15 the point A is assumed to be fixed in position

and the member AB
prevented from rotating (although allowed to shorten).

Fig. 13

If the exaggerated distorted frame were drawn, it would be apparent that the
frame would have to be rotated in a clockwise direction about A to bring the point
/down to thesame level. The appropriate Molrr correction diagram is shown in
Fig. 15. The deflected frame is shown in Fig. 14.

Fig. 14

In Fig. 16 the point E

is once again assumed to be fixed, but this time the member
EF is prevented from rotating. When the Williot diagram is completed the point a is
higher than the point/. Hence, if the distorted frame were drawn it
would have to be
rotated in an anticlockwise direction
about E” to bring A
and J to the same level. The
Mohr diagram now appears on the right-hand side of the vertical through e.
A further frame is shown in Figs. 17 and 18 and vertical deflection of the centre
node point of the lower boom is determined, both
by calculation and by the
Rawing of a Williot-Mohr diagram. The values of FL/AE and FULjAE are shown
in Figs. 19 and 20 and the Williot-Mohr diagram is shown in Fig. 21
150 DEFLECTION OF FRAMED STRUCTURES
nmi I J
5 0 10 20
deflection scale in mm

mm
-6

25

reference point a
reference member ab

Fig. 15
 GRAPHICAL METHOD 151

a o/

W/LUOT- MOHR
DIAGRAM

reference point e
reference member ef

~
[_i 1 i_i I _ i:: I I
'

I-
•• --
~i
5 0 5 10 15 20 25
deflection scale in mm

Fig. 16

Fig. 17
152 DEFLECTION OF FRAMED STRUCTURES

Fig. 18

FL
number F L A E AE
CkN) Cm) Cmm^) /<^N/mm^ Cmm)
!

AB -400^0 4-24 3225-8 2-/ -2-50

BD -466-0 3-0 374/ -9 -/•78
DF -466- 0 3-0 374/ -9 ~/-78
FH -533-3 3-0 4322-6 -/-76

HK -533-3 3-0 4322-6 -/-76

KM -442-6 3-0 4/29-0 -2-/6
AC 283-3 3-0 3096-8 /-3/

CE 283-3 3-0 3096-8 /-3/

EG 550-0 3-0 3096-8 2-54

GJ 550-0 3-0 3096-8 2-54
JL 316-7 3-0 3096-8 !-46
LM 316- 7 3-0 3096-8 /-46
BC 0 3-0 /806-4 0
BE 259-2 4-24 /806-4 2-90
DE -100-0 3-0 /806-4 -0-79
EF -1/7-9 4-24 /806-4 -/-32
FG 0 3-0 / 8 06-4 0
FJ 23-56 4-24 /806-4 0-26
HJ -200-0 3-0 /806-4 -/-58
JK 30/ -0 4-24 /806-4 3-37
KL 0 3-0 /8064 0

Fig. 19
 GRAPHICAL METHOD 153

FUL
memb& F U L A E
5 ! £.
A
(kN) Cm } Cmm^} /O N/mm

A! -400-0 --707 4-24 3225-8 2-/ /-77

B3 -466-6 -/-o 3-0 374/ -9 /-78/

C4 -466-6 -/-o 3-0 374/ -9 /-78/

D? -533-3 -/•o 3-04322-6 /-762

£8 -533 3 -/-o 3-0 4322-6 /762
no -442-6 - -707 4-24 4/29-0 /-529
Gl 283-3 -5 3-0 3096-8 0-653
G2 283-3 -5 3-0 3096-8 0-653
GS 550-0 /-5 3-0 3096-8 3-806
G6 550-0 /-5 3-0 3096-8 3-806
G9 3/6-7 -5 3-0 3096-8 0-730
GtO 3/6-7 -5 3-0 3096-8 0-730
t.2. 0 0 3-0 / 806-4 0
2.3. 259-2 -707 4-24 /806-4 • •
2-048
3.4. VOO-0 0 3-0 /806-4 0
4.5. -1/7-9 --707 4-24 / 806-4 0-932
5.6. 0 /-O 3-0 /806-4 0
6.7. -23-56 -’707 4-24 /a06-4 0-/86
7.8. -200-0 0 3-0 /SO 6-4 0
8.9. 30/-6 -707 4-24 /806 -4 . .
2-383
9.10. 0 0 3-0 /806-4 • •
0

tot a/ def/ection 26-3/

Fig. 20
154 DEFLECTION OF FRAMED STRUCTURES
In'mill- I I- I I I
1

3 O 3 6 9 12 IS IS
deflection scale in mm
reference point a
reference member ab

IT}/ m

3mm

26-

Fig. 21
 12. INFLUENCE LINES

AN influence line for any given point P on a structure is such a line that its

ordinate at any point Q gives the bending moment, shear force or similar quantity

at P when a load placed at Q.is

It is important to note that an influence

line is drawn for one point only and that
while such a line will give the desired information at that point for any position of a
load, it will not necessarily give the maximum value of the B.M., S.F., etc., on the
structure as awhole. In any structure or for any system of loading, it may be
necessary to construct several influence lines in order to obtain the absolute maxima
on the structure. By comparison with an influence line, a B.M. diagram gives the
B.M. at all points for one position of a load.
Influence lines can be drawn in three ways, viz.;

1 . For unit loads and unit spans.

2. For unit loads and factual spans.
3. For factual loads and factual spans.

Each of these methods will be illustrated with reference to a simply supported

beam.

Simply Supported Beams

Figure 1 (b) (c) show the B.M. and S.F. influence lines for the point P on a
and
simply supported beam of span AB, drawn for unit load and unit span. Note that
when an influence line is drawn for unit span, both a and b are less than unity.

A. Point Loads
1. Bending Moments:
(a) Influence line drawn for unit load and unit span.
If a'unit is placed at Q, Fig. 1 , then the B.M. at P is given by the
load
product of the load and the ordinate of the influence line at the point of
application of the load, viz.: CQi,

i.e. B.M. atP = 1 x CQi.

If a. series of unit loads are placed at Q, R and S respectively, then the B.M.
at P is given by the sum of the products of the loads and their appropriate
ordinates, e.g.;

B.M. at P= 1 X CQi + 1 X DPi + 1 X ESi.

This particular influence line, i.e. that for unit load and unit span, can
readily be used for the case of any loads on any span, but, in this case, the
appropriate ordinates must be multiplied by the numerical values of both load
and span. Thus if a series
of loads Wi, W2 and IF 3 are placed on a span of
155
156 INFLUENCE LINES

Loading Diagram (0 )

inffuenci iine far BM at P (b)

Influence line for SFatP (c)

length L, at points corresponding to Q, R and S, then

B.M. at P= IVi xCQi XL + W2 XDR xL + WjxESi 1 x L
= L{Wi X CQi +W2 XDR + W xESi).
3 1

(b) Influence line drawn for unit load and factual span.
In this case the ordinates will automatically be L times the values given in
case 1 (a) as will be seen from the following example.
Suppose to be -^>15.
Then in case I (a) the ordinate at P would be

' 7 ^^ ^
I 9’

while in case 1 (b) if the span were 1 8 m the ordinate at P would be

6x 12
= 4,
18
which is 1 8 times that in case 1 (a).
In this case, accordingly, if a series of unit loads are placed at
Q, R and S
respectively then

B.M.atP= 1 X C2i + 1 xDRi + 1 xES^

and the values can be applied to the case of any loads by multiplying by the
numerical values of the loads.
Thus, if loads Wy, W2 and W3 are placed at Q, R and S respectively,
B.M. atP= Wi X CQi + W2 xDR^ + W 3 xES^.
158 INFLUENCE LINES
and the corresponding ordinate at Q (the right-hand quarter point)
=0 1
— = 0.0625
875
(which is merely a number).

Therefore, if a load of 100 kN is placed at Q and the span is 10 m

B.M. at P= 0.0625 X 1 00 kN X 1 0 m = 62.5 kNm
In Fig. 2 (b) the ordinate at Pi

= 2.5 m X 7.5 m = ,
1 .875 m
and that at Qi = 0.625 m.
Therefore, B.M. at Pi for the same conditions
= 0.625 X mX 100 kN = kNm 62.5
In Fig. 2 (c) the ordinate at P2 = 187.5 62.5 kNm.
and that at Q 2 =
Therefore B.M. atPa for same conditions = 62.5 kNm.

2. Shear Forces:

(a) Influence line drawn for unit load and unit span.
If a unit load is placed at Q, Fig. 1 then the S.F. at , P is given by the
product of the load and the appropriate ordinate -

S.F.XFQ 2 atP = 1 .

If a series of unit loads are placed at Q, R and S respectively then

S.F.atP= +FQ 2 +IXGR 2 +I XHS2

1 .

It will be noted that these quantities must be added algebraically, since FQ 2

is negative while the other two are positive.
If a series of loads Wi, W2 and are placed at Q, R and S respectively
then
S.F. at P= h/i X FQ 2 +W2 X GR 2 + X HS 2 .

(b) Influence line drawn for unit load and factual span.
be seen from Fig. 1 (c) that, in the case of unit load, if the sloping
It will

lines are produced, intercepts of unity result at A and B.

Accordingly, there is no difference in application between cases 2 (a) and
2 (b). In other words, in the case of S.F. the span does not enter into
consideration.

(c) Influence line drawn for factual load and factual span.
In this case, as in the case of B.M., the ordinates give directly the values
required.
Once again, however, this case can only be applied to either a single load or
' a series of equal loads.

Summing up the three cases, it will be seen that for any given loading and span
the S.F. is obtained as foUows:

In cases 2 (a) and 2 (b), by multiplying the ordinates by the appropriate

loads, and in case 2 (c) by direct measurement of the ordinates.

The three cases will be illustrated by the following example.

 ^
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
at the left-hand quarter
C yy,Tilp by the influence line method, the S.F.
2 Find
single point load of 100 kN is
placed at the other
point of a span of 10 m when a

shown in Figs. 3 (a), (b) and (c)

iS2ncVliL?for the three cases are
'^'"The
respectively.

I
1
A

Fig. 3

ordinate
ordinate at P= 0.75 and the corresponding
In Fig. 3 (a) the appropriate
at 0= 0.25 (a mere number). n
be seen that, since the intercept
^
of the sloping line at ^^ i
i
is 1 .0,
In Fig. 3 (b) it will
i.e. exactly as in Fig. 3 (a), the ordinate
at 2 is also 0.25.

Therefore, irrespective of span, if a 100 kN

load is placed at Q,

S F at P= 0.25 X 100 kN = 25 kN
Consequently
100 kN, i.e. the value of the load.
In Fig. 3 (c) the intercept at is

the ordinate at P2 =75 and that at Qa “ 25 kN.

Therefore, when 100 kN is placed at Q, the S.F. at
P -^ 25 kN.
The difference in application between B.M. and S.F. will
now e c ear,
in the case ot it
in the case of B.M., the span plays an important part, while .,

plays no part at all.

B. Uniformly Distributed Loads Shorter than the Span

If a U.D. load is considered to be made up of a large number of small point loads
at very small distances apart, will be appreciated that the
ordinates o t e pom
it
160 INFLUENCE LINES
load examples become a series of ordinates very close together, and in the limit the

ordinates add up to an area.

1. Bending Moments:
(a) Influence line drawn for unit intensity of load and unit span.
If aU.D. load of unit intensity is placed over the length Fig. 1 (a), then
the B.M. at P will be given by the area jR IDE’S" j.
This particular influence line can readily be used for the case of any load
on any span, by multiplying the appropriate area by the actual loading
intensity and by the square of the span. Thus, if a U.D. load of w per unit
length is placed over the portion of a span of L units then the B.M. at
P = area R iDESi x wZ,^.
It will be noticed that there is a difference between the multipliers in the

cases of point and distributed loads. In the former, since the loads are the
actual values, the unit ordinates are multiplied by the values of the load and
the span, but in the latter, since w is only a load per unit length, the actual
load is given in terms of wL and this quantity has still to be multiplied by L,
thus giving the multiplier wL'^.

(b) Influence line drawn for unit intensity of load and factual span.
In this case the areas will automatically be times the values given in case
1(a).
If a U.D. load of unit intensity is placed over the portion then the B.M.
at P will be given by the area i^iDDiSi, while if the intensity of the loading is

w per unit length, then the B.M. at D would be area RiDESi x vv.

(c) Influence line drawn for factual load and factual span.
In this case the B.M. is given directly by the appropriate area.

The three cases will be illustrated by the following example.

Example 3. A U.D. load of 200 kN/m stands over a length of 2.5 m measured
from the right-hand end of a span of 10.0 m. Find, by the influence-line method,
the B.M. at the left-hand quarter point of the span.
The influence lines for the three cases are shown in Fig. 4 (a), (b) and (c)
respectively.
In Fig. 4 (a) the ordinate at P, as previously shown, is 0.1875, while that at Q is
0.0625.
Therefore, the area under the B.M. influence line over the loaded length QB
= 0.0625 X 0.25 _ 0.0078125 ,
(a mere number).
.

As the span is 10 m and the intensity of loading is 200 kN/m run over the length
QB, then
B.M. at P = 0.00781 25 x 200 kN/m x (10 m)^ = 156.25 kNm
In Fig. 4 (b) the ordinate at P-^ is 1 .875 m, while that at 2i = 0.625 m.
Therefore, the area under the B.M. influence line over the loaded length QB
0.625 X 2.5
= 0.78125 m^
2
 ^^
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
^

the B.M. at P, the loaded length

intensity of loading of 200 kN/m run,
and with the
being QB
= 0.78 125 x 200 kN/m = 1 56.25 kNm

Fig. 4

by multiplying the ordmate

In Fig. 4 (c) the ordinate at Pj is 375 kN and is found
ordinate at Q 2 is
(b) by the intensity of loading. Consequently the
>
in case

and the area over the loaded length QB

= 125 156.25 kNm

2

Therefore the B.M. at P due to a load of 200 kN/m over the length
QB= 156.25 kNm.
^

2, Shear Forces:

(a) Influence line drawn for unit intensity of load and unit span.
then t e
If a load of unit intensity is placed over the length PS', Fig. 1 (a),

S.F. at P will be given by the area R 2^7/52.

162 INFLUENCE LINES
This particular influence line can readily be used for the case of any intensity
of loading on any span, by multiplying the appropriate area by the actual
loading intensity and by the span.
Thus U.D. load of w per unit length is placed over the portion
if a of a
span of L units, then the S.F. at P = area i? 2U//iS'2 x wL.
Once again it will be seen that there is a difference between the applications
depending on whether the loading is concentrated or U.D.

(b) Influence Une drawn for unit intensity of load and factual span.
In this case, if the loading intensity is unity, the S.F. is again given by the
area under the S.F. influence line standing over the loaded length.
In applying this case to any intensity of loading, it is only necessary to
multiply the appropriate area by the intensity of loading w.

(c) Influence line drawn for factual load and factual span.
Once again, in this case, the S.F. is given directly by the appropriate area.

The three cases will be illustrated by the following example.

A OB
iiiiiiMm

Fig. 5
 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS i

Example For -the same span and conditions of loading given in Example 3, find,
4.

by the influence-line method, the S.F. at the left-hand quarter point of the span.
are shown in Fig. 5 (a), (b) and (c)
The influence lines for the three cases
respectively.

In Fig. 5 (a) the ordinate

P is 0.75, whUe that at Q
at is 0.25. Therefore the area

under the S.F. influence Une

over the loaded length QB

X _0^ ^ 0.03125
= (a mere number).

As the span is 10 m, and the intensity of loading is 200 kN/m run over the length
QB, then the S.F. at P
= 0.03125 X 200 kN/m x 10 m = 62.5 kN.
those in Fig. 5
In Fig. 5 (b) the ordinates are exactly as (a). Therefore the area
under the S.F. influence line over the loaded length QB

0.25 X 2.5
= 0.3125 m
2

With the intensity of loading of 200 kN/m run over the length QB, then the S.F.

at?
= 0.3125 m X 200 kN/m = 62.5 kN.

In Fig. 5 (c) the ordinate at P is 150 kN/m, while that at Q is 50 kN/m.

Therefore the area under the S.F. influence line over the loaded length QB
50 X 2.5
= 62.5 kN
2

P due to this loading = 62.5 kN.

Therefore the S.F. at
most practical cases, it is required to find the maximum B.M. or S.F. at any
In
point due to the loading system.
In the case under consideration, i.e. that of a loaded length shorter than the span,
the maximum B.M. at any point such as P in Fig. 1 (a) will be given when the point
P divides the loaded length in the same proportions as it divides the span.
For S.F., two maxima are possible. TTie maximum positive (+ ve) S.F. at P is
^ven when, ifcomes on from the right, the leading edge of the load had
the load
just reached P or if on from the left, the trailing edge of the load has
the load comes
just reached P, while the
maximum negative (— ve) S.F. at P is given when, if the
load comes on from the right, the trailing
edge of the loading has just reached P, or
if the load comes
on from the left, the leading edge of the load has just reached P.
(See Fig. 1(c).)

C Uniformly Distributed Loads Longer than the Span

This type of loading could
be illustrated by a long train passing over a short span.
The methods of dealing with both
B.M. and S.F. are exactly as given under the
ast heading, i.e.
that for U.D. shorter than the span.
t only
remains to illustrate the positions for maximum values.

R u obvious, by reference to Fig. 1 (b), that the maximum

• at P is given when the whole span is covered by the load.
164 INFLUENCE LINES
Again in the case of S.F. there are two maxima and these are given when the load
is in the positions previously indicated.
The use of influence lines is most helpful in the cases of continuous beams, arches
and framed girders, when the values for B.M. and S.F., etc., for varying positions of
loads can be much more rapidly evaluated than by any other means.

Influence Lines for Framed Structures

Figures 6—10 show typical influence lines for direct forces in members in Warren
and Pratt or N-type frames.
The main points to be noted are detailed below;
1. The load has been assumed to be transmitted through deck stringers and
cross beams so that load is applied to the main girders only at the panel points.
2. Considering Fig. 6 if the force in member QR is required, it could be
obtained, by themethod of sections, by taking moments about the point D.
Consequently the influence line for the force in QR is, to some scale, the
influence line for B.M. for the point D, with this difference: that, between Q
andi? the influence line is a straight line as shown. This truncating of the
diagram is peculiar to the Warren-type girder and applies only to the loaded
chord. Also, see the influence line for CD in Fig. 7. Similarly the influence
line for CD is, to some
the influence line for B.M. for the point Q.
scale,

3. Considering Fig. 8 the influence line for the member QR is, to some
scale, the influence line for B.M. for the point D. Here it should be noted that
the influence line for member DE
is the influence line for B.M. for the point

R and is, same as that for QR, This is substantiated by the fact
evidently, the
that, for this type of frame, the forces in QR and DE are equal.
4. The influence lines for web members are influence lines for shear and
are similar to that shown in Fig. 1 (c) with the difference that the line is drawn
diagonally across the panel under consideration. It should be noted, that, in
the case of the end diagonal in Fig. 6, the slope of the line PiXi depends on
the position of X, i.e. the length of the approach span PX. Xi is vertically
below X. It should also be noted that, in this case, and indeed for all cases
dealing with web members in the end panel, the shear-force influence line does
not cross the base line, i.e. the shear force in the panel at the left-hand end of
the girder is always positive. Note also the special case of the end vertical in
Fig. 8.
5. If the influence line for any web member, e.g. the influence line for
members QD andiJD in Fig. 8, crosses the base line, then it is possible to get
both positive and negative shear in the panel QR. This means that the member
QD will, at some stage, be in compression. If the length of the member is such
that it would be uneconomical to make it capable of resisting compression,
then cross bracing is introduced. This cross bracing, usually comprised of
members capable only of taking tension, introduces one or two unusual
features in the influence lines for the members affected. For example, if,
in Fig. 8, the panel is cross-braced and the members RE and SD are
capable only of taking tension, then the influence line for SD will be as shown,
while, at the same time, the influence RD will have the unusual form
line for
shown, since it will be possible for this member RD to take the whole load at
the time when the load is at R.
influence lines for framed structures 1 65
unit had

unit had

Fig. 7.— Warren girder, load on bottom chord

166 INFLUENCE UNES
unit load

FRAME DIAGRAM

Influence line for member on

top chord, e.g. OR

Influence line for member on

bottom chord, e.g. CD

Influence line for member RD

Influence line for member Q D
similar but vaiues are multiplied
by Jp^-t-d^
d

Influence line for member QC

Influence line for member PC
similar but values are multiplied
by Jp^+d^
d
Influence line for member PA

Influence line for member GD if

it can take tension only

Influence line for member RD it

diagonals can take tension
only

Fig. 8.— Pratt or N-truss, load on top chord

 167
INFLUENCE LINES FOR FRAMED STRUCTURES

unit had

FRAME DIAGRAM

Influence line for member on top

chord, e.g. OR

Influence line for member on

bottom chord, e.g. C D

Influence line for member OC

Influence line for member 00
similar but values ore multiplied
by Jp^-fd^
d
Influence line for member PA
Influence line for member PC
similar but values are multiplied
by Jp^-hd^
d

Fig. 9.-Pratt or N-truss, load on bottom chord

168 INFLUENCE LINES
unit load

FRAME DIAGRAM
LOAD ON TOP CHORD

Influence line for member on top

chord, e.g. OR

Influence line for member on

bottom chord, e.g. CD

Influence line for member 0 C

Influence line for member R C
similar but values are multiplied
by Jp^-hd^
~d~

Influence line for member QA

Influence line for member PA

FRAME DIAGRAM
LOAD ON BOTTOM CHORD
Influence lines for members on
top and bottom chords are
exactly as above

Influence line for member RD

Influence line for member C R
similar but values are multiplied
by Jp^-hd^
d
Influence line for member C O
Influence line for member A O
similar but values are multiplied
by Jp^-hd^
d
Fig. lO.-Pratt or N-truss
with diagonals reversed from Figs. 8 and 9.
Load on either top or bottom chord.
 STRUCTURES 169
INFLUENCE LINES FOR FRAMED
diagrams that for a single
It be cleat from the foregoing
will
,

both + ve and - ve, are given when

the
maximum B.M. and maximum S.F.,
the span, will be clear that
‘’'“por a U “load longt'’Zn it

S.F., the load should

‘‘i"
load, while for maximum
whL span must be coveted by the
come up to the point X in Fig. 1 1

The point X is found by the following means:

If there are n panels, each of length b, in a span, then the maximum S.F. in the

when
m of that panel covered by the load, in other words,
(m + 1) panel occurs is
n-I
the point X divides the panel as it divides the span.
Figures 12 to 16 show influence lines for some of the more uncommon types of
frame.
Figure 12 shows a hog-backed girder.
Consider a unit load moving along the lower chord.
If it is required to draw the influence lines for the members PQ, and CD, QC
i.e. those members cut by the line EE, then it should be obvious that the influence

line for PQ is member

similar to that for QR
in Fig. 7, except that the scale is
increased in proportion to the ratio of the length of
QQi, i.e. the vertical height of
Q, to the length SC, i.e. the normal from to PQ, while that forC is similar to CD '

that for member in Fig. 7.CD

Regarding member QC,
the force in this member is a measure of the moment of
allthe external forces to the left of the section taken about the point
X, this point
being where QF produced and BA produced meet, i.e. Force = in QC Mxly.
The influence line for QC is constructed as follows.
Set up from^i a distance .v equal to the distance
XA. Join to the point thus
found and produce to meet the vertical through Tf in
X,. The influence line between
170 INFLUENCE LINES

FRAME DIAGRAM

Influence line for member

QC

Influence line for member

PC

Influence line for member

PO

Influence line for member

CD

B andZ) lies on this line, i.e. BiDi. Now join and produce to Ci which is
vertically below C. Join Ci£>i. Then >1 CiDi^i
1 is the complete influence line.
The force in member PC is also a measure of the moment about X, and
consequently the influence line for PC is constructed in the same manner as that for
QC, but, in this instance, the influence line does not cross the base line.
Figure 13 shows an N-truss with intermediate bracing. This type of bracing is
used in long span trusses in order to avoid excessive panel lengths. In the example
shown the load is on the top chord, in which case the intermediate bracing is needed
only to reduce the unsupported lengths of the top chord in order to minimise or
obviate local bending effects.
If the load is on the bottom chord then the bracing should be of the type shown
in Fig. 14.

The influence lines for members on the bottom chord are exactly the same as
shown in Fig. 8, but those for members in the top chord are affected by the
intermediate bracing. For example, the influence line for members PQ and QR is
 STRUCTURES 171
INFLUENCE LINES FOR FRAMED
unit load
P 0 T U I

FRAME DIAGRAM
^
kB

Influence line for members

PO and OR

Influence line for members

RTand TU

Influence line for member C D

Influence line for member PS

Influence line for member OS

Influence line for member RS
similar but v alues are multiplied
^i-d^

Influence line for member TV

Influence line for member UV
similar but values are multiplied
Jp^+d^
2d
Influence line for member R
C
Influence line for member S C
similar but valtxs are multiplied

JL Influence line for member RV

Influence line for member UD
Influence line for member VD
similar but values are multiplied
^y Jp^-hd^

Fig. 13. -Pratt or N-truss with intermediate bracing. Load on top chord
172 INFLUENCE LINES
similar to that for the corresponding member PQ in Fig. 8 , i.e. that for the point C,
except that in the panel PR a small triangle is superimposed on to the basic
influence line. This triangle is formed by continuing the line XY until it reaches a
point Z which is vertically under the point Q and then completing the influence line
as shown.
Similarly the influence line for members and TU is the basic influence line
for the point D with a similar triangle LMN superimposed upon it.

The influence lines for the main web members are of the usual form, except that
the main diagonals, e.g.RD, have different influence lines for each subdivided part,
while the influence lines for the intermediate members, e.g. TV and UV, have a

special form, since no forces are developed in these members except when the load
is in the appropriate panel, i.e.RU.
Figures 15 and 1 6 show the influence lines for lattice girders with K-type bracing.
In general, the influence lines follow the usual pattern except that as far as the web
members are concerned, any pair of diagonals, e.g. EQ and EC,
share the shear in the panel equally and the actual forces in these
members depend on the ratio of their lengths to the half-depth of
the truss.
For the case of loading on the top chord, member QF and all
members which form the upper portions of the verticals
other
Fig. 14
will have a special form of influence line as shown in Fig. 15.
Conversely, when the load is on the bottom chord, member FC and all other
members which form the lower portions of the verticals will have the special form
shown in Fig. 16.
As previously noted in the case of the N-girder, the influence lines for the web
members in the end panel do not cross the base line, but in the cases of all other web
members, reversals do take place.

Influence Lines for Built-in Beams

Figure 17 (a) shows the influence lines for the negative B.M.s and at the
supports y4 and 5.
The use of the influence lines in this case is illustrated by the example shown in
Fig. 17 (b) and (c).

From the influence lines the fixing moment at A due to l^i

= 0.128 WiL = 0.\28 X 50x 10 = 64.0kNm

that due to W2
= 0.144 1^2 ^ = 0.144 X 60 X 10 = 86.4 kNm
and that due to IF3

= 0.063 W3 L = 0.063 X 40 X 10 = 25.2 kNm

Therefore the total fixing moment at A
= 64.0 X 86.4 + 25.2 = 175.6 kNm
Fixing moment at B due to

= 0.032 W^L = 0.032 x 50 x 10 = 16.0 kNm

 173
INFLUENCE LINES FOR BUILT-IN BEAMS

Fig. 15. Lattice girder with K bracing. Load on top chord.

174 INFLUENCE UNES

Fig. 16.— Lattice girder with K bracing. Load on bottom chord,

that due to Wi
= 0.096 W^L = 0.096 x 60 x 10 = 57.6 kNm
and that due to
= 0.147 1F3L= 0.147 X 40 X 10 = 58.8 kNm
Therefore the total fixing moment at B
= 16.0 + 57.6 + 58.8 = 132.4 kNm
 175
beams
influence lines for built-in
FIXED ENDED BEAM
moments
^
, . negative
Mb ^ ^^ ^
and Ms at supports
A and B

A •s > q>
Oi
:2
N (0
§ o 8 8>!• >»• Ma
o 6 6 Vahjts of ordinates at
O 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
points of the span
Oi N JQ > S? o
tenth
<Vl
Ms
8 s § S
O 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
SOkNuA 60kN 40kN
ib)
1 1 1

Loading Diagram
I i
IT" ^1
-2‘Om-' -2-Om- —30m- -30m-
tOOm-

(c)
liiiTriTfm FINAL B.M. DIAGRAM
r ^
1756 132.4
i

Fig. 17

Influence lines for

reactions at supports
A andB

Values of ordinates at
(b tenth points of the span
§ 8
1 2 •o
The influence line for Rs
^A is parallel to that for
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 o and distant one unit
from it

Fig. 18
 ' —
176 INFLUENCE LINES
The results will be checked by the principle of reciprocal moments which was
mentioned in the chapter on Fixed Beams. See page 40.

= 50x2x8 60 X 4 X 6 40x7x 3
Ma To ’•il) 10 fo) ^ ( 10 ^o
= 64.0 + 86.4 + 25.2 = 1 kNm
75.6
/50x 2x 8 2 \ ,
/60x4x6 4 \ 40 x 7 X 3 7
I—T^'Toj i—1^'Toj 10 10
= 16.0 + 57.6 + 58.8 = 132.4 kNm
The final B.M. diagram is as shown in Fig. 17 (c). Figure 18 shows the influence
lines for the reactions at A and B. The dotted lines represent the corresponding
influence lines for a simply supported beam.

Continuous Beams
All influence lines must be constructed from first principles and the following
example will illustrate the method of construction.

Bending Moments
It is required to construct the influence line for B.M. at D, the mid-point of the
span AB which is one span of a two-span continuous beam ABC, both spans being
equal. See Fig. 19.
In any particular case, convenient to consider separately the portions of the
it is

beam to either side of the point for which the influence line is being drawn, because
in these separate portions, the formulae for the B.M. at the point will take different
forms.

Portion A to D. (See Fig. 19 (a).) If a load W is placed at the point X, which

divides the span AB into two parts a and (L - a), then the

( DU* fi'xa x(L - a)

free B.M. atX= p
If the load is unity,

the B.M.atX = ^ - ^
The area oi the free B.M. diagram on the span AB

_ a{L - a) L _ a{L - a)
Z ^2 2
’

and the C.G. of this area from A, measured horizontally,

Applying the Theorem of Three Moments to spans AB and BC, and bearing in
mind that = Me = 0, that there is no load on the span BC and that the two spans
are equal, then

2A^ X 2Z, = 6 .

^
— — X X j-

_ a(L^ -
whence Mb ^ )
 CONTINUOUS BEAMS
CG. of free
B.M diagram

Abl3^abL’-a b
8L a(L^-g^)

a L‘-
8L^

ALL THE B.M DIAGRAMS ARE FOR UNIT LOADS

Fig. 19

The height of the free B.M. diagram atD

_ a{L - a) Ljl _ a
^
L ”T
while the height of the negative B.M. diagram at D
_ 1 a{L^
~2^ AL^ 8Z7
’

^
therefore the net B.M. at D - ^
,
2 oL oL
and if the span is unity, this expression can be written;

net B.M. at £> = 3a + a^

 ,

178 INFLUENCE LINES

From this expression the B.M. influence line for from A X.oD can be built up D
by successive substitution of values for a. This is best done by means of a table as
shown below:

^ 3a + a^
a 3^7 3a + a
8

0.1 0.3 0.001 0.301 0.038

0.2 0.6 0.008 0.608 0.076
0.3 0.9 0.027 0.927 0.116
0.4 1.2 0.064 1.264 0.158
0.5 1.5 0.125 1.625 0.203

Portion D to B. (See Fig. 19 (b).) In this portion the horizontal distance fromyl
to the C.G. of the free B.M. diagram is

L \ _L _ L^a
2 3^ 2 3
’

i.e. exactly as in the portion AD, and consequently

^,=£0^) .toes before.

The height of the free B.M. diagram atZ)

_a{L-a) Ll2_L-a
L ^ a 2
’

while the height of the negative B.M. diagram at D

_a(_L^ -g^)
as before
8L^
Therefore the net B.M. at D
_L - a a{L^ — — Sal} +
8Z-^
and again putting Z, = 1

=4
— 5fl +
net B.M. ati)
8
The corresponding table is given below:

^
- + a^ 4 — 5a + a
a 5a 4 5a
8

0.5 2.5 0.125 1.625 0.203

0.6 3.0 0.216 1.216 0.152
0.7 3.5 0.343 0.843 0.105
0.8 4.0 0.512 0.512 0.064
0.9 4.5 0.729 0.229 0.028
1.0 5.0 1.0 0 0

PortionB to C. (See Fig. 19 (c).) In this portion, if the distance a is measured

from then the negative B.M. at B will be [a{I? - a^)]l4L'^ for all values of a, and
C,
consequently the height of the B.M. diagram at will be {a{L^ - D
)] /8Z,^.
 ^ ^
CONTINUOUS BEAMS
at D wiU be (a - )/8. Note that since there is no
Putting Z= 1 ,
the B.M.
when the load on the span BC, all the values of B.M
positive B.M. in the span >15 is

at D will be negative.
The corresponding table is given below:

,
a -a 3
a
8

0.1 0.001 0.099 0.012

0.2 0.008 0.192 0.024
0.3 0.027 0.273 0.034
0.4 0.064 0.336 0.042
j

0.5
*

0.125 0.375 0.047

0.6 0.216 0.384 0.048
0.7 0.343 0.357 0.045
0.8 0.512 1
0.288 0.036
0.9 0.729 : 0.171 0.021
1.0 1.000 0 0

The complete influence line is shown in Fig. 21 (I.L. for point 5.) .

Figures 20-22, 24-26 and 28-30 show B.M. influence lines for two-, three-
and four-span continuous beams.
The diagrams are drawn to scale, but since it is inadvisable to scale the ordinates
from small-scale diagrams the values of the ordinates at the tenth points of each
span have been given so that the reader can construct his own influence lines from
these ordinates. Influence lines have been drawn for each tenth point of the span
and for the internal supports.
The diagrams have been drawn only for the cases of all spans being equal, but
they can also be used for varying spans provided that the Moments of Inertia of the
beams also vary so that the ratio IjL in each span is constant.
There are certain features of these influence lines to which particular attention
must be drawn.

be seen, from a consideration of Figs. 24 to 26 that, in the case of

1. It will

a three-spanbeam, at the points for which the influence lines have been drawn,
the moments due to loads in the end spans remote from the points under
consideration are extremely small. Consequently if a fourth span had been
added next to the remote span, the moments due to loads in this fourth span
would be even smaller and could be neglected with little loss of accuracy.
Moreover, the moments caused by loads in this fourth span would be of
opposite sign to those obtaining in a three-span beam, and, accordingly, the
discrepancy errs on the side of safety.
It follows that any further addition to thenumber of spans can make
negligible differences to the values given,hence the influence lines for points
in the end span of a three-span beam can be taken as applying to the end span
of any series of spans exceeding two in number.
2. It will be seen, from Fig. 28 that the B.M. at the l/5th point of the

second span of a four-span beam is zero for all positions of the load in the
third and fourth spans. This means that if the first and second spans are not
180 INFLUENCE LINES

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 U 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 1920
< I I I ' I I I I ' ' I '
I I I I I
_

Influence line for

point /

Infiuence fine for

point 2

OO
o^QJij^ooooo o
O C5 dS C5 (5 O <3 O
66666666606666666660

Influence line for

point 3

^ I? § «o ^^ ^
^^ R5S
oooqGoooq
oi^^iQJ^ooqo fvi
Kj

o 66666666606666666660

infiuence line for

point 4

Fig. 20.— Influence lines for bending moments. Two span beam.
 CONTINUOUS BEAMS 181

0 /
<
23456769/0 /m 13 1415L /6 17161920
I I I I I I. ..L-L

T I

Influence line for

point 5

Influence line for

point 6

OOO^^^iiiOO oooodoooo
066666666606666666660

Influence line for

point 7

POfVi^'oOvQj Vfw,
009o 65:-5<00
66 6 6'666d6c>6
066666666606666666660

Influence line for

point 8

oooaoo<o 000000000
0066666666066666 66 660
Fig. 21 .—Influence lines for bending moments. Two span beam.
182 INFLUENCE LINES
0 / 2345 6 78 9 1011 1213/415 1617 /8 1920
I ' ' ' ' I ' ' 1-1_1— l-L

f T 1

Influence line for

point 9

ooooooooo ooooooo oo
066666666606666666 660
Influence line for
point 10

OOOOOOOOO ^K^Ok«3kCD'OV'\j
«\j>Vo(oOkOv5?^'>"
009000000
066666666606666666 660
Fig. 22.— Influence lines for bending moments.

Influence line for

Reaction at A and
S.F envelope for
span A B

*?fiiSS5S§§!Q
0 03 ooooooooo
IQ 'd'o N^ijo
*^66666666606666666 660 Ordinates of line
DBC

Influence line for

Reaction at B
aSSS§8l§?S8S?SSi§§8Ss
0666666666*1.6666666 660
Fig. 23.— Influence lines for reactions and shear forces. Two span beam.
 CONTINUOUS BEAMS 183

0 2 4 6 6 to 12 14 16 m 20 22 24 26 2930
I 3 S 7 9 II 13 IS 17 19 2! 23 25 27 29
I I I I I

t t

Influence line for

-‘-'ill 1 II i

<> N ^
N *0
<0 V3 O00000
'D
00000
e
03 05
o o ^ ^
r\t

o O 5 O O o o o C g c?
P,J

66660
6 o o o o
. . ,

6 6 6 6 6
o o ^
Vs 03 'O b f\,

^ O Q
•o
O >
O
O O Q Q
000 6
0 0
<\l

6 0
o o
o
O
06000000000000
I I I I
\
I I I I I I
Influence line for
V) «o V ^
fV/
point 2
O O 0 o o
00000
66606 >}
S o 0
0000
9
066660

Influence line for

point 3

N >
x *0
I i I 8
52 o o
0000
0000
<0 (b

0000000000000000

Influence tint for

point 4

Influence line for

point S
S O
000
5
6 6 6
9 ? 5
0666 0000
006666066660
Fig. 24.— Influence lines for bending moments. Three span beam.
184 INFLUENCE LINES
0 2 4 6 8 to 12 14 16 la 2022 24 26 2830
I 3 5 7 9 n 13 IS 17 19 2! 23 2S 27 29

Influence line for

point 6

o, oo
<0 S 2 o
O O o o o o I o
oooooooooooooooo
Influence line for
point 7

4}
3 3 S? N 6
6 C; iS 2 fc- li!
o o o o o 0 0 0 0 6
: ;

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
lo >o *o (\i
^
o o § o
S S 2 '<f5 N *£»

Influence line for

point 8

^
O 6
o <0 'n ^
rvj f\j
O pi Si C\i ^
O tx O 5
§
o o o o o 0 0
Vi 5
6 0 0
S;
o o o o o
r\j

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Influence line for

point 9

S' *0 pi 5 5
5 'O 9
> In
vj > n 'o 'o > < 5 5 o
06666 00000
o o o o o 9 0 6 0 0
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
^ > Oi N
^ b 9 ft) r\j [<3 IN)

0000 0000
o o o ^ o
0666606666066666
>0 IS {ij fVi rvj r\j -s.

I I I I I ' I
I
I I I I I I I I I Influence line for
point 10

'O IS
6 Ol
S’ )C>
O
O § O O O O
Si Si
o
000000
6 O
6
> O >
6 6
P H <\i
5
$.
§
- Oi
- P
O
0 0 6 0
O 0000
^ fs
O
0000000000000006
lo Vi

Fig. 25.-Innuence lines for bending moments. Three span beam.

 CONTINUOUS BEAMS
O 2 4 6 e to 12 14 16 18 2022 24 26 2830
f 3 5 7 9 H 13 IS 17 19 2! 23 2S 27 29

Influence line for

point H

0023 ooooooooooooop
66666666666666
^
N P'SDi
Ol
P'S)}?!;?
V-R ^ So o S
<b JO
o o o o o 2)
o o o o o
66600600000 0000
Influence line for
A- point 12

vjKfsH'j'ofVjO
0000 0 0.0
60666666000000
OO/P

S b
n O IP ?)
0000 g
5 5
o o o
Vs

066660666600 0000
IS Vo t 3

Influence line for

point 13

000000 00000000
000000000000000
V O S Q > >
«\j *0 vp
5 5 o *n
H
0006^ 0^00 0000
<0

0000000000000000
lo **) 5; ?

Influence line for

point 14

N p N
2 p *0 V ^ iS 5" !p § !o N }? 5
66666c;):=:2ip666666 ivj ;?;

6666606666666
o
66
a 5^5
oo§§ i}S§§
S b 0000
^ !p O'
Sd

0066606666066660
Influence line for
point IS

poopooo<6oooo
6666666666666 00 66
5 o> S' O'

0000 o!ij!i;o s0000

00066066660666600060
s ^
rv.

Fig. 26.— Influence lines for bending moments. Three span beam.
186 INFLUENCE UNES
0 2 4 6 e 10 12 14 16 18 20 2224 26 2830
! 3 S 7 9 U 13 IS 17 19 2! 23 2S 27 29
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l.l-U
T T t T

\ •f

Influence line for

r 1" FT 1 1

reaction at A tnd
S.F envelope for
R span A B

KrvlOO'o
U
<to'o^fVjOOOOOOOOOOO
666666666666666
> o >
Ordinates of
EBCD
fine

o $ ^ ^ < •*1
<0 «b 'o
<\i o, jp
X
000
O O O O o o o o 5;
/ ooooooooooooooo
55 fV4

Influence line for

reaction at B
vj

§ 5 § 5
o
o o o
o
ooooooooooo §

o o o o o oooooooooo

S.F enveiope for

span BC

o 59
5
50
§ *v N
K o S
Oi

ooooooooooo 6 6 o6 o6 o 5 •v
Ordinates of line
ABECD
05;<:oo<t)'o'n S S S
O ^ O li;

o o o o o oooooooooo 55

Fig. 27.— Influence lines for reactions and shear forces. Three span beam.
 CONTINUOUS BEAMS
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 HS B 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 J8

rvj
N ^ Vs Jg 9) ^ I2 5 O
00^00 00060 00000 iiii
Kj K r5 « 5
§ 5 3: ^ Q
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 Ok6 6 6 6 6 6
O
O Nn K N IV
ts, o IQ 5%
0000
f\j
JQ Sy 3
o o < o
52 ^

066660666600666066000
^ 6 O 6 o 8 8 , ‘Vi

Influence line for point iO

5 § S ? o > > > o

00000
rv}
00000
O "o Ki

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 0000 000 000

k 8 5 a ^ ^
o ^ o ^ 8 5 8 '
r

0000 0000
066660 0000000
5^
0 6
gk
0* K}
o o
!q <

0000 0660 q>

Influence line for point //

pooo 5ooo
000060666600000000000
Influence line for point 12

Influence line for point 13

Fig. 28.— Influence lines for bending moments. Four span beam.
188 INFLUENCE UNES

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 la 2022 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 J8
/ J 5 7 9 II 13 IS 17 19 2! 23 23 27 29 3! 33 35 37 39
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I L.1-I-L,,

N *0
5 ^ S O ^ O O O
o o o o o o o o o O
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
S o o
IQ
Q O O O o o
0666066660 Influence line for point 14

0» _ N *0
'o
n *0 ^ 5 B B § o o Q o o <\l

00000
§ O O
06666
^
90000 00900
O O
66066
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
j:; c\J . .

^ b 5
o o
O'
5 o iQ
o
§ s § s
o o O0000 0000
*0
Qi O
066660666606666066660
IS aj
55 S Jij lij

Influence line for point IS

^ O IP

8 §§'^
00000 60609
o o o o fVl

6 6 6 6 6 66660
Rj Kl ^
0000
§
^ b ^
^ ^
0000 lii
o o Js o
000000000000000000000 Influence line for point 16

Fig. 29. -Influence lines for bending moments. Four span beam.
 CONTINUOUS BEAMS 189

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 2830 32 34 3638
I 3 S 7 9 U 13 IS 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 3! 33 35 37 39
, I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I M 1 .l-i-LI I I I I I M l,.l I.'

f t t t \

N O p b o
0 ^
•n
o ^ s o§ jp «o < O 5$ ^ O f\i

8 o o O o o 5 B o o o o o o o o o o
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
§ Q § IV 9? ^ b 5? 5; !? -s; o
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
oooooooooooooooooooo Influence line for point 17
o

r I 1 1 I
1
'
1'
ri I I i 'I'T I I i-T-r-r 1 I rrn i i ! n

o o o O 'O ^ ^ <0 § ^ O g R iQ S
06660 0000 00000 00000
fVj Cif
o o o
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
6 6 6 S ^
<0 o to
'O
5 p
000
006060066 0000 0000
000606666066660 8: f\j

Influence line for point 18

o ‘o o
5 s
fn o <0 b N
00000 00000 f\^

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
<

^ b O «o O O
to K to b
0000
)6666o6666o Influence line for point 19

~h
\

nT [' T T T i”fn

^ ^ b P
00000 Jo
CD b V3
csi

60666 00000
0 0 6 6 6 o 03 O , f\i r\i
o o p o
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
5 Ot JO o, S' s to ^ ^ ^ ^
0000 0000 0000 0000
3 3 ^ b b 03 'o to CO fo 5 f\j t\4 <\,

000000666606666066660 Influence line for point 20

Fig. 30.— Influence lines for bending moments. Four span beam.
190 INFLUENCE UNES
2 4 6 a to 12 14 16 la 20 22 24 28 30 32 34 36 38 ^
/ 3 5 7 9 H 13 IS 17 19 2! 23 25 27 29 3! 33 35 37 39

N. ^
2 » ^ 5 ^ ^
6666'^6666666666666o6
ssi-a
o'oCtoovOtb'o'i-^
00000 9 § § 8
666606666066660 8538 (h

B Influence line for reaction at

oo^^o^n^*voc55^oc3ooo
66666666666666666666 oo
O O
Iq '}
^ N
0000
o §
0000 § 5
«b <0 ^
fn i5

000000000000000000000
5: I2 55

S.F Envelope for span BC. Ordinates are for fine ABFCDE

^ fc^N^<b'\iNo»OOovN*\j<b*nk_
0^$i500'n'oQ30iS<D^»o005QJS ^O
666666666 6^6 6666666 66
^ 5: ><0 5:^
*0 S’
o 5 $ 5 5 o r\. >*. ik.* <"J* rN • >*. f\;

0666606666-^6666066660 Jii

Influence line for reaction at C

Fig. 31 .—Influence lines for reactions and shear forces. Four span beam.
 ,

CONTINUOUS BEAMS 191

loaded, then for any case of loading on the third and fourth spans there will

always be a point of contraflexure at the l/5th point of the second span.

3. Again a comparison between Figs. 24 to 26 and Figs. 28 to 30 will show

that there is little difference between the moments at the corresponding points
in internal spans in the cases of three- and four -span beams. It follows that
there will be even less discrepancy between corresponding points in four- and
five-span beams.
Accordingly the influence lines shown in Figs. 28 to 30 may be taken as
the influence lines for all internal spans of continuous beams of any series of
spans exceeding three in number. The top diagram of Fig. 28 may be taken as
the influence line for theend support but one, while the bottom diagram of
Fig. 30 may be taken as the influence hne for all other internal supports of a
series of spans exceeding three in number.

Shear Force

The influence lines for S.F. are best constructed by means of envelopes. If
reference is made to Fig. 1 be seen that all the influence lines for
(c), it will readily
S.F. in a simply supported span are contained between the two enveloping sloping

lines A 2 T and B 2 Z, and that the influence hne for any particular point, such asP2

in the figure referred to, is constructed by drawing a vertical through F2 to m^et the
two enveloping lines. Continuous beams may be treated in a similar manner.

Two-span Beam
It is required to construct the influence lines for the reactions at the supports of
a two-span continuous beam. The following example will illustrate the method of
construction.

Reaction at A. To construct the influence line for the reaction at A, one of the
end supports of a two-span beam of equal spans. See Fig. 19.
If a unit load is placed at the point X
distant a from A, then Mg, the negative
moment at B, as shown in Fig. 19,

41 ^

The free reaction at A would be 1 x 3 nd the actual reaction in the given

case would be

L — a ^ Mb _ L — a ~ a{L^ —
L ~ L L
3
—
When Z, = 1 the reaction at A = 1 —a—a a
4
 .

192 INFLUENCE LINES

The values are plotted in the following table:

a ~ a ~
a \ — a ^
1 a
4 4

0 1.000 0 1.000
0.1 0.900 0.025 0.875
0.2 0.800 0.048 1

Q.152
0.3 0.700 0.068 0.632
0.4 0.600 0.084 0.516
0.5 0.500 0.094 0.406
0.6 0.400 0.096 0.304
0.7 0.300 0.089 0.211
0.8 0.200 0.072 0.128
0.9 0.100 0.043 0.057
1.0 0 0 0

If the load is in the span BC then it is convenient to measure the distance a from
C In this case:

^ L

or when L= 1

The corresponding table is shown below:

a -
a
4

0 0
0.1 - 0.025
0.2 - 0.048
0.3 - 0.068
0.4 - 0.084
0.5 - 0.094
0.6 - 0.096
0.7 - 0.089
0.8 - 0.072
0.9 - 0.043
1.0 0

It will be appreciated that these figures are applicable to Rc when the spany45 is

loaded.
The complete influence line for the reaction at A is drawn by the line DBC in
Fig. 23.
If the line AE is drawn parallel to DB and distant one unit from it, then the lines
DB and AE are the boundary lines of the S.F. envelope for all points in the span AB.
If the influence line for any point, e.g. P, is required, a vertical line QPR is drawn
tlrrough P to meet DB and AE in Q and R respectively. The influence line for S.F.
2XP\^ARPQBC.
 CONTINUOUS BEAMS 193

Reaction at B. The influence line fox Rb

is built up as follows:

Rb-1 -Ra -Rc

The corresponding table is shoWn below:

The complete influence line for the reaction at B is shown in Fig. 23.
It should be noted that the reaction at B is greater than the S.F. at B in the span

AB, because the reaction is composed of the sum of the shears at B in both spans.

Three-span Beam
Consider thfe top diagram in Fig. 27.
The line shows the influence line for the reaction at A, Once again, if AF
EBCD
is drawn EB and distant one unit from it, then the lines EB and AF are
parallel to
the boundary lines of the S.F. envelope for all points in the span AB. For example,
ARPQBCD is the influence line for shear at the point P.
As in the case of the influence lines for B.M. for points in the end span AB, the
addition of any number of spans beyond D can make negligible difference to the
spanAB, and so the envelope shown can be taken as the envelope for the
S.F. in the

end span of any series of spans exceeding two in number.

The influence line for the reaction at B and the S.F. envelope for the centre
span BC are also shown in Fig. 27. In the bottom diagram, BF is parallel to EC and
distant one unit from it, and the lines EC and BF are the boundary lines of the S.F.
envelope for points in the span BC. Therefore,
all ABBPQCD is the influence line
for shear at the point P.

Four or More Spans

The influence line for the reaction at

B, the end but one support of a four-span
earn, is
shown in Fig. 31 and may be taken as that for the end support but one of
any number of
spans greater than three.
194 INFLUENCE LINES
The S.F. envelope for an internal span of a four-span beam is also shown in
Fig. 31 ,
FC and EG being the boundary Hence, ABRPQCDE is the influence
lines.
line for shear at the point P. The envelope shown may be taken to be that for any
internal span of a continuous beam of more than three spans.
The bottom diagram of the same figure shows the influence line for the reaction
at C, the central support of a four-span beam. This may be taken as the influence
line for any internal support of a continuous beam of more than three spans, other
than the end support but one.
 13. METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Introduction

IN theopening chapters of this book, methods of calculation are given for built-in
and continuous beams, the methods
being based on the theorems of Mohr and
aapejTon respectively, both of which were developed in the nineteenth century.
The methods of analysis of statically indeterminate structures to be described
here are as follows:

1. The Area-Moment Method.

2. Moment Distribution.
3. Slope-Deflection.

As Irigher mathematics are not required when using these systems they should be
of general appeal.
The Area-Moment Method has recently regained its former popularity, although
it often appears in the guise known as Semi-Graphical Integration, Moment

Distribution was evolved by Professor Hardy Cross, an American, details being first
published in 1929. Slope Deflection was developed and made widely known by
Professors Maney and Wilson of Minnesota University in 1915, but like Moment
Distribution the method owes much to the work of Mohr.
Where convenient or practical, the same numerical examples have been employed
to illustrate the various methods of analysis, although the examples have been

chosen to cover as many aspects of structural engineering as possible. By so doing,

hoped that readers will be able to form some idea of the relative merits of the
it is

methods for a particular type of problem. Generalising, Moment Distribution and

Slope Deflection are of universal application, but the work involved is lengthy where
sidesway or asymmetrical frames are being treated.
The Area-Moment Method may be used most effectively for dealing with
members of variable moment of inertia.
This section of the book is followed by formulae and charts for the design of
certain standard may find it useful to consider the
types of rigid frames. Readers
notes in the preamble to these tables and charts in conjunction with the following
methods of analysis.

(a) The Area-Moment Method

The Reciprocal Theorem

The
basis of the Area-Moment Method is stated in Chapter
7, but, in order to
extend the scope of the
examples given in this section, a knowledge of the
edprocal Theorem is essential. Although this
theorem, which was first enunciated
y rofessor Clerk-Maxwell in 1 864, is fairly wellknown, it is perhaps advisable to
3y down the conditions under which it may be used.
195
196 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Consider the identical cantilevers shown in Figs. 1 and 2. When
the loadP^ is
applied at C in Fig. 1 ,
a deflection rfg is produced at B. If the same load, Pg is
applied at B in Fig. 2, a deflection dc is produced at C. It can be shown that the
values of the two deflections are equal.

ft
Fig. 2

where the loads are unequal, the work done by the force Pc
in the general case,
on the corresponding deflection dc is equal to that done by the force Pq on the
corresponding deflection c/g.

i-e. PsdB=Pcdc (1)

The theorem is not confined to linear deflectibns. The same reasoning can be
applied to moments and their corresponding angular deflections.
Consider the identical cantilevers in Figs. 3 and 4. When the moment Me is

applied atC in Fig. 3, a deflection dg is produced at B. If a load of the same

numerical value is applied at B in Fig. 4, a slope dc is produced at C. It can be
shown that the numerical values of the two deflections d^ and Be are equal.
In the general case:

McBc - PsdB ( 2)
 —

THE AREA -MOMENT METHOD 197

the slope of the cantilever at B produced by a moment applied

In a similar way,
equal to the slope at C
produced by an equal moment applied at B.
at Cis
case;
In the general

MbOb^McBc ( 3)

the three cases stated, whether the member

The theorem applies only to
concerned is a cantilever, beam
or part of a frame. Hence, it is incorrect to assume

that the slope of a member at B caused by a load at C is equal to the slope at C when
the load is placed at B.
The reciprocal theorem may be used to reduce the amount of calculation
involved in structures with more
than one degree of indeterminacy. The calculations
involve the solution of Maxwell-Mohr work equations which are of the general form
shown below;

X\di — 1
X\di — 2
X\d\—j,
"t"

+^2^2
X^d-iy—y

2^21/2 —2
3
+-^ 3*^3 — 1-
X^d'i —2
X-^d-^ — 3
•

.
•

. . .
f
+
10

+ dp— 2 - 0 ,
II

II
0
0

=0
=0
now, from the reciprocal theorem,

c/2—1 ~ di—2
<^ 3—1 ~d\—z
and c/j 2
“ d^ 3

Hence, the terms to the left of and below the diagonal Xic/i—i, ^'2(^2— 2* 3,

etc., need not be calculated. They merely repeat the corresponding figures on the
other side of the diagonal.

Application of the Area-Moment Method

The application of area-moments is carried out in two stages. In the first stage
the redundants are removed while second unit redundants are applied. At
in the
each stage the linear and, if necessary, angular deflections of the structure are
calculated. By equating the deflections calculated at each stage the actual values of
the redundants may be found.
Example The procedure may be demonstrated by considering the loaded
1.

propped cantilever shown in Fig. 5 The redundant is either the restraint moment
.

.4 or the prop B. Proceed assuming that the prop is the redundant. When this
re undant isremoved, the end B deflects, as shown in Fig. 6, the appropriate
deflection formula being

i:ax
dp -
EI
_ (- 1.8 X 1.8 x^)3.0
2
dB - —2.43 units.
198 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL' ANALYSIS
I'OkN
EJ=2 EI=I
B‘
>1
I8m
Rb
Fig. 5

hOkN

Now apply a unit upward propping force at B, as shown in Fig. 7. Then the
upward deflection,

dB

_ (1.8 X 1.8)2.7 (1.8 X 1.8 x i)3.0 ^ (1.8 x 1.8 x \)\.2

^
2 2 ^
= 4.37 + 2.43 + 1.94
= 8.74 units.
Now the actual deflection at 5 = 0.
Therefore dg + Rgdg' = 0
200 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
If a unit moment, is applied at>l, as shown in Fig. 9, then the upward slope at ^
can be found once again by taking moments about B,

dA x3.6^
_(-0.5 X— 1. 8)2.7
+
(-0,5x 1.8xi)3.0^(-0.5 X 1.8xi)1.2
2
i

/1.215 + 0.675 + 0.54

‘
\ 3.6 j
= —0.675 units.

But there is actually zero slope at A. Therefore

From which Ma =
0.675
= 0.8 kNm.
This value is numerically equal to that obtained by the first method. The
positive result indicates that the moment is applied as assumed, i.e. it is anti-
clockwise.
The steps in the solution of a statically indeterminate structure are as follows;

1 . Reduce the structure to a statically determinate condition by removing

redundant forces or moments.
2. Draw the B.M. diagram for this determinate condition.
3. Divide the B.M. diagram into convenient geometrical areas and locate the
centroid of each area.
4. Calculate the area-moments and areas to find the linear and angular
displacements.
5. Apply unit redundants to the structure and calculate the relevant B.M.
diagrams.
6. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for these diagrams.
7. Equate the results in steps 4 and 6 to find the values of the actual redundants.
8. Using these values, calculate the final B.M. diagram.

The method of reducing a structure to a statically determinate condition is often

on the part of the designer. Various methods are adopted in the
a matter of choice
examples which follow.

Portal Frames
Example 2. Figure 10 shows the outline of a portal frame for a small warehouse

JfSiS X ll! X 5! kg U. B.

18 O•
m
 201
THE AREA-MOkENt METHOD
building, the frames being set at 4.5
m centres. It will be assumed that the fram^e is

U.B.s, with small triangular haunches

composed throughout of356x 171 x51 kg
at the eaves and ridge joints.
Calculate the B.M.s induced at B, CandD by the dead load.

Dead Load (on slope of rafter):

Average weight of sheeting and thermal insulation
or glazing
Purlins, say ..•••• 250 N/m^
100 N/m^

350 N/m2

Total dead load to be supported per frame

= 4.5 X 350 = . . . ‘ • • • -1 N/m 575
Weight of rafters, say . . . . • - .550 N/m
2 1 25 N/m

The dead load over one frame, allowing for the slope of the rafters and the
total
slight overhang of the sheeting is;

20x2 125 = 42 500 N = 42.5 kN

Although most of the load is actually applied at the purlin points, the error is

negligible if it is assumed that it is uniformly distributed over the rafters.

Static B.M. Diagram:

This frame is statically indeterminate to the first degree and may be reduced to a
determinate condition by fixing the position of one foot, say and removing the
horizontal reaction at the other foot, say E, when that foot can move outwards
without restraint.
The static B.M. diagram for the dead load, shown in Fig. 1 1 ,
will be parabolic

with a base of length BD and a height equal to ^

Z,
WL /8 = = 9 5 625
. kNm
8
This diagram projected on to the rafters as
is
shown in Fig. 1 2.

Area-Moments for Statically Determinate Condition:

The rafters being
9.693 m
long, measured along the centre-line,
the area of the
diagram on each rafter = 9.693 x 95.625
x § = 617.93 units. The centroid of the
area IS normal to a point situated!
of the distance up the rafter, or at a height
2.25 m
above the eaves and 6.75 m
above floor level.
202 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Taking area-moments about AE", the outward deflection at E

, 2x617.93x6.75
Ti
EMe = 8 342.06 units.

Area-Moments for Unit Horizontal Thrust:

When unit horizontal thrusts are applied at the feet of the frame, the B.M.
diagram shown in Fig. 13 is obtained.

— 8-lkNm

Afe =-% = -1 X 4.5 = -4.5 kNm

Mc = -\ X 8.1 =-8.1 kNm
Taking area-moments about the base A£’, the deflection atE"

^ _ 2(-4.5 X 4.5 X ^)3.0 ,

2(-4.5 x 9.693)6.3
+,
2(-3.6 x 9.693 x \)6.9
—
El El El
EMe - —851.18 units.
 the area-momK'TT method
Fiml HorizontalThnists:
—0
Now the actual deflection at
Therefore 8 342.06 - 851.18 %= 0

or % = 9.8kN
The final B.M. diagram is show in Fig. 14.

-f- l6'2SkNm

Mq — Mjj (9.8 X 4.5) kNm

44.1

Me = 95.625 - (9.8 x 8.1) = +16.25 kNm

Snow Load
Hawg calculated the moments induced at B, C andD by the dead loads, which
were assumed to be uniformly distributed, it is snow
easy to calculate the effect of
on the structure. Qause 6.3 of CP3-Chapter V
Part 1 (1967) states, inter alia, that
on a roof having a slope greater than 10 and less than 30 degrees, allowance shall be
made for an imposed load of 0.75 kN/m^ measured on plan. This unit load is
equivalent to 60.75 kN uniformly distributed over the whole frame. Therefore,
the moments induced by the snow load may be found by multiplying those due to
dead load by 60.75/42.5 = 1.43, with the following results;

Ms =M£) = —63.1 kNm

Me = +23.2 kNm
Ha = He = +14.0 kN
while y^=y^ = +30.39 kN

Deflection of Eaves Joints

It was not necessary to calculate the actual deflections at E

for the statically
determinate condition or for the unit horizontal thrust and the term El cancelled
out in the final calculations. Nevertheless, the actual deflection at any point can be
calculated by inserting values for E, the modulus of elasticity, and /, the moment of
inertia.
Suppose it is necessary to know the spread of the eaves joints B and under D
dead and snow loads. The appropriate combined B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 15.
The horizontal deflection of D with respect to B may be found by taking area-
moments of the diagram along BCD about the axis BD.
 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

•2
i- 39‘5kNm
kNm

Fig. 1$

Now 7=14118 cm'^ for a 356 x 171 x 51 kg U.B.

Assume that E = 2.1 x 10^ N/mm^.

The B.M. diagram can be split into its components as shown in Fig. 16.

Then the deflection of D, relative to B,

El

EMd = 2(232.3 X 9.693 x §)2.25 - 2(107.2 x 9.693)1.8 - 2(85.7 x 9.693 x ^)2.4

^ _ (6 755.1 -3 740.7 - 1 993.7) xl0‘2_

2.1x10^x14118x10'’
34.4 mm
Hence, each eaves joint moves 17.2 mm outwards.
 THE AREA-MOMENT METHOD 205

Wind Loading
In the next two examples the effect of wind loads will be studied, using the same
frame as in Example 2.

Example 3
If the basic wind speed40 m/s, the dynamic pressure of the wind, q, in
is

accordance with CPS— Chapter V Part 2 (1970), will be 385 N/m^ if jS"! = 1.0,
S2 = 0.62 and S3 = l .0. It can be assumed that OJq is the pressure on the
windward face and 0.25q the suction on the leeward face. Internal pressure or
suction will be ignored.
Consider only the windward load on AB, as shown in Fig. 17.

AB is 4.5 mhigh and the frames are spaced at 4.5 m

centres. Hence the total
load on AB, which can be assumed, with negligible error, to be uniformly distributed
over the full height, is

0.7 X 385 X 4.5 x 4.5 = 5 460 N = 5.46 kN.

Static B.M. Diagram:

As in the previous example, it will be assumed that the footy4 is fixed in

position but that E is free to move outwards under the effect of the load.

6'l2kNm

Fig. 18
206 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Then the static B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 1 8. Taking moments about A,

WXh
VexL = 2

_ 5.46x4.5 = 0.68 kN
2x18
Similarly
Va = -0.68 kN
Then
= 0.68 X 18 = 12.2 kNm
Mc = 0.68 x9 = 6.12kNm
Md=0
The B.M. diagram for AB will be a triangle of height 12.25 kNm at B and zero at
A, on which is superimposed a parabola of height Wh/8 = 5.46 x 4.5/8 = 3.07 kNm.

Area-Moments for Statically Determinate Condition:

Taking moments of the static B.M. diagram about the base^lE' and working from
D round to A, the deflection at E
JAy
dE -
El
(6.12 X 9.693 X |)6.9 (6.12 x 9.693)6.3 (6.13 x 9.693 x i)5.7
El El El
(12.25 X 4.5 X ^)3.0 (3.07 x 4.5 x|)2.25
El El
EMe = 851.13 units.
Area-Moments for Unit Horizontal Thrust:
These will be identical with those shown in Fig. 13.

Therefore EMe = — 85 1 . 1 8 units.

Final Horizontal Thrust:

Now the actual deflection at E" =0

Therefore 851.13 - 851.18% = 0

or % = +1.00kN
Consequently, %= + —5.46 1.00 = —4.46 kN

Hence the B.M.S induced in the frame by the wind load onAB are found as
follows:

% =-(+1-00 X 4.5) + (0.68 X 18)= +7.74 kNm

Me = -(+1.00 X 8.1) + (0.68 X 9)
= -1 .98 kNm
Md = -(+1 .00 X 4.5) = -4.5 kNm
The final B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 19.
 .

THE AREA-MOMENT METHOD

-h98kNm

The B.M.s induced by the suction load of 0.25/? onDE may be calculated by
multiplying the corresponding values just calculated by -0.357
Therefore the values will be as follows:

Mb = -0.357( +7.74) = -2.76 kNm

Mc= -0.357(-1.98) = +0.71 kNm
'

M?) = -0.357(-4.5) = +1.61 kNm ‘

-

Example 4. Calculate the B.M.s induced at B, C and D by the wind load on the
rafter BC, shown in Fig. 20.

UD.L. = 8-9kN

Table 8 of CPS— Chapter V Part 2 (1970) gives the wind pressures to be taken on
roofs normal to the surface, due to wind blowing at right angles to the eaves, in
terms of thfe unit pressure q.
A roof slope of 1 in 2.5 is equivalent to an angle of 21° 48’. The pressure for this
slope —Q33q
is interpolated as (i.e. a suction) for the windward rafter BC and
equals — 0.4<?
for the leeward rafter CD. If allowance is also made for an internal
pressure of 0.2/?, the total suction on the
rafter is -0.33/? BC
0.2/? - = -0.53/?.
208 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Hence, the suction load on BC, considered as being uniformly distributed, is

-0.53 X 385 X 4.5 x 9.693 = -8.9 kN.

Static B.M. Diagram:

It will be assumed that A is fixed in position and that E is free to move

horizontally inwards under the action of the wind.
As the load acts obliquely, there will be a horizontal reaction at A.
Hence //^ = 8.9 x sin 21° 48' = 3.31 kN.

/OJSkNm

Figure 21 shows not only the static B.M. diagram but also the appropriate lever
arms for the loadi
Taking motnents about and E respectively
-8.9x6.516 =
-3.22 kN
18

= -8.9 X 10.19 = -5.05 kN

K4
18
Then Mg) = X0=0
Me = Vg X 9.0 = —28.98 kNm

Mb = -Ha X 4.5 = -14.9 kNm.

Area-Moments for Statically Determinate Condition:

Taking area-moments about AE and working from D round to A

El
EMe = (-28.98 X 9.693 x ^)6.9 + (-14.9 x 9.693)6.3 + (-14.08 x 9.693 x\)6.9
+ (-10.78 X 9.693 x |)6.3 + (-14.9 x 4.5 x |)3.0
= -2 889.3 units.
 THE AREA-MOMENT METHOD 209

Area-Moments for Unit Horizontal Thrust:

These will be the same as in the two previous examples.

Hence EMe = -85 1 .1 8 units.

Final Horizontal Thrusts:

The actual deflection at E" =0

Hence -2 889.3 - 851.18Ef£- =0

or He = -3.39 kN
The thrust Ha = 3.31 +% = -0.08 kN.
Final B.M.s:

The final B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 22.

~l'52kNm

Me = 0.08 X 4.5 = +0.36 kNm

Me = (3.39 X 8.1) - (3.22 x 9) = -1 .52 kNm
Mf) = 3.39 y. 4.5 =+15.26 kNm
B.M.s for Suction on Leeward Rafter, CD:
The suction on the rafter CD is -0.4q - Q.2q = -t}.6q which is 0.6/0.53 =1.13
times the suction on the rafter BC.
Hence, the corresponding final thrusts and B.M.s will be as follows:

Ha = 1.13(-3.39) = -3.83 kN
Er£= 1.13(-0.08) = -0.09 kN

Va =1.13(-3.22) = -3.64‘kN
F£ = 1.13(-5.05) = -5.71 kN
Mb = 1.13(+15.26)= +17.24 kNm
Me = 1 .1 3(-l .52) = -1 .72 kNm
Md = 1.13(+0.36) = +0.41 kNm
210 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Summary of Bending Moments:
The B.M.s in kNm for Examples 2 to 4 may be summarised as follows:

Mb Me Md
Dead load -44.1 +16.3 -44.1
Snow load -63.1 +23.2 -63.1
Wind loads:
AB +7.8 -1.9 -4.5
DE -2.8 +0.7 +1.6
BC +0.4 -1.5 +15.3
CD +17.2 -1.7 +0.4

Total for
wind loads +22.6 -4.4 +12.8

Lidus trial Building Frame

Example 5. The industrial building frame shown in Fig. 23, which has fixed feet,
is indeterminate to the third degree. The frame can be reduced to a statically
determinate condition in several ways, but for this example the horizontal and
vertical reactions and the fixing moment at F will be removed so that the frame can
be treated as a cantilever.
In the free state. Fig. 24, the end F undergoes linear deflections in a horizontal
direction, and in a vertical direction,
1 ,
2, and angular rotation, 3. As these
movements are due to the morrtent Mq at B, they are defined as i, 2 ^nd
djVf_3 as shown in F ig. 24.
Now the redundants Hp, Vp and Mp have the effect of bringing F back to its
original position. It more convenient, however, to apply a unit horizontal force,
is

1, a unit vertical force, 2, and a unit moment, 3, at F, each of which will produce

linear and angular movements at F. But the actual linear and angular movements
 THE AREA-MOMENT METHOD 211

at
combined effect of the moment
F are zero. Then the and the reactions may
be expressed by the following Maxwell-Mohr work equations:

+ Vpd 2—1 +Mpd2—i 1

Hpd 1—2 + 1^2—2 +-^W^3_2 +dj^—2 ~0

IffOi—3 + Vf62 -^ +Mp6^—^ 3 -0-

In each term the first subscript for d oxd relates to the force or moment that
produced the deflection or rotation respectively, while the second indicates the
direction of the deflection or rotation.

It is advisable to adopt a definite system for the application of the unit

redundants. As shown moment applied at B tends to rotate the
in Fig. 24, the
frame in a clockwise direction. Consequently, it can be assumed
that Hp will act
outwards, Vp upwards and in anMp
anti-clockwise direction. Therefore, the unit
redundants are shown applied in these directions.
Cases will constantly arise where it isnot obvious in which direction the
redundants act. Assumptions must be made and, where these are wrong, the final
answer will have a negative value.
In the following calculations the
modulus of elasticity E, being constant, is
Ignored, while the values of the moment of inertia
of the members are comparative
only VIZ.: 6 for the columns
below crane level and 1 for the frame above crane level.
results in simplification of the calculations and while the
‘H
eflections’ can be correctly
compared they are not expressed in any real linear or
angular unit.

Unit Horizontal Load 1 at F:

Consider Fig. 25, which shows the unit horizontal load applied at F.
212 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Taking area-moments about the axis and considering the columns first

_ 2(13.5 X 13.5 X 1)9.0 , 2f(18.0 x 18.0 x i)12.0 - (13.5 x 13.5 x 4)9.0] .

6 ^ i

(18.0 X 12.0)18.0
^

, 2(91.125)9.0 2[(162)12.0- (91.125)9.0] (216)(18.0)

6 1 1

= 6 409.125 units

Taking area-moments about the axisDF and working from/4 round to F

lAx
di-2 =

_ (91.125)12.0

= 2 328.75
6
units.
^
11
(162-91.125)12.0 ^(216)6^^
^ ^

Considering the rotation at F

Pl—3 --j—

,2(91.125) 2(162-91.125) 216

6 1 1

= 388.125 units.

Unit Vertical Load 2 at F:

Consider Fig. 26, which shows the unit vertical load applied at F.
 THE AREA-MOM EN^T METHOD

02—1 -
j
12.0 x 4.5)15.75 (12.0 x 12.0x^)18^0
(12 0 X 13.5)6.75 (
^

6 1
^

(54) x 15.75 (72)18.0

_ (162)6.75 ^

1
6 1

= 2 328.75 units.

Note: d 2 -i = di-2 .

Taking area-moments about DF

, lAx
d2-2
=-J-
_ (162)12.0 .
(54)12.0 .
(72)8.0
“
6 1 1

= 1 548 units.

Rotation at F:
(162)~ (54)
~r
(72)
1

= 153 units.

Unit Moment 3 at F:
Considering Fig. 27, which shows the unit moment 3 applied at F, and taking
area-moments about AF
214 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Fig. 27

d
“ 3—1
j
_ 2(1.0 X 13.5)6.75 2(1.0 x 4.5)15.75
.
(1.0 x 12.0)18.0 ,

6 1 1

2(13.5)6.75 2(4.5)15.75 (12.0)18.0

= +
. .

j ^

= 388.125 units.
Note; da—i = 0i—3 .

Taking area-moments about DF,

, _ (13.5)12 , (4.5) X 12^(12.0)6
d3-2 +
g I i
= 1 53 units.
Note; d 2—2 - 62 — -i-

“ 3 —3 ~
j
, 2(13.5) 2(4.5) (12.0)
6 1 1

= 25.5 units.

Static B.M. Diagram:

Referring back to Fig. 24 and taking area-moments about AF
dM—i J
_ (-150x 13.5)6.75
6
_ (-2 025)6.75
6
= —2 278.125 units.
 THE AREA -MOMENT METHOD 215

Taking area-moments about DF

_ 2/lx
“M—2 “ J

, (-2 025)12.0
%-2 =-^

= —4 050 units.
Rotation atF:

ft
“M—3 —J~
_ (-2 025)
6
= —337.5 units.

Sufficient calculations have been made to complete the work equations which
can be rearranged, taking account of signs, as follows;

6 409. 125 Hp + 328.75 Vp -h 388. 1 25 M/r = 2 278. 1 25

2 328.75 Hp +, 1 548.0 Vp + 1 53.0 Mp = 4 050.0

388.1 25 /f/r+ 153.0 Vp + 25.5 Mp= 337.5

(Note the symmetry of the equations.)

From which Hp = — 5.70 kN
Vp= + 3.21 kN
Mp = +80.69 kNm.
Therefore, Hp, being negative, actually acts inwards, not outwards as assumed.
The finalB.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 28. The calculations are completed in
full to demonstrate that the values for <^ 2 i. <^ 3 — —
and £/ 3_2 are numerically equal
i

Fig. 28
216 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
todi_2 0i_3 and 62—3 respectively. It will be obvious, however, that the work
,

may be greatly simplified by making use of the symmetrical form of the equations.
Furthermore, if the frame is now loaded in another manner, the expressions for Hp,
Vp and Mp remain in the exact form given above. Only the figures to the right of
the equations, which relate to the actual loads, are changed.

Symmetrical Multi-Storey Frames

Side Loading
When horizontal loads are applied at the joints of symmetrical building frames as
shown in Figs. 29 (a) and 30 (a) pointsof contraflexure form at the centre of the
cross-beams and the moments induced the right-hand half of the frame are
in
numerically equal to those in the left-hand half. Consequently, such a frame may be

Fig. 30
 THE AREA-MOMENT METHOD 217

by considering one-half of the frame

subjected to one-half of the loads, as
analysed
!ho\vn in Figs. 29 (b)
and 30 (b).

Readers may note that a similar approach was adopted by Mr. N. Naylor, B.Sc.,
on the Moment Distribution method of analysis
Struct.E., in his article
AM 1

mentioned on page 256. However,

Naylor’s method may be applied only to frames
as shown in Fig. 29. Area-moments may be applied also to
with parallel columns,
as shown in Fig. 30.
frames with sloping columns,
Example 6. Calculate the bending moments induced in the frame shown in
Fio. 31. The frame may
be analysed by considering the left-hand half of the frame

4 2‘OkN
4 -Ok A/ X=/ 205 2 cm
*r
f' i

2*= 4564crn^
J= 4564cth^

aOkN^ k
cm ^
1-19483.... 4.0kN
'S A fc1

J= 4564cm^ O i-= 4564cm^

6‘Om
HALF
FRAME

Fig. 31

under half the loads, as shown. When this is done the only unknowns are the
vertical propping forces jrj and Xi. Consequently, the appropriate Maxwell-Mohr
work equations are as follows:

+X2C?2— 1 1
“0
2 + V 2 (^ 2— ^ ^P—2
.
“0
As before, relative moments of inertia can be used and whilst the actual inertias
of the sections are shown, in the half frame these have been reduced to proportions
taking the column sections as 1 .0.

Area-Moments for Props at C and E:

Considering Fig. 32, ignoring the modulus of elasticity E, which is constant, and
taking area-moments about the vertical axis tlirough CE
, XAx

_(3.0x 3.0)3.0 (3.0x3.0x^)2.0

1.0 4.27

= 27.0 + 2.11

= 29.1 1 units.

Similarly, considering
Figs. 32 or 33,
218 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

\lkN

3kNm IkN

J kNm
Fig. 33

EAx
di_2 - d
I

(where the area A applies to the member only)

_ (3.0x3 .0)3.0
1.0

= 27.0 units.

Considering Fig. 33

^ _ (3.0 X 6.0)3.0 . (3.0 X 3.0 x ^)2.0

+ 2:64

= 54.0+3.41

= 57.41 units.

Static B.M.

The static B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 34.

2 kA/

Fig. 34
 THE AREA-MOMENT METHOD 219

Taking area-moments as before

SAx
,
dp-i =-y—
_ -(45.0 X 3.0)
1

= — 135 units.

dp-0. ~'~j
—
_ _(45 + 9)3.0
1

= —162 units.

Work Equations:
The work equations may now be rearranged and written down as follows:

29.11 +27.0 ;c2 = 135.0

27.0 xi +57.41 = 162.0
From which Xi = 3.58 kN
X2 = L14kN.
Final B.M.s

The final B.M.s, shown in Fig. 35, are calculated as follows:

^DE = = 1 -14 X 3.0 = 3.42 kNm

Mbd = -(2.0 X 3.0) + 3.42 = -2.58 kNm
Mbc = 3.58 X 3.0 = 1 0.74 kNm
= 10.74- 2.58 = 8.16 kNm
^AB = -(2.0 X 6.0) - (4.0 X 3.0) + 3.42 + 10.74
= -9.84 kNm.
Example 7 The frame shown in Fig.
36 has hinged feet which necessitate a
of treatment from that in the previous Example.
middle it requires a support, such as a vertical
nrnn apphed
prop at Q to hold it in position.
 2 2

220 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Taking moments about yl, the force in the prop

_ (5.0 X 3.0) + (5.0 X 6.0) + (2.5 x 9.0)
3.0
= 22.5 kN
Then the appropriate static moment diagram is shown in Fig. 37.

2SkN

C
22-5kN

As before, the redundants are Xi and Xa-

Then
+X2Cf2—1 1
=0
Xidi — X‘2_d.2 2 dp— “ 0
 '

the area-moment method 2;

Considering Fig. 38,

and taking area-moments about the vertical axis through CG

dr-, =
(3.0 X 3.0)3.0 2(3.0 x 3.0 x |)2.0

= 13.5 + 6.0

= 19.5 units.

Similarly, considering Fig. 38 or 39,

\G
JO/77 IkN
2 0m

3kNm 3kNm

,
2-Om
- —
H-
JO/77 .

A Fig. 38 Fig. 39

~dj-r -
(where the area A applies to the members BD and BC only)

_ (3.0 X 3.0)3.0 ^ (3.0 X 3.0 x \)2.0

2.0 3.0
di —2 “<^ 2—1 = 13.5 + 3.0 = 16.5 units.

Considering Fig. 39,

^ _ (3.0 X 6.0)3.0 .
2(3.0 x 3.0 x i)2.0
2.0 3.0

= 27.0 + 6.0 = 33.0 units.

The static B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 37:

dv . = r (T-5 X 3.0)3.0 ,
(22.5 x 3.0 x ^)3.0 (67.5 x 3.0 x |)2.0'
L To Id Id ,

= -(33.75 +
50.625 + 67.5) = -151.875 units.

dp. = - r (7.5 x3.0x^)3.0 ~|

^
,

L 1.0 2 J
= -(151.875
+ 16.875) = -168.75 units.
222 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Then the work equations become:
I9.5xi + 16.5>:2 = 151.875
16.5jci +33 X2 = 168.75
From which = 6.000 kN
JC2 =2.114kN
Now the final B.M. diagram may be drawn, as shown in Fig. 40.

Vertical Loading

Area-moments compare favourably with other methods of solution of

symmetrical frames subjected to side loading at the joints. However, unless the
members are non-prismatic, vertical loading is more quickly treated by some other
method.
A frame vertically loaded may be cut down the middle as shown in Fig. 41. For
symmetrical loads there will be no vertical forces V and the number of redundants
per cross-beam will be reduced from three to two.

Fig. 41
 THE AREA-MOMENT METHOD 223

aosed Frames

Similar treatment to that shown in Fig. 41 may be applied to a closed frame

under any type of load. Fig. 42 shows a typical frame together with the appropriate
B.M. diagrams.

Final B.M.

Fig. 42 Fig. 43
Example The frame ARCD shown in Fig. 43 is subjected to a horizontal load
8.

^PPl^®d at B. Such a load is analogous to those in Examples 6 and 7. There

be points of contraflexure
w
at the mid-points of the cross-beams and BC AD
e the forces H
at the mid-point of BC
will be 0.5 kN. Hence the only unknown

Unit Vertical
Loads:
Consider Fig. 44.

^ (2.25 X 2.25 X ^)1 .5 - (-2.25 x 2.25 x |)1 .5

2
 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
(2.25 X 2.25 X ^)1.5 - (-2.25 x 2.25 x ^)1.5
3
(2.25 X 3.0)2.25 - (-2.25 x 3.0)2.25

= 13.922 units.
Static B.M.S

The appropriate static B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 45.

IkN
2-25 IkN
kNm kNm II

/ 2-25m ^
« :

A ‘
0.75m
h-H
/
-J-O
kNm
Fig. 44 Fig. 45

dp-2 -

= _ 0 X 3.0 X 1)2.25 (3 .0x4.5x^)0.75

j
= -(2.531 +2.531)
= —5.062 units.
Now there is no vertical deflection at the mid-point of BC. Hence
14^ 2 — dp—2 ~ 0
or' 13.922F= 5.062
and F= 0.364 kN.
FimlB.Ms
H= 0.5 kN and V= 0.364 kN.
Therefore, the final B.M.s, shown in Fig. 46, are derived as follows:

f 0^819 -0-819

- 0 68/
- /0-68/
Fig. 46

Mb = -Me = 0.364 X 2.25 = 0.81 9 kNm

Md = -Ma = -(0-364 X 2.25) + (0.5 x 3.0) = 0.681 kNm.
 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION 225

(b) Moment Distribution

Moment Distribution is a mechanical process of dealing with indeterminate

structures by means of
successive approximations in which the moments themselves

are treated directly,

the calculations involved being purely arithmetical.

The method is unique in that all joints are initially considered to be fixed against

rotation. The fixed end moments member as though it were

are determined for each

an encastre beam and then

the joints are allowed to rotate, either separately or all at
once, the moments induced by the rotations being distributed among the members
until the algebraic sum of the
moments at each internal joint is zero.
The sign convention most commonly adopted for Moment Distribution is that ail
moments acting on individual members from supports or other members of a frame

MOMENT DISTRIBUTION CONVENTION

NORMAL CONVENTION
Fig. 47

are positive if
clockwise in application and negative if anti-clockwise. Before a B.M.
diagram drawn, this convention must be translated into the normal convention
is

whereby in continuous beams, for example, sagging moments are positive and
hogging moments The two conventions are compared in Fig. 47.
are negative.
It be found that the operations of Moment Distribution are more readily
will

understood and checked if the reader considers initially how the structure deflects
under load. Consequently, deflection
diagrams are incorporated in many of the
examples.
Although the structural principles on which Moment Distribution is based are
well known, it is advisable to consider them in a definite sequence.
Figure
48 shows a beam^d^ of constant cross-section, i.e. a prismatic beam, fixed
in position
and direction at^ and fixed in position, but not in direction at B. When
e moment il^g
_4 is applied at jB a moment Mab is induced at A. It was mentioned
on page 88 that

Mab = \Mba (i)

and Mba - tan 6j

Lj

= (for small values of 0) (ii)

226 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Similarly, if A is fixed in position but not in direction, as in Fig. 49, then

Mqa ~ r (for small values of 0) (iii)

Fig. 49

These equations give the three fundamental principles of Moment Distribution

applicable to continuous beams on unyielding supports.

Mnciple I (Equation (i)). When a moment is applied at one end of a

prismatic beam, that end remaining fixed in position but not in direction, the
other end being fixed both in position and direction, a moment of half the
amount and the same induced at the second end.
sign is

Principle II (Equation (ii)). When one end of a beam remains fixed in

position and direction, the moment required to produce a rotation of a given
angle at the other end of the beam, which remains fixed in position, is
proportional to the value IjL for the beam, provided that E is constant. The
value I/L, known by the symbol K, is the stiffness factor for the particular
beam in question.
Principle III (Equation (iii)). When one end of a beam is rotated through a
given angle, remaining fixed in position, and the other end remains fixed in
position but not in direction, the moment required at the first end is | of that
required the second end were fixed both in position and direction,
if i.e. the
equivalent stiffness factor for the beam is |//Z, = %K.

The three foregoing principles alone are appUed when the supports do not yield.
However, when the joints change their positions B.M.s have to be modified
accordingly. Consider Fig. 50 in which the end A of an encastre beamAjB, of span
L, has settled an amount d, the ends A and B remaining parallel in direction.
It is shown on page 41 that

6EId
Mab -Mba (iv)
 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION 227

Similarly, in Fig. 51, where the end >4 is hinged, i.e. not fixed in direction,

3EId_6EId
.(V)

From these equations, the following further principles may be derived.

'Principle IV (Equation (iv)). When one end of a beam is deflected through

a given distance, thatend remaining and the
parallel to its original position

other remaining fked in position and direction, equal moments of the same
sign are induced at each end, proportional to the IjL^ value of the beam.
Principle V (Equation (v)). When a hinged end of a beam is deflected
through a given distance, the other end remaining fixed in position and
direction, a moment is induced at the second end, proportional to the//2L^
value of the beam.

Having stated the principles, the moment distribution processes may be explained
by considering some simple examples.

Continuous Beams

Example 1. Figure 52 shows a continuous beam^RC, of constant cross-section,

which is and direction at A and C and simply supported at B and
fixed in position
which carries uniformly distributed loads of 65.0 kN/m on and 32.0 kN/m on AB
BC.
Under these loads the beam will rotate in an anti-clockwise direction at B and, as
a fundamental assumption in the theory of continuous beams that the slope
it is

does not change over a support, the beam will rotate the same amount B on either
sideof B. However, assume that the beam does not rotate at B, but through some
locking device remains horizontal after the
loads are applied. ThenAB and BC are
in effect two separate
encastre beams and the moments at the end of each span are
fixed-end moments (F.E.M.s) depending
only on the functions of the span and the
loading.

The functions of a span are length, and (2) /, its moment of inertia.
(1) L, its
When /is constant throughout all spans, the process is straightforward. Hence, in
this example I may be ignored.
228 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
65 0 kN per m 32-0 kN per m
LOAD
DIAGRAM i:? kB
-30m- -3-6m-
1 = 5000cm*
zero slope slope at B—i zero slope

DEFLECTIQN
at A _— ' at C

of contraflexure

DISTRIBUTION
table a B C
Distribution Factors 0-545 0-455
Fixed End Moments -48-75 4-48-75 -3456 4- 3456
Distribution 7-73 -6-46 ^
Carry Over -3-87'" - 3-23
Final Moments -52-62 4- 41-02 -41-02 4-31-3^

FINAL
BENDING
MOMENTS

Consider the F.E.M.s for the span A5. From the tables on pp. 271 to 275.

F.E.M.^ 5 (being anti-clockwise)

,

-65.0x3.0x3.0
12 12
= -48.75 kNm.

F.E.M .54 (being clockwise)

= +48.75 kNm.

Similarly, for the span BC

_ -32 X 3.6 X 3.6
F.E.M.^c
12 12
= -34.56 kNm
F.E.M.CB = +34.56 kNm
 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION 229

Having made these calculations the beam can be released at B and allowed to
an anti- clockwise direction. Now the algebraic sum
of the moments on
rotate in
side of this support must be zero. However, when the beam was horizontal at
either
value of Mab was +48.75 kNm and that of Mgc was
-34.56 kNm. Therefore,
B the
to produce equilibrium at B, the total moment induced by the rotation of the beam
there must be -14.19 kNm, since the moments are out of balance by
+43 75 _ +14.19 kNm.
34.56 ==

But the span ends meeting at B rotate through the same

angle 6. Consequently,

the moments induced by

rotation on either side of B are proportional to the

stiffness of AB and BC (Principle II).

In other words, the moment of -1 4. 1 9 kNm

is distributed
between and BC in proportion to their stiffness, i.e. in the
proportion KabH^ab + ^Bc) to the left and KbcHKab + ^Bc) to the right.
These proportions are known as the distribution factors (D.F.) for the spans.

Although it may sometimes be more accurate to employ fractions, these factors are

usually expressed in decimals, but, in any case, the factors for a support or joint

must always add up to unity.

Now i = 5 000 cvc^,AB - 3.0 m, BC~ 3.6 m.

Hence Aab -
5 000 x 10'’
q'^' [qs"
“ _6.67 x
1
,^3
10
^

5 000 X 10'’
and = 13.89X 10^
3.6 xlO^

16.67x10^
Therefore 0.545
16.67x10^+13.89x10^
13.89x10^
0.455
16.67x10^+13.89x10^
The operation of moment distribution is shown in the distribution table in
Fig. 52, 0.545 x —14.19 = —7.73 kNm BA and
being added to the end
0.455 X =
-14,19 —6.46 kNm being added to the end BC
From a consideration of Principle I moments are induced at the outer ends of
the beam at^ and C, equal to half the moments distributed between the spans at
B and of the same signs.
Hence, 0.5 x —7.73 = —3.865 kNm must be transferred to the end>l and
0.5 X =
-6.46 -3.23 kNm to the end C. This process, wlrich is jcnown as the
‘carry-over’ process, is shown in Fig. 52.
The final moments in the beam are found by adding each column algebraically.
When constructing a B.M. diagram it is convenient to remember that the moment
to the right of a support
in a distribution table bears the same sign as the support
moment in the B.M. diagram (in the normal sign convention). Therefore, the final
moments at B and C are respectively —52.62, —41.02 and —31.33 kN.
The maximum B.M.s foiAB and BC are obtained from the
static or ‘free’
formula +h7,/8 and equal
73.13 and 51.84 kNm respectively.
Example Z The continuous beam ABCDE, which is shown in Fig. 53 and which
as been analysed
on p. 54, is simply supported at A and overhangs the other
outside support
D. Consequently, the beam is free to rotate at A and D, although
’
to a certain extent at D
by the load at E, and when deriving F.E.M.s
t e beam is assumed to be fbced in a horizontal position at B and C only. Therefore,
230 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Principle III applies to spans AB and CD, and the stiffness factors for these spans
equal \K. The stiffness factor ioxBC- K.
Now the moment of inertia / differs for each span, although it is constant
throughout a span, as shown in Fig. 53.

r, T 8 500x 10“ irv3

Hence IK^b = I x 3
'
= 14.17 x 10
3 q ^ ^q

6 500 X 10“
= 17.33 X 10^
3.75 xlO^
5 500 X 10“
IKcd - I X = 11.00 X 10^
3.75 X 10^

D.F.5^ IKabKIKab + ^BC) ' j

-7
33 X 10^ + 14.17 X 10^

D.F.bc = 1 - 0.45 = 0.55

17 X 10^
D.F.ce = KbcKKbc + iKcn) = “
17.33 x 10 ^ + 11.00 x 10^

D.F.CD = 1 -0.612 = 0.388.

Now AB and CD are treated as fixed at one end only.

Consider the tables of F.E.M.s (Pages 271 to 275)

3x 120x4.5
F.E.M.j3^ 101.25 kNm
16

2PL 2 X 70 X 3.75
= -58.33
F.E.M.^C kNm
9 9

F.E.M.Cfi +58.33 kNm

WL _ 220 X 3.75 =
F.E.M.CX) -103.13 kNm
8 8

Now under any circumstances in the remainder of the beam the moment at D
can only be that due to the load on the cantilever.
The cantilever moment
Mde ~ —Mdc ~ ^ 1 -2 = —60 kNm.

Sufficient data have been accumulated to analyse the beam by moment

distribution as shown in Fig. 53.
The inexperienced may prefer to deal with the cantilever first. The moments
Mde and Mjjc are inserted in the appropriate columns, and half Afec is carried over
to the other end of the span CD. Subsequently the support D is ignored until the
final moments are summated.
The preliminary operations at support C demand some explanation. When the
beam is released the unbalanced moment
= +30 + (58.33 - 103.13) = -14.8 kNm.

To balance this moment +14.8 kNm must be distributed between the endsCB and CD.
 7

231
moment DISTRIBUTION
220kN SOkN
70kN 70kN •

I20N>J distributtd
dlstr/buted —
LOAD
diagram
A }
—L_t ^
3-7Sm
^
^
i
-4Sm-
jm CSOOcm jmSSOOcrn^
imasoocffT

deflection
DIAGRAM
r-
distribution ^ n c
TABLE
0-450 0-550 0-612 0-388
D. F.

+ 60-00 -60-00
Conliltytr M +30-00
C.O.
+101-25 -58-33 +58-33 -103-13
F.E.M. O
-1^-31 -23-61 49-06 + 5-74
Distribution
+4-53 -11-81
C.O.
-2-04 - 2-49 / +7-23 + 4-58
Distribution
+3-62 -1-24
C.O.
- 1-63 - 1-99 ^ / +0-76 + 0-48
Distribution

C.O.
+ 0-38"^ -1-00

Distribution
-0-17 -0-2! / \ +0-6! + 0-39
C.O.
+ 0-30+’''^ -0-14

Distribution -0-14 -0-16 +0-09 + 0-05

Final Moments 0 +77-96 -77-96 +61-89 -61-89 +60-00 -60-00

FINAL
BENDING
MOMENTS

be observed that the work is not completed in one cycle of distribution

It will

and carry-over as in the previous example. After one operation of distribution the
moments are balanced at the supports B and C. Unfortunately, the carry-over
moments from 5 to C and from C to 5 throw the support moments out of balance,
and further cycles of distribution and carry-over are required until the moments
distributed are so small that the processmay be halted.
As the beam is A, there can be no moment there, neither can
free to rotate at
there be at D, other than the cantilever moment. Hence, no moments are carried
over f’rom 5 to ^4 or from C to D.
It is correct to carry-over moments to an outside fixed-ended support after
distribution, as inExample 1 , but for all internal supports a distribution table is
finished with a line of distribution. Otherwise, the carry-over moments would leave
these integral supports out of balance.
232 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
It is convenient at this stage to summarise some of the
points relating to
continuous beams which have been brought out by the foregoing examples.

1. Cantilever Ends. The only moment which can occur at the supports is that •

due to loads on the cantilever. After carry-over to the adjacent interior

support, treat the end span as being simply supported at its outer end.
2. Simply Supported End Spans. As the beam is free to rotate about an end
support, po moment cap occur there and, consequently, there is no carry

over to an end support.

3. Fixed Ends. Moments must be carried over to the fbced end from the
adjacent interior support, but not in the opposite direction as a fixed end
cannot rotate.
4. Distribution Table. After each distribution draw a line to signify that at
that stage the moments at the ‘support are in equilibrium.
5. Completion. Always finish at a fbced-ended support with a carry-over.
Always finish at an interior support with a line of distribution.
Any degree of accuracy may be obtained, but the longer the cycles of
moment distribution and carry-over are continued the nearer will the
results be to those obtained by one of the classical methods.
In practice, however, it is sufficiently accurate to stop the process when
the moment distributed is about 2 per cent of the original F.E.M.

Example 3. Figure 54 shows a continuous beam which is freely supported

at A and fixed at C. The B.M.s induced by the settlement of B can be calculated by
Moment Distribution.
Let £ = 2.1 X 10^ N/mrn^, and the I of the beam = 5 000 cm'*.

3 X 5 000 X 10‘*
Then ^ = 1.250 X 10'’
^Eab - 4x 10^
3.0x

,, 5 000x 10'*
while
4.5x10=

_ 1.25x10"
whence D.F.£,x -
1 25x 10'*
-H.lll X 10'*

and D.F,5c = 1 - 0.53 = 0.47.

Nowyl is simply supported. Hence, remembering the derivation of Principle V,

- SEId
E.E.U.bA =

3x2.1x10=’ X 5 000x 10'* x 25

3 000”
= -87.50 kNm.

The beam is fixed at C. Therefore, remembering the derivation of Principle IV,

F.E.M.^c “ F.E.M<70 ~

_ 6x 2.1 X 10^ x 5 000 X 10'’x 25

4 500^
= 77.78 kNm.
 —
233
MOMENT distribution
moments are shown in Fig, 54.
The distribution table and final

DATA
DIAGRAM
I^SOOOcm
J-O/w k'Stn-

DISTRIBUTION
TABLE A B C
D.E OSJ
EE.M. 0 -87-50
Distribution +5-/S
CO.
Final Moments 0 -8235 *82-35 -b 80-07
—— . .

BENDING
MOMENT
DIAGRAM

Fig. 54

Example 4. Figure 55 shows a beam fixed in position and direction at A and C

and in which a clockwise moment of 10 kNm is applied at B.
The beam may be analysed by employing two stages. In the first stage the beam
is propped at B so that it cannot change its position undei* the action of the

moment. Consequently, the beam may be treated as a continuous beam. In the

second stage a load equal in size and opposite in direction to the prop is applied at
B. When the moments resulting from the two stages are added algebraically, the
final moments are obtained.

Moment Distribution is employed only in the first stage. The beam being of
constant EI^ the stiffness of BC is three times that of AB. The load on the prop is
found by considering the shears associated with the Stage I moments. Thus,

„ ~—
_ 1.25 + 2.5 7.5
n—
+ 3.75

= —6.667 kN (acting downwards).

The moments resulting from the application of an upward load of 6.667 kN at
B can be calculated by formula.
The ‘free’ bending moment under the load

Wab _
~ 6.667x4.5 x 1.5
= -7.5 kl4m
L 6.0

F.E.M .^5 = 1.875 kNm

F.E.M.^B = = 5.625 kNm

 234 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

STAGE I STAGE JL
LOAD DIAGRAM LOAD DIAGRAM

6-667 kN
DISTRIBUTION
TABLE MOMENT DIAGRAM
+2-5 h7-5
•i‘375

+1-25 +2-5 t-75-f-3.75

- 2-8125

MOMENT DIAGRAM FINAL BENDING MOMENTS

125

Fig. 56

The Stage I, Stage II and final B.M.s are shown in Fig. 56.

t>

Portal Frames
Example 5. ABCD in Fig. 57 is a symmetrical portal frame with fixed feet and
with columns of equal stiffness. When BC is loaded symmetrically as shown the
frame does not side-sway (i.e. B and C remain symmetrical about the vertical axis,
although both sink a small amount and each moves slightly towards the vertical
axis). Consequently, the moments may be found in the frame by flattening it out
into a continuous beam ABCD.
There is justification for this action because it is a fundamental assumption that the
connections between the beams and columns are rigid, just as it is assumed that
there is no sudden change of slope in a deformed continuous beam at its supports.
 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION
lOOkN

LOAD DIAGRAM DEFLECTION DIAGRAM

Fig. 57

Now F.E.M.jgc — F.E.M.CB ~ ~

12
100x7.2
12
= —60 kNm.

K-AB '
Kbc Kcd = 1:3:1.
•

Then D.F.^^ = D.Fc£) = 0.25

D.F.fic = D.F.C5 = = 0.75

7^3
The distribution table is shown in Fig. 57.
It should be noted that it is not essential to carry over from
B to A or from C to
D after each distribution. It would suffice
to carry over half the final moments at
B and C to ^ and D respectively.
236 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
It is appropriate at this stage to include a practical ‘short cut’ to reduce the
amount of work in the distribution table. Just as it is convenient to consider that
the equivalent stiffness of a simply supported end span is \K, so can one modify
the stiffness factors of other members under certain conditions.
The portal frame of Fig. 57 and its load are symmetrical about the centre of the
beam BC.
If, in this case, the stiffness factor for BC is taken as K/l, then there is no need
to carry-over between B and C.

AsKab-KbcI2:Kcd = '^--1-5:\.

^P-BA ~ D-F-CD = ~

and D.F.^c = D.F.ce - 0.4 = 0.6

Employing this method a very short distribution table results as shown in

Fig. 58.

DISTRIBUTION TABLE
A B C D
D.F. 0-4 0-6 0-6 0-4
F.E.M. - 60-00 + 60-00
^^•h 24-00 +36-00 - 36-00 -24-00
Dist
co . . H200 - 12-00

Final
Moments H200 + 24-00 -24-00 + 24-00 -24-00 - 12-00

The final moments are exact.

The above procedure may be adopted for all members which are subject to
equal end rotations in opposite directions. The principle will be used again later.

Example 6. When a portal frame is asymmetrical in shape or is asymmetrically

loaded, tends to sway to one side, and analysis by Moment Distribution has to
it

be carried out in two stages. In the first stage the moments are derived assuming
 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION
against sway, while in the second
moments induced by
that the frame is propped
the sway are calculated.

Consider the frame shown above, which has a constant / of 5 000 cm"^.

Kab = 5 000 X 10'^/3.6 X 10^ = 1.389 x lO'’

Kbc = 5 000 X 10(^11.2 X 10^ = 0.694 x 10^

Kcd = 5 000 X 10^/5.4 X 10^ = 0.926 x 10^

1.389 xlO'^
nee np
D.F.^^
1.389x 10^+0.694x 10^

D.F.Bc = 0.333

0.694x 10^ _
r,F
0.694 X 10^ + 0.926 x lO'^

D.F<7£, = 0.572.

Now F.E.M.^^;" — F.E.M.(7^

WL _
8
10x7.2
8

= -9.00 kNm.

When the frame is prevented from swaying, the moments are those obtained in
Fig. 61.
Now a frame sways because of unbalanced horizontal thrust.
The thrust at A
+3.75 + 7.50
3.125
3.6

while the thrust at D

-6.18 + 3.09
-1.717
5.4

Hence, the propping force equals 1.41 kN and acts in a horizontal direction from
C towards B.
 —
238 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
The second stage of the calculations is to find what moments result when a force
of 1.41 kN from B
acts in a horizontal direction towards C.
Unfortunately, there is no direct method of achieving this object. Nevertheless,
within the elastic range of the material, the moments produced in a frame are

DISTRIBUTION TABLE FOR STAGE I MOMENTS.

A B C D
D.F.
-9.00
% 'h
+900
F.EM
DIst. .+6.00 +3-00^ ^-3-86 -S-14.
C.O. y-j.oo' - h93‘^-f- I SO ^-2S7
Oist. jfl-29 +0-64.. y'~0-64 -0.86.
C.O. + 0‘64^ -0.32>^+032 ^-0.4S
D/st. .f-0‘21 + 0-11 -0-14 -0.18^
C.O. '-00
Stage I +3 -75 +7-50 -7.SO +648 - 648 -3-09
Moments

Fig. 61

—H d H— —H d H

proportional to the applied forces. Hence, if it can be calculated that a certain B.M.
produces a known then the bending moment resulting from another
lateral force,
same place may be calculated by proportion.
lateral force in the
Let the frame sway an amount d along the line BC, the joints B and C being
prevented from rotation, as shown in Fig. 62.
By Principle IV the moments induced in AB and CD are proportional to their
values.
Hence,

F.E.M.^5 : F.E.M.5^ : F.E.M<7£) ; F.E.M.2jc= 1/3.6^ : 1/3.6^ : 1/5.4^ : 1/5.4^

= -29.16 : -29.16 : -12.96 : -12.96.

Using these arbitrary moments, release the joints R and Cand calculate the
resultingmoments in the frame, as shown in Fig. 63.
 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION
distribution tab le for S/D£SW^

D.E
F.EM
A

'
B

-2916 -2916 •
»

15 ^
-1296 -12.96.

Dist. / 944 f- 972^ y S.SS ^ 7.4h

+
C.Q V- 972 F 27a'^F4‘86 'V.J.70

Dist. F.y- has - 0.pJv y-2-Q8 -iZS...

c.o. -0 93 - (.04^- 046
Dist. 0.69 hO-JS 1-0^ ±0:2^.
C.O. f-O-JS Vo./J
Final -20^02 -fo^aa +10 88 F a 07 -8 07 -lO SO
Moments
Fig. 63

The resulting shears

_ -20.02 - 10.88 -8.07 - 10.52

3.6 5.4

= ^12.03 kN.

This force 12.03/1.41 = 8.532 times as great as the propping force in Stage
is I.

Hence, the Stage II moments are 1/8.532 of those calculated above.

A B D C
Stage I Moments +J.7S -7. SO -6.18 -309

Stage IT Moments -2 3S + 12 -0.9S - 123

Final Moments + 1.40 -6.22 - 7 /3 -432

Fig. 64

The Stage I and Stage II moments are shown in Figs. 64, 65—67. When added
algebraically they provide the final B.M.s.

Example 7. In general, rigid frames with hinged feet are a little more easy to
analyse than those with fixed feet, and the analysis is particularly easy with frames
symmetrical in shape and in loading. However, the frame shown in Fig. 68 is
somewhat complicated as it is asymmetrical and requires analysis in two stages as in
’
the last example.
The approach is new because the legs are sloping and account must be taken of
the vertical reactions and Vj) which affect the moments at B and C.

Taking moments to the left of B,

+Mba - 6. 6/^4 =0 ; . . . (i)

Taking moments to the left of C,

5.71^ -^Mcb — 6.67^4 — (100 X 1.5) =0 .(ii)

 ^
MOMENT DISTRIBUTION
Taking moments to the left of D,

1.2Va - 3.0/^4 - (100 X 3.0) = 0 (Hi)

Subtracting (i) from (ii),

S.OVa + Mcb - ^BA -150 = 0 (iv)

Multiplying (iii) by 6.6/3,

15 . 84 F^ - 6 6Ha
.
~ 660 = 0 (v)

Subtracting (i) from (v),

13A4Va -Mba- 660 = 0 (Vi)

Dividing (vi) by 13.14/3.00,

S.OVa- 0.22SMba - 150.69 = 0 (vh)

Subtracting (vii) from (iv),

Mcb - 0.112Mba + 0.69 = 0

~ 0.112Mbc ^ Mqb 0.69.

or, as —Mba '^^BC'>

This
The Stage
is the fundamental equation of equilibrium of the frame.

D./T
I moments

A
are found

0.6
as

B
shown

0.^
in Fig. 69,

0.4
CD
06
F.E.M. 0 -2S.0 +250 0
Distribution -f-iS-O -t-io.o -10.0 -is.o
Stag 9 I 0 f-is.o -15.0 + 15-0 -15.0 0
Moment^

Fig. 69

Note that the stiffness coefficients are symmetrical about the central member
and that the load is symmetrical. Providing that the frame is propped, the value K
of the central member can be halved and carry-over dispensed with between B and
C for this Stage, as in Example 5.

From these moments

O.IIIMbc -^^CB = (0.772 X -15.00) + 15.00 = 3.42.

As equation does not give the same result as the fundamental equation, the
this
frame side-sways with a resulting modification of moments so that

O.llSMgc ^CB ~ —4.1 1.

If assumed that the member

it is
BC side-sways a horizontal amount d to the
left, as shown in Fig. 70, then

d - 6.6<j)i = 3.603

03 = 1.8330J.
i.e.
242 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
The vertical movement of B with regard to C
= 3.0(^.2 = 2.7c?/6.6 + 1.5c?/3.6

= (2.7/6.6 + 1.5/3.6)6.601
= 5.4500,

i.e. 02 = 1 . 81601 .

From Principles IV and V,

F.E.M.5^ +3EKi(pi
2
F.E.M.^C “ = —6EK2(j>2

F.E.M.^-/) = +3EK3(j)3

The K values all equal 1

If 0, = 1, then 02 = 1.816 and 03 = 1.833.

Hence

F.E.M.^^ F.E.M.^(7 • : F.E.M.qj

= 1 ; -2(1 X 1.816) ; -2(1 x 1.816) ; (1 x 1.833)

= 1 ; -3.632 : -3.632 ; 1.833.

— *-j cf i-«
— ^
—H ^ h

Employing those moments as arbitrary F.E.M.s the Stage II distribution is

shown in Fig. 71.

carried out as
From these moments,

0.772Mbc +Mcb = -3.848.

 1

MOMENT DISTRIBUTION 243

But the Stage II moments should be such that

O.lllMgQ ~ “4 . 1 .

Hence, the appropriate correction coefficient for the Stage II moments

STAGE II D/STRIBUTION TABLE

A B C D
D.F. 043 057 0‘S7 0-43
F.E.M. 0 4-/000 -3-632 -3-632 4-/-833 0
Dist. // 28 4-/ -604^-/-/ -028 4-077/
'/

CO. 4-05/4*^ "^4-0-762

D/st. -0226 -0-294\y- 0-430 -0-322
CO -0-2/S ^^-0-/47
D/st. h0092 4-0/23 \/ 4- 0-084 4-0-063
C.O. 40042^ ^4-0-062
0/st. -00/8 -0-024 -0-03S -0-027
Final
Moments 0 -f/PSP -/-982 -2-3/8 4-2-3/d 0
Fig. 71

Correcting the Stage II moments and adding them to the Stage I moments, the
final moments are obtained as follows:

Mbc = 1.07 X (-1.982) - 15.00

= -17.12 kNm
Mcb = 1.07 X (-2.318) + 15.00
= +12.52 kNm.

The final B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 72.

Fig. 72
244 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Frames with Pitched Roofs
Example 8. When one joint of a three-member
frame, such as that in Example 6,
is displaced the displacement of other joints can be found from the geometry of the
frame. When, however, four member frames, such as those in Fig. 73, are under

consideration it is necessary to know the movements of two joints before those of

the remaining joints can be calculated.
Similarly when the twin portal in Fig. 74—5 is loaded the effect of the movement
of the three joints B, D and G must be known before the frame can be analysed.
 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION 245

Analysis is carried out in stages as follows;

I. By assuming that the joints B, D and G are fixed in position but free to

rotate.
II. By allowing each joint separately to sway under arbitrary loading while the
other two remain fixed in position.
III. By proportioning the thrusts resulting from the previous stages so that no
induced horizontal forces remain at B, and G. D
IV. By adjusting the moments at the various stages in proportion to the final
thrusts.

Care is needed with When comparing thrusts, those acting from right
signs. to
left are considered to be negative. Similarly, downward vertical reactions are

negative. As before, clockwise moments are positive.

Stage I:

Kab.-Kde^Kgj=2
Kbc = Kcd - KptF = KpG - 1 •

Hence D-F-5/4 ~ D-F-G/ ~ 0.67

D.F.^c ~ D.F.(;;/r = 0.33

D-F<:5 = D.F.c’£) = D.F./7£) = D.F./tg: = 0.5

D.F.£>c ~ D-F-£)F ~ 0.25

D.F./j^- = 0.50

F.E.M.5C = -F.E.M.C5 = F-E.M.CZ? = -F.E.M.pc = - ^

33 x 4 5^
= -- - = -55.69 kNm.
•

The distribution table for Stage I is shown in Fig. 76, and the appropriate B.M.
diagram in Fig. 77.

He--
-14.21 -
2
6
28.43
——
-42.64
2
6
=-7.11 kN

-0.58-1.16 -1.74
,, =
Hj 2 =-— ^=-0.29kN.
6 6
Taking moments to the left of D
9Va + 18.75 +40.90- 67(4 - = 0

_ -18.75 - 40.90 + 56.29 + 336.5

y 1

= 148.13 kN
246 methods of structural analysis

00

6
1

5
it 2^

CO Ov
ry Ai
66
+
+ I

S
c\ Si
^}-
!N

06
I + 1 + I

Si N. CNJ V

Oi
S! cvj 'Vi

Id 6 VO
<0
CO .£?
ki
SI c6 £
I

o Ok t\,| 0
Q 'o cX VJ rvj Ok
y> 'D 0 6| C5
vr 1 I

Ok 'o yj
'O ^5 SI
}o xa >» 66
I I I
+ 1

Ok
s va P) ^
<
9S
in «o Ok
+
66 vs
I
+ + +
Ok 'O,
yj »o Sj
*o
col 6 ol K.
I 1-
?
Si
*o
I ol K.
7 + V
I in
CO
o
fQ

+
S
I ^ . . . .

SP Uj -5 O -5 O' -5 O .

k Q cj Q O O O Q
 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION 247

Taking moments to the left of C

(148.5 X 4.5)
4.5 Va + 18.75 + 63.93 - 7.51/^ l.5ffB =0

666.57 + 18.75 + 63.93 - 70.36 - 334,13

Hb- 1.5

= 229.87 kN.

Taking moments to the right of D

6Hj -9Vj- 0.58 - 12.47 =0

_ 1.74-0.58- 12.47
n

= — 1.26 kN (i.e. Vj acts downvvgrds).

Taking moments to the right of F

1.5Hj + 4.5 0.58 + 3.41 - I.SHq = 0

„ _ 2.175 +5.655 - 0.58 +3.41

o
= 7.11 kN.
Now S7f= 0
Therefore, + Hb + Hg + Hq ^ Hj
-Hj) = 9.38 + 229.87 - 7.1 1 + 7.1 1 - 0.29
Hff
= —238.96 kN (i.e. H acts from right to left).

Summarising the Stage I induced thrusts at eaves and valley level;

Hb = 229.87 kN
Hd = -238.96 kN
HG = l.n kN.
248 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Stage II:

During this stage the props are removed from joints B, D and G and the moments
due to sway are calculated for each joint.
Consider joint B in Fig. 78. If D and G remain fixed in position and B deflects
an amount 2d to the left, then the ridge C will move a horizontal distance d. But C
will also drop vertically. Provided d is small then C will drop an amount equal to

span ^-90 3d.

2 X rise

Now the angle of pitch of the roof 6 is 18° 26'. Hence, provided the ends of the
raftersdo not change their slopes, the deflection of the ends with respect to one
another = 3d cos 0 + <7 sin 6.
Therefore, the deflection = 3.\63d.

Providing that the joints B and C do not rotate, the deflection diagram is as
shown in Fig. 78.
The F.E.M.s are proportional to K[L and to the amount of deflection.

K2jd_Ad
Hence F.E.M.^5 - F.E.M.^^ •
L 6

and F.E.M.5C = F.E.Mc^ = -F.E.M<7£, = -F.E.M.x)c •-

- —
3.163d
4.743

4d_ 3.163d
By coincidence
6 4.743
 249
MOMENT DISTRIBUTION

ON
o
tab
• ^
Cl.
250 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
If arbitrary moments of, say, 20 kNm are applied to the ends of the member
AB, then the same amount, with appropriate signs, can be applied to the members
BC and CD.
If all the joints previous^ fixed against rotation are allowed to rotate while D
and G remain fixed in position, then the distribution table is as shown in Fig. 79.
The appropriate B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 80.

19.59 -t- 19.79 39.38

Ha = 6.56 kN
6 6

He= ^^-^ = -2.66kN

-0.41 - 0.21 -0.62

Hj = -0.10 kN.
6 6

Taking moments to the left of D

9Va + 19.79 -i- 15.31 -6Ha=0

39.38- 19.79- 15.31
Va =
9

= 0.476 kN.

Taking moments to the left of C

1.5Hb + 4.51^ - 7.5Ha 19.79 - 18.72 = 0

„ 49.22+ 18.72-2.14- 19.79

45.99
= 30.67 kN.
1.5

Hb acts from right to left.

 251
MOMENT DISTRIBUTION
Taking moments to the right of D

9Vj + 6Hj - 4.69 - 0.21 = 0

„ + 0.21-0.62
= 4.69 9

= 0.476 kN.

Vj acts downwards.
Taking moments to the right of F
-1.5/7g + 4.5 K/ + 7.5^/ - 0.21 + 1.28 = 0

+ 0.78-0.21 + 1.28
Hg = 2.14
1.5

= 2.66 kN.

Now XH = 0.

Then -Hr, = 6.56 - 2.66 - 0.10 - 30.67 + 2.66

Hr,
= 24.21 kN.

Summarising the induced thrusts at the eaves and valley due to the side-sway of D:

Hb = -30.67 kN
Hd= 24.21 kN
Hg = 2.66 kN.

Now consider joint D. When B and G remain fixed in position and D moves 2d
to the right, C drops M vertically and F rises 3d vertically. Both C and F move to
the right a horizontal amount d. Hence the deflection diagram is as shown in Fig.
81.
The types of deflection being similar to those when B side-swayed, the arbitrary
F.E.M.S chosen are 20 kNm. The distribution table is shown in Fig.
82, and the
appropriate B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 83.
252 METHO
 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION
= iML±Mi= = 3 37

6 6

,, 1 3.47 + 6.74
^ 3.37 kN.

Taking moments to the left of D,

+ 6.74 + 14.89 - 6/7^ =0

„ 20.21 -6.74- 14.89

= -0.158 kN.

V/[ acts downwards.

/70P 17-09

14 89^ ^ 14-89
15-47 ’a-47

2p-7a

MOMENTS RESULTING \
FROM SIDESWAY OF D

24-89 6-74

Fig. 83
Similarly

F/= 0.157 kN.

Vj acts upwards.
Taking moments to the left of C
\.SHb + 6.74 - 17.09 - 7.57^4 - 4.57^ = 0

„ _ 17.09 + 25.26 + 0.72-6.74

o
= -24.22 kN.
Similarly

Hq = -24.22 kN.
Now 2/7=0.
254 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Hence -Hd = 3.37 + 3.37 - 9.1 1 - 24.22 - 24.22
and .^0 = 50.81 kN.
Summarising the induced thrusts at the eaves and valley due to the side-sway of D\

Hb = -24.22 kN
Hd= 50.81 kN
Hq = -24.22 kN.
Now consider the side-sway of joint G. When joint G moves inwards an amount
B and D being fixed in position, the effect is similar to that when B
2d, the joints
moved outwards an amount 2d with joints £) and G fixed in position. The final
figures for bending moment on the right side of the frame are of the same amount
but of reverse sign to those on the left side of the frame when B moved outwards.
Consequently, the corresponding thrusts are of the same amount but are opposite
in direction.
Therefore, the thrusts at the eaves and valley due to the side-sway of G are;
Hb = 2.66 kN
Hd = 24.21 kN
/fc = -30.67 kN. .

Stage HI:

For the equilibrium of the frame the Stage I induced thrusts at the eaves and
valley must be balanced by the Stage II induced thrusts. Let x be the correction
coefficient for the Stage II thrusts due to the side-sway of joint B, andy and z be
the coefficients for the side-sway of joints/? and G respectively.

Then at joint 5: 229.87 = 30.67x + 24.22y — 2.66z

at joint/?: 238.96 = 24.21x + 50.8 ly + 24.21z

at joint G: 7.1 1 = — 2.66jc + 24.22y + 30.67z.

When these simultaneous equations are solved

x= 4.272

y= 3.817

z = -2.412.

As the value of z is negative, the joint G moves outwards when the frame is
loaded, not inwards as originally supposed from a consideration of the Stage I

thrusts.

Stage IV:

When the Stage II moments are multiplied by the appropriate coefficient they
may be added algebraically to the Stage I moments as shown in Fig. 84.
The final B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 85.
 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION 255
COMPUTATION OF FINAL MOMENTS
AB BC CD DC DE
Moments + 18.76 - 37.52 - 63.93 + 40.90 - 28.43
Stage I

Sidesway oi B x 4.272 + 84.53 - 83.68 + 79.96 + 65.40 - 45.36

Sidesway ofD x 3.817 + 25.73 - 51.42 + 65.23 + 56.84 -113.67

Sidesway of G x -2.412 + 0.51 - 0.99 + 3.09 + 11.31 + 25.62

Final Moments +129.52 -173.60 + 84.35 +174.44 -161.85

ED DF FG GJ JG

Moments - 14.21 - 12.47 + 3.41 - 1.16 - 0.58

Stage I

Sidesway of B x 4.272 - 22.68 - 20.03 + 5.47 - 1,75 - 0.90

! 1

Sidesway oiD x 3.817 - 95.01 + 56.84 - 65.23 + 51.42 + 25.73

Sidesway of G x -2.412 + 12.81 - 36.93 + 45.15 - 47.25 - 47.73

Final Moments -119.09 i

- 12.60 - 11.20 + 1.25 - 23.48
1

Fig. 84

It is interesting to compare these final moments with those which would result
if the framewere loaded with 33 kN/m over the whole roof and also with those for
a singleframe loaded over the whole roof, as shown in Fig. 86. It will be observed
that there is little variation of moment at joints analogous to
A, B, C and D.

Multi-storey Frames
Example 9. Consider the symmetrical building frame in Fig. 87. When the
uniformly distributed load is applied
to the first floor the frame deflects in such a
manner that the ends of the beams are subjected to
equal rotation in opposite
irections.- Hence, we may reduce the stiffness of the beams to K/2 and dispense
with carry-over between
B and E and between C and D, as was done with the
symmetrical rectangular frames.
256 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
33kN/m

187^04

Kab '
K-BC '
^BE Kcd - 2 : 2 : 1 : 1.

Now F.E.M.5£- = F.E.M .^5 =

WT
- -^= - —Y2— ^ -99.00 kNm.
X

There is no necessity to consider more than one-half of the frame and the
distribution may be carried out as shown in Fig. 87.
The final B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 88.

Side Loading on Symmetrical Frames

In an article entitled ‘Side Sway in Symmetrical Building Frames’, published in

the Structural Engineer of April 1950, Mr. N. Naylor, B.Sc., A.M. I. Struct. E.,
presented a very useful modification of Moment Distribution which will be derived
and illustrated by Examples 10 to 15.
Figure 89 shows a continuous column PQR which is fixed in position and
direction atP, fixed in direction but not in position at R
and rigidly attached to the
end Q of the beam QS, the other end of the beam being hinged and free to move in
a horizontal direction.
 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION 257

LOADED FRAME DEFLECTED FRAME

Distribution Factors
FEM. -pp.OO
Distribution f 44^00 fihOO f-44-00
C,0, ^ 22^00 ^2200
Distribution ^/T60
C.O. - e^ao
Distribution tJ'9i fO^P8 +3' Pi.
C, 0. thP6^ V/.P(5
Distribution -1-57
Final Moments f23-P6i47-Pl •f-3P‘if •f-4-7P -4‘7P

FINAL
BENDING
MOMENTS

23- P6

Fig. 88
258 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Let the IjL values of the upper and lower columns and beams be Kjj, and
Kb respectively.
Now let a clockwise moment M be applied at the joint Q. Then R, Q and S will
move horizontally to the right, and each member meeting at Q will slope an amount
d at that joint. Each column will behave like a cantilever and the general effect wEl
be as shown in Fig. 90.
It can be shown that M is distributed among the members, so that

Mqp — E Kp . . 9

Mqr=E.Ku.9
Mqs = 3E Kg. . 9,

that is, in the proportion Kg Ku ^Kg.

:

Fig. 89

As each column acts as a cantilever, the carry-over factor from Q to P or from

QtoR —1. Since the beam is hinged at S, there is no carry-over to S. Moment
is

distribution can be applied to the numerical example shown in Fig. 91.

The joint Q is initially assumed to be locked so that the column ends remain
vertical and the beam end remains horizontal. Under these conditions the side loads

LOADS MOMENTS CNmJ

250N — 600
R
K(j=l f
' \ 525
250
KL=f
m\m^
675

975
Fig. 91

induce moments at each end of the column lengths, their magnitude being P/i/2,
where P is the appropriate load and h the column height.

Hence, F.E.M.g^ = F.E.M.^g = Phjl = — ^

= 375 Nm

while F.E.M.gP — F.E.M.pg — (250 + 250) 250 Nm.

The D.F. for QR and 2P= 1/(1 +3+ 1) = 0.2, while that for QS = 3/(1 +3+ 1)
=
06
. .

The joint Q can now be unlocked when distribution takes place as shown in
Fig. 92.
 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION 259

Fig. 92

Note the value and sign of the moments carried over. The final B.M. diagram is
asshown in Fig. 91.
The principles employed in this example may be applied to symmetrical frames
of the type shown in Fig. 93.
Under the side loading shown points of contraflexure exist in the centres of the
beams, and the moments induced in the right-hand half of the frame are numerically
equal to those in the left-hand half.
Consequently, the moments may be calculated in a symmetrical frame subjected
to side loads by considering one-half only of the frame. It should be noted that the
beam length will be halved, and therefore the beam to be considered yvill be twice
as stiff. Hence, the original K value must be multiplied by 6 when considering D.F.s

for half the frame.

point of
contraf/exure

FRAME DEFLECTED FRAME HALF FRAME

Fig. 93
Single-bay Portal Frame
Example 10. The most simple application is to the ordinary symmetrical portal
frame with fixed feet, as shown in Fig. 94.
The stiffness factor for AB = K= I, while that for BC= 6 xK= 6.
D.F.5^ = 1/7; D.F.5c = 6/7

F.E.M.^a = F.E,M.a^ = 375 Nm.

 N

260 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

The distribution table is shown in Fig. 95, and the final B.M. diagram in Fig. 94

K =!
K=l
1x6 = 6
DISTRIBUTION
TABLE
B
D.F f/7 ^/7
F. E.M. -375 -375
Distribution 54 1321
C. O.C factor = -O -54^
Final Moments -429 -32! f32l

Fig. 95

E K» I
I ©4 ^

O K=l
500N ,
K=l 500N D ,

o K=2
500N ,
K=l 5U0N ^
£

0
K=3
,
K=l ^250 B ^

ol
250N
K=4
^ 1 A
Va
FRAME HALF FRAME
Fig. 96
 261

\
1X6*6

1x6^6
262 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Multi-storey Frames

Frames with Fixed Feet

Example 11. See Fig. 96.

There are no F.E.M.s for DE but

F.E.M./)c = F-E.Mc^ = 250 X 1= 375 Nm

F.E.M <75 = F.E.M.5C = (250 + 250) x = 750 Nm

|

F.E.M.5^ = F.E.M .^5 = (250 + 250 - 125) X 1= 562.5 Nm.

The distribution table is shown in Fig. 97,

and the final B.M. diagram in Fig. 98.

Frames with Hinged Feet

Example 12. The frame shown in Fig. 99

is a symmetrical frame having hinges at the
feet and F. Hence, AB and EF behave like
A
cantilevers loaded at A and F with a force
H/2 = 5 kN.

Consequently

MgA ~ Mef = 5x 3=15 kNm.

In the upper storey

F.E.Mc5 = F.E.M.^c = -F/2 x hjl 1107

/
=5 X
3
— =
„
7.5
.
kNm.
,
FINAL BENDING MOMENTS CNm)
2 Fig. 98

The cantilever moment M

is applied to joint B and distributed between the

upper column and beam, there being an appropriate carry-over to C which is

absorbed in the first distribution at that joint. Then the F.E.M.S for the upper
 263
moment DISTRIBUTION
are introduced at
B C b“"8
column way,
normal
andupper column in the moment and F.E.M.s may be
of
completely ignored. table, but initially in calculations

;r« it
™"srp—
in Fig. 101.
*®^stnliution
as shown above. The final moments are

shown

Columns
Frames with Non-prismatic usual to have
it is
crane gantries
Example 13. In in Fig. 102
columns of varying section.

B
K=2 K==2
2x 6= 12 2x6 = 12

distribution
TABLE

D.E 0 f^/l3 'h— ‘/l3 / 13

- /5.00
Cantilever M as f-IIS
Distribution
+ 13
-IIS
C. 0.
-750 -T50
F.E.M.
+ 6 92 + 0-56 ’hO-67 + 7 98
Distribution
-0 67 -0>S8
C. 0.
Dis tribution + 0-62 i-0 05 + 0 04 + 0-54
Final 1 6 o ^2E39 -6 39 -8-52 + 8 52
Moments
Fig. 100

shown the columns undergo similar deflections and

the
Under the side loading
crane beam positions B and E remain the same distance apart.
Therefore it can be assumed that B and E
are joined by a beam of zero stiffness, and
the frame analysed like a two-storey frame.

F.E.Mcjg = F.E.M.5C

_ 900 x 3 ^_^>y
3 Nm
2x2
F.E.M.5^ = F.E.M.^5
FINAL BENDING MOMENTS 900x9-= -2
025 Nm.
Fig. 101 2x2

The distribution table is shown in Fig. 103, while the final B.M. diagram is shown
in Fig. 102.
264 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

II Ov
B K=2 c
j/r= 0 K= 8
8x6=48
I A

A B C
D. F. 075 0 025 0-04 096
FE.M. -2025 -2025 -675 -675
Dist. +2025 O +675 +27 +648
C.O. -2025 -27^ -675
Dist. +20 0 +7 +27 +648
C.O. -20 -27 -7
Dist. +20 O +7 0 + 7
C.O. -20 0 -7
Dist. 0 0 0 0 +7
FINAL
Moments -4090 + 40 -40 - 1310 +I310

Fig. 103

Example 14. The frame in Example 13 could be analysed in a similar maimer if

loads of the same magnitude and direction were applied at B and E. However, the
problem shown in Fig. 104 is not so simple because the two columns do not distort
in the same manner. Nevertheless, the problem can be solved by carrying out the
analysis intwo stages as shown in Figs. 104—7.
In Stage I the work follows the same lines as in the last four examples, but in
Stage II the calculations are similar to those in Examples 1 to 1 0.
 N

265
moment distribution
Stage I.
F.E.Mcb = F-E-M.5C = 0
12
F.E.M.5^ = F.E.M.^b = 1 125 X
y
= 6 750 Nm.

distribution table is shown in Fig. 105.

The
K-{ - -
f

C D Q
2250
'
n2SN n2SN Jf2SN n25N
E

LOADED a • STAGE I STAGE II

1
VI
FRAME

A F _
i ^ 1
Fig. 104

/C^4 B K^l
1 F=l
1X6
STAGE I DISTRIBUTION 1
^6
NAYLOR SYSTEM
A B i

D.F. 0 ^/S 0 Y5 1
^/7

FEM. 'f-6750 -^-6750 1

Dht. -5400 0 \-l350

CO. *5400 1
+1350
DIst. - 193 -1157
CO. ^ 193 1

DIst. - 154 0\- 39

CO. * 154 + 39
,

DIst. 1
- -33
Moments +12304 +II96\0\-II96 +1190 -1190
Fig. 105
Stage 11:

Because of symmetry it is possible to make these calculations by considering

only one-half of the frame. The K
value of CD is halved and carry-over between
C and D is omitted.
The F.E.M.s for and AB BC
caused by a deflection at B will vary with the
value of the column. If arbitrary moments are applied at each end
of
the members, the propping force can be calculated.
As a result the moments induced
by the given load of 1 125 N can be calculated.
266 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Now A-/LforAR = 4/12 = 0.333

and A/Z,for5C= 1/3 =0.333.

Assume that the arbitrary moments for AB =100 Nm.

0 333 =
Then those for BC = — 1 00 x - —100 Nm.

The distribution table is shown in Fig. 106.

f<=4 B K= I

D.E
F.EM
Diat
m

ABC
Sr/4G57/ DISTRIBUTION
NORMAL SYSTEM

0
*100
08\0\0-2
*IOO\ \-IOO
Oiol 0
I

0-67
-100
1/r-/

*67 *33
lUOS
l^os

033

C.O I ly- JJ
Diat - 26\0\- 7
C.O. -13 11 -3
Diat II *2 * /

Momenta *67 + 74 0 -74 -34 *34

Fig. 106

The propping force required to avoid any deflection at B

87 + 74
12
+ —
74 r+ 34
3
49.4

’f-774 + 774 -416 *1964

*12304 •12304 *1981 *1981

Fig. 107

But the load on the frame =1

125 N. Therefore, the moments resulting from
the foregoing distribution table must be multiplied by 1 125/49.4 giving:
MyiB = +1 9%\,Mbc “ — 1 685 and Afco = +774 Nm.
The B.M. diagrams for Stages I and II are shown in Fig. 107 together with the
final moments resulting from a combination of the stages.
 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION 267

Vierendeel Girders

Example 15. top and bottom chords of any panel of Vierendeel

When the
girders are of the same section, the girders may be analysed in
the same way as

multi-storey frames. The F.E.M.s are derived from the panel shears.

too r\ OkN
A K=l ^
II X K=l D
r-
K-l K=/ K=l K=l
1x6=6 1x6=6 1x6= 6 1x6=6
3-0 m 1
3-Om ^
3- Orn

K=l . K=l . K^l

r < k

7 /
(PJJ.J kN 666-7
SHEAR 833-ZkN -f66-7kN - 666'7kN

HEM'S -833'3x3 166-7x3 666-7 X 3

ixT- ~nrr ~F7r~
- -625-0 - 125-0 = 500-0
A B C D
mm
HEM.
V7
-625
wns
-625
^l8
H25 H25
V8 wm
+500 +500
Dfst, i-535-7 ->89-3 462-5 +375 +62-5 -78-i -468-8 -78-/ -7/-4 -428-6
C.O. -62-5 -89-3 +78-/ -62-5 + 7/-4 +78-/
Dist. f-53-6 -i-8-9 -h/-4 +8-4 +/-4 -/-/ -6-7 -/-/ -//•/ -67-0
C.O. -1-4 -8-9 +/-/ -/-4 +//-/ +/-/
Dist, i-l-2 -hO-2 -hl-0 +5-9 +/-0 -1-2 -7-3 -/-2 -0-2 -0-9
-590-5 -658-3 +389-3 +269/ -/9-3 -482-8 +502-/ +496-5
23222 223
Fig. 108

Fig. 109

^ ^"^^ysed as shown, and the final B.M. diagram

is shown
in fo9

Interpanel Loading

Ipvi" w ^ multi-storey buildings wind loads are transmitted to the

columns at floor

load; are
268 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Although Naylor’s method involves two stages of analysis, the work is simplified
compared with the normal method. An example will demonstrate the method of
treatment.

K| S

A B C

Fig. 1 lOfl

Example 1 6. The U.D.L. applied to the left column of the frame in Fig. 1 1 0 is
divided in a manner similar to that adopted for Example 14, and the distribution is
carried out in two stages as shown. Note that it is only necessary to consider the
left half of the frame in each case.
 269
moment DISTRIBUTION
F.E.M's
WL . 4-5x3 z t l•l2SkNm
12 " 12

+ 1.668 kNm

3Kk = 075 fC= I

B K/2=^ OS
K/2=0.S
STAGE U DISTRIBUTION

D F 0 % +1-125
UZL
H.668 -1-125
F.E.M. 0 “0-750 “0-375
-0168 -0125 -0-250
Distribution ^0-125
^0-375
Carry Ovsr +0-083 +0-042
Distribution
^0125 + 0083 *0-167
+0-042 +0-083
Carryover
Dis tribution -0014 -0-009 -0-019 -0-055 -0-028
UMoments 0 +1^611 -O-OS! -1-560 +0-361 -0-36 /
Stage
+21-923 -1-673 -5-049 +5-049
Stage I Moments 0 -202S0
”3-233 “4-688 +4-688
StageJT* Stagel 0 -I8>6J9 +21-872
'*21-861 -21-974 +0-113 +5-410
“5-410
Stagell’' Stagel 0
Fig. 110&

The final B.M. diagram is shown in detail in Fig. 110c.

Fig. 110c
270 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Unsymmetrical Vertical Loads
Unsymmetrical vertical loads can be divided in a similar manner, as shown in
Fig. Ill, the Naylor method being employed for the first stage and the normal
method for the second.

Wind Suction W w/2k m W/2

f
W/2
 moment distribution
fixed end moments ^
constant

Total U-DL^Wi WL
- 12

l¥r“
^ - ^(3L-2o)
b—
>- a-H— o -H
^

” 5WL
48

W ^ - ^JsiI+4aL-4a^)
fiS
.Q ^ L-Za —4^
—£^2 ” WL
16

%- -£r

WL
” /O
Znclcfegree porobolaD I

B/4 of b\ 20
^ parabola
jssa I

\A f f al --^(L-a)
I—
^
a
w
/
-*\*-L-2a-*\^o^m
#1
«• I

(n-O— «/ forces
w»%p
M .A w#.A
I## #
. i

fff
.

y fern
I’ I -K-V/?
* *
I R
n forces
t IP IP iP IP ^ fm
V 1
^ ^s/L
'“^s/L
1 f_
V Where As is the area of the ’free
Any symmetrical bending moment diagram
hading
 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
FIXED-END MOMENTS
BUILT-IN BEAMS OF CONSTANT CROSS-SECTION
Asymmetrical loadings Values of M4 and Mb

^L/2 -
o/L =m (3m^~8m+ c)
wi
Mb = '*‘
-/^•m^(4-3m)

[dH4L-3d)-a^(4L-3a)j
l2Ub

Ma^-

-joP (3a^l0bL)
Mb« + ^^(SL-3q)

^-j^(10L^-15aL*6a’)

A^j “^ ’~4aJ
Top

MA~-f-Mjs(3a-L)

MB^+M^(3b-L)

"'A 12

1^ 1^ Crc/,e
—6 '- -9a^
^ ^_ 4L-3a-J4t^

^ corresponding
J Mb --f-
(-Xi- !>o1

•^j2[4lI+(2&-9<^)j4l^9a^
5

W \H
BI
*" ^ ^ Where As Is the area of the 'free
B.M. Diagram and x is the distance from A to its centroid
MOMENT DISTRIBUTION 273

FIXED -END MOMENTS

 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSiS
F/XED-END MOMENTS

PROPPED CANTILEVERS OF CONSTANT CROSS-SECTION

Asymmetrical loadings Values of fixing moment

( 7
—4" —a

(3a^-i5aL+20L^)

+ y(2-Sn+3n‘)

Where As is the area of the 'free B.M.

diagram, considering AB as a beam,
and Xis the distance from B to its
centroid

For cantilevers of opposite liand, tbc fixing moments Mjj are of opposite sign.
 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION 275

PL

OF

T^MS

IN

MOMENTS

OF

VALUES

PL

OF

TERMS

IN

M^

MOMENTS

OF

VALUES
 A

276 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

(c) The Slope Deflection Method of Analysis

In this method joint rotations and deflections are treated as the unknown
quantities and, once these have been evaluated, the moments follow automatically
by substituting the values in standard equations.

Fig. 113

Suppose that the member A5 in Fig. 1 13 is one unloaded span of a continuous

beam and that the member is of constant moment of inertia. Then, for the
conditions shown

Mas = 2EK{2Ba + ©£ - 3R)

Mba - 2EK(29b +Ba - 3/?),
where A" and K have the normal significance,

6 and Ob are the angles the joints make with the horizontal

and R is the angle of rotation of B with respect to A when B sinks an

amount d{i.e. R = d/L).

With regard to sign convention,

6 is positive when the tangent to the beam rotates in a clockwise

direction,

R is positive when the beam rotates in a clockwise direction

and M is positive when the moment acts in a clockwise direction on the
beam.

Therefore, the various values of M, d and R in Fig. 1 13 are all positive.

Suppose that the span AB carries a load acting downwards in the normal fashion.
Then

Mab - 2EK(2dA + %— 3/?) — F.E.M.yis

Mba = 2EK{2dB +eA- 3R) + F.E.M;^^.

 THE SLOPE DEFLECTION METHOD OF ANALYSIS 277

F.E.Mv45 and F,E.M.5^ are the fixed-end moments which would exist if AB
the
were a fixed-end beam. The values and signs used are precisely the same as in
Moment Distribution Method and the tables given on pages 271 to 275 are equally

of use for the Slope Deflection Method.

When the end of a beam A AB
is hinged, the formula for the moment at the

other end is modified as follows:

Mba ~ EKiSds — 3R) (unloaded condition)

or Mba ~EK(36b — 3R) + F.E.M.^^ (loaded condition)

An analogy for this modification exists in Moment Distribution where the

stiffness factor for a beam hinged at one endreduced to ^K. It should be noted
is

that the value of the F.E.M. is that applicable to beams hinged at one end and fixed
in direction and position at the other.
The standard formulae will be applied to some of the examples which appeared
in the section on Moment Distribution. The reader should examine especially the
signs which are given to the rotation R.
As in most other methods of analysis the value of the modulus of elasticity E
can be ignored in nearly every example.
When calculating the values of F.E.M.s for loads acting downwards in the
normal fashion the appropriate signs can be ignored because the fundamental
formulae automatically provide the correct signs.
The final B.M. diagram is prepared by considering all hogging moments as
negative and all sagging moments as positive.
When the method of Slope Deflection is used to find the moments in a
continuous beam, the slope of the beam over each internal support is calculated.
The values of the slopes may be useful in calculating the deflections in interior spans,
but great care is needed with signs. In the slope-deflection calculations a positive
value for the slope means that the beam has rotated in a clockwise direction. In the
purely mathematical sense a positive slope is one ‘going upwards to the right’,
i.e. dy/dx is positive, see Fig. 2, Page 83. Furthermore, it is essential that the units

employed throughout the Slope Deflection calculations should be the same as those
for B and I. Otherwise the values of the slopes will not be related to the units
employed in the deflection calculations.

Continuous Beams
Example 1. Consider the continuous beam in Fig. 1 14. Under the action
of the
loads, thejdintF rotates in an anti-clockwise direction. When this rotation
Bb is
calculated the whole beam can be
analysed.
Let thS Suffixes 1 and 2 be applied to
AB and BC respectively.
A and C are fixed in direction as well as position. Hence,

0^ =0= Be.
 j

278 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

W^A/V//// 7
LOAD 1
JElcN/m :2_k
DIAGRAM B
1
J-Om
1 = 5000 cm
3 6m —
zero slope _ slope
DEFLECTION
DIAGRAM
'Act A ^ at C Z

\ points of^
contraflexure

FINAL
BENDING f<,

MOMENTS

Fig. 114

A, B and C are on the same level. Therefore,

7?i ~ 0 ~ 7? 2 *

F.E.M .^5 = F.E.M.5^ = -^= 48.75 kNm

F.E.M.^C “ F.E.M.CS ~ ~ ^^.56 kNm.

yj

Now ^BA — 0.

Hence, 2EKx(2dB + 0^ - 3Ri) + 48.75 + 2EK2{2dB + dc - SR^) - 34.56 = 0.

But Sa~^~ ®C>

i?i = 0 = R2,

I 5 000 X 10"* m'*

K,=t =
L 3.0 m
10~« m'*
and ^2=7LI _ 5 0003.6X m
Therefore

I2E X
5 000x 10-"
X 20^
\ +
I 1
2£^ X
5 000x— 10-"
X 205
05
\
I =_
=34.56-48.75
34.
j

£•05 = -11.61 X 10^

 ,

THE SLOPE DEFLECTION METHOCi OF ANALYSIS 279

Using the basic formulae

lEKiids) - 48.75
Mab
{ ^ 5 OOOx 10"^
3:0
,
X 11-61 X 10 - 48.75 = 52.62 kNm
j

Mba = -^BC
= lEKiilds) + 48.75

= ^-2 X
- 2 X 1 1.61 X 10^ +48.75 = 41.01 kNm
j

Mcb = 2EK^idB) 34.56

^

= [-2 X X 11.61 X 10^) +34.56 = 31.34 kNm.

Example 2.The continuous beam ABCDE in Fig. 115 involves the treatment of
simply supported end spans and a cantilever.
Let the suffixes 1, 2 and 3 apply to AB, BC and CD respectively.

IZOkN 70^kN ;^OkN '

220kN SOkN
•^-distributed
LOAD ..i
DIAGRAM A '

125^ 125^ I25[ C ^

D E
4’5m T75m ^
3-75m /•2m ,

> -"-H
I =8500 cm* 1=6500 cm* 1=5500 cm*
DEFLECTION A
DIAGRAM

Now the supports A, B, C and D are on the same level. Hence

f?l=0 = i?2~-^3-
Mba+Mbc^o
Mcb + ^CD - 0

Mdc ~ 60 kNm.
The effect at C of the cantilever DE is that
F.E.M.CB it educed in value by half
theamount oiMuc, i-e. by 30 kNm (cf. Principle I in Moment
Distribution).
280 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
EKiOBb -3Ei) + F.E.M.BA + ^EK^CIBb +Bc- SRj) - F.E.M.5C = 0

TEK^ClBc + 05 - 3R 2 ) + F.E.M<:5 ^EK^{3Bc - 3R^) - F.E.Mcz) +MdcI2 = 0

Hence x 1.89 x 1O"^(305) + 101.25 + 2^ x 1.733 x 1 O“®(205 + 0c) - 58.33 = 0

12.6 X ICT^EBb + 3.466 x lO"®E’0c + 42.92 = 0 (i)

2Ex 1.733 X lO"®(20c + 05) + 58.33 +£’x 1.467 x lO-^(30c) - 103.1 +30 = 0

3.466 xE’0£ X 10"^ + 11.333E’0c x 10'^ - 14.77 = 0.

0"^ 0"® -
or 1 2.6EBb X 1 + 41 . 99EBc x 1 53.69 = 0 (ii)

Subtracting (i) from (ii)

37J33EBC X = 96.61
10"'"

EBc = 2.56 X 10^

Substituting in equation (i)

£05 = -4.11 X 10^

Employing these values of EBb and EBc

MbA - -^BC
= ^ 1 ( 305 )
+ 101.25
= -1.89x 10"® X 3x4.11 X 10® + 101.25
= 77.96 kNm.

Mcb = -Mcd
= 2EK2 C2BC + Bb) + 58.33
= 2x 1.733 X 10"®(2.56x 2-4.11)x 10® +58.33
= 61.83 kNm.

Example 3. Figure 116 shows a continuous beam ABC, freely supported at A

and fixed at C. The B.M. induced by the settlement of 25 mm at B will be calculated.

DEFLECTION a
DIAGRAM

FINAL
BENDING
MOMENTS
Fig. 116

Assume that £=
2.1 x 10®N/mm^
Let the suffixes 1 and 2 be applied to spans AB and BC respectively.
A being simply supported, My^B ~ 0-
C being fixed in direction, 0c = 0.
B sinks 25 mm = d.
 the slope deflection method of analysis

Li 3 000
25
i?, =-:r =
4 500
-
^BA '^Mbc 0 -

£^^1(305 - 3i?i) + IEK^HQb + 0C - 3/^ 2 ) = 0

Hence

5
5 000 X 10*^ 3x25 \
2.1 X 10® X 1.0 X 10^ /
3.0 X 10^

_
2 X 2.1 X 10=
5 000 X 10^.,^
(^268
,

+
3 X 25 \
-0
j
10"
1.88905 = 0.926 X

Ob = 0.00049.

Using this value of Ob

Mba =EKi(3dB - 3/?i)

5_000xJ0^/ •0.00147 3x25

2.1 X 10®
3.0 X 10^ V 3x 10^
= -82.36 kNm.

Similarly

Mcb ~ '^EKiidB — 3i?2)

5 000 X lO'* 3x25

= 2x2.1 X 10® X .00049 +
4.5x10^ V' 4.5 X 10»

= 80.06 kNm.

Example 4. beam ABC which is fixed in position and

Figure 117 shows a
A and C and in
direction at which a clockwise moment of 10 kNm is applied at B.

The beam is analysed by finding the rotation and displacement of B.

DATA
DIAGRAM

4-Sm LS/n

r/NAL
BENDING
moments

Fig. 117
282 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Now 6^ = %=0.
Let the sufiixes 1 and 2 be applied to AB and BC respecth'ely.
Bj' virtue of the fact that % is positive it is reasonable to assume that B move^
upwards and, consequentiN’, thatRi is negath'e. If these assumptions are correct
the numerical value calculated for Rj will be positive. Altematively it could be
assumed thati?i was positrve and the sign of the num-eiical value would provide the
correct sign forRi.

£T being constant K-^ = 3ifi,

also R2=—3Ri.
Now 3^.4 lOkNm (i)

The moment at B induces vertical shear forces at .4 and C and for equilforium
these forces must be equal and opposite.
Let the shear forces be S.

Then '^4.55'= 0

^ LSS’ = d,

or (4^48 ^ (h)

Equation (i) can be rewritten:

2EKi(2Bs ^ 3Ri) ^ lEiSK^X^B - 3 x 3Rj) = 10
16EKiS£ —ASEKyR^ = 10 (iiij

Similarly, equation (ii) becomes:

7EKi(dB ^ 3Ry) ^ 2EKy(2BB ^ SRy) - 3 {2£(3RiX295 - 3 x 3R j) ^

2E(3RiX% - 3 X 3Ri) }= 0
—4?^EKy8s -T 336EKiRi = 0 (w)

Ivlultiptying equation (iii) b}* 3

48ERi% - 144EKyRy = 30 (V)

.Adding equations (iv) and (v)

i92ERiRi = 30
EKyRy = 10/64.

Substituting in equation (iii)

leEKydB -—^^ = 10
EKydB = 70/64.

Using these values of EKiSb 2jidEKiRi in the fundamental equations,

Mji^ = 2EKy{8B^3Ry)

140^60
64
= 3.125 kNm.
 THE SLOPE DEFLECTION METHOD OF ANALYSIS 283

Mba = 2EKx{2dB + 3/?i)

_ 280 + 60
64
= 5.3125 kNm
Mbc = 2E{3K{){2eB -3 X 3i?i)

_ 840
- 540
64
= 4.6875 kNm.

(NoteiWg^ Mbc ~ 10 kNm.)

Mcb = 2£(3K,\6b - 3 X 2R,)

_ 420 - 540
64
= —1.875 kNm.

The final B.M.s are shown in Fig. 117.

It will be appreciated that this problem is similar to that for a column provided
with a bracket load.

Symmetrical Portal Frames

Example 5. Rigid frames which are symmetrical in shape and symmetrically

loaded are easy to analyse by the Slope Deflection Method. The portal frame in
Fig. 118 will be analysed as an example.

DEFLECTED PORTAL FRAME: FINAL BENDING MOMENTS

Fig. 118

100 X 7.2
F.E.M.^C “ F-E.M<75 -
12
= 60 kNm.
Let the suffixes 1, 2 and 3 be applied to the members BC and CD
respectively.

Then /fi : Ji:3= 1 : 3 : 1.

Being symmetrical the frame does not sway

under load. In addition, it is
assumed that the lengths of the
members do not change.
284 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Hence jRi = 0 = /?2 = R3

As A and D are fixed in direction as well as position

0^ =0= dj).

Now Mba +Mbc - 0,

i.e. 2EKi(26^ + IEKj^Wb + 0c) ~ F.E.M.5C ~ 0

2EKt(2dB) + 2E(3Ki)idB) - 60 = 0

IOEKiOb = 60

EKiOb = 6 .

Using the fundamental formula

MAB=2EKiieB)
= 12 kNm
Mba = 2EK^(2eB)
= 24 kNm.
Similarly
Mod ~ —24 kNm
Mbc ~ —12 kNm.

Asymmetrical Portal Frames

Example 6. As the frame shown in Fig. 1 19 is not symmetrical it is less easy to

analyse than the previous example.

Let the suffixes 1, 2 and 3 be applied to the members ^15, BC and CD

respectively.
From the data there is no slope at A and D, i.e.

0^ =0= 0£).

B and C are at the same height and under load it is assumed that they retain
their positions relative to one another, i.e.

^2 = 0 .

F.E.M.^C “ = 9 kNm.
 THE SLOPE DEFLECTION METHOD OF ANALYSIS 285

The conditions of equilibrium require that

I.Mb=0, XMc^O and 2^=0.

Hence M^a + %c = 0
Mcb + Mcd - 0
MaB + ^BA
,
Mcp + Mnc - r,

Li Z,3

The side-sway of B equals that of C. Hence

RiLi ~ JR. 2B 3 .

Using the basic formulae

2EKi(2Bb - 3/?i) + 2EK2i2dB +dc)-9 = 0
TEK^ildc + Qb) + 2EK^(2dc - 3R 3 ) + 9 = 0
lEKxjdB - 3Ri) + 2EKi(2dB - SAQ TEKsjldc ~ SR^) + lEK^idc - 3/? 3 ) .q
^

Now Ki = 13.889, K2 = 6.944, ^3 = 9.259

and i2i = 1.5i?3

Hence
2 X 13.889E’(205 - 4.5R3) + 2 x 6.944E(26b + 60) -9 = 0
2 X 6.944F(2dc + + 2 x 9.259E(2dc -SRs) + 9 = 0

2 X l3.SS9E^^g^ _ =q
3.6
That is:

83.333E9b + l3.889Edc - US.OOIER^ -9 = 0 (i)

13.889£'05 + 64.815j5'0c - SS.SSSER^ +9 = 0 (ii)

13.889E'05 + 6.\13Eec - S4.0\2ER3 =0 (iii)

Multiplying (ii) by 2.25

31.250E6b + 145.834£’0c - 125.001£’A3 + 20.25 = 0 . . . .(iv)

Subtracting (iv) from (i)

52.O83E’05 - 131.945jE’0c - 29.25 = 0 (v)

Multiplying (iii) by 2.314

32.143EeB + 14.286£:0C - 125.001£’/?3 =0 (vi)

Subtracting (vi) from (i)

51.191£’05 - O.397£’0c -9 = 0 (vii)

Multiplying (vii) by 1.017

52.083E6b — 0.404E9(j — 9.157 = 0 (viii)

Subtracting (viii) from (v)

-131.541£’0c- 20.093 = 0
286 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Whence = -0.15275
EdB= 0.17463
ERi= 0.02744
and ERi= 0.04116.
Using these values in the basic formulae:

Mab = - 3/?i)
= 2 X 13.889(0.17463 - 0.12348)
= 1.42 kNm
Mba = 2EKi(2dB - 3Ri)
= 2 X 13.889(0.34926 - 0.12348)
= 6.27 kNm
Mcd - '2EK-i(2dc — 3R3)
= 2 X 9.259(-0.30550 - 0.08232)
= -7.18 kNm

Mbc ~ 'lEK^idc — 3R 3)
= 2 X 9.25 2(-0. 15275 - 0.08232)
= -4.35 kNm.

The final B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 120.

Fig. 120

Example 7. The frame shown in Fig. 121 is analysed in a similar manner to that

of the example, but the analysis is complicated by the side-sway of the joints
last

B and C. As the legs slope and are of different length, the relative values of R for
the three members must be obtained by geometry or other means. This was done
for the Stage II moments for the same frame in the section on Moment Distribution
and will not be repeated here.
Let the suffixes 1, 2 and 3 apply to members A5, BC and CD respectively.
Now EK is constant throughout the frame.
Also 1-816Ri
and jR 3 = 1.833Ri.

The frame may be analysed knowing that:

- 0
^BA
Mcb +Mcn - 0

Q.IIIMba +Mcd = 0.69 kNm (see p. 241, line 13).

 287
method of analysis
the slope deflection
/

HdlCG
- 3 x 1.816/?i) - F.E.M.bc = 0
EKiSOe + 3Ri) + 1EK{2dB + 0c
- 25 = 0 0)
IEKBb + 2£Kdc - l.S96EKRi
=
F.EM^b + EKi3dc + 3 x 1.833i?i) 0
2EK{2dc + 05 - 3 X 1.816/?i) +
25 = 0
IEKOb + lEKBc - 5.396EKRi +

IEKBb + 24.5£’A:0c - 1 .SS6EKR i + 87 .5 = 0 (n)

or

Subtracting equation (i) from (ii)

- l0.99EKRi + 1 12.5 = 0
22.5EKBC
+ EK{3Bc + 5.5i?i) = 0.69
Also Q.112EK{3Bb + 3i?i)

2.316£’A:05 + 3EKBc + l.SlSEKRi = 0.69

= (iv)
or 2,0EKBb+9.061EKBc + 23.623EKRi 2.0S5

Subtracting equation (i) from (iv)

=0
l.OeiEKBc + 3l.519EKRi + 22.915
= (v)
or 22.5EKBc + 100.350£’A:i?i + 72.957 0

Subtracting equation (iii) from (v)

111.340£'A7?i = 39.543

EKRi = 0.3552.

Substituting in equation (v)

22.5EKBc = -72.957 - (100.35 x 0.3552)

EKBc = -4.826.
288 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Substituting in equation (i)

IEKBb = (2 X 4.826) + (7.896 x 0.3552) + 25

^5 = 5.351.

Employing the fundamental formulae

Mba =EKOBB-^'iRi)
= 3(5.351 +0.3552)
= 17.12 kNm.

Mcd =EKi3dc + S.5Rx)

= 3(-4.826) + 5.5(0.3552)

= —1 2.52 kNm.

The final B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 122.

Fig. 122
 14. SLOPES AND DEFLECTIONS IN RIGID FRAMES

W^IEN a rigidframe has been analysed by employing the Slope Deflection Method,
it is possible to find the
displacement and angle of rotation of every joint in the
structure directly from the analysis computations provided, of
course, that the

actual, rather than comparative, units have been used throughout.

It is normal to assume that there is no longitudinal strain in
any member and
that deflections of any point can be measured at right angles to the original
member concerned. This being so, rotations and deflections can be
position of the
computed by using the Area-Moment Method described on pages 85 et seq. (Figs. 4,
5 and 6 in particular).
Example 1. It is not always necessary to carry out any detailed calculations
because, in cases where there is symmetry, formulae can frequently be used.
Suppose that it is desired to find the rotation of the joints B and D in Fig. 1 and

lOOkN

5
'o
90 m \

Fig. 1

to find themaximum deflections in the legs and cross-beam. This information can
be obtained from the final B.M. diagram and a knowledge of certain formulae
dispersed through various partsof this book.
Neglecting any shortening of the members due to strain or curvature, then the
points B and D can be assumed not to change their position under the symmetrical
loading shown. Hence, AB or DE can be considered as simply supported beams, at
the ends of which, at B and D
respectively, are applied moments if equal to
67.5 kNm. Considering Fig. 1 and the associated calculations.

=
ML
d
SET
Therefore

- 67.5 X 4.5 radian

3EI
where clockwise moments and rotations are
considered positive.
289
290 SLOPES AND DEFLECTIONS IN RIGID FRAMES
On page 89, in the section dealing with the deflection of beams, it was shown
that the deflection
Secondary B.M.
El
Consider the B.M. forA.fi shown in Fig. 1 and the properties of a similarly
shaped triangular load, as shown on page 32.
Then the maximum secondary B.M. occurs at a point (0.5774 x 4.5) =
2.598 m from A as shown in Fig. 2, and the deflection
d = O.llSWLjEI (where W = the area of the B.M. diagram for Afi)
0.128x67.5x4.5 x4.5
2EI
87.48
(m^ units)
El
i.e. the deflection is outwards from the frame.
Considering the cross-beam BD, the
2-5Pam
rotations of fi and D are already known and it
H
,

H
.

remains to find the maximum deflection, which

occurs under the load.
The B.M. diagram consists of a rectangle of
height —67.5 kNm and an isosceles triangle of
height +225 kNm and base BD. Consulting the
appropriate properties for U.D.L.s and triangular
loads on pages 31 and 32,

^^_^iL/8) + {+W2LI6)
fi(20

(-67.5 X 9) X 9/8 + (225 x 9/2) x 9/6

EiTi)
417.66
(m^ units).
El
i.e. the deflection is inwards.
be noted that the sign convention usual in mathematics has been adopted
It will

in this particular example, but any system may be adopted provided it is used
throughout a specific example.

Example 2. The frame

in Fig. 3 is subjected to a horizontal point load applied
at fi, which B.M. and thrust diagram shown. Calculate the rotations
results in the
and deflections of fi and D.
It will be observed that a point of contraflexure exists at C, the mid-point of

BD, as Mb and Mq are equal and opposite. Consequently, C is in line with fi and
D and all three points can be assumed to have retained their relative height, each
moving horizontally by the same amount.
Then the portion fiC may be considered to be a beam simply supported at fi
and C with a moment of 225 kNm applied at fi.

n _n _MbL _225 X A.5 _331 .5

radian
3EI 3EI El
 =

AND DEFLECTIONS IN RIGID FRAMES

SLOPES 291

Since the slope of the cantilever at A is unknown it is convenient to

consider

the displacement of A relative to B. Hence, consider B fixed in position and A free

to move to the left. Then the relative displacement is in two parts, one due to. the

rotation of B and the other due to the thrust at A when BA acts as a cantilever, as

shown in Fig. 4.

/OOkA/
'3 c
5 J constant
90m
E
^ JVrA •rT

Therefore the horizontal deflection of A due to the rotation of B,

4.5 X 337.5
(Iq =AB x6s =
El
1 518.75
(m^ units)
El
The horizontal deflection due to the thrust aty4,

_ PL^ _ 50x4.5^ _ 1 518.75

3EI 3EI El
Therefore the total horizontal deflection of A relative to B
1 518.75 + 1 518.75 3 037.5
(m^ units).
El El
To determine the deflection in millimetres it is necessary to resolve into
mm units throughout

Fig. 4
Suppose the framework is composed of 533 mm x 210 mm x 82 kg U.B.
sections, for which 47 363 cm^
Then the deflection of B or D,

w=M37.5 kNm^_ 3 037.5 x 10^ x 10^

El 2.1 x 10® X 47 363 x 10'’
= 30.5 mm.
 ^
292 SLOPES AND DEFLECTIONS IN RIGID FRAMES
Example 3. The frame shown in Fig. 5 is of uniform section throughout, and it
is required to find the deformed shape of the frame under the action of the crane
loads only. The crane bracket loads produce moments Pc of 30 kNm and 12 kNm
at Q and R respectively. Then the B.M. diagram may be constructed by consulting
pages 373 and 374.
In terms of Pc, the following moments may be read off the charts:

B.M. due to equal loads at B.M. due to a single load at

Joint
Q and R Q
A
B + 0.417
C - 0.148
D + 0.218 - 0.199
E + 0.319 + 0.352

After multiplication by the appropriate coefficients of Pc (12 and 18 respectively

for the equaland single loads) and adding algebraically the values for the two types
of load, the moments shown in the Figure are obtained.
The values at Q are, respectively, above the bracket

10.122 +14.748

and below the bracket

10.122-3.252 30x4
10.122 -15.252.
5

Values at R are obtained in a simUar manner.

Fig. 5

From the B.M. diagram it is possible to calculate both the slope and the
displacement of any point in the frame. The ends A and E
are fixed in position and
direction, i.e. Qa~^E~ 0, and hence form useful points from which to commence
operations.

Now Q =
El
where A = area of B.M. diagram, and
i:Ay
d=
El
where Ay = area moment of B.M. diagram.
 AND DEFLECTIONS IN RIGID FRAMES
SLOPES 293

The work can be done by commencing at A and working through to E, biit it is

more convenient to work from >1 to C and then from E to C; the results should be
identical and ready check upon the accuracy of the calculations.
this provides a
Commencing fromyl, see Fig. 6, and assuming deflections into the frame to be

positive,

; (+15.252 X 7.2^ X ^ X i) - (3.252 x 7.2^ x ^ x |)

gf
75.58
(m^ units).
E/
K
134 4^4 I
/

The slope at Q,

_ (15.252 X 7.2/2) - (3.252 x 7.2/2)

^ El
43.2
g^radian (clockwise rotation positive).

The deflection of 5,

= +1^4-12^ 1.8 (10.122 X 1.8 X 0.9) +(14.748- 10.122) X l.S^x^x^

El El m
_ 134 444.
. ,
(m units).
294 SLOPES AND DEFLECTIONS IN RIGID FRAMES
The slope at B,

dg = slope at <2 + rotation between Q and B.

^ 43.2 _ 0 4.748 + 10.1 22) X 1.8
El 2xEI
20.817
radian.
El
Now calculate the deflection of C with respect to B, measuring normal to the
slope of the rafter BC, as shown in Fig. 7.

relative horizontal deflection

= 6-762 V C.
El
relative deflection
~ IB-206
deflection of B
= 13^^44

B M Diagram

Fig. 7

Then the relative deflection of C with respect to 5 = the deflection due to the
rotation of 5 + the deflection in BC,

_ 20.817 X 8.078 (10,122 x 8.078^ x ^ x 1)

El El
32 .. 1
3.108 X8.0782
El
18.206
units).
El
Now the rafter has an angle of slope of 21° 48'.

Sin 21° 48' = 0.3714.

Cos 21° 48' = 0.9285.

Then the relative horizontal deflection of C

18.206x0.3714 6.762
(m^ units)
El
 SLOPES AND DEFLECTIONS IN RIGID FRAMES 295

while the actual vertical deflection of C

18.206x0.9285 16.904
(m^ units)
El El
Hence, the horizontal displacement ofC= displacement atB + displacement of
C relative to B
134.444 _ 6.762 _ 127.682 , 3
(m^ units)
El El
and the vertical deflection
16.904
(m^ units).
El
Therefore, the ridge C has moved upwards and to the right.
The slope at the ridge = the rotation atB + the rotation between B and C
, 20.817 (10.122 - 3.108) X 8.078
£I
-7.513
radian.
El
Therefore, the ridge Chas rotated in an anti-clockwise direction.
Now consider the right half of the frame.
Commencing from E, the deflection at R
= (-10-164 X 7.2^ X ^ X I) -H (8.340 x 7.2^ , .. i)
El
_ -103.576 , , . .
(m^ units).

The slope at R
^ _ (1 0. 1 64- 8.340) X 7.2 x^
^ El
6.566
El
The deflection of D

j - 103.576 6.566x 1.8 3.660 x 1.8^ x-j xi 0.966 x 1.8^ x-r x ^

,

^ El El Tl El
118.826 , , . ,
unitsj.

The slope at D
^ 6.566 (3.660 - 0.966) x 1 .8 x^
~ "
AT
8.990
•radian.
El
Considering the deflection of
C with respect to D and normal to DC.
n- ^ 8.990 X 8.07 8 . 0.966 x «.n7S^ v i
EI Ei
(3.108-0.9 66) X 8.078^ x H x t
17-808 EI
=
(m 3 umts)^
.
~ ^
.
296 SLOPES AND DEFLECTIONS IN RIGID FRAMES
which compares reasonably well with the figure of — 18.206/ET for the relative
deflection of C with regard to B.
Then the relative horizontal deflection of C

17.808 X 0.3714 _ 6.614

El El
while the actual vertical deflection of C
17.808 X 0.9285 _ 16.535
El El
Therefore the actual horizontal deflection of C, calculated along the right half
of the frame
1 18.826- 6.614 __ 125.440
El El
compared with 127.682/E'/ when calculated along the left half of the frame.
The calculated vertical deflection is —16.535/E/ compared with —16.904/E/
when calculated along the left half of the frame.
The slope at C
„ _ 8.990 (3.108 + 0.966) X 8.078 x^
~~W~ e7
7.465
= - radian,

which compares favourably with the value of -l.SlZjEI obtained from the previous
calculations.
The slight differences in values for deflections and rotations can be due to slight
inaccuracies both in the evaluation of the original B.M.s and from the calculations
given here. It is likely that the greatest inaccuracy here could be traced to the values
of the B.M.s.

Example 4. Figure 8 shows the frame to be analysed. The slopes and deflections
of the joints will be calculated.
Both TU and i'F are members at the ends of which have been applied moments
of the same value and the same kind of rotation, i.e. all the rotations are clockwise.
Then each member is like the member EZ> in Fig. 3 and the slopes at each end could
be calculated as in Example 2. The easier way is to use the formula, applicable in
such a case,
 AND DEFLECTIONS IN RIGID FRAMES
29-7
SLOPES
Therefore
0.819x4.5
Bt-^U /
5£'(3 /)

0.205
radian,
EI
while 0.681 X 4.5
Qs-By- 6E(2r)

0.255
radian.
El

fixed in position, so the deflection of both T

Now S and V are
and can be U
found by working upwards either from 5 or F.
Commencing from S. the deflection of 7=
deflection due to 0s plus the

deflection due to the moments in ST. Therefore,

0.255 X 3.0 0.681 x3^xixl 0.819x3^x|xi

" E(4I) Ei4I)
El

=+ (m^ units).
El

The deflection of U is the same amount.

Joint B ossumecf
locked in position /C

DEFLECTION DIAGRAM
Fig. 9

Frames where no Symmetry Exists

Cases will arise where none of the expedients already stated can be employed. In
this event, the method of procedure is to assume that one of the joints is locked in
position and direction and to allow the frame to rotate and deflect about it. The
method is outlined in Fig. 9.
The foregoing Area-Moment principles apply, but the work is a little more tedious.
The deflection and rotation of^, with respect to B, due to the horizontal thrust at
A are calculated and the relative position of A is plotted. Then the deflection and
rotation of C relative to B are calculated
and the position and slope of C are
plotted. From C the D is due to the rotation of C and to the
relative deflection of
deflection of CD resulting from the horizontal thrust at D. All these
operations have
been demonstrated in the preceding Examples. When the calculations
are complete,
tire distance between the points
A and D should be L.
 1 5. FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES
THE formulae on Professor Kleinlogel’s
given in this section are based
Ernst & Sohn of
Rahmenformeln and Mehrstielige Rahmen, published by Wilhelm
is made. The formulae are applicable to
Berlin, to whom grateful acknowledgment
frames which are symmetrical about a central vertical axis,
with the single exception
of the triangular frame, and in which each member is of constant moment of
inertia.
Formulae are given for the following types of frame:

Single-storey Frame

Frame I. Hingeless rectangular portal frame.

II. Two-hinged rectangular portal frame.
III. Hingeless gable frame with vertical legs.
IV. Two-hinged gable frame with vertical legs.
V. Hingeless frame with skew corners.
VI. Two-hinged frame with skew corners.
VII. Two-hinged triangular frame.

Multi-bay Frame

VTII. Twin Gable Frame with hinged feet.

The loadings are so arranged that dead, snow and wind loads may be reproduced
on all the frames. For example, wind suction acting normal to the sloping rafters of
a building may be divided into horizontal and vertical components, for which
appropriate formulae are given, although allthe signs must be reversed because the
loadingsshown in the tables act inwards, not outwards as in the case of suction.
Crane loads, including surge, are also shown in a number of the single-storey frames.
should be noted that, with few exceptions, the loads between node or panel
It

points are uniformly distributed over the whole member. It is appreciated that it is
normal practice to impose loads on frames through purlins, side rails or beams. By
using the coefficients in Fig. 1, however, allowance can be made for many other
symmetrically placed loads on the cross-beams of frames I and II shown above, where
the difference in effect is sufficient to warrant the corrections being made. The
indeterminate B.M.s in the whole frame are calculated as though the loads were
uniformly distributed over the beam being considered, and then all are adjusted
by
multiplying by the appropriate coefficient in Fig. 1. It may
be of interest to state
why these adjustments can be made. In any statically indeterminate structure the
indeterminate moments vary directly with the value of the
following quantity:

Area of the free B.M. diagram

El

Where the loaded member of constant cross-section, El

is may be ignored.
299
300 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES
 301
FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES
Consider, as an example, the case
of an encastre beam of constant cross-section
W. Then the area of the free B.M.
diagram
and of length L carrying a U.D.L. of

WL 2L_WL^
8^3 12

If, however, W were a central point load, the area of the free B.M. diagram would
be

WL L_WL'^
4^2 8 ‘

The F.E.M.s due to the two types of loadings WLlll and WLjS respectively,
are

thus demonstrating that the indeterminate moments vary with the area
of the free
proportion of
B.M. diagram and proving that the indeterminate moments are in the
1 ; 1.5.
be laid down for the effect on the reactions of a change in the mode
No rules can
of application of the load, although sometimes they will vary with the indeterminate
moments. Consider a simple rectangular portal with hinged feet. If a U.D.L. placed
over the whole of the beam is replaced by a central point load of the same
magnitude, then the knee moments will increase by 50 per cent with a corresponding
increase in the horizontal thrusts If, while the vertical reactions V will remain the
same.
Although the foregoing remarks relating to the indeterminate moments resulting
from symmetrical loads apply to all rectangular portals, the rule applies for
asymmetrical loads imposed upon the cross-beam of a rectangular portal frame with
hinged feet. If a vertical U.D.L. on the cross-beam is replaced by any vertical load of
the same magnitude, then the indeterminate moments vary with the areas of the
respective free B.M. diagrams.
No doubt readers who use the tables frequently will learn short cuts, but
not it is

inappropriate- to mention some. For example, if a U.D.L. of W

over the whole of a
single-bay symmetrical frame is replaced by a U.D.L. of the same magnitude of W
over either the left-hand or right-hand half of the frame, the horizontal thrust at the
feet is unaltered. If the frame has a pitched roof then the ridge moments will also be
unaltered.
wiU be noted that the formulae for the load F on a single crane bracket are
It

P on both crane brackets. Consider Fig. 2.

related to those for loads
Then 11(4 andTWp {=M£}) in Fig. 2 (b) are equal to (My^ +M£) and
(Mb +Mj)) respectively in Fig. 2 (a), while Me in Fig. 2 (b) is double the value of
Me in Fig. 2 (a).
When frames have hinged feet, the moments resulting from surge loads F can be
Witten down without calculation, although the frames are nominally statically
indeterminate. The moments at both the loads and at the knees are equal
to Pa,
where a is the height of the point of application of the loads above the
feet of the
frame.
The charts on pages 345 to 397 have been prepared to assist
in the design of
rectangular frames or frames with roof pitches
of 1 in 5 or 1 in 2.5. Results for
intermediate pitches may be interpolated with
reasonable accuracy.
The charts on pages 398 to 41 1 are for two-bay portal frames with a roof pitch
of 1 m 2.5 only. ^
302 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES

Arrangement of Formulae

Each setof formulae is treated as a separate chapter. The data required for each
frame, together with the constants to be used in the various formulae, are given on
the first page of each chapter. This general information is followed by the detailed
formulae for the various loading conditions, each of which is illustrated by two
diagrams placed side by side, the left-hand diagram giving a loading condition and
the right-hand one giving the appropriate B.M. and reaction diagram. It should be
noted, however, that some B.M.s change their signs as the frames change their
proportions. This will be appreciated by examining the charts.
For simple frames, i.e. for single-bay, single-storey frames, the formulae for
reactions immediately follow the formulae for B.M.s for each load. For multi-storey
or multi-bay frames the formulae for B.M.s are given first in a group and are
followed by formulae for reactions, shears and thrusts, also in a group.
Considering the simple frames only, the kind of formula depends on the degree
of indeterminacy and the shape of the frame. Auxiliary Coefficients X are introduced
whenever the direct expressions become complicated or for other reasons of
expediency.
No hard and fast rules can be laid down for the nomenclature and it must be
noted that each set of symbols and constants applies only to the particular frame
under consideration, although, of course, an attempt has been made to produce
similarity in the types of symbols.
The formulae may seem less complicated
for multi-storey or multi-bay frames
than for simple frames, but they are based on numerous constants and composite
coefficients which must be accurately computed.

Sign Conventions

All computations must be carried out algebraically, hence every quantity must
be given its correct sign. The results will then be automatically correct in sign and
magnitude.
The direction of the load or applied moment shown in the left-hand diagram for
each load condition is considered to be positive. If the direction of the load or
 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES 303

moment is reversed, the signs of all the results obtained from the formulae as

printed must be reversed.

For simple frames, the moments causing tension on the inside faces of the frame
are considered to be positive. Upward vertical reactions and inward horizontal
reactions are also positive.
For multi-storey or multi-bay frames the same general rules apply to moments
and vertical reactions. However, in the case of a two-span portal frame, for example,
a problem arises with the central column. It is assumed in the formulae that the
central column belongs to the left-hand bay, so that if the column bends inwards
towards this bay, the moment is positive. Similarly, in a multi-storey frame, a
cross-beam is associated with the storey below it, tension on the lower face
providing a positive B.M.
Horizontal reactions at the feet of multi-storey or multi-bay frames have been
given signs in the diagrams but the appropriate rules are given on the first page
dealing with reactions in each chapter. In general it may be said that these thrusts

bear the same sign as the moment which they create in the joint at the top of the
column upon which they act. It should be noted that this system is opposite to that
which operates for simple frames.

Checking Calculations for Indeterminate Frames

Calculations for indeterminate frames may be checked by using some other
method of analysis, but it is also possible to check any frame or portion of a frame,
such as that above the lineAB in Fig. 3 by ensuring that

1. The three fundamental statical equations, i.e. ’EM = 0, 21^= 0 and EM = 0,

have been satisfied and, in addition, either that
2. The sum of the areas of the MfEl diagram above any line, such as v4R, is zero
if A and B are fully fixed; or

The sum of the moments, with respect to the base >45, of the areas of the
3.

MjEI diagram above the line AB is zero if A and B are partially restrained (as shown
in the Figure) or are hinged.

Fig. 3
304 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES
of interest to note that the underlying principles in Rules 2 and 3 above
It is are
those used in the application of the Column Analogy method of analysis.
As an example of Rule 2, consider the frame in Fig. 4, where El is constant.

Then the sum of the areas of the M/EI diagram, considering the legs first, is

2 (+0.0736- 0.0826) X 6.0' .2 r(- 0-0826 + 0.0893) x 8.078“

El 2 ^Ell 2 J

= I 0.054 + 0.054
El
Thus demonstrating that the moments calculated are correct.

Now consider the frame in Fig. 5, an example for Rule 3.

Fig. 5

Then the sum of the moments of the areas of the MjEI diagram, working from
A round to D, is

11.25x4.8
^
2 x4.8l
- fdx 4.8x2 4.8l
X
El 3 J L 3 2 J
- 12.75x4.8 2x4.8
9.6 X 4,8]. X ;;; =0

_ 1 r4.8^ X
(11.25+6-4.5-12 .75) =0
£7L 2x3
Demonstrating again that the calculations are correct.
 FRAME I 305

Frame I

\A Mn=Mr= -•
^ = -2M^
)Ni

= Fn-- TJ -U
K. ^A~^D

wU- 1 1
Mb- [A f-Al
8 3iVi 8A^2. g .3A^i
wL2 r
8
1
oo
M Me-
2
1
loo
1 1
u»
M g 37Vi

'Kleinlogel, Rahmenformeln' 11. Auflage Berlin— Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &
306 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES

,, k+ 2> Afc + X] wh^\ k 2k'\

wh^ k + 3 Ak + \-\ wh?-\ k Ikl

Vj=-Vn=- wh^k
LN-,

'rPc-\

=^n +2bik - 3bl(k + 1)] A^2

J_ckB^_3
^ 3Pckai

r
•% .TV
= +^i-| IPc V\ r =
^
Ma 1 Mo + X2 + X2

Mo = +Xi + \ 1 Mc = + X2-X3
Pc Ti -X2
-Ho 2h'^ h
11

11
-H^a M^=Mo +Hob
Extract: ' Kleinlogel, Rahmenformeln' 11 . Auflage Berlin — Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &
Sohn.
 + I

FRAME 307

Pckaii^Cx - 2)
^,-^^[I+2A,/t-3i5{4:+l)] X^~
Wi
Pc,
=^[1 +2b^k-^b\{k + 1 )] = 2:^1

V^-Vc-P
Ml =M^ -H^a M2=MB + Hi,b

SPauik
Constants: =? X,=
ai
h ~w
-Pa Ms^Xi
Mjj = +Pa -Xi Mc=-Xi

^tract: ‘KleMogel, Rahmenfomeln’ II. Auflage Berlin—Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst

&
308 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES

Constants : oj =alL
=blL
M^ =
L L2A^i
-hz3i
2 N2 .
M =
L [a^i
,
^1
IN2
~Qi
'

Af = Arc= fA
^ L [iNi ^ IN
J

Vn-P-V^
2LhNi
Rahmenformeln' 11. Auflage Berlin-Verlag von Wilhelm
Ernst &
 :

FRAME II 309

Frame n

Coefficients

N=2k + 3
FRAME DATA

w per unit length

Extract: 'Kleinlogel, Rahmenformeln' 11 . Auflage Berlin

Sohn.
— Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &
310 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES

Constant: Oi = 7-
h

H^=Hn = Me
h

Pc
Kn = Va=P-Vd
Ml = - Hjia M2 =Pc - Hjfl
Extract: 'Kleinlogel, Rahmenformein' 11 . Auflage Berlin — Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &
Sohn,
 FRAME II 311

hA:*j
B
Mi'n
I

^ '

&
1
M,

a
Constant:

Pc(3fli - \)k
Mb^Mc N
Pc-M,B = Vo=P
V,
/l

Mx= - Hjfl Ml ~Pc - H^a

Mg — -Mc=Pci Ha=Ho=P
Va--Vb = “ 2^
L
Moment at loads = ±Pa
Extract: 'Kleinlogel, Rahmenformeln' 11,
Sohn,
Auflage Berlin — Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &.
 Extract: ‘Kleinlogel, Rahmenformeln' 11 . Auflage Berlin — Verlag von WUhelm Ernst &
Sohn.
 FRAME III 313

Frame III

FRAME DATA

=2(/c + l +m+m2) K2=2{k+^'^)

R=<f>C-k Ni=KiK2-R^ N2 = Zk + B
314 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES

constants:
32 jVj

wL2 ;t(16 + 15^)+^2 ^ ivL2

^2 32 •
iVj ^ 32A^2
— A^3 ~ ~ ^2 ~ ^3 A^jg = + ATj + Afj3 = — A^2 ^3
wL?'
*Mc=^-<f>Xi-mX2
wL IX-x, A^i + Ar2
Va- H,=Hr=-
2
Note that Xi, - Xt and Me are respectively half the values of Ma {—Me), Mb {=Md)
and Me from the previous set of formulae where the whole span was loaded.

Co„.,anU:;r.-!i\W±i|±M±«
O /Yi

^ m;/2 k(8+9<f>)-4>2 ^ wfh 4B+<f>

^2 8' Ni S '
N2
A/^=-Xi-Z3 Af5 =+Ar2 + (^-Ar-3)

Me=-Xi+X^ Mj,= +X2 -(^^-X,'j

Me— — 'i-<f>Xi+?nX2

wfh(2 + 4>) ,2X3 Q. _wf X1+X2

r

2L "^""2 h
Ha= -{'^vS-He)
 FRAME III 315

Constants:

wh^k(9<f>+S<f>2-k) wh2(2k + l)

A/^=-Zi-A^3 A/b=+^2 + (x-^3)

Me=-X,+X, Mo^-^X^-{^-~x)j

Mc= -^+^jri +771^2

wh^ 2Xi „ wh
mt X^+X2
-Vj:=-^ + ^E=^~r~ H^=^-{wh~HE)
A~ h

h
H
<7—

(•

Yi ^Pc[2<f>2 - (1 - 3b\)k\ ^2 =Pc[^ - (3a? - 1)^]

y _ Ml-
*
2Ai
^"2^
2
_ M2
2A^i
-Y^R ^
'^3
Pc
2-
B- 3(ai - b{)k

Ma=-Xi-X2 Mq— \-X2 + -X^

^^
Me=^-X^+Xj, Mi,=^+X2-{~-X^ Mc=-^ + ^Xi+mX2
Mi^Ma-HaQ M2 = Ms + HEb
tr _ ur _P^ Xi + X2
F~
Extract: 'Kleinlogel,
Sohn.
Rahmenformeln' 11. Auftage Berlin — Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &
316 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES

_ a
Constants:

Y2=Pc{<f>C+0a\-\)k]

N,

Me = - <f>(Pc + M^) + mMs

Va-Vo-P
M^=M^-H^a Mz^Me + HEb

Constant: Xi - Pa(B + 3bik)

Nz
Ms= -MD=Pa-Xi Mc = 0

^-] H^=-He=-P
— Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &
Extract: ‘Kleinlogel, Rahmenformeln' 11 . Auflage Berlin
Sohn.
 Mc=^^->l>M^+mMs V^ = Ve=PI2

M^=-X,-X, = + ^2 + - X3
(^ )
Mq — — + <l>Xi + fnX2
Me=-Xi+X: Mo^+X2-{~-X^'j
V^=~v^=-tPh-lX^ He = ^-
P_ X^ + X2
H^=-{P~-He)
2

~T
*K

-t
<
1

Ma=~M = - PhB
2 N2
VA=-Vr=- P(h+f) + 2MA Ha=-He--S
Extract:
Sohn.
'
Kleinlogel, Rahmenformeln' 11. Auflage Berlin— Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &
318 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES

Frame IV

Coefficients:

m= l

FRAME DATA
B=2{k-v\)+m C-l+2m N=B+mC

Extract: ‘Kleinlogel, Rahmenformeln' 11 . — Verlag von

Auflage Berlin Wilhelm Ernst &
Sohn.
 319
frame IV

11. Auflage Berlin-Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &

Extract: ^ Kleinlogel, Rahmenformeln'
Sohn.
320 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES
 321
FRAME IV

I—
A
cH
1—

a
Constant; =^

Pc -Mb Va = Vb=^P
Ha=H. "

Ml = - ai(Pc - Mb) Afa = (1 - fli)Pc + o^Mb

Mb= -Mo-Pa Mc=0

IPa
H^=-He=-P V^--Ve-—j;^
Moment at loads = ± Pa

Extract: 'Kleinlogel, Rahmenformeln' 11 . Auflage Berlin— Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &
Sohn.
322 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES

^ „ PL C
Mb=Mo=--^.j^ ^
Mc=+-^ N
PL B

P
Vj = Vb=^
2

— Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &

Extract: ‘Kleinlogel, Rahmenformeln' 11 . Auflage Berlin
Sohn,
 FRAME V 323

Frame V

(2 ci+^i
= l)

Ci=<f>i2+3k^ Ai=2(/:i + l)+m(l+C2)

Cz = 1 + ni(2 + 3k2) K2 = 2fci + tf>Ci

R=<l>C2-ki Ni=KiK2-B2
B = 3ki+2+di C3 = l+di(2+k^ N2 = 3ki+B + diC^
324 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES

Yi = -^(2cCi + c/<^k2) r2 = ^(2&C2 + «2)

y ^
y,k,-Y2R
2Ni
y^
2Ni
y -h
2N 2

M^=+Xt-X, Ms=-X2-X,
Mp= + Xi + X^ Mp= — X2 + X^
Mc~ - <i>X, -mX2 + - dyX^

^z) =
wd(Ac + Zd)
^ -

+ \6X2
- mX2 - - d,X^

wd(4c+d)-16X^
^ ^
M' p^^r unit length
fl.l 1 ITTTn
1 1 1

V _ ^ Y2K2 - YiR
^ 2N, ^2 2A^
M^=Mp—X\ Mp — Mp——X2 ^c~^d~~2
wdc — <j>X\—mX2

V -V -
^A-yp-Y
Extract: ' Kleinlogel, Rahmenformeln' 11. Auflage Berlin— Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &
Sohn.
 pir unit / •
^

Constants: yi = -^(i‘-

'(2J.C3 + 1 + i/i)
^ ^(2C2 -I -nt) i^3 = wab(B + rfi Cj j
4
Y,K,-Y,R
M- 2Ny
;r
2iVi ^

waZ)
VVUL/ ^
M^^-Xy-X^ Mb^+Xi^-y ^3

wa^) ^
Mb- +^2--T'+^3
,

- 2 X3
Mj,:.-^+<l>Xy+ mX2 -^{wab + ^ )

2wab + wb^ - 4 X3
^A=-^F- 2L

„ t^^Xl+JLi H^.-(wb-H^)
^ 2 a

Extract: 'Kleifilogel, Rahmenformeln' 11. Auflage

Berlin-Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &
326 FORMULAE FOR RIGID I-.::. 4ES

Constants :Li=^(2Ci+^) 72 = i^(2C2 + l+/«) Y^ = -^2d,C, + \+d{)

^ Y^K^-Y^R V Y2K2-Y^R y -h.

^
2Ni 2 2Ni ^ 2N2
M^=+Xi-Xz Mq=-X2-Xj, Afp=+Zi + Z3 Me=-Z2 + Z3
Mc~-^X^- mX2 + f (^ - 2 A's)
- 2X^
-
^(^
..
—
wc^-AXi
2L
..
yA=wc-Vp
X^+Xz

Constants ; Y^ = ^^{2 j>Ci + k^) Yz = ^^(2^C2 - A:;) ^3 = ^(R + (/j C3 + Atj)

The formulae for Xi, Xz and JT3 are the same as above.

M^= -2ri-Z3 M^= +Z2 + (^"-2r3)

M;.= - Me=+Xz- - x^

Mc^-'^HXi +mXz + d,(^'^-Xz'j

Mo=-^+<f>Xi +mXz - X,'^

Extract: ' Kleinlogel, Rahmenformeln’ 11. Auflage Berlin — Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &.
Sohn.
 327
frame VI
Frame VI

3oi+5+6A:2
Constant: ^=~r •
n

wd{2cC + cik 2)
Constant: X=
il/c-^(3rf+4c)-X Mo-''-^{4c+d)-X £ — — ci^X

wd{3d + 4c) Wi/(4c + d)

Extract: 'Kleinlogel, Rahmenformein' 11. Auflage Berlin — Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &
Sohn.
w per unit length

Ve~ V^=wc-Ve H^=He=^

Extract: ' Kleinlogel, Rahmenformeln' II. Auflage Berlin — Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &
Sohn.
 frame VI

wb 4flfR + C)+K2C + fli+A)

Constant: X= • jV

MQ = wba-aiX ME=-a\X
Mc=Ve{L-c)-X Mj,--X+Ve.c
wb(a + h) X
jj

M^^^-a,X ME=-a{X

Mc=Vf{L-c)-X -X+Vp.c

Va--Vf=-'-^ Hf-^j H^=-{wa-HF)

Exirart '
K>'’' .gel, Rahmenformeln' 11 . Auflage Berlin— Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &
330 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES
Frame Vn

Coefficients:

A^=l+A:
h Si

(oi+6i = l)

wb^k
%N
rA -
V —
wb^
— ^=rr
2L Vc = wb-VA

wb^Oi
H^=Hc = ~2}r h

Extract: ‘Kleinlogel, Rahmenformeln' 11. Auflage Berlin— Verlag vc-r Wi!’ ’>n R-nst &
Sohn.
 331
FRAME VII

„ whoi Mb Hc=-{wh-H^)

Extract: 'Kleinlogel, Rahmenformeln' 1 . Aiiflage Berlin — Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst &
Sohn.
332 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES

Frame VUI

FRAME DATA
Constants

, J hh hft . L .
a f
^-h
A’i= 8 ;c^+ 12 (l +<^)+7<^2 N2 = 2xi + ]2(l +<f>) +4cf>^ +4x„
Influence Coefficients:

= 2 + 3.^ X/ 2 + 3(f>
4* 4~
«, 2=^21

r Jjtli 6 + 7^
v,i=2^c,
4Ni 4Ni
j. 2xf + 2 — cf) —2<f>^ 6xj +6+ <f>
Vi2=2^C2
Wi
1 1- 3+2.^ 1
^r, “
i

”2^2 2i

6 +9<f> +4^^ + 4xji _6 + 3cf>+ 4xji

2x/ + 6 + 3^ 2xj + S + 9<j> +4<j>^

~ 2^2
""
2A^
(l^l3 +I^14=0'5) (.V23 +>^24 =0-5)

Composite Influence Coefficients:

•Jl = +^11 +Li 3’j = — Lj +/?2I /*!

= ~^11 +^21
.V2=+rt)2-L2 3’2 = +L 2 +rt22 /'2~ "^12+^22
s'=L'+n r=2«
+ Si -5 i=L.-a -52 +^2 _ r ,
'2
2 ^^ 2

>’3=;'23+C<^ J'I3-;'23-2c<^=0
>’4 = 3^24 - c<l> yi 4 -y24 +2c<f>=Q

—
Note. The four rafters of equal length AB, BC, CB’ and B’A' with the member number
1 are allocated another series of member numbers according to n.vj figure on page 334 as a
distinguishing mark for the static values referring to these rafters.

Extract: ‘Kleinlogel, Mehrstielige Rahmen', Band I + II. Berlin — Verlag von Wilhelm
Ernst &Sohn.
 frame VIII
U.D.L=w per unit itngth

T
<
I
zero
moment
I
T2

M^=Ma= -^(»ii+2ci)

wLP'
Mc\ =Mci=- ^(Pi2 + 2 c2)

Mcu~^
wV- Af^(I +2(j>)+Mci
Mb=Mb= “2

- U.D.L.- w per unit height

, wh^ , N wh?-, ^
Ma = —^ . Xj(-nii~n)+-^(+yii+yij)

Ma = ^- Xii-nn +«) + +>^11 -yu)

wh^ whP'
Mc\=—^ . ^/(+”l2“”) + “^(+J'l2“Jl4)

wh?- wh^
^C2 = ~^ •^/(+«12+”)+“^(+J>^12+J>^14)
r,\wh^ wh^ I
Men = -Xiny^ . yi4^

,, wh^ ,MAi\+2<f>)+Mci
Mb K

Mc2+M'A(l+2<i>)
2

Extract: ' Kleinhgel, MehrstieJige Rahmen', Band /+//. Berlin—Verlag von Wilhelm
Ernst & Sohn.
 wzy
-2ci-2c) M'^=^-^(-Si+s'-2ci+2c)
wU^
^^(+S2 -s' - 2 C 2 - 2c) Mci = -^{ +^2 - 2 c2 +2c)

Mcu=-'^(s’ + 2c)
wV- ,
Mjy +2^) +Mci xrt
Mb-
M C2 + M'yi[\ +2ji)
16 2 2

MU==^{-Si+s') + ^-^{ + c,-c)-

Mci=-^{+S2-s')+—^{ + C2 + c)- Wiy24

Mcl^-^{ + J2 +j') + —^( + C2 -c) + M^iy24

Men =
,,
- ^ +

3wf\MA\+2^)+Mc,
- 2 W^y24

Mb- 2

Kf! _McZ+M'yl{\ +2<i>)

Mb 2

Extract: ‘Kleinlogel, Mehrstieligc Rahmen', Band J+II. Berlin — Verlag von Wilhelm
Ernst & Sohn.
 335
FRAME VIII

4 +4 - 2^2 + 2c)
Mc„~ 2 c)

wL^ MA^ +2<}>)+Mci

^^ 16
^

Ma =^( + -.s' -2ci -2c) - Wiy23

M'a = + s'l +s' - 2ci + 2c) + Wiy2 i

Mci =^^(-S 2 -s' 2 c 2 - 2 c) + Wiy2A

Mc 2 = “^( - ^2 + ~ 2 C 2 + 2c) - Wiy24

Mcjj=-'^{s'+2c)+2W,y24

Mc2 + Ma( 1
ms--^+ M^(l+2(^)+Mci
,, w/2 +2(l>)
2 2

Extract: 'Kleinlogel, Mehrstielige Rahmen',

Ernst& Sohn.
Band I + 11. Berlin — Verlag von Wilhelm
 M/i=M{+yii+yi^ where M =Ph
+>'11 ->>13 )

+yn -yu)
Mcz — +>'12 + J14) ^ cfi
— ~ 2-W>'i4

Uc2+M'^(\+2i,)

M^=+My23 where M=Ph

M'/i = — My-i-y

M c\~ ~ -^724 M CIl

— 2Af>'24

Mc2 = + -^^24
_M^(1 +2^) + Afci
Mb- 2

,,, Mc2 + M;,(1+2^)

Mb 2

Extract: ‘ Kleinlogel, Mehrstielige Rahmen', Band I + 11. Berlin— Verlag von Wilhelm
Ernst& Sohn.
 337
frame VIII

Mci =Mc2
=- ^^2 where M = PL
Mcn=0
_ PL Af>«(I +2^)+Mci
Mb = Mb = -^ + -
2

Mci=2(^-Cz-c)

Mc2 = j{-C2 + c) Mcu= -Me

,, PL .M^(I+2^)+Mci
Mb = ^+ 2

r' Mc2 + M'xil + 24 >)

M,
,
j

Extract: 'Kleinlogel, Mehrstielige Rahmen', Band I +11. Berlin — Verlag von Wilhelm
Ernst& Sohn.
338 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES

MA = M( + Ci<{>+y3)
M'a =M{ + -73) where M=Ph
Mci=M{ + C2^-y^
Mc2 = M{ + C2^ +^4) Men — “2Mj^4

r -^.4(1 + 2^) + -^ci

Mb
71

,,, Mc2 + M;,(1+2^)

5

Constants ai : = ajh bx^bjh

R/=P6ai(l +ai)x/ Ljj—Pabiil +bi)xji

Ma =-R/( -«ii -«) +Pa{ +yn +713) +Lnr +Pay2 ^

M'a =Ri{ nix +«) +M + 7n - J13) -Ljjr -Payzi
Mc\ =i?;(+«i 2 -«) +M+712-J14) +Ljjr-Pay2^
Mc2=Ri( + ni2+n) +Pa( +yi2 +714) -Ljjr +Pay 24
Men = - 2(i?/n + Pfl7i4 - Ljjr + Pa;^24)
M^^ Ma{\+ 2^)+Mci _p^^
Mc2 + M'a{\+2<}>)
Mb 2
Extract: ‘Kleinlogel, Mehrstielige Rahmen', Band I + 11. Berlin — Verlag von Wilhelm
Ernst & Sohn.
 FRAME VIII 339

= -Liir -Pcy2^
+Ljjr+Pcy2^
Mci=- Ljjr + Pcy2^ Men = 2 ( - Ljjr + Peyz^
Afc2= +Lnr-Pcy24
tr A/^(l +2<^) +A/ci
Mb= 2
f, =
, Mc2 + Ma{\ + 24>)
Mb =

Constants Oi
: = ajh bi = bjh
R/=Fc(l - 3 a^Xj
Ma=Ri{ - nil -n) +Pc{ +711 +j;i 3 )

= -R/( - nil + «) +i’c( + Jii - J13)

Mci =R]{ +ni2 ~n) +Pc( +712 ->’14)
Mci~ Rj{.+ ni 2 +n) +Pc(+_yi 2 +_yi 4)

Men = - 2(R;n +PCJ 14)

Mb ^Mc2
+ M'A(l+2<f>)
2
A/e/ir5ne%e Rahmen', Band I +11, Berlin— Verlag von Wilhelm
 :

FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES

Formulae for Support Reactions, Shear and Axial Forces.
Nomenclature:
F'=vertical reaction or axial force in columns.

iV^= axial force in rafters or columns.

7’= shear force at ends of rafters or columns.

H= horizontal reactions in colunms.
(a) For ail loads:

Mcii=Mc\ -Mci
Ve= Vc\ + Vcz Hi ® ® Hit ® Hi

„ -Ma+Mc\ oi^ —if -A/

I
A!/ the values of H and V shown are positive
ri Men —Ma
u ^n—r~
h
TJ>
u
h

The axial thrusts in the columns are:

Njj^Ve N'j^V'e

The horizontal thrusts in unloaded columns are:

He=H„
The shear forces in unloaded columns are:
Ti^+Hj
(b) For vertical U.D.L. U.D.L.=w per unit length
over the whole frame: i i I i

+ I I

wL
Fci= - Vi +~2
Reactions shown ore those for total U.D.L.

For vertical U.D.L. over the extreme left rafter

vr Tr IwL
Fi3= + + -^ I^C2— + ^2

wL
f'a--n+-8- n=-F 2

Extract: ‘Kleinlogel, Mehrstielige Rahmen', Band I +11. Berlin— Ve' ’ag von Wilhelm
Ernst & Sohn.
 FRAME VIII 341

For vertical U.D.L. over the second rafter from the left:

wL
Fx)= + Fi +-^ Fc2=+F2
"iwL
Fci=-Fi + -y- II I

The shear forces in the rafters for all vertical U.D.L.s are:

Tl\ = + Fj) cos 9 -[-Hj sin 9 Ta-Tu-IVtCose

T'r\ = - Fci cos 9 -Hj sin 9 Ti,i=ni + Wicose
Tlz - + Fc2 cos 9 + Hj sin 9 Tj^2 ~ ^L2 “ cos 9

Tr 2 = -V'jj cos 9- H’l sin 9 Ti2 = n2+W'2Cos9

where the suffix LI refers to the left-hand from the left,
end of the first rafter
i?l refers to the right-hand end of the first rafter, and so on, and where

W{, W2 and IF2 are the U.D.L.s on the first, second, third and fourth
rafters from the left.
The axial thrusts for all vertical U.D.L.s are:
Njyi= + Fjd sin 0 - Hj cos 9
Njc = + Fci sin 9 -Hj cos 9 = PFl sin 9

N2 C = + V'cx sin 9 -Hj cos 9 N2B = N2 C ~ ^^2 sin 9

'N;^a=+ Vd ^in 9 -H'j cos 9 N^B='J^2A-Wisin9
where fVi, JV^, JV2 and W 2 are the U.D.L.s on the first, second, third and
fourth rafters respectively from the left.

(c) For horizontal U.D.L.

applied to the. extreme left
rafter:

Vcz= +J^2 =

Hci^Hj-vzf Hc 2==H^
The shear forces in the rafters are:

Ti,i = + cos d+Hj) sin 6 Tl 2 = - COS 9+Hc2 sin 9

-u/sin 9
'^R2 ~Tl2
T'i= +Vj) cos B - Hci sin 6 T'z — -V'd cos 9 - H'j) sin 9_

The axial thrusts are:

= + Fij sin 6 - Hji cos 9

^2c = -V^ sin 9 - Hc2 cos 9
= + cos 9 ^2B — ^2C
= -Vj^sinB-Hci cos 9 ^2 = + sin 9-H'j;, cos 0

Rahmen', Band /+//. Berlin-Verlag von Wilhelm

342 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES
(d) For horizontal U.D.L. acting to the left on the second rafter from the
left:

Vo=+V^+^^-Vcr
Fc2=+F2=-Fi,
^ci — Hj + wf

Hci-H'j

The shear forces in the rafters are

cos Q - Hc\ sin Q -V'„cosd- H'o Sind

*f 'T*/
T'n^T'ni+wf sin 6 7L2--^RZ
Ti = +Vq cos 6 + Hi, sin 6 ^2 = -V'jj cos 6 +Hc 2 sin 6

The axial thrusts are:

N'lc = -V^sin 6 - Hci cos 6 ^2 A = +F;, sin 0-7/;, cos 6

= N[c + wf cos 6 N2b-N^a

Ni = +Vd sin d-Hjo cos 6 ^2 = -V'j} sin 6 - Hcz cos 6

(e) For horizontal U.D.L.

applied to extreme left
column:
A'
Vci^+Vi
Vci=-V, n=-F2 O'
wh
Ho=Hj + ^
He = H„

The shear forces in the columns are:

= + 77Q Tr = — Hr T'r^-H'r
T^= + Hr — wh Tr — — Hr T'a^-H'd
The shear forces in the rafters are:

Ti = + Fi cos d + T^ sin 6 T2 = +V2 COS B -T'yi sin 6

Ti= +Ficos0-r^sin0 r; = + F2 cos B + T'^ sin B

The axial thrusts in the rafters are

Ni= +Vi sin 6 -Tyi cos 6 N2 = + V2 sin B + T'ji cos B

N{ = -Vi sin 0-T^ cos 6 N2= - Vz sin B + T^ cos 6

Extract: 'Kleinhgel, Mehrstielige Rahmen', Band I +11. Berlin — Verlag von Wilhelm
Ernst & Sohn.
 FRAME VIII 343

(f) Gantry crane loads:

(1) Surge loads:

V^=+Vi Fc2=+R2
Fci=-Fi Fi,= -F2

The shear forces in the column are:

Tjj=+Ho Te=-He T'e=-Ho

T^=+He-P Tc=-He-P
(2) Bracket load on central column CE:

Fc2=+F2
Vci-P-yi Vh=-y2

He~H,

-I h'e=h;

Ve-P*V^ Vc^=*V^
rci--ri vi=-r^

He~H„

(g) For vertical point loads on the ridges:

Extract: 'Kleinhgel,
Ernst & Sohn.
Mehrstielige Rahmen% Band /+//. Berlin — Verlag von Wilhelm
 b

344 FORMULAE FOR RIGID FRAMES

Ti = +Vd cos B + HjSmB iVj = + Vj^ sin B-Hj cos B

T{ = - Vci cos B-Hj sin B + Va sin B-H, cos B

= + Vc2 cos B + Hj sin 6
J’2 A^2 =+ ^c2 sin B -Hj cos B

T;= - V’o cos 0-iy;sin B + V'r, sin 0-//; cos B

(h) For horizontal point loads applied at joints:

Reactions vary with the number and value ^c\ ~Pa ~P

of the loads
Hc2 = H'j+P's+PU

Tx = +V[j cos B + (Hf-P^) sin B Mi= +Vj) sin B -{Hj-P^ cos B

T'l = + yD cos B ~ Hc\ sin B -Vj) sin B - Hc\ cos B

^2 = -V'p, cos B + Hcz sin B A^2 = ” ^z> sin 0

- Hcz cos B

cos B ~ (H'l +P'^) sin B = + F^) sin - {H'j + P'^) cos B

Extract: ‘Kleinlogel, Mehrstielige Rahmen',

Ernst & Sohn.
Band / + //. Berlin — Verlag von Wilhelm
 16. RIGID FRAME CHARTS

M'

OF

TERMS

IN

REACTIONS

OF

VALUES

VALUES OFh/L

345
 346

W
OF

TERMS

IN

REACTIONS

OF

VALUES

VALUES OF h/L
 347

Note. To catcu/ote or multiply the

coefficient given below by h/^

B
Total U.D.L 1 constant
=^W
'a-Ha d\ +Hd
^ wm . Wa
Wh
’‘tfc 1 MOMENTS

OF
Read Moments to the right
Read Reactions to the left
OF
TERMS

VALUES
IN
r^A.
MOMENTS

Pc

OF
OF

TERMS

VALUeS

IN
349
A 0-4Ph

OF

0-3Ph

TERMS

0-2Ph
IN

0-IPft
(VXL)

0-6 Ph
AND

TS
0-SPh

0-3 0-4 06 0-6 0-7 O B 0-9 10 /•/ 12 1-3 1416 1-6 1-7 I B 1920
VALUES OF h/L
 351

Ph
Q.

OF OF
I constant

TERMS TERMS

/N IN
S + Vo\
ON
P/2

MOMENTS

Note:
REACT/
To calculate the values of and +
multiply the coefficients given below by h/i^

OF
OF

Read Moments to the right

Read Reactions to the /eft
VALUES
\^ALU€S

0-6P \06Ph
 352

TotoF UD.L^W

~Roof pitch
/ in S
I constant

Read Moments to the right

Read Reactions to the left
When fi/L=0,
Ma= Ms- Me =Mq=Me =- 0-020B33WL
Hs = Hp = He F25W
W OOSWL
OF

TERMS

/N —i>0'WZ

He ~Me—Mq
'
' i
I . :

zoosm
AND

400^1
OF

O-JW-
VALUES

-OPSWl

h^ff : M : f

. 1 J ! i ^ !
zO-orwL

changes sign here j- i -'I

changes sign here L i i 1 <

1
!

>
o t 1 i

O Of erz OJO-4 os 0007 os O^' l-0 1-1 1-2 /-J /-< I-S 1-6 1-7 IS 1-9 2-0
VALUES OF h/i_
 For vo/ues of Mq, Mq
Total U.D.L~W and Mp see next chart
1 1 1 1 1 1'l I M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n n

^^Roofpit^
I in 5
I constant

Read Moments to the right

Read Reactions to the left
When h/L=0,
Mj^=Mq = -0- 0520633 WL
H^ = Hq = = He:= I^SW
=06125 W \/£=0t675W
\ooewL
^ o aiy

OF
hlt4'~'f f^E —— — — \007WL
TERMS

jooatyt.
IN

joostyi
REACTIONS

jOO^tVL

OF

joojtvi
y/iL(y£S

ioo2ie/.

-+Ma
\OOIWL
tHA=-+H.
\M/^ changes sign here
0 0-1 02 03 04 O-SO-6 07 OBO-9 10 /•/ h2 13 1-4 15 16 17 I S 19 2 0*

\/ALUES OF M
354
 355

Read Moments
nai
Total a to the right
'.DX.&
U.DX
Xb '^^^Roofpi^b Read Reactions
to the left
I in 5
I constant

.^5

m:
men ^/L = 0,
Mq = -0 /04l7Wf Me - 004l67Wf
M^=^Me=+0- 020aJ3Wf — Ma
H^= H^=-07SW Ho= He='f-0-25W
y,= -VF=-0'0375W

fkKfJi

VA WAmrj’si
mrAMUUKmK*W
Wj'AmmwMrAfA
Im immmumai tdwyit
VMmmrjmxM
rjMi
wi
,JAL. iSIRi^l
Mmm

tWfA ii SiSLl "™

1:11

iMBBBi^BBBBK^BBBBI
IBBBKBBBBRRBBBBBI
l!ifil MmrjAmmrjw’AAmmmum*
mrj'AmmrAm^j^^szmrnmui
IR^PS^flrj^BBBBBBBI
IPSBVB
*A\ i^assffl!

._.580Kfl5^^»5-aBr
irjf
imn
.JtawAAx
iBrnrir^r

WffiWATAimX
Jrp^b^^br
rjais^sr
—
\fMrjfMn Mq and Mq change signs here
 w ^

W Read Moments to the right

OF Read Reactions to the (eft

OF
TERMS
B )f pitch
‘-Roof D
Total U.D.L.
mS
linS I

IN
= W I constant
onstant
2^
VALUES -—75 L -
1
- » -
E^
PEACiyONS

^
I
0’SWt>

ii«cr“:
IIBBBBI
llBIJr“
358
359
360

Pc
MOMENTS

OF

OF
TERMS

VALUES
/N

A t>
 361

Ph

+V^ Pitch of roof t OF

AND
P
iinS
SOn?tQnt-i — <u__ —
OF \A . -^A TERMS

-Vj^

OF TERMS
A/^— O tN

VALUES
IN
Read Moments to the right MOMENTS

Read Reactions to the left

OF

VALUES

WBBSBBSBBSm
iBBSaBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBiiiiiiiMiliiilBiiii

M^ = +M.
BBBBBmaBBI
I BBBB^BBBBBI
I9BSB

IRI
MMai
ibbhmhB

^^BBaiiaam^aSSgaBfr
•^iBSBBBBBBBBiiBiBBiBBBBBBBBBBBBaaBBBBBBB
0 Oy O-30-40 S 0 6 0-7 O B 0-9 t O H hZ / J 14 hS 16 17 hB 19 2 0
VALUES OF h/i_
 363

He

P
AND
rgT^chofroof I in S ~Y^
OF
c
Ha

OF
I constant
L 1
—
TERMS
P/z
’h Me
KLy
y/\Read Moments to the right |
VALUES IN ^ Read Reactions to the left
WhenhfL=0^
M^=Mqp^Mo=0 ^ =
Ha He- 2 -5
\0-2PL
U I

r I I I I I I I [ [ ( [

zz:zz+Mc-zz
\oiePL
2-2SP

\0I6PL
364

P ^g^Pitch of roof t in 5
1 constant <
OF

TERMS

-K,J -Ha-
IN Mc= O
When ^/l- O,

REACr/ONS Mq — Mq — Mq — o

OF

VALUES
Read Moments to the right

Read Reactions to the left

HBBBBBBgBB !

Enii
ammm
KIHIL BHSg
BBinB
SBBBSSBBI flsnn nlPSBBBI
BB8HM^ = +M.

O 0/ 0-2 0-3 0 40 S0 60 7 O BO-9 10 11 12 1-3 1 4 I S 16 I 7 I B 19 2 0

VALUES OF h/i_
365
366

W Total U.D.L=W
OF

^Roof^t^
TERMS
/ in 25
P I I constant
1_
IN

REACTIONS

V^W/2
Read Moments to the right
OF Read Reactions to the left
When ^/l=0.
VALUES
M^^Mb ^h/lc=Mo^ Mb = -0'020833WL
Hj^ = Hb = Ho = He = 0-62SW
2 iOOBWL
367
368

VALUES or f>/L
 369

Read Moments
Total U.D.L. to the right
» w— ^^Roof^i^
W I if) 2 5 Read Reactions
REACTIONS

I constant to the left

OF

A -Ha
OF
TERMS

^Vei
\275Wf
VALUES IN
When f'/L^O,
MA^Mn^-0‘l04l7Wf r-0 04l67Wf
\2SWf
Mq^ Me =4 0 020833Wf
*• Hb= - 075 W Ho‘=He = 0-25W
V^=t~V^^^0-075W i225Wf
 W Wh

OF
OF

TERMS
or
OF TERMS

IN
IN
VALUES

VALUES

REACTIONS
MOMENTS

Read Moments to the right

Read Reactions to the left
^
i^SSSSBi
ssssssrasii
 371

"^Roof pitch
/in2S
I constant
^2h/3
c\*—
L Jk
V^P-Ve
Read Moments to the right
Read Reactions to the ieft
\IOPc

\0'9Pc

iOBPc
 —^^Ro^pitc!^
lin2'S
J constant T
fi— L -4- He^ E ^ ^

Rtod Moments to the right

Read Reactions to the left

.Jill
IWII

IBnHVAIHBIBm +Mjr+ME,
IBUBnBBBBBBBBBI
IB!;ilB^«BBBBBBBBfll Mill

IMVBBBBBBBBBBI
iriBfiii^BBBBBBBBI
.
JBBfeTMBBBBBi
iriP.
IB ''i IBBB^iSillBBlCSil
?L<*BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBI
.7Vf.tlBBBB^Bl^r
|ririllBr Bl^MliSPBBBBBBBBBBBBBBI
lirlril1B.
Ili'I'llWBBB'
IlfVBBBBBKI
IlMiBBBBB'JI
|f/JTJBB>1BriBI
I'ifiBBlIBrjBI
IflBBIWBBI
,

fBBBlliBBI +M^=+Mi
I'JBBBB'IBBI
O 0 / 0203 0 40 S0 60 7 O-B O P / O /•/ / 2 / J / 4 t S h6 h7 hB I 92'0
VALUES OF h/i_
373
374
 375

Ph
of
roof / //> 2'S OF
I constant
AND+V^

P 2h/j. L
-H.^P ? Hp=P TERMS

OF

OF-Vj^
iN
TERMS Mc=0 h^E
VALUES
IN
Read Moments to the right MOMENTS

Read Reactions to the left

OF

VALUES
 376

P
OF

TERMS

IN

AND

or

\MLUES
 377

VALUES OF h/L
 -Pitch of roof
/in 2-5
I constant
Z.

-Ha=+H£^ P/2
Mc = 0

When h/i = 0,
Mq “ Mq^ Mq *'’ o
-V^’^ + V£^(>2P

Peod Moments tp the right

Read Reactions to the left

O 0 ! 0 2 0-3 0 40 S0 6 0-7 O eO-9 t o 11 12 ! -3 1-4 hS hC h7 hB h9 2 0

VALUES OF h/.
 379

P Pf

OF
OF
-Pitch ofroof

TERMS
lm2S
OF 1 constant
TERMS

Z.

IN
i.NVV*.VW'
VALUES
IN

REACTIONS

Read Moments to the right MOMENTS

Read Reactions to the left

T)

OF

VALUES

\4QPf

-iIOmA
380

W
OF

TERMS

IN

Hn

AND

H.

OF

VALUES
 msssssak
VALUE OF -Ha

O O-tfH'
Total U.D.L
= IV — ! constant

TERMS

ossw

IN Va-\-WN2L - W2L
1

-Ha
ANd-Hj,

Mg - hjj-HA ~'^/2 where has a

j positive value
Hr, Mq ~ — Hq X h
or
0-4iV

M£S
0-J5H'K
When
Note.
£ has an
VALUE OF Hn infinite value, Hn ^ 0-3I2SW

liillBniBsaaiiaBBaaHaBHBaBi

IBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBI
laBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBI
liBBBBBBBBBBiBBBBBBBBBBBBBI

o 0 / 0-2 0-3 04 OS 0 6 07 0-8 09 hO 11 12 1-3 1415 16 17 hd 19 2 0

VALUES OF h/L
382

Pc/^

OF

TERMS

IN

Ho

AND

Ha

OF

VALUES
 1 constant
Moments in
(eft cofumn
Mf^-H^xa p — c h- T 1

M:i= Pc + M, ^
(right column
similar)
'

J r
p
For the loads P.
Mb =Mq=(-H^ xh)+ Pc
Ih this case Mr = Mr = zero
0 5774

ki68iBBgJim8Bm8B88888Ba888aW.„.,.,
IflBsiaiiar-

IvaaaKmai
laaL~z:““_
Ikirai^aBKSiM
iaKBBaBBa»:<
IVB»I
at
raKBBKBI
iBBBaaraBiii.^
IVBBBBBISI
IBKBBBBBBI

WWi
mmmM
^ 0-60

IBSaSIBI
niBBBII

0-30-40 S0 e0'70 8 0-9 hO N hZ / J h4 hS h6 17 18 f-9 ZO

V/iLl/£S OF Vz.
384

W
OF

TERMS

IN

AND

OF

VALUES
 Total U.D.L
^ W
fB V>/VcA of roof

M -H,
=I in
I constant
S

^
i I He

Mq= —Ha X h (resulting value positive)

Q-687SW
Mq= — Xh (resulting value negative.)

CURVE FOR -Ha

CURVE FOR

5 0 ‘JStV
03t2SW

0 0 / a2 O-J o s 0-6 0 7 0-3 0 S> / O ht 12 1-3 14 I S 16 17 13 19 2 0

VALUES OF l>/L
Oi

VALUES
 .

387

VALUES OF f>/L

0-3 04 os 06 07 08 09 /O H 12 / J 14 I S M 17 18 1-9 20
05
Pc/h
°/h -
06

045
P^/h
Pc/h

RiinnBMHi 07
OF
csaaiifiSiiBBaBB B BB B BBB BB
aBflBBflBBBSiiBBB BB BB BBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBSP BB BBBB BB
TERMS
SSPBBBBBBBBBBBBBB 9BBB
BBBiSPBBBBBBBBB BBBBBB SP
BBBBBSBBBBBBBB bb:B BBB BB
IN SBBBBBBBSIBBBB B:BBiBBBB BB ^/a-
oa
OJS Lliiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
AND
p^/h
This curve _|I
gives the H
OF
values for a \
clockwise moment
applied at B
i/ziLUeS

~ir^ pitch of roof

=
=r//nC
fins
T<
1

I constant

^f-\Pc/l
For the load P,

~f~'PA "f- Pc
388

MLUFS OF f>/L

«—
„ 0-3 0-4 os 06 07 OS 09 t O I t hZ h3 1-4 I S 1-6 h7 hB 19 ZO
P^/h

^/h »
0-6

Pc/fy

naBiSiiaHBHBHHBiBBiSSS=i9l
OF
miiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiii
*MS

laaaaaaaaaaaasaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaal
~iaaaaaaaaaaaBasaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa~
PBBBBBBBBBBBBBBS9IBBBBBBBBBBBBB
-JBfiPBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBSPBBBBBBBBBBB-.
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ISaiiBBBB^BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBtoBBB
IBBBBlSBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBa
IBiBBBKaBBBiiBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
^BBBBSBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB

This curvf!^\
givzs
values for equai\-
4 opposite moment^
~applied at BiD —

\P 'T" pitch of roof P\^

J
-p I
= / in 5 _p ^
[*_ I

Cj
< 7 constant I

O
Hc
II 1

_L f

\p Ve=\P
For the loads P,
Mb = Mb - E~^a x hJ+Pc
 Va/ue
when ^/l

For the load Ps

Ms= ^h

o 0 / 0-2 0-3 0-4 O S 0-6 0-7 0-8 0-9 10 11 1-2 1-3 1 4 I S 1-6 1-7 18 19 2 0
VALUES OF ^/L
390

^ L pitch of roof
/inS I

I constant
^ ~-Ha ^ hfl
vM-hPh/L

P Mg = - H/^X h fresulting value positive

OF
Mq=^ - HgX h f resulting value negative

TERMS

IN

AND

OF-Hj,

VALUES
 iHi
iir
III
Total UD.L.= W

III

'-pitch of roof
= I in 2 S
I constant

Isnssss
iT
jii

sM
hsums

ffBHiiiiii Total U.D.L.

S 0-4i¥
ar imimmiimmiii
iilliiill
aaaaaaaaa pitch of roof
= i in2S
\W I constant
11
ll_

II
1\

illBBI
BBBiUBI
BBBBBBI
3W/4 m
ssssasBS
f^^JBBBBVB For both the above toads,
"8B888S Mg = Mq — ~Ha ^ ^
BBBBBK
BBBBBBBBBI
BBBBBBBBBI
18888888
IBBBBBBB
IBBBBBBB
,«>.^JBBBir—
IBBBBI
IBBBBI

0 0 ! 0 2 0-3 0-4 0 5 0 6 0 7 O B O'P hO /•/ 12 1-3 14 ! S h6 h7 I'ei 92 0

VALUES OF Nl
 Total U.D.L.
= W
^ pitch of roof
B =i/ms
I constant •C

h+QSf
—r-j

M^= -Hj^ Xh fresu/ting vo/ut positive

j
06875W
Mq= Xh (resulting value negative
j

CURVE FOR-H^
CURVE FOR

Oi
0’4W

VALUES

OJStV

03I25W

0 07 0-20-3 0-40S0-6 0-7 0-80-9 10 / / I2I3I-4ISI-6I-7 l8l^9^0

VALUES OF VZ.
T
IN

Hp

AND

-Ha

OF

VALUES
394

Pc/f,

OF

TERMS

IN

AND

Ha

OF

VALUES
 aB
VALUES OF VZ.
O-J 0-4 os 0-6 0-7 0-8 0-9 l-O /•/ 1-2 1- 3 1-4 t-S 1-6 h7 18 f-9 2-0

isiiia BBgSagSgBSSBMBBiSgg o/h -

89 >asasBss 06

laaaBBiiBBMB PBaiB Wii!

<^/h
-

0 7

Irri
Ifirii
IrfPBPn

IM <>/h -
oe
\WaI

Thfs curve XT \

g/ves ihe H
values for c^c/a/
sopposite moments
applied at B&D —
'/77M

pitch of
/ in 2-5
I constant
Vk-TT
b
'<
I
~V^ °/h
/-o

Vf=\
For the loads P,
Mp - Me- X hi 4- Pc
 ^

— Value
when ^/L
O

'-pitch of roof
2 5
tin "T^
7 constant
c

—
Ha
— '

VaAp/2 >i=
K O-BP

For the load P,

— Mp- - H^x h

m
1
—
«
1
n
0 4P

— —
—-— -

O O t 0-2 0-3 04o s 0-6 0-7 O eO S> 10 I t 12 / J 1-4 I S 16 1-7 16 1-9 2 0

VALUES OF Vi
 pitch of roof
i

tin 2-5
7 constant
T^

-pVl Vc= +Pt'/L

For the food P,

M^=-H^X h ( resulting value positive)

li«n Mo=-H£Xh [resulting value negative)

il. O'dP

OF liBwil CURVE FOR CURVE FOR

wiBMMwgggggBBBBBBggSggl!
TERMS
jssniissssssasss^^^^
SSImBSSSShhSBShKB!
IN

0’4P

RiMI
iBBBriBBBBBBBBBfll

^ 0-2P mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmi

IIBI
IIIBL-
IIBBI

0
O O f 0 2 O J 0-4 O S 0-6 0 7 0-8 0 9
10 /•/ 12 I -3 14 I S I 6 17 f 8 19 2 0
VALUES OF Vz.
VALUES OF V4
 5

399

W
Total U.D.L=W
OF iHiniirnn

TERMS

Roof pitch
constant /in 2-
IN

PEACr/ONS

+ yn\

Read Moments to the r/ght

OF
Read Reactions to the left

MLU£S

o-awY \0‘0BWL

0'07WL

BfliUiSaBBPBBPaPBPPL.
l!BBBBiBBBBP.SaBI
liai

Maasge^BB iai

g^SigSBaa aaiiiiiiMiai^gi
0-2 I
0-2S i 0-J 0-J5 0-4 0-45
-H'd
MWES OF V/L
400

Totaf U.D.L.
=r W '

REACTIONS W
r Roof pitch
fin 2 5 MOMENTS
Wf

OF
OF

OF
OF TERMS

TERMS

Read Moments to the right

VALUES Read Reactions to the left VALUES
/N
IN
 401

VALUES OF ^/L
 y^-Toto! U.D.L-

C A'
/^oo/" pitch
I constant ^-5
< / //)
/
* L
\D \ ,D'

-f-^D -Kr {-^D

/?e(7C< Moments to the right Read Reactions to the left

RiSaBI
!: m inalii
anssB

sssa

inai ii iSiii iiBSii

iiBai isw

vsumwvsskt
vsstmi -nan
IS^I
lnPBs

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SaflBBBgSaBBBPBaaBBPBigiBaBPBaigBI
ISn
IBPggPBBPPggPPBPgaiBBPPgaP PPBPil

IB
 403

W
OF

TERMS

/N

REACTIONS

OF

VALUES

VALUES OF ¥l
404

VALUES OF h/L

C
406
 407

P
REACTIONS

OF
Roof pitch A
/ in 2 -5
I constant

OF TERMS

IN
VALUES

iiiMMiliiL
Read Moments to the right
Read Reactions to the left

0'I4PL

OtOPL
iSSSSSlilBBIBI
iKisssam
“S— OOBPL
IBI
iBlPSgiiSMMHI

OOffPi

ympmiiiir iiiiiHW III 004PL

OOZPL

35 04 0'4S OS OSS 0-6

VALUES OF Wl
408

REACr/ONS

I constant < / m 2-5

^
OF ^lij 1
t*‘'f I-.-
yALa£S

0<S/>
'.Read Moments to the right

\ Read Reactions to the left

0’I4PL

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~kBBBBBBBnKBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBPBE;aBBI 0-I2PL
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BKBBBBBBBB^KBBB«aaBBBBBBBBBBBl__^_^
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BBBBBBBBBPBBlSBaiBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBr OfOPL
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atPeSPB^BBBBBBBBBBBBiiaiSPBBBPBSSS:
IPI

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BBBBBBBBSBBBBBBBnmBBBBBBBflBBBBBflBBlii£?|
BBBBBBBBBBSPBBaaifi^BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBl
BBBBBBBBBBBBliaBaBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBflBBBBBl
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBPS!««BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBI
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..JBPaSPBBBBBBBBI
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iBBpSSg5"="S55Sg5SSSS3SpBSBBiiBBi
 \z

'
^ Roof pitch ^
rI constant < lin2S |o
" ^
D, if, a-j
o| }*J
i
\
10

+Ve kJ^,'

Read Moments to the r/ght

Read Reactions to the left
410

VALUES OF h/L
 411

Ph
P
OF
OF

TERMS
TERMS

IN IN

MOMENTS
REACTIONS

Riod Moments to the right

Read Reactions to the left
OF OF

VALUES

VALUES OF f^/L
 17. VIERENDEEL GIRDERS

IN 1896, a Belgian engineer,

ProfessorArthur Vierendeel, suggested a method of
constructing an ‘open’ web girder with rigid joints, comprised
of a top and a
type of girder
bottom chord with vertical members only between the booms. This
is known as a Vierendeel girder.
Unlike a trusswith diagonal members which are generally designed for direct
stresses only, the Vierendeel girder members are
subjected to bending, axial and
shear stresses. Typical forms of Vierendeel girder are shown
in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Many uses can be made of this type of rigid frame, especially for bridges, as in
Belgium, though in Great Britain Vierendeel girders are more commonly seen in
church, school and industrial structures where clerestory lighting is required and the
absence of diagonal frame members is desirable.
413
414 VIERENDEEL GIRDERS
Methods of Analysis
The Vierendeel girder is a statically indeterminate structure but a simple static

analysis can be adopted. The structure will become statically determinate if three

pins are introduced for each panel and the characteristic action of the structure is
maintained by placing the pins at the mid-lengths of the chord members and mid
heights of the verticals.
The statically determinate analysis is not generally suitable for Vierendeels with:
(a) inclined members,
(b) chords of radically different stiffness,
(c) posts of variable depth or with loads applied away from node points.

The limitations of a statically determinate analysis necessitate consideration of

other methods. If the top and bottom chords of any panel of a Vierendeel girder
are of the same section, Naylor’s application of moment distribution can be used.
A
worked example is given in Chapter 13.
Modified moment distribution methods have been developed for the analysis of
Vierendeel girders. The substitute frame method (1) can be used for the analysis of
parallelchorded Vierendeel bents with chords of different stiffness in the panels.
The stiffnesses canbe adjusted to allow for curved gussets at the ends of the members.
A further modification of moment distribution procedure has been developed
for the analysis of a Vierendeel girder with inclined top chords (2). For the general
case with inclined members and loading applied away from node points, a computer
analysis based on the generalised slope deflection equations minimises design time.
A further advantage is that the computer output gives joints rotations and

translations. Standard computer application programmes are available which

require the following data for input:

(a) The geometry of the frame.

(b) The physical properties of the members of the frame.
(c) The alternative loadings on the frame.

After calculation, the computer will provide the following results:

(a) The deformations at each joint in the frame.

(b) The axial and shear forces in each member.
(c) The moments at each end of each member.

The results of a computer (see reference (3)) and statically determinate analysis are
compared in the design example given later.
The plastic theory may be applied to the design of Vierendeel girders. Typical
modes of failure are shown in Fig. 2 and it should be noted that failure of the
structure, as a whole, generally results from local failure of a small number of its
members. The failure mode indicated in Fig. 2 (a) is due to plastic hinges formed at
the end of chord members. In Fig. 2 (b), plastic hinges are formed at the ends of
two of the verticals and at one section in each chord. Figure 2 (c) indicates failure
by formation of hinges in one or more of the verticals and at two sections in each
chord.
Detailed information of the plastic analysis of Vierendeel girders is given in
reference (4).
The approach would be to design the chord members against failure by mode ^

shown in Fig. 2 (a) and then to design the verticals against failure by modes shown
 METHODS OF ANALYSIS 415
« •

Fig. 2

in Figs. 2 (b) and 2 (c). Standard programmes are available for the plastic analysis of
plane frameworks which no doubt could be modified to give the collapse conditions
for Vierendeels,

Joints

Although considerable increase in strength can be obtained

by reinforcing the
joints with curved flanges, Fig. type
3, this of joint is rather expensive and is now
rarely used. Similar strength can be obtained by the use of simple diagonal
Jiffeners and critical sections are easier to locate. Detailed
information on joint
design is given in the earlier part of this
chapter. Calculations for a typical joint
without stiffening are included in a subsequent
design example.

Example

•
girder shown in Fig. 4 forms part of the roof structure for an
industrial building and subjected to
is node point loading only. (For simplicity, top
 ^

416 VIERENDEEL GIRDERS

and bottom chords of similar section have been used.) The bending moments, axial
and shear forces will be compared using:

(1) The statically determinate analysis.

(2) A computer analysis based on slope deflection theory.

It should be noted that for the statically determinate analysis, the sectional
properties of the members are not required, whereas for the computer analysis,
sectional properties are necessary. The section sizes obtained from the statically
determinate analysis will be used for the computer analysis. However, for frames
which are not symmetrical, a statically determinate analysis can be used to obtain
preliminary sizes and the computer can then be used for rapid analysis using
variations of the preliminary sizes to obtain optimum results.

(1) Statically Determinate Analysis

As the frame is symmetrical, only half will be considered and imaginary pins are
placed at the mid-span of the chords and mid-height of the verticals as indicated
in Fig. 4 (a).
Considering the vertical equilibrium of the structure,

total downward load = 10(30.2 + 33.8)

= 640 kN

Hence RL=RR = 320 kN

Vertical shear atX- X= 320 - (15.1 + 16.9)
= 288 kN.
This is divided equally between the top and bottom chords to give a shear at the
pins of 144 kN.
Similarly,

Vertical shear at 7- 7 = 320 - (15.1 + 16.9 + 30.2 + 33.8)

= 224 kN
224
Shear at pins = —

= 112kN.
PIN

AT

SHEAR

98
 ,

METHODS OF ANALYSIS 419 '

This procedure repeated for the remaining chord pins and the shears are
is

indicated in Fig. 4 (a). The chord bending moments are obtained by multiplying
the

pin shears by half the length of the panel.

M2_4 = 144x^=216kNm

M4_6 = 112 168 kNm.

Considering the joint equilibrium

M2—1 =216 kNm

M4_3 = (216 + 168) = 384 kNm.
The shear in the verticals is obtained by dividing the moment in the verticals at the

joints by half their height.

For member 1—2 shear = - - - = 198.2 kN

2.I0

For member 3-4 shear = —

384 X 2
= 352.3 kN.
2. 1 o

The bending moment diagram for the frame is indicated in Fig. 4 (b).
The axial force in the chords is obtained by summing the horizontal shears.

Member 1-3= 198.2 kN

Member 3-5 = (198.2 + 352.3) = 550.5 kN.

The axial forces are indicated in Fig. 4 (b).

(2) Computer Analysis

From the statically determinate analysis, the verticals and chords can be designed.
These are as follows:

Top and bottom chords 2/381 x 102.x 55 kg channels placed back to back
255 mm apart.
Verticals;

Member 1 2 457 X 190 X 89 kg U.B

3, 4 533 X 2l0x 122 kg U.B
5, 6 457 X 190 X 98 kg U.B
7, 8 457 X 190 X 74 kg U.B
9, 10 457 X 190 X 74 kg U.B
n, 12 457 X 190 X 74 kg U.B.
420 VIERENDEEL GIRDERS
The following information (normally written on a standard form) is required as
input data for the computer.

1. Frame data, i.e. joint co-ordinates and section identifier.

2. Section data, area and moment of inertia.
i.e.

3. Young’s modulus of elasticity.

4. Constraint data. Note;— At joint 1 (see Fig. 5) there are two constraints, one
in the 2f-direction and one in the Y-direction. At joint 21 there is a
constraint in the Y-direction only.
5. Loading data. In this example the loading consists of point loads in the
Y-direction only.

Fig. 5

Zero loads and moments must be entered where zero deformations have been
specified.
The printed output from the computer of the form shown in Tables 1 and 2.
is

Table 1 gives the joint translation in the2f and Y directions and rotations. Table 2
gives the axial forces, shear forces and bending moments at the ends of each
member.
The bending moments rounded off to the nearest whole number are indicated in
Fig. 6. Comparing these values with those in Fig. 4 (b), it can be seen that the
largest variation is in chord members. For a symmetrical Vierendeel of this type,
the statically determinate analysis appears to be adequate since these chord •

members combined bending and direct loads. This would not be

are designed for
true for other types of Vierendeel and the use of a computer will facilitate
optimisation of member sizes. The computer analysis also gives joint translations
and rotations, the maximum vertical translation being 5 1 .85 mm or approximately
1/575 span (see Table 1).

Member Sizing and Joint Design

Once the moment and axial forces are known, the members can be designed in
the normal manner. A typical calculation for a joint will now be given using the
moments derived from computer analysis.
 COMPUTER RESULTS 421

TABLE 1

Displacements and Rotations at Joints

Joint No. X Y Z-Rotation

mm mm Radians

1
1

0.000000 0.000000 - 0.004191

2 7.160910 - 0.144021 •
- 0.004153
3 0.195999 - 15.888290 - 0.003978
4 6.964911 - 15.888163 - 0.003961
5 0.746764 - 30.096067 - 0.003631
6 6.414146 - 30.094192 - 0.003634
7 1.552041 - 41.722214 - 0.002783
8 5.608869 - 41.720336 - 0.002782
9 2.523080 - 49.273330 - 0.001450
10 4.637830 - 49.271344 - 0.001450
11 3.580455 - 51.849164 - 0.000000
12 3.580455 - 51.847201 0.000000
13 4.637830 - 49.273330 0.001450
14 2.523080 - 49.271344 0.001450
15 5.608869 - 41.722214 0.002783
16 1.552041 - 41.720336 0.002782
17 6.414146 - 30.096067 0.003631
18 0.746764 - 30.094192 0.003634
19 6.964911 - 15.888290 0.003978
20 0.195999 - 15.888163 0.003961
21 7.160910 0.000000 0.004191
22 0.000000 - 0.144021 0.004153

TABLE 2

Loads and Moments in Members Designated by Joint Numbers at each end

Joint No. Axial Load Shear Moment

kN kN kNm
1

1 157.88 I
- 192.60 - 211.44
2 - 157.88 192.60 - 208.42
1 - 192.60 145.22 211.44
3 192.60 - 145.22 224.21
2 192.60 142.78 208.42
4 - 192.60 - 142.78 219.92
3 - 0.19 - 348.61 - 381.25
4 0.19 348.61 - 378.73
3 - 541.21 111.61 157.04
5 541.21 - 111.61 177.79
4 541.21 112.39 158.81
6 - 541.21 - 112.39 178.36
5 - 2.26 - 250.10 - 272.48
6 2.26 250.10 - 272.74
5 - 791.31 80.07 94.69
7 791.31 - 80.07 145.52
6 791.31 79.93 94.37
8 - 791.31 79.93 145.42
7 - 1.72 - 162.89 - 177.57
s {
1.72 162.89 - 177.53
 VIERENDEEL GIRDERS
/

TABLE 2 (continued)

Joint No. Axial Load Shear Moment

kN kN kNm
7 -954.20 47.99 32.05
9 954.20 -47.99 111.91
8 954.20 48.01 32.11
10 -954.20 -48.01 111.93
9 -1.82 -84.84 -92.47
10 1.82 84.84 -92.48
9 -1039.04 16.00 -19.44
11 1039.04 -16.00 67.45
10 1039.04 16.00 -19.45
12 -1039.04 -16.00 67.44
11 -1.79 -0.00 -0.00
12 1.79 0.00 -0.00
11 -1039.04 -16.00 -67.45
13 1039.04 16.00 19.44
12 1039.04 -16.00 -67.44
14 -1039.04 16.00 19.45
13 -1.82 84.84 92.47
14 1.82 -84.84 92.48
-47.99 -111.91
15 47.99 -32.05
14 -48.01 -111.93
16 -954.20 48.01 -32.11
15 -1.72 162.89 177.57
16 1.72 -162.89 177.53
15 -791.31 -80.07 -145.52
17 791.31 80.07 -94.69
16 791.31 -79.93 -145.42
18 -791.31 79.93 -94.37
17 -2.26 250.10 272.48
18 2.26 -250.10 272.74
17 -541.21 -111.61 -177.79
19 541.21 111.61 157.04
18 541.21 -112.39 -178.36
20 -541.21 112.39 -158.81
19 -0.19 348.61 381.25
0.19 -348.61 378.73
19 -192.60 -145.22 -224.21
21 192.60 145.22 -211.44
192.60 -142.78 -219.92
22 -192.60 142.78 -208.42
21 157.88 192.60 211.44
22 -157.88 -192.60 208.42
 —

424 VIERENDEEL GIRDERS

Consider Joint 4, see Fig. 7; the vertical member is connected to the chords via
2 no. 250 X 22 mm plates x 680 mm long.

\-272'5mm

I
,

mm\

272'S
 CALCULATIONS FOR DETAILS 425

Weld benveen Connection Plate and the Chord

Force in each weld:

379 X 10^
due to end moment in vertical
= 668 kN
567

(208 + 220) -(159+ 178)

due to end moment in top chord = 15 kN
2x3.0

683 kN

683
( 1 ) in each weld = = 171 kN
4

_ 379 + 381 = 174 kN

due to shear in vertical member
2x2.18

(2) in each weld

= 174 = 43.5 kN

87.2 X 19
resulting from moment due to shear force= = 75 kN
22

(3) in each weld = 75 kN

See Fig. 9 for forces acting on weld.

Resultant

= Vl71^ +43.5^ +75^ = 192 kN

Force per mm assuming effective length 330 mm
_ 192 X 10^
330
= 58 N
Use 8 mm P.W. at 1 1 5 N/mm^

Connection Plate

Assume effective length of 380 mm:

(1) Longitudinal shear force:

- 684 X 10^
fsi = 40.9 N/mm^
2 X 380 X 22
(2) Shear stress:

. _87.2x 10^
= 10.4N/nim2
380 x 22
426 VIERENDEEL GIRDERS
Bending moment due to shear force:

_ 87.2x 19 - 4.4
380 kNmm

(3) Bending moment stress:

^ 4.4 X 10^ X 6
- 54.0 N/mm"
lx (22)"

See Fig. 10 for stress acting on plate.

Equivalent B.M. stress, see B.S. 449, Cl. 14 (c),

/6c=\/54" +3(10.4)" - 56.9 N/mm"

Principal Stress*

= 78.3 N/mm"

The shear webs of the boom across the joint can be found by calculating
in the
moment. The points of contraflexure are
the rate of change of the bending
determined from Fig. 8. By simOar triangles:

Fig. 8

* Rigorous inspection of the part of the joint under consideration will reveal that the applied
loads result in local effects not taken into account in the design. In fact, these will be found to
have only an insignificant effect on the final result, and the calculated stresses in the plate are
considered sufficiently accurate.
 427
Q) SHEAR IN from
^ resulting
moment due to
SHEAR FORCE
87x19 -js^MkN
22
© SHEARto INmoment in
due
VERTICAL «S TOP ^NO^

7) §L-43’SkN

Fig. 9
FORCES CAUSING SHEAR IN WELDS

Q) STRESS DUE TO BENDING

SHEAR STRESS
FROM SHEAR
FORCE =10’4 N mm

Fig. 10
428

X\ 3.0 — X\ « u* V
°
V, = 1.54 m
220 208

fro™ = 1.42 m
X 2 18
.
- 2:3 . .V
,.
3
fromwhichjr. = 1.09 m.
'
379 381

B.M. at >1 -^ (Fig. 7) = 220 x = 181 kNm

B.M. zi B-B (Fig. 7) = 159 x = 128 kNm

+ 128) X 10=
Shea, ^ (181 = 568 kN

* U 568 xio^
Average shear stress =j = 72 N/mm'
„ , 0.4 „ 38,

Max. permissible shear stress =115 N/mm^.

REFERENCES

1. LIGHTFOOT, E. ‘Substitute Frames in the Analysis of Rigid Jointed Structures’, Civil

Engineering and Public Works Review, Vol. 52, December, 1957.
2. LIGHTFOOT, E. ‘A Moment Distribution Method for Vierendeel Bents and Girders with
Inclined Chords’, I.C.E. Paper No. 6284.
3. BARIC COMPUTING SERVICES LTD. - Structural Analysis Programme.
4. HENDRY, A. ‘Plastic Analysis and Design of Mild Steel Vierendeel Girders’, Journal of
Institution of Structural Engineers, July, 1955.
5. HENDRY, A. ‘An Investigation of the Strength of Welded Portal Frame Connections’,
Journal of Institution of Structural Engineers, October, 1950.
 18. FRAMING FOR SINGLE-STOREY SHEDS

The framing for single-span single-storey sheds can be arranged in a number of

ways dependent upon the design assumptions made and those in general use are
shown in Figs. 1 to 6. (a) Typical B.M. diagrams for the stanchions are shown in
the Figures and, in addition, the dotted lines indicate, in an exaggerated manner,
the deflected form of the structure under side-wind loading.
The cross-section shown in Fig. perhaps more widely used than any
1 (a) is

other and consists basically of roof trusses and stanchions. The trusses may be
carried directly by stanchions as shown in Fig. 1 (b) or there may be in addition
intermediate trusses supported by eaves beams, Fig. 1 (c). In each case the
stanchions must be fixed at their bases and will act as vertical cantilevers under

Fig. 1

the action of side-wind loading. The wind B.M. in the

stanchions must be taken
up by the foundations. For the design of suitable stanchion bases
and foundations
see Chapters 28 and 30. Where intermediate
trusses are carried by eaves beams,
lateral bracing, as shown in Fig.
be required to transmit to the stanchions
1 will
the horizontal reactions of the trusses unless
thebeams are designed for the
combined vertical and horizontal loads. Bracing is
normally the more economical
The approximate weights of single span roof
trusses of bolted construction ^
for spans between 10 m and 30 m
can be calculated based on the area carried’
times 100 to 150 N/m Welded trusses are somewhat lighter and weigh
.

between
80 and 120 N/m^ of area carried.
The imposition of moments on the
foundations can be avoided by the use of
as shown in cross-section and plar
m
ta Figs. T/sl
FiE 2 (a) and (b). Where eaves beams are
used, as in Figs. 2 (c) and (i) the
429
430 FRAMING FOR SINGLE-STOREY SHEDS
intermediate trusses will be of simple form and, again, lateral bracing at eaves
level will be required to transmit the horizontal loads to the stanchion caps. For
a shed otherwise identical with that shown in Fig. 1 the maximum B.M. in the
stanchions will be reduced and, in addition its position will be transferred from
the stanchion base to the junction of knee brace and stanchion.
Ifhead room or other conditions so dictate, the braces may be on one side
only, the other end of the truss being simply supported, in which case the knee-
braced stanchion takes up all the moment due to side wind on the frame as a

whole whilst the other stanchion acts as a vertical post carrying direct load but
subjected to a wind B.M. as a beam simply supported at base and cap levels. (See
Fig. 3.)
A common variant is that shown in Fig. 4, which still further reduces the
stanchion bending moments, other conditions remaining unaltered, but at the

expense of imposing moments on the foundations approximately half those shown

in Fig. 1.
Another form of construction, shown in Fig. 5, employs horizontal eaves
girders of lattice construction to transmit all horizontal loads from trusses and
intermediate posts to the ends of the building and thence via bracing to the
foundations. This type of construction is particularly economical when the
building is short enough to enable the wind loads to be taken to the end frames
 1

FRAMING FOR SINGLE-STOREY SHEDS 43

bracing in these
by eaves of reasonable proportions, as the additional
girders
girders will be relatively light. The trusses
may be supported directly by stanchions
as shown in plan at Fig. 5 (b) or by
eaves beams and stanchions as depicted in
is too long to give reasonably light
eaves
Fig. 5 (c). Alternatively, if the building
girders, the spans of these girders may be
reduced by the insertion, at appropriate
necessary horizontal resistance.
intermediate points, of frames designed to give the

Cobie
Frames

Fig. 5

The horizontal eaves girders may be replaced by girders in the planes of the
truss rafters and in which the purlins can be made to serve as the chord members
of the lattice girders.
Alternative arrangements of the gable frames are shown in Figs. 5 (d) and (e).

In Fig. 5 (d) stanchions are braced together in pairs with

diagonals in tension
only, and hence each pair is assumed to act in resisting
the wind effect on one
side only, whilst in Fig. 5 (e) stiff bracing
is used, capable of acting both in
tension and compression so that all the stanchions in the
gable act in conjunction.
If it is required to use a roof of shallow pitch
and in consequence
there is a
reasonable depth of truss at the shoe, the effect of
a knee brace will be simulated
as shown in Figs. 6 (a) and (b), showing stanchions hinged and fixed at their
432 FRAMING FOR SINGLE-STOREY SHEDS
bases respectively. The horizontal eaves lattice girders referred to previously may
be used with this type of roof if required.

Arched or portal construction may also be used, the principal types being
shown and hingeless or
in Fig. 7; they are respectively three-hinged, two-hinged,
fixed arches. The first has the advantage of being statically determinate although
the moments and crown deflection when loaded are greater than for the other
two types. The moments in the fixed-ended arch or portal are the least of the
three. All three types have the disadvantage of imposing horizontal thrusts of
some magnitude upon the foundations, whilst the hingeless type also causes
moments on the foundations. The calculations for the two-hinged and hingeless
portals are necessarily based upon the normal arch theory, which presupposes the
existence of the appropriate horizontal resistance at the feet of the portals to
provide the arch thrust and should be noted that comparatively small horizontal
it

displacements at the footings will cause considerable redistribution of the

moments. These types of framing should not therefore be used in cases where the

PORTAL FRAME CONSTRUCTION

Fig. 7

existence of adequate horizontal resistance is suspect unless the effect of arch

spread is included in the design calculations or unless positive means are taken to
determine the extent of the lateral movement of the portal feet, for example, by
the insertion of ties at base level.
The calculations for a three-pinned frame also call for the provision of an
adequate horizontal thrust, but the effect of footing spread in this case is of
little importance; all forces and moments in the frame are increased in inverse

ratio to that of the reduced crown height compared with the original crown
height, but no redistribution effects occur.
It is generally found that the weight of a portal frame designed on the elastic

theory is greater than that of the lightest comparable construction utilising trusses
and columns, but this effect may be offset by savings and advantages in other
directions.
The portal frames may be of welded plate) or of lattice
solid I-section (joist or
type. Formulae dealing with two-hinged and hingeless frames are given on pages
305 to 329. These may be used to calculate moments, shears and thrusts when a
solid section is used, but if lattice work is employed the vertical and horizontal
reactions can be calculated from the formulae given and a stress diagram can be
drawn in the normal manner utilising the reactions so found. In the case of the
three-pinned arch the vertical reactions at the feet may be found by taking
moments about them in the normal manner whilst the horizontal reactions can
be found by utilising the fact that the moment at the crown hinge is zero. For
examples of the calculations for a three-pinned arch see pages 132—134.
 MULTI-SPAN RIDGED ROOF SHEDS 433

Multi-span Ridged Roof Sheds

Multi-span sheds may be constructed of a series of simple truss or portal spans
provided that a relatively large number of internal columns can be permitted. The
principal advantage of multi-bay construction in truss work is, however, the ease
with which large floor areas may be covered with a minimum number of supports
Fig. 8 (a) indicates a conventional layout in which apex lattice girders support

(a) (b)

A/ternot/ye roof section

SECTION

umbrella-type roof trusses. The lattice girders are normally designed as simple spans
between columns but may also be designed as continuous girders.
The construction
is economical for lattice girders
with spans up to 36-45 m at spacings not
exceeding 18-21 m. A stiffer structural frame results from
the use of trusses
having appreciable depth at the valley as indicated
in the alternative section.
Fig. 8 (b). The same type of
construction may be adopted with a north-light
truss outline, and it may be
convenient to replace the vertical apex lattice girder
by an inclined girder in the plane of the north
slopes of the slung trusses.
Should it be necessary still further to reduce the
number of columns, the apex
attice girders may be carried
by main lattice girders simply supported at their
ends, or continuous over intermediate
supports if desired, as shown in Fig. 9.
Such girders will project through the roof
covering, and weathering details are apt
to be somewhat ^
complicated.
 A .

434 FRAMING FOR SINGLE-STOREY SHEDS

SECTION A- (9)
Apex lattice girder
-vir- -At
if

I:
Main lattice girder
4=

-Ar-
PLAN N
A Main lattice girders
X

SECTION B-B (c)

Fig. 9

:3econaary /aruce g/raer

projecting through the -
roof covering-]
1
1

lauice giraer
serving also as
an aoex girder
n . 1
d n
Slung trusses Apex lattice ^Moin column
girders

Fig. 10

The sub-division of framing may be carried still further, as shown in Fig. 10

which gives a layout which dispenses entirely with internal columns.
A form of construction which has also found favour is shown in Fig. 1 1
It consists of lattice girders carrying valley beams which, in turn, support

north-light trusses running parallel to the lattice girders. The top chords of these
 ^ d
MULTI-SPAN RIDGED ROOF SHEDS 435

(<^)

SECTION B-B
ROOF TRUSSES
^ ^ ^

—
1

A
^Main lattice girder .. ,, .. 4
1
,

^ j
I--
jTruss 1 Truss 7 pj
6 o
t
1 ^ ^ t
- - - -= -- .
t- 1
F 1

-
^ . b= — ^ ^ — L

Fig. 11

girders are thus above the roof covering and elaborate flashing arrangements are
required.

Flat-roofed Single-storey Sheds

These roofs may be of simple joist construction for moderate spans, but if
required with monitor lights advantage may be taken of the upstand of the
monitor to incorporate lattice girders inside the vertical glazing to reduce the
number of supporting columns as shown in Fig. 20 (b), Chapter 19. Alternatively
the upper and lower roof levels together with the monitor upstand can be
designed as a cranked beam as shown in Fig. 20 (c), Chapter 19.

Lattice Girders — Stress Data

In the following pages of this section stress coefficients
are tabulated for the
members of various standard types of lattice girders by which the forces in them
may be readily obtained under the loading conditions indicated.
The coefficients are calculated for equal loads at all panel points other
than
end supports and they are to be multiplied by the
panel point load qualifier as
indicated.
Throughout the tables compression is indicated as negative - and tension
( )
as positive
( + ).
 1

436 FRAMING FOR SINGLE-STOREY SHEDS

Parallel Flange Lattice Girders

In the following tables,

W= the load per panel,

d = constant depth of girder
and p = constant width of panel.
The stress coefficients are to be multiplied by qualifiers as follows:

Type of Member Multiply by Qualifier

Top chords TC 1 W.p

Bottom chords BC d
Verticals V W

Diagonals D + P^)

Figs. 12 and 13 show two types of girder with even and odd numbers of panels
respectively. In both types there are four cases of loading, viz.:

1. Vertical struts, diagonal ties, load on compression flange.

2. Vertical struts, diagonal ties, load on tension flange.
3. Vertical ties, diagonal struts, load on compression flange.
4. Vertical ties, diagonal struts, load on tension flange.

The tables of stress coefficients are given on pages 438—439.

 r-/i

/I

/I

/I
Zl

/K ‘SH

KKKra

K-p-1
438 FRAMING FOR SINGLE-STOREY SHEDS
STRESS COEFRCIENTS FOR LATTICE GIRDERS
TYPE 1 EVEN NUMBER OF PANELS

Case

2-Panel Girder (1) (2) (3) (4)

Chords TC\ -0-5 -0-5 +0-5 +0-5

BC\ nil nil nil nil

Verticals VO -10 nil nil + 1-0

VI -1-0 -0-5 -0-5 nil

Diagonals Dl -0-5 +0-5 -0-5 -0-5

4-Panel Girder
Chords TCI -20 -20 1 +2-0 + 20
TCI -1-5 -1-5 + 1-5 + 1-5
BCi + 1-5 + 1-5 1 -1-5 -1-5
BC2 nil nil nil nil

Verticals VO -10 nil nil + 1-0

VI -1-5 -0-5 +0-5 + 1-5
V2 -20 -1-5 -0-5 nU
Diagonals Dl -1-0-5 +0-5 -0-5 -0-5
D2 -Hl-5 + 1-5 -1-5 -1-5

6-Panel Girder
Chords rCl -4-5 -4-5 +4-5 +4-5
TC2 -40 -40 +4-0 +40
TC^ -2-5 -2-5 +2-5 +2-5
BCl -(-4'0 +4-0 -4-0 -40
BC2 -1-2-5 +2-5 -2-5 -2-5
BC3 nil nil nil nil

Verticals VO -1-0 nil nil + 1-0

VI -1-5 -0-5 +0-5 + 1-5
V2 -2-5 -1-5 + 1-5 +2-5
V3 -30 -2-5 -0-5 nil

Diagonals Dl + 0-5 +0-5 -0-5 -05

D2 -t-1-5 + 1-5 -1-5 -1-5
D3 +2-5 +2-5 -2-5 -2-5

8-Panel Girder
Chords TCI -80 -80 + 8-0 + 8-0
TC2 -7-5 -7-5 + 7-5 + 7-5
TC3 -60 -60 + 6-0 + 60
TC4 -3-5 -3-5 +3-5 + 3-5
BCl + 7-5 +7-5 -7-5 -7-5
BC2 + 60 + 60 -60 -60
BC3 + 3-5 +3-5 -3-5 -3-5
BC4 nil nil nil nil

Verticals FO -10 nil nil + 1-0

VI -1-5 -0-5 +0-5 + 1-5
V2 -2-5 -1-5 + 1-5 +2-5
V3 -3-5 -2-5 +2-5 +3-5
V4 -40 -3-5 -0-5 nil

Diagonals Dl +0-5 +0-5 -0-5 -0-5

D2 + 1-5 + 1-5 -1-5 -1-5
D3 + 2-5 +2-5 -2-5 -2-5
D4 +3-5 +3-5 -3-5 -3-5
1

For qualifiers, see p. 436

 LATHE GIRDERS - STRESS DATA 439

STRESS COEFFICIENTS FOR LATTICE GIRDERS—

TYPE 1—continued

Case

lO-Panel Girder (1) (2) (3) (4)

Chords TCI -12-5 -12-5 + 12-5 + 12-5

TC2 -12-0 -120 + 12-0 + 12-0
TC3 -10-5 -10-5 + 10-5 + 10-5
TC4 -8-0 -80 +8-0 + 8-0
TC5 -4-5 -4-5 +4-5 +4-5
BCl + 12-0 + 120 -120 -12-0
BC2 + 10-5 + 10-5 -10-5 -10-5
BC3 + 8-0 1
+ 8-0 -80 -80
BCA +4-5 !
+4-5 -4-5 -4-5
BC5 nil nil nil nil

Verticals VO -1-0 nil nil + 1-0

VI -1-5 -0-5 +0-5 + 1-5
V2 -2-5 -1-5 + 1-5 +2-5
V3 -3-5 -2-5 +2-5 + 3-5
V4 -4-5 -3-5 +3*5 +4-5
V5 -50 -4-5 -0-5 nil

Diagonals B1 +0-5 +0-5 -0-5 -0-5

D2 + 1-5 + 1-5 -1*5 -1-5
D2 +2-5 +2-5 -2-5 -2-5
DA + 3-5 +3-5 -3-5 -3-5
D5 +4-5 +4-5 -4-5 -4-5
i

TYPE 2 ODD NUMBER OF PANELS

Case

3-Panel Girder (1) (2) (3) (4)

Chords TCI -10 + 1-0 + 1-0
TC2 -10 + 10 + 1-0
BCl + 10 -10 -10
BC2 nil nil nil
Verticals VI -10 nil nil -1-0
V2 -1-5 -10 -0-5 nil
Diagonals D1 nil nil nil nil
D2 + 1-0 + 10 -10 -10
5-Panel Girder
Chords TCI -30 -30 + 3-0
TC2 -30 -30
TC3 -2-0 -20 +2-0 +2-0
BCl + 3-0 + 3-0 -3-0 -30
BC2 +2-0 +2-0 -2-0 -2-0
BC3 nil nil nil nil
Verticals VI -10 nil nil + 1-0
V2 -2-0 -10 + 1-0 +2-0
V3 -2-5 -20 -0-5 nil
Diagonals Dl nil nil nil nil
D2 + 10 + 10 -10 -1-0
D3 +20 +2-0 -20 -20

For qualifiers, see p. 436

440 FRAMING FOR SINGLE-STOREY SHEDS
STRESS COEFnCffiNTS FOR LATTICE GIRDERS—
TYPE 2 —continued
Case

1-Panel Girder (I) (2) (3) (4)

Chords rCl -60
TC2 -60
TCI -50
7'C4 -3-0
BC\ + 60 -60
BC2 +50 -50
BC3 +30 -30
BC4 nil nil nil nil

Verticals VI -10 nil nU + 1-0

V2 -20 -10 +20
V3 -30 -20 + 3-0
V4 -3-5 -30 -0-5 nil

Diagonals Z>1 nil nil nil nil

D2 -H-0 + 10 -1-0 -10
2)3 -^2•0 +20 -20 -20
2)4 + 3-0 +30 -30 -30
9-Panel Girder
Chords rCl -100 -100 + 100 + 100
TC2 -100 -100 + 100 + 100
TC3 -90 -90 + 90 +90
rc4 -70 -70 +7-0 +70
TC5 -40 -40 +4-0 +40
BCl -t-100 + 100 -100 -100
BC2 +90 +90 -90 -90
BC3 + 7-0 + 70 -7-0 -7-0
BC4 +40 +40 -40 -4-0
BC5 nil nil nil nil

Verticals VI -10 nil nil + 10

V2 -20 -1-0 + 1-0 +2-0
V3 -30 -2-0 +2-0 +3-0
V4 ,
-40 -30 + 3-0 +40
VS -4-5 -4-0 -0-5 nil

Diagonals D1 nil nil nil nil

2)2 + 10 -10 -1-0
2)3 +2-0 -20 -20
2)4 +3-0 -3-0 . -30
2)5 +4-0 +40 -4-0 -4-0

For qualifiers, sec p. 436

 19. SPACE FRAMES

SJCELETAL space frames were first used by primitive peoples who found by
instinct and experience that the most efficient way of using the
materials

available was to build a cone or dome shaped structure of tree branches and
cover this with a flexible weather-proof material. The buffalo hide covered
American Indian tepee and the African thatched round house are typical of this

simple structural method.

The arguments in favour of the efficiency of this form are as valid for large

structures as for the small dwelhngs which initiated their use, but the rate of
their development has been slow for the following reasons:
The lack of materials which were strong enough to form a self-supporting
skeletal structure over large spans. Monolithic space structures were first developed
in masonry which has fai’’ compressive but negligible tensile strength. Skeletal
structures which were built in these media required heavy applied dead loads at
their crown or at points liable to develop tension to keep the material in
compression. Flying buttresses are common examples in plane structures but the
applications of such materials to space frames are limited. Timber was used more
extensively but as the jointing technique then used could only develop the full
compression load of the material it tended to be used in the same manner as
stone. A few types of timber skeletal space structures were developed before the
advent of steel, these were mostly hipped and polygonal roof structures sometimes
tied at eaves level with wrought iron ties.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century steel, wrought iron and cast iron
began to be produced in quantity and the first difficulty was overcome.
Methods of predicting the sizes of members required was the next difficulty to
be faced and through the nineteenth and this century until a few years ago, many
of the greatest brains in science tried to develop analytical methods and structural
systems which could be resolved simply. In spite of their efforts the calculation
and design of such structures remained so complex that they stayea the preserve
of the most accurate and brilliant brains. Today we stand on the threshold of
the solution of this difficulty; the electronic digital computer provides such a
powerful mode of calculation that programmes have been devised for it by which
most forms of construction can be accurately analysed.
Methods of connecting members has remained another problem which has not
yet been solved for every type of construction. For very large structures site
welding can be the most economical and satisfactory, for smaller structures many
ingenious mechanical joints have been devised which allow for the simple
connection of members meeting in three planes. The bibliography provides a short
section dealing with patented and other jointing methods. So much work
is being
carried out, somany new materials (including adhesives) are being developed that
we on the brink of a big advance towards comprehensive solutions of
are again
this problem in many different ways and
should be ready to take advantage of
these new methods as they are developed.

441
442 SPACE FRAMES
The calculation of the geometry and the detailing of members in space once
represented a painstaking, highly skilled and tedious task. Most of the tedium has
been removed by the advent of the computer. Standardised methods of fabrication
of details to set jointing techniques can eventually lead to mass production of pre-
fabricated components to a degree of accuracy and finish not yet general in the
structural engineering industry.
The economic and other advantages accruing from the use of space frames have
been clouded by their use for purposes for which they are not necessarily suited
or by the use of the wrong type of frame for a purpose for which a space frame
could be used. Generally there are good reasons, other than economical ones, for
the selection of a particular type of space frame, but sometimes the selection of
a frame economically unsuited for its purpose leads people to consider them
uneconomical in general. The descriptive part of the chapter is intended to
provide some guidance on suitable uses for various types of frame and the
examples are intended to illustrate methods of analysis for simple frames. The
more complex frames can best be selected and designed with specialist advice.

Types of Space Structures in General Use

1. Grids

These are generally used to support floors or flat roofs but may also replace
an array of simple members in folded plate or arch construction. They consist of
a series of interconnected beams or lattice girders spanning in two or more
directions. Their great advantage is that, as they act in a manner analogous to a
plate supported on all sides (therefore taking bending loads in more than one
direction) for a given weight of structural material it is possible to reduce the
construction depth to span ratio appreciably compared to that required by
systems of simple main and secondary beams. To obtain full benefit of this
advantage it is important to use the best grid form for the particular case of span
in each direction, load and form of support. Generally speaking the best situation
is when the distance between supports or lines of supports is approximately equal

in each direction, but special forms of grid can be used where this ideal is not
acliievable.
Two whose members are composed of
basic forms exist: (a) single layer grids
single beams or latticed girders which havemajor axes horizontal (i.e. their
their
chords or top and bottom flanges are disposed vertically one above the other)
and (b) double layer grids, which are invariably of lattice construction, whose
top and bottom chords are not disposed in the same vertical planes and in many
cases do not even follow the same geometrical pattern (see Fig. 2). Some of the
geometrical grid patterns used are as follows:

(i) Square or Rectangular Grids

(a) Single layer: for simple structures uniformly loaded advantage can be
little

gained from this form over primary and secondary beam construction. Where
heavy incidental or concentrated alternative loadings need to be carried (Bridge
 TYPES OF SPACE STRUCTURES 443

decks carrying and HB loading for example) rectangular grids using the
HA
minimum number of cross or distributional beams can provide an economical
structure (Fig. 1).

(b) Doublelayer: can show three fold advantage for structures carrying U.D.
loads, they give much better load distribution than the single layer type, enabling
the use of smaller sections, are also amenable to mass production methods of

LOADING OVER ALL LONGITUDINALS

LOADING (a) HA OVER BOTH CARRIAGEWAYS OR
(.b)HB ON ONE CARRIAGEWAY

LINE PLAN OF BRIDGE GIRDERS

Fig. 1

AXOMETRIC VIEW OF GRID

(ALTERNATE PYRAMIDS IN BROKEN LINE FOR CLARITY)

PYRAMIDS WORKS FABRICATED

« DELIVERED TO SITE
NESTING WITHIN ONE
ANOTHER.
BOTTOM TIES SUPPLIED
LOOSE.
LINE SKETCH OF SEPARATED ELEMENTS

DOUBLE LAYER GRID

Fig. 2
444 SPACE FRAMES
fabrication, the units thus produced stack very compactly for storage and
transport (Fig. 2). Several patented forms of roof construction exist in this form,
both in this country and on the continent. Some of these are capable of spanning
up to 45 m in each direction.

(ii) Diagonal Grids

(a) Single layer: are fairly simple to design and fabricate (many computer
bureaux have standard programmes for their structural analysis) and show
excellent load distribution for square or nearly square bays. Example 1 shows a
grid of this type and it is noticeable that the shearing forces and bending
moments have maximum values which are similar for each beam. They are the
most efficient form of single layer grid for spans of up to 22.5 m.
The example shows this grid type in its simplest form, even so it demonstrates
clearly that its deflection to construction depth and span to weight characteristics
are markedly superior to primary and secondary beam construction.

(b) Double layer type: Because the single layer type gives such good
distribution, double layer diagonal grids are rarely used, where additional span or
distributional characteristics are required other grid forms are used.

(iii) Three Way Grids

For wide spans, irregular shapes and areas in which internal supports cannot
be placed equidistantly in each direction this form is often used. They consist of
beam or lattice beam members running in three different directions, forming a
triangular pattern in plan from which some members may be omitted to form a
secondary hexagonal pattern (Fig. 3 (a), (b) and (c)).
The stiffness or the strength of elements of the grid or of single members may
be altered to suit the loading conditions or spans prevailing at different points of
the whole structure. This makes it the most flexible type of grid structure but
also the most difficult to design. Simple two-way, single-layer grids can be
designed in any good general design office and fabricated by any shop which has
the initiative to take on work which varies only slightly from plane frame and
beam fabrication. Double layer two-way grids are not so simple to design but can
be the simplest form to fabricate.
Three-way grids of any form, though, can show the greatest advantage over
simple, single spanning beams for the cases noted above, but must remain the preserve
of the specialist consultant to design and the most accurate and best equipped
shops to fabricate.
Figures 3 (a), (b) and (c) illustrate some of the devices by which material and
fabrication time may be saved by using this form of construction. From these
sketches some of the complexities in the analysis of such structures can also be
envisaged.
To sum up the merits of the various grid forms, it may be said that generally;

(a) Rectangular two-way single-layer grids can only show to advantage under
special loading conditions.
(b) Rectangular two-way double-layer grids and single-layer diagonal grids are
best used over areas of equal span or equal bays in each direction.
446 SPACE FRAMES
The Beams are of negligible torsional compared with bending rigidity.- The
calculations are derived in terms of unit loads placed at the beam intersections,
the distance a being also taken as unity. The calculations may therefore be used
for any similar arrangements having the inertia’s of the beams in each direction in a
ratio 1.5:1. Let / = inertia of smaller section.

HALF SECTION A-A

THE TUBULAR BOTTOM CHORDS MAY BE PLACED
ABOVE OR BELOW THE BOTTOM FLANGE OF THE
CASTELLA BEAMS AS SHOWN
LATTICE BEAMS JOINTED AT EACH INTERSECTION
CASTELLA BEAMS JOINTED /IS NOTED

DETAILS OF GRID IN EXAMPLE No. I

Fig. 4

The vertical deflections of each numbered point are worked out in terms of
the applied unit loads and the reaction or ‘link force’ between the lattice and
castellated beam at that point. These link forces are the unknown Xi, 2 X ,

X 3 . . . derived in the equations below. As the deflection for the castellated beam
and the lattice beam must be identical at each separate point they may be
equated. For example the deflection at point 1 is:
 EXAMPLE OF SPACE FRAME 447

Castellated Beam Lattice Beam

3 3
0.167fl _Zi ^ a 1-2.04167(1 - Xi) + 3.375(1 - X 3 ) + 3.9583(1 - X4 )
1 3E h
+ 3.9167(1 - Xe) + 1.2917(1 - Xi) + 2.4583(1 - X 3)

+ 3.375(1 -X 4 )]

By grouping the terms together the following expression is obtained:

3 3
^
Q.lllg _Xi ^ « [20.417 - 3.333X, - 5.833X2 - 7.333X4 ~ 3.917X6]
‘ E E

Dividing through by a^/E and rearranging the two right-hand equations:

^= 20.416 = 3.444X1 + 5.833X2 + 7.333X4 + 3 917 . X6

Similar expressions are derived for each point, from which the following set of
simultaneous equations are obtained.

A-, :r8 A-,

20'4I6 3 44 + 0 -f- 5-833 4- 7-33 + 0 ~h 3-916 + 0 4* 0 4* 0 + 0

8-33 = 0 -1- 3-22 + 0-6li -1- 0 4- 3-83 + 0 + 2-16 + 0 4" 0 + 0

37-5 = 00
+ 1-22 + 11-55 + 13-66 + 0 4* 7-33 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0

48-75 = 7-33 + 0 -1- 13-66 + 20 96 -t- 5-1I 4- 9-75 + 0 + 0 + 0 f 00

•00

14-33 = 0 + 3-83 + 0 + 2-55 + 11-il 4- 0 + 3-833 + 0 + 0 + 2-55

52-66 = 7-83 -t- 0 + 14-66 + 19-5 + 0 4- 17-77 + 13-0 + 9 77 + 5-22 + 0

16-45 = 0 -f-
4-33 + 0 + 0 + 7-66 + 6-5 + 16-45 + 9-11 + 4-86 + 0

3-16 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 4-86 f 9-1I + 00

+ 3-86 + 1-835

0-16 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 4- 2-611 + 4-86 + 3-86 + 2-386 + 0

2-25 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 1-44 + 2-55 4- 0 + 0 + 0 916 + 0 + 2-88

The solution of these equations by computer gives

Xi = 4.4994 X 5 = 0.2498 Xg = 1.237

X2 = 2.0463 X6 = 0.3802 X9 = -3.4586
X3 = -0.6244 X7 = 0.5370 Xio= -0.3168
X4 = 0.9644

From these the bending moment diagrams and shearing force diagrams for
each beam may be derived (as they give the same values on each side of the
centre line, only half of each diagram is drawn (see Figs. 5 and 6
)).
448 SPACE FRAMES

DIAGFiAME

COEFFICieNT

M.
0,

LATTICE BEAMS, B.M. & S.E COEFFICIENTS

FOR B. M;s xby FOR S.F’s x by
Fig. 5

CASTELLA BEAMS B.M. <S S.F COEFFICIENTS

FOR B. M'.s X by wa^, FOR S.lFs x by wa^
Fio. 6
 EXAIvIPLE OF SPACE FRAME 449

the particular example,

These diagrams are for unit load at unit spacing. For
allowing a total load of 2.0 kN/m^ over the plan
area of the roof, the shear

forces must be multiplied by

3.182^ X 2.0 = 20.25 kN
The bending moments by
3.182^ X 2.0 = 64.44 kNm
Selecting the worst cases

Lattice Beams Castellated Beams

Point 9. B.M. = 64.44 x 2.229 = Point B.M. = 64.44 x 2.25 = 145 kNm
1.

143.6 kNm Use 610 X 140 X 39 kg castellated U.B.

Use 406 X 152 x 59 kg U.B. 1= 29 007 cm^ Z = 966.8 cm^
/= 20 620 cm"* Z = 1 011 cm^ fbc
= 150 N/mm^
fjjc
= 142 N/mm^ (This B.M. is at point of lateral support
(Locate through castellation of other .'.
= 165 N/mm^)
pijc
beam)

Point 1. B.M. = 64.44 x 1.529 = Point 9. B.M. = 64.44 x 1.96 = 126 kNm
98.5 kNm
Chord load = ^=
98 5
131.4 kN Section as above

Bottom use 76 X 76 X 3.25 mm

R.H.S. (-133.1 kN)
Top use 76 X 51 x 3.25 mm R.H.S.
(157.4 kN)

Point 10. B.M. = 64.44 x 1.198 = Point 2. B.M. = 64.44 x 1.73 = 112 kNm
77.2 kNm
Chord load =

Effective lengths
^ =
=102.9 kN
2.1 m (XX) and
Section as above

0.525(77)m
Top use 76 X 51 x 3.25 mm R.H.S.
(- 101.8 kN)
Bottom use 64 x 38 x 3.25 mm
R.H.S. (122.8 kN)
All R.H.S. chords to B.S. 4360 Grade Consider chords at 0.75 centres; checkm
50 second moment of area at end of
calculation

Deflection at point 6 = ^
2.1 X 10^ X 19 300
= 60 mm =
300
L
for 0.75 kN/m^ imposed load.
800
The maximum shear force to be taken by a diagonal bracing

= 1.97 X 20.25 = 39.9 kN

Diagonal length = 1.093 m
450 SPACE FRAMES
1 09 '^
Max. load= x 39.9 = 58.1 kN Use 43 x 3.25(59.4 kN)

For shears less than 24.5 kN, use 27 x 3.25(35.6 kN)

The maximum compression load to be taken by a vertical

= -39.9 kN
Effective length = 0.525 m Use 34 x 3.25(— 40.2 kN)

For shears less than 27 kN Use 27 x 3.25( —27.0 kN)

—ve loads compressive, +ve loads tensile, bracing all in C.H.S.

Loads in brackets after section size are safe loads to B.S. 449 Part 2 1969
from Stewarts and Lloyds Ltd., ‘Safe Load Tables and Section Properties’.

Second Moment of Area of Lattice beams, considering chords only

= 33.52^ X 7.55 + 42.7^ x 5.91 + 31.09 + 13.36

= 19 300 cm'*. Ex. 76 X 51 x 3.25 and 64 x 38 x 3.25 R.H.S.

beams as this except in areas near points 1 and 9.

All
The weight of steel per m^ is approximately 17 kg of which 75 per cent is in
Castellated sections and 25 per cent tubular sections.

2. Space Structures Resoluble into a Series of Plane Frames

Simple examples of this form are bridges, conveyor bridges, crane girders and
crane jibs, electricity supply transmission towers and radio aerial masts and towers
of rectangular or square cross-section subjected to loads which induce torsion
 RESOLUBLE INTO A SERIES OF PLANE FRAMES 451

into the complete structure. The cross-section need not be uniform throughout,
in fact pipe and conveyor bridges are frequently designed as changing from
rectangular to triangular cross-section through their length, the rectangular and
the triangular sections each being of varying section (see Fig. 7). It is important,
for reasonably accurate analysis by this method and for ease of fabrication, that
the structure can be resolved into a series of plane frames. Even if the structure
is so resolute, the analysis by this method is often an approximation.

Taking the case of a transmission tower under the broken conductor condition
(i.e. one of the conductor wires is assumed broken on one side of the tower, the

continuation of this conductor is assumed unbroken and exerting a heavy

horizontal tension on the crossarm in the direction of the line), the heavy torsion
load thus induced in the tower trunk is generally assumed to be divided between
the parallel faces in line with the crossarms and those normal to the crossarms,
and shears are applied at the level of the crossarm in each of these four planes to
correspond with the applied torque — i.e. the shear to each plane is equal to
PLjlB (see Fig. 8 for derivation of P, L and B).

Now, if the legs of the tower are ‘eiffelised’ (that

is, if they have an inward
camber as has the Eiffel
Tower), the sides of the tower do not form a plane
trame, thus the solution of this
frame must be no more than a good approxi-
mation. In addition to the loads
due to torsion the unbroken conductor exerts
an horizontal load on the
tower body in the direction of the line, this is usually
452 SPACE FRAMES
taken being shared between the faces of the tower normal to the crossarm
as axis.

All the other forms of loading on transmission towers can be reasonably

considered as plane frame loadings and are not considered in this chapter.
Space frame roof structures are often designed by this method of resolution
into plane frames.
To demonstrate the principle in its simplest form consider the single-span
shown in Fig. 9, in each slope of which there is a lattice girder.
north-light roof,
The ‘verticals’ or struts in these girders act as rafters spanning from eaves to apex
levels, as shown in Fig. 9 (a) and (c), and receive the dead and wind loads from
the purlins, which have been omitted from the Figure for the sake of clarity.
TTie eaves reaction of each rafter is postulated to be vertical and this is shown

Struts of Lattice girders Lattice girders

span as beams in roof slopes
Lattice girders
K

SECTION
(a)

Side supports
'carrying vertical
'—loads only
Rigid
gable '—Struts of lattice girders
frame span as beams taking roof
load to top and bottom chords
GABLE FRAME fc;
N Fig. 9

provided by side posts. From this it follows that the direction of the reaction at
the apex end under dead load, wind pressure or wind suction can be found as
shown in Fig. 10 (a), (b) and (c).
The load on each rafter is then resolved into components in the lines of these
reactions, and the original load on each is replaced by the equivalent loads at
eaves and apex, as shown in Fig. 1 1
At each panel point at the apex these equivalent loads from the rafters are
then resolved into components in the planes of the slopes, to give the panel point
loads for the design of the lattice girders.
Consider, for example, the north-light roof shown in outline in Fig. 12, and
assume that the rafters are at 3.75 m centres, thereby fixing the panel lengths for
both girders. With the horizontal wind pressure taken at 0.5 kN/m^, and assuming
that the sides of the building and roof covering are such that the flow of air
through them is practically negligible, the loads for design purposes mil be as
shown.
 SPACE FRAME ROOF STRUCTURE 453

Sout/i S/ope A North S/opt B

Aptx

Dead Dead
£oyts Load Load Eovts
AH rtoct/ons
yertico/

Aptx Rioct/on

Ap^
Apex Reaction \
^
Pr^J^ure P
'

^ \ I

Eovti
p4pex .

iv p ^v^oo</
Vertical
Reaction
Load p.

Aptx
I

V
£ovt» ,

^ f
y^rlicot
Reaction

Log^

Apex Reaction

Wind Wind
\Suctlon Sa Suction Sg

Eaves \ Eaves
Aptx
Vertical S'orcs "^^Load Vertical
Reaction Load £oyt9
j

Load Reaction
Aptx
Load

Fig. 10
 i

454 SPACE FRAMES

EQUIVALENT EAVES AND APEX LOADS

Fig. 11

LOADING SOUTH SLOPS NORTH SLOPE

Dead CverticaD 0-25 kNfm^
~
O-AOkNjm^
Measured
Wind to right Nil O-BSkNjm^ suction
'on slope

Wind to left O-ZSkNj suction O-ZOkNjm^ pressure

Wind loads normal to surface

Snow C vertical O-SOkNjm^ O-SOkNIm^ Measured on

' plan

Fig. 12

; loads per panel will therefore be as shown in Fig. 13.

South slope North slope

Dead load 6.089 kN 5.625 kN
Snow load 10.547 kN 3.516 kN
Wind to right Nil 3.516 kN suction
Wind to left 6.089 kN suction 2.813 kN
 455
SPACE FRAME ROOF STRUCTURE

3-5I6kN ^SI6kN Apex Load

Eaves
Load '^•5J6kN Suction

\ 2-8l3kN
£:-aioKi 2-8i3kN Apex Load
6 089k/A “J-5/<5 Eaves
\ kN Load
2-813 kN
SOUTH SLOPE NORTH SLOPE
Fig. 13

The apex loads are also shown in this Figure and are tabulated below:

South slope North slope

Dead and snow 8.318 kN 4.571 kN
Wind to right Nil 3.516 kN
Wind to left 3.516 kN 2.813 kN
These loads are then resolved into components in the respective slopes, as
shown in Fig. 14, from which it is obvious that the maximum panel point load
for the south-slope girder is given with the wind blowing to the left and for the
north-slope girder with the wind blowing to the right, and the following figures
result:
456 SPACE FRAMES
Maximum Panel Point Loads

South slope

Dead and snow 12.89 X sin 30° = 6.445 kN

Wind to left 6.33 X sin 30° = 3.165 kN
9.610 k N

North slope

Dead and snow 12.89 X cos 30°= 11.161 kN

Wind to right 3.52 X cos 30°= 3.043 kN

14.204 kN

6-329kN

\ \
12-889 kN\ \

Dead Loads Wind to right Wind to left

>^Sl6kN 6-329kN
o-j^
5-482
3-043 kN
kN ^h7S6 46SkN
kN

Fig. 14

These are maximum panel point loads to be applied at the top chords of the
lattice girders, provided that independent girders are used. The case of girders with
a common top chord is considered later.
It now remains to find the forces to be applied at panel points in the bottom
chords of the girders due to wind effect on the sides of the buildings. Assuming that
the shed is 3.0 m
high to eaves with posts at 3.75 m
centres to suit the panel length,
and that there is suction and pressure as indicated in Fig. 15, then the side posts
may be assumed to act as vertical beams spanning from ground to eaves level. Their

WIND TO RIGHT 0-25kNj pressure 0-25kNjm^ suction

WIND TO LEFT 0-25kNjm^ suction 0-2SkNlm^ pressure

Fig. 15
 SPACE FRAME ROOF STRUCTURE 457

on each of the lattice girders will therefore be half the

total
horizontal reactions
reactions are then resolved into
load on each side, i.e. 1.406 kN. These horizontal
lattice girders, resulting in panel point loads in the
planes of the
the planes of the
girders of 1.621 the south slope and 2.812 kN in the north slope. Considering
kN in
suction on the
wind blowing to the left, then for the south slope the load due to
apex, whilst wind
south side acts in the same direction as the wind effect at the

blowing to the right increases the loads in the north slope girder.
The final loadings for the two lattice girders are thus as shown in Fig.' 16 (a) and
(b).
The vertical forces in the side posts are combined from the vertical reactions
shown in Fig. 13, and the additional vertical component caused by resolving the
wind loads on the sides of the building into the planes of the lattice girders, and are:

South side posts North side posts

'

Dead and snow + 8.318 kN + 4.570 kN

Wind to left.
from rafter - 3.516 kN + 2.813 kN
from side wind - 0.812 kN + 2.432 kN
Wind to right.
from rafter Nil -3.516 kN
from side wind + 0.812 kN - 2.432 kN
Maximum value + 9.130 kN + 9.815 kN
If the lattice girders in the two slopes have a common fop chord, some reduction
can be made in the panel point loads at the apex, since the values given in Fig. 16
(a) and (b) are the maximum which can exist in either slope and are not possible at
the same time; it is therefore necessary to consider the load which can exist in both
slopes simultaneously. See Fig. 16 (c) and (d).

Apex loads South slope North slope

Dead and snow 6.445 kN 11.161 kN
Wind to left 3.165 kN - 5.482 kN
9.610 kN 5.679 kN
Dead and snow 6.445 kN 11.161 kN
Wind to right - 1.760 kN 3.043 kN
4.699 kN 14.204 kN
Eaves loads

Wind to left kN
1.621 -2.813 kN
Wind to right -1.621 kN 2.813 kN
^ members and the bottom chord members of the
1
attice girders m both slopes should be designed for the loads previously given, but
designed for the reduced total loads given in

example it will be apparent that the basic principle

of this method of
ign is that advantage is taken of the line common to two inclined
planes, since
458
Panel Point Loads
at Apex 9-6IOkN each

PART SOUTH SLOPE

C aJ GIRDER

Panel Point Loads

at Eaves 1-621 kN each

Panel Point Loads

at Apex l4'204kN each
(bj PART NORTH SLOPE
GIRDER
Panel Point Loads
at Eaves 2-813kN each
LOADS FOR INDEPENDENT GIRDERS

CcJ

SOUTH SLOPE
COINCIDENT LOADINGS - WIND TO LEFT

4-699 kN each 14 -204kN each

; ; I

C d)
i i
2-8l3kN each
^
^
1-621 l<N each
NORTH SLOPE
SOUTH SLOPE
COINCIDENT LOADINGS - WIND TO RIGHT
Fig. 16.

any loads acting at this line can be resolved into components acting in these planes,
and any such line is regarded as the boom of two lattice girders. (See Example 2 for
a fully worked example).
The end reactions of thelattice girders are provided by triangulated or other
stiff frames ends of the building or intermediate points. These frames transfer
at the
the loads to the foundations.
 SPACE FRAME ROOF STRUCTURE 459

The system can easily be extended to the case of multi-bay roofs as shown in
Fig. 17, which depicts, under the action of dead loads only, a four-bay roof without
internal supports. It will be noticed that lattice girders extend the full depth of each
slope, and in consequence, for any given overall width, an increase in the number

Lotties girders Constant dead foods on

in all slopes. 'Verticois"of lattice girders
W

Cross - section
Four equal spans

Apex and Valley

DEAD Loads
LOADS /

Pane! point foods

Internal slopes

Fig. 17
460 SPACE FRAMES
of lattice girders will result in a reduction in the length of the ‘verticals’ of the
girders, with a consequent reduction of the B.M.s in these members. It is thus
economical in framing to utilise a fairly large number of slopes. Under the action of
dead loads only, all lattice girders, other than those in the two outer slopes, receive
equal panel point loads at both top and bottom chords provided that the slopes are
of the same length and the dead load per unit of area is constant. The two outer

Fig. 18

girders (A) are loaded at their top chords only, the reaction at the eaves end of each
‘vertical’ being supplied by a post. This top-chord load is the same amount as for
all other top-chord loads in the structure.
The action of the roof framing under wind loads is analysed as explained in
connection with the example of the north-light roof, but it must be remembered
when finding the panel point loads that the reactions at the eaves are vertical, which
thus affects the loads in the two slopes A and B.
The example in Fig. 18 shows several types of end frame. In diagram (a) a tie at
eaves level ensures stability of the sloping lattice girders, and the horizontal
components of their reactions are taken to foundation level by columns fixed at
their bases.
In diagram (b) the three inner columns serve to take vertical components only,
and horizontal forces are transferred through the eaves level tie to the braced frames.
Alternatively, as shown in diagram (c), supports may be provided at the eaves only,
the inclined lattice girders being supported by another lattice girder in a vertical
 461
SPACE FRAME ROOF STRUCTURE
dane Rigid frames can also be utilised as sketched
m
diagram (d).
utilised lattice girders of equal
depth to the
^ examples so far discussed have
The
mofslope, but this is not essential.
The rafters used in the lattice
length of the
girlers must in all cases span from valley to apex as beams, m addition to forming

Fig. 19

the struts of the lattice girders of reduced depth as shown in Fig. 19. There must
always be at least one lattice girder per slope.
The construction can also be extended to mansard roofs, and Fig. 20 demonstrates
this application. The loads from the roof are carried to the node points of the lattice
girders by the rafters which also act as the struts in the girders. The loads at the
nodes are resolved into the planes of the girders which meet at the nodes as
previously explained. Horizontal lattice girders in Fig. 20 (b) and (c) will take no
load other than that due to unsymmetrical loading such as wind, as the dead loads
are self-cancelling.
Example 2 illustrates the design of a folded plate type roof in skeletal con-
struction resolved into plane frames, the general arrangement being shown in Fig. 21.
The calculations are annotated to be self-explanatory, but the following points are
also relevant to this structural form;

(a) The roof slopes in the example are equal about the ridges, but the method
can be applied to the completion of the design of north light construction as
illustrated in pages 452 to 458, with the exception that two roof plane
frames, two thrust girders and two rafters need to be designed.
(b) The method can also be applied to monitor roofs but in this case the cheeks
of each monitor must be braced to give stability to the upper
roof.
462 SPACE FRAMES

Fig. 20

(c) It is extremely easy to analyse the separate plane frames for this kind of
structure, it is almost as easy to forget the fact that these frames are com-

pounded into a single space structure which must have overall stability. For
example the omission, of the end thrust girders or the ties in Example (b)
would lead to instability, even though each of the plane frames have been
properly designed. This is particularly important in the case of north light
roofs of this form, where bracing in the south slope sometimes tends to be
forgotten, leading to instability andbowing of the chords of the north light
girder. In monitor roofs both upper and lower roofs require bracing, or the
rafters made continuous between braced planes.
(d) Where more than three plane frames are linked together to form a space
structure similar to that illustrated in example (b), the load taken
by each
frame cannot be assessed, even approximately, from consideration of statics.
Furthermore under some conditions of loading such structures can become
unstable if considered as pin jointed, even though they may be apparently
stable under uniformly distributing loading. Consequently structures in this
category are dealt within the next section as braced vaults.

It must be emphasised that the methods of analysis outlined in this section are in
general only approximate. They can be used effectively for preliminary designs and
for comparatively small structures but for major structures or repetitive designs
more accurate methods of final analysis should be used. With the growing use and
development of programmes for the analysis of space structures by means of the
digital computer, it is safe to say that in the next five years, final analysis will always
be made by this means. The case for the analysis of torsional loads in transmission
towers and other structures of box section by means of the computer is particularly
strong as this is the only means of obtaining accurate results economically.
 SPACE FRAME ROOF STRUCTURE

27m SPAN ROOF WITH INCLINED LATTICED GIRDERS

AH sections to be Grade43steel unless noted otherwise

Rafters .4^ Inclined girders

f\i

Tie only
at gables
'
%Om^
5‘88m^ 6‘Om
Item

i-Om
— ;

||h-
I
uviT
m
6-1
valley

f* -’T*

!S 1IIMII m
mi
iSlil
iliislll

Eaves Ba Intermediate

This purlin omitted

where glazing
occurs

0-4Sm cts. of chords

Tie only at gables

S-88m
DETAIL OF RAFTER
 SPACE FRAMES
Example 2.

Loading
Dead Load:
Decking, etc. = 275 N/m^
Purlins = 65 N/m^
Rafters and inclined girders = 150 N/m^

Total dead load on plan = 490 N/m^ = 0.49 kN/m^

Super Load (To C.P.3. Chap. V. Part 1): On plan = 0.75 kN/m^

1.24 kN/m^
say 1.25 kN/m^
Wind Load (To C.P.3. Chap. V. Part 2):
Basic wind speed V say = 40 m/s
Factor S'! =1.0
Factor 5'2 (class 3.C.) = 0.66
Factor 53 =1.0
Design wind speed P’s = 40 x 1.0 x 0.66 x 1.0
= 26.4 m/s
Dynamic wind pressure q = 0.613 = 428 N/m^
Pressure coefficients Cpe for roof ft = 5 m w = 27 m
h 5 1.1,
S 27
Wind normal C^e ~ —0.4(7 Wind = —O.lq
tangential Cpe
Internal pressure coefficients Cpj cannot be determined without more details
of the building so assume maximum value = O.lq
Then maximum uplift on roof will be (0.7 + 0.2)^ = 0.9^7
Wind uplift = 0.9 x 428 = 385 N/m^ = 0.385 kN/m^
This is less than the dead load of 0.49 kN/m^ therefore the effect on the roof
structure can be ignored.

Purlins

These are designed in accordance with Clause 45 B.S. 449:Part 2 1969.

Rafter

Type 1 . Latticed tubular girder

Load on rafter = 6.0 x 3.0 x 1.25 = 22.5 kN

Reactions = = 1 1 .25 kN

22 ^ ^ ^
Force in chords due to load on rafter = ^ = ± 37.5 kN
8 X 0.45

Maximum shear resisted by internal bracings = 1 1 .25 x -^ = 9.375 kN

6

Maximum force in internal bracing (by vector diag. Fig. 21(a)) =12.0 kN Sections:

(a) For Upper chord size see Main Girder calculations.

 ^
SPACE FRAME ROOF STRUCTURE 465

(b) For Lower chord use 34 x 3.25 mm

C.H.S. (circular hollow section)
Actual load + 37.5 kN.
Allowable load 315 x 155 =48 800 N 48.8 kN
—
(c) For Internal Bracings use 27 x 3.25 C.H.S.mm
100 X 0.7 _
Actual load = 12 kN. Effective-
= I
— 58

Allowable load = 243 x 127 = 30.8 kN.

Type 2. Castellated Joist.

22.5 X 6
Bending Moment = 16.88 kNm
8

Axial Load (from Main Girder calcs.) = — 128.6 kN (3, 5).

-149.3 kN (A2).

(A2 only combined with half B.M.)

Try 152 X 89 mm x 17 kg joist castellated to 228 x 89 mm

I _ 10.67 X 10^
} 20.1 Pc= 131 N/mm^

229
T 8.28
27.6 fbe- 165 N/mm^

128.6 X 10^ ^ 16.88 x 10^

“
18.1 X lO"" X 131 181.9 X 10^ X 165

No good.
(d) For rafter use 267 x 102 x 22 kg Castella (ex
178 x 102 joist)
or 254 X 102 x22 kg U.B.

Main Inclined Girders

Consider forces acting on girders due to

dead load plus super load.
466 SPACE FRAMES
11-25 11-25

24-!

Internal forces acting on inclined girders and thrust girder

Fig. 21 (b) shows internal forces acting on inclined girders and thrust girders

/J J 26-6 26-6 26-6 26-6 4-27

Genera! arrangement and forces on inclined girders

Fig. 21(c)

Length of diagonals:

Member 2—3. 4.0^ = 16.0

3.0^ = 9.0

25.0 = 5.0"

Member 1—2. 2.33^ = 5.43

3.0^ = 9.0

14.43 = 3.8"

Member 14—15. 4.0^ = 16.0

1.5" = 2.25

18.25 = 4.27

Member 13—14. 2.33-' = 5.43

1.5" = 2.25

7.68 = 2.77'
 SPACE FRAME ROOF STRUCTURE 467
a purlin line so that
The diagonals of the girders have been arranged to node on
the members in tension are longer than those in compression.
Loads in chords and sections of chords:
Members F15 & L13: Bending Moment = 212.8 x 13.5 = 2 873
- 53.2x4x6.0 = 1 277
f 596 kNm
1 596
Load in member = ±252.1 kN
6.33

Sections: Top chord FI

Axial Load = 2 x —252.1 = —504.2 kN

(Note: Compressive loads in members are considered negative and tensile loads

considered positive.)

Effective length = 3.0 x 0.85 = 2.55 m

(e) Try 219 mm x 5.39 mm C.H.S.

/
-=
r
—151
2.55 X 10^
= oo
33.69 Pc
“ 141 1 1
N/mm 2
XT/

Allowable load = 36.12 x 10^ x 141 = 509 300 N = 509.3 kN

Bottom chord LI 3.

Axial load = +252.1 kN

(f) Try 114 mm X 5.39 mm C.H.S.

Allowable load =18.45x10^x155 = 286 kN

Members C6 & H4: Bending Moment = 212.8 x 6.0 = 1 276.8
- 52.3 x3.0= 159.6

1 117.2 kNm
1 117 2
member =
'

Load in -
= ± 1 76.5 kN
6.33

Depending upon the relationship between fabrication and material costs it may
prove economical to ‘curtail’ the chord sections. To enable this detail to be checked
by the fabricator the sections for C6 and H4 will be calculated.

Sections: Top chord C6.

Axial load = 2 x -176.5 = -353 kN

Effective length = 2.55 m
From steelmakers’ tables safe load for

(s) 168 mm X 5.39 mm C.H.S. = 372 kN

Bottom chord H4.
Axial load = + 176.5 kN
468 SPACE FRAMES
(h) Use 1 14 mm x 5.39 mm
C.H.S. The details will become awkward if a tube
of smaller diameter is used and it is dangerous to use the same diameter tube
with a different wail thickness in the one component, i.e. bottom chord.

Fig. 21(d)

Consider alternative section for bottom chord using rolled steel channel (Fig. 21
(d)). This would produce a neat detail at the valley and if castellated rafters are used
the structure could be site bolted as against site welding using tubes. The latter would
obviously be neater but more expensive.
Consider Bottom chord L13.

Axial load + 252.1 kN

(j) Try 152 mm x 76 mm x 18 kg R.S.C.

Gross Area = 22.77 cm^

Less holes 2 x 2.1 x 0.635 = 20.67 cm^

Net area 20.10 cm^

Allowable load = 20.1 x 10^ x 155 = 311 600 N =311.6kN
Loads in bracings and sections of bracings.
The safe loads shown in the following table are taken direct from the steel-
makers’ tables.
The factor for effective length is taken as 0.7 for sitewelded construction and
0.85 for site bolting. For the purpose of the table site welding has been considered.

Shear coefficients:
5.0
Members 2-3, 5-6, 8-9, 11-12 0.79
6.33
O O,
” 1-2,4-5,7-8,10-11=^ = 0.60

3-5,6-8,9-11,12-14 = 1:^ = 0.63

0.33

95
1-5,4-8,7-11, 10-14 = 141 = 0.37.
0.33
 SPACE FRAME ROOF STRUCTURE 469

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 SPACE FRAME ROOF STRUCTURE 471

Tlmist Girder at Eaves (shown on Fig. 21(e))

The chord load at the eaves line reduces the effect of the inclined girder forces
so this can be ignored.

(96.4 X 12.0) -(24.1 x 18.0)

The chord load in member A9
3:0

1 157 - 434
= +241 kN
3.0

(k) Use 1 14 X 5.39 mm C.H.S. (Allowable load = +286 kN)

Bracing Shear Load '

Eff. Length Allowable

mm
'

Section
Member kN kN m (0.7 L) Load

B-1 108.4 2.10 89 X 4.06 C.H.S. -124.6

1-2 96.4 2.97 yy 1

+168.0
2-3 2.10 -124.6
3-4 72.3 2.97 76 X 3.25 C.H.S. +115.0
4-5 »> - 72.3 2.10 - 75.7
5-6 48.2 + 68.1 2.97 60 X 3.25 C.H.S. + 90.4
6-7 >» - 48.2 2.10 76 X 3.25 C.H.S. - 75.7
7-8 24.1 + 34.1 2.97 60 X 3.25 C.H.S. + 90.4
8-9 - 24.1 2.10 1
_ — - 43.7
9-10 — — 2.35 — >> — + 90.4
i

Tie at Gables

Resultant load in tie = 193 - 96.4 = +96.6 kN (see Fig. 21(f)).

Use 6.0 X 4.06 mm C.H.S. tie.
Gable peak verge rails and sheeting rails would be added to carry sheeting if
required.

Tbrust girder reaction

108-4 -12-0 = 96 4kN

Tie ioad 96-6 kN

>
>

Fig. 21(0
472 SPACE FRAMES
3. Braced Vault Construction
As mentioned in the previous section, roof structures built from four or more
skeletal plane frames to form an arched vault are considered in this section. Two
way arched roof structures covering circular, elliptical, regularly polygonal (including
square) areas in plan are dealt with as domes in the next section. These arbitrary
definitions have been made to avoid overlap between matters discussed in the
separate sections.
The most common types of braced vault are:

Rectangular vaults of prismatic cross section with vertical end diaphragms.

(i)

The cross sectional shape is generally that of a segment of a circle, but may be semi-
elliptical or parabolic. The circular section allows for simpler detailing and fabrication
but the last two are probably more efficient structurally.

Rectangular hipped vaults (to which class Example 3 belongs) in which the
(ii)

cross sectionis as for type (i) but the ends are shaped away in curved or flat hips.

This form has two advantages over type (i):

(a) The hips have the effect of stiffening the central area of the vault; this is an
important consideration for vaults which have very light cladding and may be
subjected to heavy differential loading from wind, etc.
(b) Junctions between the ends and sides of adjacent roofs are simplified and
rainwater collection can be unified into a single system (gutters can be
carried all round each bay) thus providing an insurance against temporary
blockage of individual down pipes.

(iii) North
light vaults. Generally these are supported along their edges by north-
light girdersand are thus not two-way spanning vaults in the strict sense. A number
of pure vaults have been constructed in which the framing to the north lights merely
serves to separate the north and south edges of adjacent vaults and to support the
glazing. However, provided a north-light girder has slender bracing members which
do^not obstruct the light unduly, it appears more logical to provide girders rather
than spacing members only in this position.
North-light vaults provide an unobstructed soffit to the south roof slopes, by
selection of the right shape and surface to this soffit the uniformity of light
distribution within the building can be enhanced without detracting from the quality
of the natural light.

(iv) Double curved vaults. Though this type are generally more difficult to
fabricate and to detail, they are probably the most suited to skeletal construction,
the double curvature providing extra stiffness enabling lighter members and
connections to be used. Anticlastic surface shapes are suited for use as auditorium
roofs and may be designed to provide all straight members apart from the transverse
ribs. The division between arched vault and suspended structures occurs within this
range of surface shapes.
Generally, if the curvature in both directions is upward to the centre, the
structure is obviously an arched vault; if the curvature is downwards in both
directions it is a suspended structure. If the structural shape is curved in one
direction upwards and one downwards (i.e. anticlastic) then the structure may be
partly suspended, partly arched, or fully suspended or fully arched depending on
its surface shape and boundary conditions.
 BRACED VAULT CONSTRUCTION 473

Under grossly unequal loading conditions braced vaults can give rise to large local
deformations even to the point of instability, though the same structure under
uniformly distributed loads may show very small deflections and be quite stable.
Where unequal loading can only be due to sub-hurricane wind effects (for example
the loads tabulated in C.P.3 Chapter V Part 2, 1970), provided the jointing system
employed allows a high degree of joint rigidity and the periphery is held in position
by a stiff edge beam or columns, these and the distributional effect of the roof
covering are generally deemed sufficient to restrain gross deformation in vaults of
normal proportions.
Where the unequal loading is due to hurricane or greater wind effects or

particularly severe ice and snow loadings vaults are often stiffened by intermediate
deep ribs in addition to a stiff ring beam.
For a series of vaults arranged in bays, with their frames connected structurally
in the valleys, the edge beams need not extend across.each valley line but should
carry all round the periphery of the building.
The computer programmes so far available for the analysis of vault structures are
based on the assumption of small linear deflections under load. It is therefore
important that the deflections and axial loads and moments should be printed out in
the analysis to see if they are acceptable in service and compatible with the small
deflection theory assumed.
Example 3 illustrates the application of the computer to a simple hipped vault.
Fig. 22 shows the general dimensions of the structure. The data arrangement fed
into the computer, the output of loads, moments and deflections under unit load
per square metre of plan area are annotated to refer to each member. From this the
worst loads for each type of member have been abstracted, factored by the dead
plus imposed load of 1.25 kN/m^ and checked for combined stress under B.S. 449:
Part 2, 1970. This vault would be quite stiff under all forms of loading and though
having too few slopes to be of the ideal structural shape, has a steelwork content
of 1 1.5 kg/m^ of area covered. This could undoubtedly be improved on, but is still
a reasonably economical proposition for any type of pitched roof construction.
Such a vault provides greatly increased usable volume within a building for a
given eaves height when compared with truss or portal construction. Its appearance
can be immeasurably superior, and this analysis indicates that its cost can be
comparable with any other form of construction.
Example 3.Braced Hipped Vault, The axial loads and moments in the members
of the vault shown in Fig. 22 have been calculated for an applied load of 1.0 kN/m^
of plan area. From these unit loads and moments the member forces for the actual
imposed loads are derived by direct proportion, by multiplying by the plan load -
1.25 kN/m^ in this case.

Section Properties x elastic moduli in Nmm units

EA EIx Ely GIp

3.23 X 10® 4.89 X lO" 4.89 X lO" 3.64 X lO” 114x4.47 mm C.H.S.
1.56 X 10® 1.04 X lo” 1.04 X lO" 0.79 X lO” 76 X 3.25 mm C.H.S.
2.27 X 10® lO”
1.97 X 1.97 X lO" 1.50 X lO” 89 X 4.06 mm C.H.S.

End of Section Properties.

474 SPACE FRAMES
K
5::
^ Q kj
to
tu
^ O 05
0,
O CL kj
05

K,
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T
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kJ
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05 5§
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s ^
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05 :
05
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b
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 BRACED VAULT CONSTRUCTION 475

Joint y ^
1 4 570 9 140 2 440
2 0 9 140 2 440
3 2 590 7 160 647
7 160 647 Ordinates of joints from 1 to 10 consecutively
4 0
5 4 570 4 570 2 440 arranged in x,y, z order.
6 2 590 2 260 647
7 0 4 570 0
8 4 570 0 2 440
9 2 590 0 647
10 0 0 0 End of ordinates.

Number of equations to be solved in each group

of joints Joints 1 4 on first line, 5 to 7 on
to
second line, 8 to 10 on third line (see Fig. 22).

2 2 6
3 6 3
1 3 1 End of equation data.

Joint Px Py Pz External loads and moments applied from 1 to

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 consecutively, arranged in x,y, z order loads
2 0 0 0 0 0 0
first, moments last. In this case only vertical
3 0 0 5.23 0 0 0
4 0 0 0 0 0 0 loads are applied.
5 0 0 4.54 0 0 0
6 0 0 10.44 0 0 0
7 0 0 5.92 0 0 0
8 0 0 2.26 0 0 0
9 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 0 0 2.96 0 0 0
Z End of External load data,

All the physical data required for the analysis of the particular vault is contained
in the print out from the data tape shown in the box above. Some small amount of
additional data is required concerning the sub-division of the actual analysis pro-
gramme, but this is not shown.
The deformations of each joint in terms of translations and rotations are
obtained and printed out by the computer programme. Note that the joints sub-
jected to restraint by virtue of the symmetry of loading and geometry of the structure
have no deflection or rotation in the restrained direction and therefore have no
print out in these directions.
From member loads and moments are calculated and
these deformations the
printed out on the next page.
The axial loads and moments obtained from the computer programme result
print out reproduced must be multiplied by 1 .25 to them to kN and kNm.
In this case only the axial load shown in the first column and the worst of the
moments shown in the two right-hand columns are important. The other columns
are taken up with shear-forces and torsional moments which are too small to be
significant for this type of structure.
Checking the stresses for the worst loaded case of each member gives the
following:
 + J 1

476 SPACE FRAlvIES

J
j Axisl Losd
‘
'
Shesnn^ Forces !
Torsiond Moment j
Bending Momeris
r Joint 1
[
j

LNr:
Members
J.
\
:1

[ 1j 1

A i
A !
p- I

1
^'4 J
1
i

Erd ) i
I

59 ! 38 -2 -5 7 _2 —2 1 9 _2 99 _2
j
f: -8 00 -52 64 —3 00 -52
E.nd 2 1
^ 5-3 4 1 00 -52 7
12 00 -52 20 -2 00 -52 97 -3 00 4,5 _2
End 1
1
End: ( 23 _2 -6 8 -3 7^ —3 -9 2 -13 -5 9 —3
(l 00 -52 -2 0 _2 00 -52 -9 7 -3 00 -52 4,i _2
End I

1 -2 3 _2 6 8 —3 -7.5 -3 92 -3 -2 6 _9 19 _2
i
4 -1 2 1 1 -7 -1 8 5 00 -52 97 _2 -7 S _2
End 2 1
7 3J I 40 _2 2_2 -I IJ -I -5 0 -J 50 _2
(
6 39 4 2 —2 -19 -1 -5 9 _2 4 0 -I 9 7 _2
5 1-4 2 -5 4 -3 I 6 25 -3 -4 0 _? -2 6 -2
tj -3 8 -2 5 7 _2 4.5 7 -1 28 _2
j
'
j-5 9 1

End 1 4
End 2 3 I 2 1 -1 I -7 1 8 -6 00 -52 -9 7 _2 7S _2
End 1 5
j I 00 -52 8 7 -3 00 -52 3 3 _*)
00 -12
End 2
i

1-8 4 00 -52 49 00 -52 -1 -1 00 -52

r
|6 3 1 8 8 _2 -1.2 -1 -1 _2 I 8 -2 I 6 -I
j
‘
b 54 —3 -1 6 -2 -2 3 -3 -19 _2 50 —3
End 1 6
(
t 7 1 4 0 34 _2 20 -1 -8.5 -3 -3 1 -1 4 7 _2
J 10 ' 8 -4 1 _2 28 -1 4 5 _2 -5 0 1 -7 1 _2
End 2 1 9
,

'
5.2 1 00 -52 00 -52 -47 -8 -3 1 1 / 6 _2
1
8 '
4 7 0 -7 9 _2 1 8 -1 -3 8 -3 -3-5 -I -1.5 -1
1
1
5 -8 8 _2 I 2 -I 1.5 _2 X6 -I 15 -I
3 '
-3 9 1 -4 2 1 9 -1 5 9 _2 5 4 -1 1 1 -1
End I 7
3 1 -4 0 -2 -2 2 -1 1 3 -I -3.5 -I 99 _2
f i-3.5
End 2
1

6 1-14 0 -3 4 -20 -1 8.5 -3 -4 0 1 73 _2

1 10
1
‘ 00 -52 2J 00 -52 -15 -1 00 -52
1

NoLstion of forces A x 10^ tv here A = the first number and n the inleser follouing
(ec 5 9 1 ^5 9x 10*59)
Cases which are entena for memb'er tv pcs arc underlined

1 14 X 4.47 CJH. Sections.

Member 1. 3 load = —59 x 1.25 = 73.8 kN. moment = 0.09 x 1.25

= 0.124 kNm
Length = 3 325 mm
effective length = 2 325 mm
73.8 0.124 X 10^
Unity eq. ^ = 0.40
192 40.7 X 165

Member 6. 9 load = -52 x 1.25 = 65.0 kN, moment = 0.31 x 1.25

= 0.388 kNm
Length = 4 572 mm
effective length = 3 200 mm
10^
Unity eq. = 65.0 ^ 0.388 X = 0.48
154 40.7 X 165

89 X 4.06 mm C.H. Sections

Member 5, 8 load = 84 x 1.25 = 105 kN. moment = 0.01 1 x 1.25
= 0.014 kNm
Length = 4 572 mm
effective length = 3 200 mm
.r
Umtyeq. =
-
— 0.014 X 10^
22 X 165
= 0.63
 DOMES •
All

76 x3.25 mm C.H. Sections

Member 5, 6 load = -31 x 1.25 = 39 kN, moment = 0.18 x 1.25

= 0.225 kNm

Length = 3 325 mm
effective length = 2 325 mm .

39.0 0.2 25 x 10^

Unity eq -- 0.68
57 5 13.2 x 165

Member 3, 5 load = +42 x 1 .25 = 52.5 kN, moment = 0.04 x 1 .25

= 0.05 kNm
52.5 0.05 x 10^
Unity eq. + ,
= 0.48
115 13,2 x 165

Maximum downward deflection at centre

= 14.8 X 1.25 at joint 8

= 18.5 mm
= Span divided by 986.

All the sections are well in hand and the construction is somewhat over-designed.
Even so, the weight of structural steel is only 1 1 .5 kg/m^ of covered area in plan.

Domes
By far themost advanced and familiar form of skeletal space structure is the
dome, though its range is perhaps the most limited. Probably the reason for this

public cognizance is that such large domes have been built; one in Austin, Texas,
has a diametral span in plan of over 180 m and spans of up to 450 m are being
considered in this country. Only suspension structures can compete economically
over such large spans, and these suffer from the major defects that in their most
efficient form storm water must be collected from the centre of the span and their

stability can be suspect under wind loading.

Domes, however, have a fundamentally stable shape which in any case tends to
streamline windflow, thus precluding the possibility of sharp changes of pressure or
suction round their surface. (Sharp changes of pressure, particularly if they can
develop rhythmically, can allow even low velocity winds to produce far worse
effects on a structure than uniform or slowly changing pressures at high velocities.)
Storm water disposal can only be a problem of volume and then only in the case of
very large domes.
Though the most efficient shape in plan is circular, domes can be efficient
structures in elliptical, polygonal and even square plan shape. Their prime use is
probably to cover sports arenas, large auditoriums and prestige exhibition halls, but
they have been used with conspicuous success
for comparatively small spans by
continental architects
and engineers. For auditoriums the most efficient structural
shape may not match the best acoustic
form; for such uses both criteria must be
examined in the design.
simplest form of dome comprises a series of radial arch ribs linked by purlins,
imere the spacing of the ribs
may be shortened as shown in Fig. 23 (a), the thrust
0 the shortened ribs must
be transferred to the through ribs by means of a braced
478 SPACE FRAMES
ring.The natural cross-sectional shape of a ribbed dome is probably* elliptical, in
order to allow the dead loads to be taken axially through the ribs without undue
eccentricity. For large span domes dead loads and snow loads are almost certainly
the most important. Dead loads per rib increase in magnitude in direct proportion
to the distance from the centre with a secondary increase in magnitude due to the
slope of the surface. Snow loads also increase in magnitude in direct proportion to
the distance from the centre but have a secondary decrease in magnitude due to
the slope of the surface. The line of thrust through the ribs will depend on the
balance between these two loads.
In spite of the fact that a segment of a sphere can rarely be the correct shape to
conform with the line of thrust derived from the worst loading condition, most
domes are built of this shape to simplify detailing.
If all the ribs of a dome are shortened (i.e. do not reach the centre) diagonal
bracing must be introduced between ribs and purlins, such domes are generally
statically determinate as pin-jointed structures and are known as Schwedler domes.
All ribbed domes induce an horizontal thrust at their feet which must be taken
up by a ring beam or by the foundations. They are comparatively simple to analyse
and the tendency has been to take advantage of this simplicity; the simplicity of
analysis is not matched by ease of detailing, fabrication or covering, for the
following reasons;

(a) ribs are always subjected to some bending action, therefore must be deep
The
comparison with their width. Tire fabrication of a deep curved section,
in
even if braced, is not straightforward.
(b) Purlins to support the roof covering must also be curved, which again is an
operation not welcomed by fabricators.
(c) Roof covering cannot easily be made in prefabricated units owing to the
constantly changing profile of the ribs.

More sophisticated methods of analysis have led to the development of other

forms of dome. The principal advantages which all of these new forms offer
skeletal
are:
(i) Covering techniques are greatly simplified.
(ii) Components may be fabricated in s'l-aight. ’mrt lengths generally connected
by patent connectors or site welding, or I
, J 'ontinuous curved members
which are often out of plane with each other and connected by loop shear
connectors.

A development of the ribbed dome which simplifies covering is the square grid
dome shown 23 (b) in which members act as an interconnected arched
in Fig.
rectangular grid. Domes of up to 30 m span have been built in this form.
Triangular or three-way grid domes are the most used today. They lend them-
selves to production in short, straight units and are adaptable to the polygonal and
square forms shown in Figs. 23 (c) and (d).
Tire skeletal dome can be an economical and visually pleasing structure provided
the function of the area it covers demands domical form either by reason of large
clear diametrical span (e.g. a covered arena) or architectural effect (e.g. the vaulted
roof of a church or assembly hall). In the first case it will be a most economical
form, in the second case it can be a not uneconomical form. In both cases its
appearance, both internally and externally, can justify its selection, where the
economical difference between it and other forms are marginal.
 DOMES

(a) PLAN OF RIBBED DOME.

SHOWING SHORTENED RIBS.

SEGMENTS ARCHED ON

BEAMS IN SPANDRELS.

SECTION A -A.
(c) PLAN OF HEXAGONAL
DOME.

(d) PLAN OF SQUARE PLATE

DOME.
Fig. 23
480 SPACE FRAMES
Suspension and Tension Supported Structure

Some forms of suspended structure appear to the practical engineer as mere

evidence of the desire of a certain minority of the profession to use an unusual
structure at any price. It is true that some of the ideas put forward for this type of
structure are outside the realms of reason and have tended to discredit the logic on
which they are based.
In fact they can be used logically over a wider range of structures than domes or
vaults and their application has a long history. Suspension bridges leap to the mind
as being the most efficient way of bridging wide gaps where no intermediate
supports are possible. Such bridges have been used from very early times, notably
in China where a very old chain suspension bridge is still in use and, perhaps better
known, in Peru where stood the bridge of St. Luis Rey, built at least 600 years ago
and bridging an 45 m
span chasm.
Today suspension bridges are often space structures by the most meticulous
definition and notable examples of pipe bridges in Italy and Austria have become
too well known to structural engineers to dwell on in this chapter.
Figure 24 (a) and (b) shows two applications of the structural form to smaller
structures.
See references under suspension structures of the bibliography.
Another form of tension supported structure in more common use is the guyed
mast. Guyed masts have been built up to 450 m in height and are projected to much
greater heights. Their design and analysis are complicated by the following factors:
(a) The wind load varies in intensity over the height of the mast, and must be
considered as approaching from any point of the compass. As wind is the
principal source of load this makes assessment of the worst loading case
laborious and complex.
(b) The strain in each of the guys is sufficiently great to require special
consideration in deriving the bending and shear effects in the mast itself. The
mast must thereforetbe considered as a continuous beam on elastic supports.

Threesets of guys are usual, being connected to a braced mast of triangular cross-
section. The guys are usually taken to anchorage points diametrically in line with
the mast chords, two or three guys being attached to each anchorage. A very tall
mast may have up to three sets of anchorage points at successively increasing
distances out from the base. The mast foot is usually mounted on a steel ball set in
an hemispherical socket packed in grease and contained in a weather-proof box.
So far no computer programme for their analysis is in use in this country, but
the problem is one particularly amenable to solution by this means.

Materials of Construction

Naturally the same rules apply to the selection of members for space frames as
apply to any other form of construction. For example, I sections or latticed beams are
best for spanning members and tubular sections for compression members. In
addition to this criterion of selection by structural shape, for space frames some
special factors related to detailing and calculation must be borne in mind.
For members which must be detailed in double angles, details can become
complicated for flanged and unsymmetrical sections, analysis by computer becomes
 SUSPENSION AND TENSION SUPPORTED STRUCTURE 481

Reinforced concrete ring

beam pre- stressed by
roof ties.

Sides of hexagon 20-4m

-Pyramidal tubular space frame •

suspended by roof ties.

-Rafters to carry
low pitched roof.

Macalloy ties on which roof

IS suspended.
SECTION A- A.
(a) SKETCH SHOWING ROOF CONSTRUCTION OF
CHICHESTER FESTIVAL THEATRE

Roof covering carried on cables..

Oblique arch carrying
cable loads to ground.

Cable loads distributed

through floor.

A frames carrying
cable loads to ground.
\ / L

(b) perspective of CONSTRUCT!

Fig. 2
482 SPACE FRAMES
slightlymore complex as additional changes of co-ordinate system are needed to reduce
members to the single Cartesian system required for such analyses.
The bending or curving of unsymmetrical sections is not a simple operation and
usually needs to be carried out by hand by a skilled blacksmith. The bending of a
solid web I section about its main axis is also not a good production proposition.
Tubular and tubular latticed members show to advantage for this type of
operation for the following reasons;
(a) a circular section presents the same any line drawn to its centre;
profile to
therefore the detailing of double angles becomes a simple matter of solid
geometry.
(b) a circular section can easily be curved to any shape required between rollers
and curved lattice beams can be fabricated by welding bracings to pre-bent
chords.
(c) hollow sections are made to a higher degree of accuracy than other hot
making accurate manipulation and assembly far easier.
finished sections,
Cold formed sections, so far not mentioned in the text or the examples, could
be a useful addition to hot rolled steel and hollow sections, particularly when the
sections are designed to make simple connections.
Considering the three examples in the foregoing and analysing the choice of
section may help to illustrate the reasons governing the selection. In Example 1

castellated sections are used for the major part of the grid as they form a compact
stiff section at comparatively low cost. It would not be advisable to have castellated
sections running in the other direction as the joints between the intersecting
members would be expensive and difficult to make. Lattice tubular sections can
be jointed easily out of plane with the castellated flanges, using flange plates and
high tensile bolts. As the ratio of stiffness to strength cannot be made the same as
for the castellated beams the calculations must account for this variation of stiffness.
For the end lattice beam a universal beam has been passed through one of the
castellations of the intersecting beam in order to provide a strength/stiffness ratio
able to carry additional moment but fitting into the general stiffness pattern. A
purlin would have to be provided over this beam to carry the decking. By passing
this beam through a castellation a difficult site joint has been avoided.
A lattice beam could be provided in this position to suit the stiffness and
strength requirements but would not be as economical as the simple beam suggested.
In Example 2 castellated or lightweight universal beams are the obvious choice
for rafters. Channels allow simple connections for the valley main tension chords
to the inclined beams. The purlins could be either rolled steel angle or cold formed
sections, the latter named section needing to be approximately two fifths of the
weight of the equivalent rolled steel section to be competitive. The ridge member
forrning the top chord of the inclined beams and the diagonal bracings are probably
best in circular hollow sections. Thus the sections requiring to be strong in bending
or having to provide an area of steel in tension are selected from the cheapest
material formed to the most suitable section to resist bending or tension and to
make simple connections. Members which are in pure compression and will be
connected by welding are in the most suitable shape for these purposes.
Example 3. As axial load dominates in all members and practically every
member is involved in compound angles, tubular sections are the obvious choice.
An additional factor is the simplified computer programme for tubular sections
which is not apparent from the data and print out provided.
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION 483

Concluding Notes

The examples are intended to illustrate three of the possible methods

by which
the design and analysis of skeletal space frames may be
approached.
Tire simplest approach is that the structure may be conceived
in such a manner

that it may be reduced to a series of statically determinate

plane frames. Often, in
order to accomplish this reduction, the structure must be made to deviate from its

most natural and economical form. Even when the frame is so stretched out of its
best shape the statical analysis of the resulting structure is often still only an
approximation.
The second method is where the deflections of interacting components
useful
may easily be calculated in terms of the external loads and the redundant reactions
between the members. Generally these deflections are best calculated with the help
of special tables of standard case:. The deflections thus derived can be formed, by
hand, into a set of simultaneous equations which are then solved by the digital
computer.
lastly, where the deflections cannot be readily expressed in terms of the external
loads and redundancies, the structure can be analysed by a special computer pro-
gramme which derives deflections, axial loads, shears, bending moments and
torsional moments in members from the geometry of the structure and its members,
the elastic constants of the material and the externally applied loads.
Obviously the design conception for the last two approaches is the most difficult
and the initial form of the structure must be evolved by experience, approximate
analysis and logic before the computer makes the final analysis.
The grid and vault examples (which represent the second and third approaches
respectively) are rather elementary and crude illustrations of each of their forms:
nevertheless their construction depth and the weight of constructional steel used
per square metre for the span and total load sustained compares favourably with
that of any system of plane frames beams and purlins which may be envisaged to
fulfil the same purpose. An equally favourable strength to weight ratio could be

established for space frame compared to plane frame structures over a very wide
range of construction, provided the best form of space structure is used for the
specific case.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
General Analysis

stress determination in space Engineering, 1920, p. 165.

GRINTER. Theory of Modern Steel Structures, Vol. 2, Statically Indeterminate Structures
L. E.
Frames. (New York: Macmillan Co., 1937, 285
pp.)
*^,^^TNK0, S. and YOUNG, D. H. Theory of Structures. New York and London:
nlii, iy45.
McGraw
Methods of Structural Analysis 1964. Pergamon Press.
Structures, Michael Joseph Ltd. London 1965.
M ^ZP^rstatic Structures, Volumes 1 and 2. Butterworth, 1959.
I'
Tragwerke auf Stahl. Verlag Stahleisen, DOsseldorf 1963.
OAViQ
via, D
R. a;
M. (Ed.) Space Structures, Blackwell Scientific Publications
Ltd., Oxford 1966.

Grids

folded plate roof , Journal of the Structural Division, Proc. A.S. C.E.,
JMe^l 9^1
484 SPACE FRAMES
HENDRY, A. W. and JAEGER* L. G. ‘The load distribution in highway bridge decks’.
Proceedings, A.S.C.E., July 1956.
TIte Analysis of Grid Frameworks and Related Structures. Chatto and Windus, 1958.
LIGHTFOOT, E., and SAWKO, F. ‘Grid frameworks resolved by generalised slope-deflection’.
Engineering, January 2, 1959, pp. 18—20.
‘The analysis of grid frameworks and floor systems by the electronic computer’ Structural
Engineer, March 1960, pp. 79—87.
MAKOWSKI, Z. S. ‘Interconnected systems, two-and three-dimensional grids’. The Guild’s
Engineer, 1955, pp. 11—28.
MAKOWSKI,^Z. S. and RAMIREZ, R. ‘Modern grid frameworks of a regular hexagonal layout’.
Technika i Nauka, Journal of the Institutions of Polish Engineers abroad. No. 5, 1959,
pp. 1—41.
MARTIN, J. and HERNANDEZ, J. ‘Orthogonal gridworks loaded normally to their planes',
Proc. A.S.C.E., Journal of the StructurS Division, January 1960, St. 1.
MATHESON, J. L. ‘Moment distribution applied to rectangular rigid space frames’. Journal of
I.C.E.,No. 3,1947-48.

Domes
CHATEAU DU S.* ‘Structure spatiale.spherique en trame tiidiiectionelle’ L’architecture
,

d’auj'ourd’hui. No. 81, 1959.

‘Coupoles reticules' Proceedings,
,
IASS Colloquium, Paris 1962.
GONDIKAS, J. M. and SALVADORI, M. G. ‘Wind domes' Journal of the Engineer-
stresses in ,

ing Mechanics Division, A.S.C.E., October 1960, pp. 13—29.

MAKOWSKI, Z. S. and PIPPARD, A. J. S. ‘Experimental analysis of space structures, with
particular reference to braced domes’, Proc. I.C.E., Part 111, Dec. 1952, pp. 420—441.
MAKOWSKI, Z. S. and PALMER, D. ‘Domes - their history and development’. The Guild’s
Engineer, 1956, pp. 50-61.
MAKOWSKI, Z. S. and GOGATE, M. N. ‘Stress analysis of three-pinned arch-ribbed domes’,
Proc. I.C.E., Part III, Vol. 5, pp. 824-844.
MITCHELL, L. H. ‘A shell analogy for framed domes’. Research and Development Branch,
Aeronautical Research Labs. Note ARL/SM/208, December 1953, Melbourne, Australia.
MITCHELL, L. H. ‘A shell Analogy for Framed Domes’, Engineering, Vol. 183, June 14th 1957,
pp. 754-5.
VENANZI, U. and VANNACCI, G. F. ‘Tubular Lattice Girder Dome for the Sports Palace of
Bologna, Italy', Acier, {,Steel)'Vol. 22, Nov. 1957, pp. 447—51.
ANON. ‘The Pittsburgh Public Auditorium (U.S.A.)’,/lcter {Steel), Vol. 25, Feb. 1960,
pp. 71-73.
VOLKEL, ‘Assembly Hall in Steel Construction’, Acier (Steel), Vol. 24, Dec. 1959, pp. 518-19.
COHEN, E. and GOLDSMITH, R. ‘Cantilever frame for retractable roof of Pittsburgh Public
Auditorium (U.S. A.)’, Acier {Steel), Vol. 27, July/ Aug. 1962, pp. 315-22.
LEDERER, F. ‘Developments in tubular domes’. Tubular Structures, Issue No. 3. Stewarts &
Lloyds Ltd. 1964.
BENJAMIN, B. S- The Analysis of Braced Domes, Asia Publishing House. 1965.

Braced Vaults
MAKOWSKI, Z. S. and HOWLEY, M. ‘The analysis of braced barrel vaults’, Proc. Institution
of Polish Engineers Abroad in Great Britain, March 1957, pp. 341-347.
MATSUSHITA, F., SATO, M. and HAYASHI, T. ‘An experimental study of non-uniformly
trussed steel shells consisting of triangular elements of varying dimensions’. Proceedings of
the symposium of steel structures, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo,
October 1961, pp. 1—10.
PAGANO, M.* ‘liieoretical and experimental research on triangulated steel vaults’. Proceedings,
IASS Colloquium, Paris 1962.

Suspension Structures
WEISS, C. ‘The design and construction of the Chichester Festival Theatre’, Structural
Engineer, Vol. XL, No. 12, Dec. 1962. pp. 389-405.
SAMUELY, F. J. ‘Structural Pre-stressing’, The Structural Engineer, Feb. 1955.
ESQUILLAN, N. and S AILLARD, Y, Hanging Roofs. North Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam.
1963. (Papers from I.A.S.S. Colloquium, Paris 1962).

*Contained in this volume together with a paper dealing with the theatre in Prague
mentioned in the text and illustrated in Fig. 10 (b).
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 485
Connections

letube d’acier dans la construction metalique. Chambre syndicale des fabricants de tubes d’acier.
37 avenue George V, Paris.
Glued metal joints. I.A.B.S.E. Rio de Janeiro, 1964.
Proceedings of the symposium on new ideas in structural design. Japanese Society for the
Promotion of Science.

Acier-Stahl-Steel Brussels ( Periodicals in which new

Tubular Steel Construction Stewarts & Lloyds jointing methods are frequently
|
Limited, London I reviewed.
Der Stahlbau Diisseldorf

Column. Issue No. 12, 1964. Yawata Iron & Steel Co. Ltd., 1, 1-chome, Marunouchi, Chiyada,
Tokyo, Japan.
 20. DESIGN OF ANGLE STRUTS

As of stanchions, the carrying capacity of angle struts carrying axial

in the case
loads depends to some extent on the slenderness ratio of the strut.
According to
B.S. 449: Part 2: 1969, angle struts may be divided into five groups. These five
groups are given below:

1 . Single-angle discontinuous struts with single-bolted or riveted connections at

each end.
2. Single-angle discontinuous struts connected at each end by not less than two
bolts or rivets in line or their equivalents in welding.
3. Double-angle discontinuous struts, back to back, connected to one side only
of a gusset. The end connections are not considered to affect the permissible
stresses on this type of strut even if they are only single-bolted or riveted.
4. Double-angle discontinuous struts, back to back, connected to both sides of
gusset by not less than two bolts or rivets in line or their equivalents in
welding.
5. Continuous angle struts such as those forming the rafters of trusses, etc.

It should be noted that in dealing with groups 1 to 4 the eccentricity of the

connection with respect to the centroid of the strut may be ignored and the struts
designed as axially-loaded members.

Group 1

The must be taken as the full length centre to centre of

effective length
intersections and the allowable stress must not exceed 80 per cent of the values
given in Tables 17a, 17b or 17c for steel grades 43, 50 and 55 respectively.
Example 1. Single-angle discontinuous strut with single-riveted connections,
having a length of 2.4 m between intersections and carrying a load of 34 kN.

A= 2.4 m = 2.4 X 1
0^ mm.
Try 76 X 76 X 9.4 mm angle of grade 43 steel.
Area = 13.47 cm^

/V
= 1 .48 cm

10^
~ 2.4 X
_
^
1.48 X 10^ Pc -^5 N/mm^

Allowable stress = 0.8 x 35 =28 N/mm^

Actual stress = —
-2 A n V
13.47 X 10^
1
r = 25 2 N/mm^

The section is adequate.

487
488 DESIGN OF ANGLE STRUTS
It should be noted that in no case shall the slenderness ratio of this type of strut

exceed 180, whereas the slenderness ratio of other types of struts carrying loads
resulting from wind forces only, may be as high as 250.

Group 2

The effective length may be taken as 0.85 times the length of the strut,
centre-to-centre of intersections and the allowable stress must not exceed the values
given in Tables 17a, etc., of B.S. 449.
Example 2. Single-angle discontinuous strut with double-riveted connections
having the same length between intersections and carrying the same load as in
Example 1.

Length centre-to-centre of intersections = 2.4 m = 2.4 x 10^ mm.

Try 76 X 76 X 6.2 mm angle of grade 43 steel.

Area = 9.12 cm^

Ty = 1 .49 cm
Z 0.85 X 2.4 X 10^ _
Pc = 48 N/mm^
1.49x10

, ^ ^ 34x10^ °
Actual 37.3 N/mm^.
9.12x10^
The section is adequate.

It will be noted that the section required in Example 1 weiglis 10.57 kg/m run,
while that required in Example 2 weighs 7.16 kg/m run, representing a saving of
3.41 kg/m run or 32 per cent; a saving gained by the addition of one more rivet at
each end of the strut.

Group 3

The effective length may be taken as 0.85 times the length of the strut,
centre-to-centre of intersections and the allowable stress must not exceed the values
given in Tables 17a, etc., of B.S. 449.

Group 4

The effective length may be taken as between 0.7 and 0.85 times the distance
between intersections, depending on the degree of restraint and the allowable stress
must not exceed the value given in Tables 17a, etc., of B.S. 449.
Examples 3, 4 and 5 deal with a discontinuous strut having a length of 3.0 m
between intersections and carrying a load of 100 kN. It will be designed first as a
single-angle discontinuous strut with double-riveted connections; secondly as a
double-angle discontinuous strut, back to back, connected to one side only of a
gusset; and thirdly as a double-angle discontinuous strut, back to back, connected
to both sides of a gusset with double riveting.
Example 3. Single-angle discontinuous strut with double-riveted connections.
Length centre-to-centre of intersections = 3.0 m = 3.0 x 10^ mm.
 489
eccentricity of loading
Try 102 X 102 X 9.4 mm angle of grade 50 steel.
Area= 18.39 cm^

;V
= 1 .99 cm

_ 0.85 X 3.0 X 10^ = ]28 Pc

“ 60 N/mm^
/V
1.99x10

Actual stress = N/mm^.

The section is adequate.

connected to one
Example 4. Double-angle discontinuous strut, back to back,
side of a gusset.
^
Length centre-to-centre of intersections
= 3.0m = 3.0x 10 mm.

Try two angles 76 x 51 x 6.2 mm, 8 mm back to back, of grade 50 steel.

Area =15.18 cm^

ry = 2.18 cm

/ 0.85x3.0x10^
= 117 Pc“70N/mm^
2.18 X 10

100 X 10^
Actual stress = = 65.9 N/mm^
15.18 X 10^

The section is adequate.

Example 5. Double-angle discontinuous strut, back to back, connected to both

with not less than two rivets in line.
sides of a gusset
Try two angles 63 x 51 x 6.2 mm, 8 mm
back to back, of grade 50 steel.
Lfength centre-to-centre of intersections = 3.0 = 3.0 x 10^ mm. m
Area = 13.64 cm^

Yx = 2.0 cm

/ _ 0.7x3.0x 10^ =
105 Pc = 85 N/mm^
Yx 2.0 X 10

100 X 10^
Actual stress = = 73.3 N/mm^
13.64 X 10^

The section is adequate.

The weights of the sections in Examples 3, 4 and 5 are 14.4, 1 1 .9 and 10.7 kg/m
To the last two of these weiglits, an allowance should be made for
respectively.
intermediate fastenings.
The next two examples. Nos. 6 and 7, deal with a continuous angle strut, i.e. the
main rafter of a roof truss.
The loads and B.M.s are as shown in Fig. 1. It should be noted that the continuous
member is assumed to have fixed ends at the eaves and apex.
It will be designed first as a single-angle strut and then as a double-angle strut.
490 DESIGN OF ANGT.E STRUTS

kN
2-01

352kN

6-58kN kNm

IN

MOMENTS

BENDING

5ekN

kN
352

kN
2-22

frir-O
 ECCENTRICITY OF LOADING 491

Example 6. Single-angle continuous strut.

An inspection of the B.M. diagram in conjunction with the direct loads in the
members and the positions of the purlins, will show that the design will be governed
by the conditions at one of the following points:

(a) Tire support B.

(b) The support C.
(c) The purlin point between these two supports.

A single angle subjected to bending, if freely supported, will not bend about the
horizontal axisxx' but about some other axis, as shown in Example 2 in Section 1, .

Bending and Axial Stresses.

It will have been noted, from that section, that the determination of the axis of

bending is not an easy matter.

If the rafter of a roof truss is a single angle, it will tend to bend about some other
axis than the horizontal axisxx, but it will be appreciated that, due to the effect of
the gussets at the panel points and also due to intermediate connections at the
purlin points, the determination of the axis of bending, which is not necessarily the
same at both the points mentioned, is an even more complicated problem than in
the case of the simply supported angle beam.
It is necessary, moreover, to take into account the effect of the gusset plate in

applying the direct load eccentrically to the member.

A practicaldesign method should take these facts into consideration and should
same time, convenient to use in the design office.
be, at the
The following calculations are based on such a method, which has been found,
from experience, to give reasonably satisfactory results.
In ascertaining the relevant properties of the section chosen it is necessary to
evaluate certain bending stress coefficients, as follows:

1 . Those due to eccentrically applied direct loads.

2. Those due to transverse bending.

Figure 2 shows the method of determining the first of these coefficients.

Coefflcient for point B= _ OPxcosexBU

h lu

Coefficient for point C=

x Ct/
_ OPx sin B x CV
hi h’

Maximum compressive bending stress = Load x max. coefficient.

Note. P is the point of application of the load assumed to be at the

centre of
gusset thickness and on the centre line of the connecting rivets or bolts.
In this example one angle, 102 x 89 x 7.8 mm of grade 43 steel will be
investigated. The properties of the angle are:

Area = 14.41 cm^ = 3.17 cm

hi 1 99 cm'’ ry = 2.68 cm
/y - 49.1 cm'’ = 1.85 cm
/V
492 DESIGN OF ANGLE STRUTS
For the purpose of calculating the first coefficient, the dimension x will be taken
as 55 m and the gusset thickness as 10 mm, whence from Fig. 3,

OP= 38.0 mm CF=24.0 mm

0 = 11 ° 20
'
BU= 9.5 mm
CU= 72.0 mm 5F=37.0mm

The coefficient for point B

_
- _ xBV
OP x iind _ dxBU
OP X cos

_ 38.0x0.197x37.0 38.0x0.980x 9.5

49.1 X 10^ 199 X 10'’

= (5.64- 1.78) X lO"'*

= 3.86 X lO'^'/mm^

The coefficient for point C

_OPx cos 0 X CU OP X sin 0 X CV
lu
~
Iv

_ 38.0 X 0.980 X 72.0 38.0x0.197x 24.0

199 xlO'* 49.1 X 10'^

= (13.47 -3.66) X 10"'‘

= 9.81 X lO'^'/mm^.

Therefore the maximum coefficient is given at the point C. It will generally be

found that such is the case, although it must not necessarily be taken that it is

always so.
Figure 4 shows the method of determining the second of these coefficients.
 ECCENTRICITY OF LOADING 493

Coefficient for point B

BV X sin a ^ BU X cos a
=+ +
'V lu

Coefficient for point A

.4 FX sin a AU X cos a
Iv lu

Coefficient for point C

CV X sin a CU X cos a
Iv lu

(+ indicates compression; indicates tension.)—

The angle a =36° 54' and the values of CC/,
CV, BU and BV are as given previously.
AV=32.0mm and 61.0 mm.

The coefficients will be found to be as follows:

Coefficient for point B = +0.41 x 10“‘^/mm^

» » » C= — 0.58 X 10"'^/mm^
» »> y4 = — 0.15 X lO'^/mm^
(a) Support B

(i) Axis XX
Effective length = 0.7 x panel length
= 0.7x 1.85= 1.295 m
/_ 1.295 X 10^
= 40.8
Vx 3.17 X 10
(ii) Axisyy:
Effective length = 1 .0 x distance between purlins
= l.Ox 1.17= 1.17m
I 1.17x10^
= 43.6
2.68 X 10
(iii) Axis vv:

Effective length = 1.0 x maximum distance between support and adjacent purlin

= 1.0 X 0.64 = 0.64 m

I
_ 0.64 X 10^ _
IV 1.85x10
Therefore greatest value of Ijr = 43.6.

Pc = 137 N/mm^

. ^ 70.7 X lO^N
^
= 49 N/mm^
14.41 X lO^mm^
Bending moment at support B = 1.41 kNm negative.
494 DESIGN OF ANGLE STRUTS
At this point, it will be the point C wliich has the maximum compressive bending
stress.

fbc
~ (70.7 — 67.8) X coef. from Fig. 3 + 1.41 x coef. from Fig. 4

= 2.9 kN X (9.81 X 10~^)/mm^ + (1.41 x 10^)kNmm x (0.58 x 10“')/mm2

= 0.0028 kN/mm^ + 0.0818 kN/mm^

= 0.0846 kN/mm^ = 84.6 N/mm^

It may
be assumed that the provisions of Clause 19.c of B.S. 449 apply only to
sections remotefrom the gusset plate and that in respect of angles subjected to
combined bending and compression the allowable bending stress p^c can be taken
to be 165 N/mm^ at the gusset plate.

k +k£. = 13/ +
Pc Pbc
^ ^165
= 0.36 + 0.53 = 0.89

Therefore the section is adequate at support B.

(b) Support C
Axis XX
(i)

l/i'x as for support B = 40.8

(ii) Axisyy:

Effective length = 1.0 x 2.49 = 2.49 m

I , 2.49 X 10^
ry 2.68x10
(hi) Axis vv:

1.28x 10^ ^
r„ 1.85x10
Therefore the greatest value of l/r = 93.

Pc = 87 N/mm^
10^
fc
= 67.8 X = 47 N/mm^.
14.41 X 10^

Bending moment at support C = 1.08 kNm negative.

At this point, it will again be the point C which has the maximum compressive
stress.

/ic = (67.8 - 65.8) X (9.81 x 10“^) + (1.08 x 10^) x (0.58 x lO"'*)

= 0.0029 kN/mm^ + 0.0626 kN/mm^

= 0.0655 kN/mm^ = 65.5 N/mm^

k + ki=^
87.0
+
65.5
165.0
= 0.54 + 0.40 = 0.94.
Pc Pbc

Therefore the section is adequate at support C.

 495
ECCENTRICITY OF LOADING
(c) At the purlin point between B and C.

(i) Axis A'x:

as for support B = 40.8
(ii) Axis;';':
l/vy as for support C= 93.0

(iii) Axis vv:

_ 1.21 X 10^
- 66 .

1.85x10

Therefore the greatest value of Ijr = 93.

= 87 N/mm^
Pc

67.8 X 10^
= 47 N/mm^.
14.41 X 10^

Bending moment at purlin point = 1 .46 kNm positive.

At this point it will be the pointB which has the maximum compressive stress,
but it is reasonable to assume, from the location of the purlin point between the
supports B and C, that the bending stress due to the eccentricity of the end
connections is negligible.

fbc = (1.46 X 10^) X (0.41 X 10"^) = 0.06 kN/mm^ = 60 N/mm^

0.54 + 0.37 = 0.91.

Pc Pbc 87.0 1 o j .U

Therefore the section is adequate at the purlin point.

Accordingly, the section selected is adequate.

Example 7. Double-angle continuous strut.

In this case, there will be bending only about the axis xx, i.e. in a vertical plane.
Moreover, it will be obvious, by consideration of Example 6, that only support
C need be investigated.
Try two 63 x 51 x 6.2 mm angles of grade 50 steel, 10 mm back to back.
Area = 13.64 cm^

I'x = 1 .98 cm
ry = 2.31 cm
Min. Zx = 12.2 cm^.

Support C
(i) Axis XX

0.7 X 1.85 X 10^

llrx = = 65
1.98 X 10
(ii) Axisy;':

// - 2.49x 10^
105
2.37 X 10
496 DESIGN OF ANGLE STRUTS
Therefore the greatest value of l/r =105.
= 85 N/mm^
Pc
10^
= 67.8 X = 49.5 Njmnr.
/c
13.64 X 10^

Bending moment at C= 1 .08 kNm negative.

1.08 X 10®
fbc = 88.5 N/mm^
12.2 X 10^

Pc ptc
= 49 ^ +
85.0
^
8
230.0
^ ^ Q ^ Q 3g ^ Q

Therefore the section is adequate.

The comparative weights of the sections in Examples 6 and 7 are 1 1 .3 and

10.7 kg/m respectively.
There probably not a great deal to choose between the sections.
is

The advantage that there is less fabrication than with the

single angle has the
double angle because the latter requires washer-riveting at intervals. It also has the
advantage from the point of view of maintenance, since it is virtually impossible to
paint the inner vertical surfaces of a double angle.
Against this, the double angle has two principal advantages: first, since the rivets
at the joints will be in double shear or bearing, fewer will be needed than in the
single angle; secondly, the purlin cleats, which should be connected to the rafters by
a minimum of two rivets, will be of smaller section, since in the double angle the
two rivets can be placed one in each angle, whereas in the single angle they must be
placed in line down the rafter back.
 21. ENGINEERING WORKSHOP DESIGN
The following calculations for a steel-framed workshop building with an electric
overhead travelling crane are such as would be done in the project stage for the
preparation of an estimate of cost and would have to be finally checked in detail in

accordance with BS 449 Part 2 1 969.

Since this type of building is often subject to alteration to suit changes in work
type and other owners requirements, the simple construction adopted lends itself
more readily to alteration than the more sophisticated designs frequently used
nowadays. Though three main grades of structural steelwork, viz.; Grades 43, 50
and 55 are now available, there is little merit in using anything better than Grade 43
for buildings of this size. However, where larger dimensions or heavier crane loads
apply. Grade 50 might be used with advantage provided that deflection is watched.
Crane gantries, by virtue of the loading which they are required to sustain, can
be subject to fatigue, particularly if the cranes are part of a production cycle, and
in continuous operation at maximum capacity. It is therefore advisable to investigate
this problem as recommended in BS 153, Steel Girder Bridges. This has not been
done in the example which follows.

Data for building

Overall length = 48.5 m
Length c-c gable columns = 48.0 m say
Overall width = 18.5 m
Width c-c roof columns = 18.0 m say
Height ground to crane rail = 9.0 m
Height crane rail to u/s roof = 2.5 m
Height ground to u/s roof = 11.5 m

Roof covering: protected metal sheeting with fibreboard lining and one stretch of
patent glazing 2.0 m deep on each slope.
Side covering: similar sheets and lining above 2.0 m brick wall on permanent side and
above ground on temporary side. Gable cladding; similar with provision for sliding
door 3.5 m wide x 5.0 m high each gable.
One side prepared for future extension of a similar bay.
One end prepared for future extension.
Building to house a gantry to carry one electric overhead travelling crane of 30
metric tonne capacity.

Crane span = 17.0 m

End clearance = 0.3 m
Minimum hook approach = 1.0 m
Length of end carriage = 4.0 m
Wheel centres in end carriage = 3.5 m
Weight of crane without crab = 25.0 Mg or tonne
Weight of crab = 5.0 Mg or tonne
Steelwork designed to BS 449: Part 2:
1969.
Wind loading to CP 3: Chap. V: Part 2;
1970.
497
498 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP DESIGN
Framing to building
Length end stanchions = 48.0 m.
c-c
Roof trusses at 4.0 m centres gives 12 bays.
Main stanchions at 8.0 m
centres gives 6 bays.
Trusses carried on main and intermediate stanchions on permanent side.
Trusses carried on main stanchions and vahey beams on temporary side.
Gable frame on stanchions framed to suit door at permanent end.
Truss and false framing carried on main stanchions at temporary end with
framing arranged to suit door below.
Purlins and rails to sheeting at 2.0 m
centres.

Fig. 1

Wind on Building
Calculations in conformity with requirements of CP 3 Chapter V Part 2 1970.
In order to arrive at the loading to be considered it is necessary to know the
location of the site as well as other conditions. For the purpose of this example the
following assumptions are made:—
‘Building situated in town in S.E. England with no unusual topological
conditions. Building is 18.5 m wide x 48.5 m long x 15.0 m high.’
 4S7x/90x67U

fcO'iS’/?

2Q0N/m Ran
6B6x2S4x 140kg UB _
3Qlxl02x5Skg Chan.

Rails

Sheeting

<^oom I' 00m

>4

'L Si U (\j 7'9

X
is§t 64

X
102
J ><0
if:;;:'®

I
'®'o-S
( 'O *0 V)

I
'p^ ®

Centres of Roof Legs - /8-Om

DETAIL OF MAIN STANCHIONS.

Fig. 2

Basic wind speed V =40 m/s

Topography factor SI =1.0
Ground roughness category 3
Building size class B
Factor S2 varies with height as shown in Fig. 3.
500 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP DESIGN

Fig. 3

Statistical factor S3 = 1 .0

Note. The loading shown appUes to the steelwork. A separate set of values must be
used for the cladding and its connections to the steelwork.

From the assumed information

Design wind speed I^=F'xSlxS2xS3

= 40 X 1 X S2 X 1

= 40 S2

Dynamic wind pressure q =KV/

= 0.613 F/

Then for three stages of height

0-5 m <7
= 0.613(40 X 0.65)2 =414 N/m^

5m-10m <7 = 0.613(40x0.74)2 = 537 N/m2

10 m-15 m q
= 0.613(40 x 0.83)2 ^ ^ 1^2
Consider wind load on roof

Height to eaves = 1 m=
1.5 /z

Width of building = 18.5 m = H’

Then h/w= 11.5/18.5= 0.62

Slope of roof = 22°

Then pressure coefficients are

Cpe wind » Windward = —0.7 Leeward = —0.5

wind I
= —0.8 maximum both slopes

Internal pressure coefficient Cpi

Maximum effect on roof is when Cpi = + 0.2
 SHEETING PURLINS 501

Then maximum uplift on both slopes

= (- 0.8 -(+ 0.2)) q
= — 1 .Oq'

q = 676 N/m^
Then load each slope = — 676 N/m^
Note. Local areas of cladding and its connections must be designed for increased
loads.
For general stability consider load on sides and roof without internal pressure.

Height to eaves m
=h = 1 1 .5 /,/w = t||=0.6

Width of building = w = 18.5 m Ratio

„ -48.S_.,
Length of building = = 48.5 mI

Then pressure coefficients for sides are

Wind <—> Windward = +0.7 Leeward = —0.3 Local = —1.1

Both sides = —0.5

I

The wind on the end does not affect stability across the building since the two
values cancel each other.
Then total force transversely = 1 .0^? N/m^.

Design of members
Sheeting purlins 4.0 m span 2.0 m centres
Dead Load Sheets = 4 x 2 x 110 N/m^ = 880 N
Lining = 4 x 2 x 50 N/m^ = 400 N
Purlin say 400 N
1 680 N= 1 .68 kN
Live Load to CP 3 Chap. V Part 1 1967.

Load =4X 1 .8 X 0.75 kN/m^ = 5 .4 kN

Wind Load =4x2x-676 N/m^ = - 5 .4 kN
Then load is either + 7.08 kN or -3.72 kN
Design for + 7.08 kN
From BS 449, Part 2, 1969 Z,/45 = 89 mm mm
Z,/60 = 67

WL _ 7.08 kN X 4 000 mm
TsTTo^
= 15.75 cm^
102 mm X 63 mm x 7.8 mm angle
Z= 19.0cm^
N.B. Whilst the effect of
the wind is to reverse the direction of the net load it does
not alter the basic design
of the purlin.
502 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP DESIGN
Glazing Purlins 4.0 m span 2.0 m centres.
Dead Load Sheets =4x1x110 N/m^ = 440 N
Lining =4x 1 x 50 N/m^ = 200 N
Glazing =4X 1 X 300 N/m^ = 1 200 N
Purlin say 560 N
2 400 N= 2.4 kN

5.4 kN
Live Load As before
7.8 kN total

It dimensional requirements are met,

mm
^ ,

—
7.8 kN X 4
EsTT?
000 ^ ^

mm x 6.3 mm shelf
Use 102 mm x 63 mm x 7.8 mm angle with 51 mm x 5 1

angle to glazing, bolted or battened.

Roof Truss 18.0m span 4.0 m centres.

Dead Load per truss

Sheets = 16 x 4 x 110 N/m^ = 7 040 N

Lining =l6x4x 50N/m^=3 200N
Glazing = 4 x 4 x 300 N/m^ = 4 800 N
Purlins = 8 x 4 x 100 N/m = 3 200 N
+ 4x4x 140 N/m =2 240N
Truss say 9 000 N
29 480 N = 29.5 kN

Live Load per truss

_ 54.0 kN
= 18x4x0.75kN/m2
83.5 kN
Say 10 panels at 8.4 kN = 84.0 kN
Reactions = 42.0 kN

Wind Load per truss (including internal pressure)

= 20 X 4 X - 676 N/m = - 54 000 N = - 54.0 kN

This represents 10 panels @ — 5.4 kN each acting normal to the slopes and can
act in conjunction with dead load only. Hence, the net effect will give reversals of
stress in all truss members.
ROOF TRUSS
504 engineering WORKSHOP DESIGN
Design for truss members (Grade 43 steel)

Rafter Panel length jcx m = 2.0

Puriin centres yy = 2.0 m

Load from force diagrams = +103 kN

or - 33 kN
Try 2/angles 76 mm x 51 mm x 6.2 mm as minimum for practical purposes.
Length xx = 2.0 m Coef. 0.85 Effective = 1.7m=170cm 4:;(.

Length yy = 2.0 m Coef. 1.0 Effective lyy = 2.0 m = 200 cm

= 85 N/mm^
=
1^ = 92 Pc

103 kN 103 X 10^ N = 68

Actual stress;^ ir;2 N/mm^
15.2 cm-^ 15.2xl0'‘mm^2
Ample margin as strut and therefore as tie for reversal,

.. Section is OK.

Main Tie Load from force diagrams = — 98 kN

or + 40 kN
Since wind causes reversal section suitable as strut must be used.

Try 2/angles 76 mm x 5 mm x 6.2 mm similar to rafter.

1

Gross area = 2 x 7.59 = 15.18 cm^ = 1518 mm^

Area of connected legs = 2 x 73.1 x 6.22 = 910 mm^
Area of outstanding legs = 2 x 47.7 x 6.22 = 594 mm^

al = nett area of connected legs = 910 — 2x 18x 6.22

= 910 - 224 = 686 mm'=

a2 = nett area of outstanding legs = 594 mm^

Then effective area of pair of angles

= 686 +
5x686
X 594
5 X 686 + 594

= 686 + 504 = 1 190 mm^

= 98 X
10^ N=
Stress in tension 83 N/mm^
1 190mm^
Permissible stress pf = 1 55 N/mm^ OK for tension.
 ROOF TRUSS
Consider reversal of stress placing tie in compression.

Length XX = 2.5 m Coef. 0.85 Effective 4.;^ = 2.12 m = 212 cm

Length 77 = 5.0 m Coef. 1.0 Effective 5.0 m = 500 cm

(Assuming longitudinal tie at main node points.)

fe=|i=88
Ifryy
= = 229 Pc = 1 8 N/mm^ +25% for wind = 22.5 N/mm^

33 X 10^ N „ vt;
Actual stress on.gross area fc = -_ 21 .8 N/mm 7
^5 2 x 10^ mm^
This is within, but increase to next size to improve stiffness of truss.

Use 2/angles 76 mm x 63 mm x 6.2 mm

Main Tie centre Load from force diagrams = — 55 kN

or + 22 kN
Length XX = 3.75 m Coef. 0.85 Effective = 3.18 m = 318 cm
Length 77 = 7.5 m Coef. 1 .0 Effective lyy = 1.5m =750 cm
Try section suggested for outer sections.

Ijvyy = 750/2.78 = 268 Pc = 13.5 N/mm^ + 25% = 17.0 N/mm^

20xl0"N 2
fc = 16.7x10^

It should be noted that the l/r ratio of 268 is just in excess of the value of 250

mentioned in BS 449, Clause 33, but since the actual length of the member will be
reduced slightly by the end connections the size will be accepted.

2/angles 76 mm x 63 mm x 6.2 mm will be used throughout.

Crown Tie Load from force diagram = — 43 kN

or + 1 3 kN
Length XX = 2.5 m Length 77 = 5.0 m
From calculations made for main tie it can be shown that 2 /angles 76 x 51 x 6.2
will be satisfactory.

Main strut Load from force diagram = +15 kN or —5 kN

Use 1 /angle 63 mm x 63 mm x 6.2 mm
Remainder of members — Use 1 /angle 63 mm x 5 1 mm x 6.2 mm.
506 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP DESIGN
Design for valley beam on temporary side
stanchions
Span between main
" ^
Load;— _
" 42 kJN
Centre point load from truss

Centre

Dist. load from own wt and gutter = 16 kN say

100 kN

M DM 84x8 16x8
Maximum
•

B.M. ,

= 168 + 16= 184kNmm.

Try 406 X 178x 67kgUB.

Beam restrained at centre by truss connection

400
llryy = 104. D/T= 409/14.3 = 28.6

Phc = 1 52 N/mm^
^ 184 kNm 184xl0^Nmm
Act. fhc =
. ,

= TT^T
3 77^3 5 = 155 N/mm'^ high.
1 186 cm^ 1 186 x 10^ mm^
Use beam 457 x 190 x 67 kg UB in Grade 43 steel.

Beam should be checked against deflection from live load, i.e. centre point load
of 54 kN.

WL^
Deflection =
48EI

^ 54 kN X (8 m)^
48- X 2.1 X 10^ N/mm^ x 29 337 cm'^

54x 10^ Nx 512x 10^ mm^

48 X 2.1 x 10^ N/mm^ x 29 337 x 10^ mm'^

mm
= 9.4

Span =8 000 mm span = 22.2 mm

Then beam well in for deflection.

Design for crane gantry girders

Span of girder = 8.0 m.

Maximum Loads on gantry (N.B.;— For design purposes 1 kg f is taken as 10 N—

actually 9.807 N).
 CRANE GANTRY GIRDERS 507

Vertical load

From crane = ^{25.0 Mg} = 12 500 kg = 125 kN

From crab + lift = if (5 + 30} Mg= 33 000 kg = 330 kN
455 kN
Add 25% for impact = 1 14 kN
569 kN
say 570 kN = 285 kN each on two wheels at 3.5 m cts
From weight of gantry sayl6kN

Co-existent Vertical load

From crane = 125 kN

From crab + lift = 20 kN
145 kN
From wt of gantry say 16 kN

Horizontal load

Crab + lift = 35 Mg = 350 kN

Cross-surge 10% .
= 35 kN
on 4 wheels = say 9 kN per wheel

Maximum Reactions on stanchions

Vertical

From crane = 285 [l + = 1 .5625 x 285 = 444 kN

From girder = 16kN

460 kN
Horizontal

From cross-surge = 1 .5625 x 9 = 14 kN

Minimum co-existent reactions

Vertical

From crane = 1.5625 x 122.5 = 192 kN

From girder = 1 6 kN
208 kN
Horizontal

From cross-surge 14 kN
508 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP DESIGN
Maximum bending moment — vertical

From crane

i, beam

I
c}g.

w\ i
^

8-0 m

Fig. 5

For two equal loads W.

2W[L c\^
Maximum bending moment at^ = -j-
L \2 4

-0.875)2
y (4

= 2.44 IP

IP = 285 kN .-. B.M. = 695 kNm

From girder
If dead load = 16.0 kN distributed,
Bending moment at A
2
16 /3.125\
= 8 X 3.125

= 15 kNm
Total vertical bending moment = 710 kNm

Maximum bending moment — horizontal

From crane cross-surge IP = 9 kN

Then bending moment = 9 x 2.44

= 22 kNm

Selection of size for crane gantry girders

Except in cases where horizontal surge girders are adopted it is usual to make the
gantry girders out of compound sections where the top flange is much stronger than
the bottom flange. This serves two purposes, i.e.

(a) To provide more effective resistance to instability of the compression flange.

(b) To give a large resistance to horizontal bending from the crane cross-surge.
 1

CRANE GANTRY GIRDERS 509

The properties of suitable sections for gantry girders can be obtained from
properties
structural steelwork handbooks, but an example of calculating these
is

given for reference.

For example, a section composed of a 610 x 229 x 1 13 kg UB with a
this

305 X 89 X 42 kg channel on the top flange, all in Grade 50 steel, will first be
examined. Calculations for the properties are as follows:

Properties of compound sections for gantry girders

1/
Section comprising:—
—
D-. K
nn 610 X 229 X 113 kg

and 305 x 89 x 42 kg channel

UB
1

Depth forming a welded section.

D X

0 0
Fig. 6
y
Vertical

Pm Depth Area Lever arm Own Inertia

a y ay Inertia 0-0
cm cm cm cm 3 cm'* cm cm'’
Channel 1.02 53.11 59.54 3 162 188 276 325 188 600
UB 60.70 144.30 30.35 4 380 132 918 87 262 220 280
^ 61.72 197.41 — 7 542 — 408 880

7 542
^ 2a 197.41
= 38.2 cm : D-X= 23.52 cm

^00 ^xx •
^xx ~ ^oo ~
= 408 880 - 7 542 X 38.2

= 408 880 - 288 104 = 120 766 cm'’

7 t
top
_ 4x 120 776 __ cm
5 135
3
23.52

7 u ++ ^xx-
Zxx bottom = -^ =
120 776 o ——
= 3 162 cm^3 1

X Jo.Z
Horizontal

Full section lyy = Ixx for channel + lyy for UB

= 7 061 +3 184
= 10 245 cm"*

10 245
^yy = 7.2 cm
197.41
510 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP DESIGN
TB^
Top flange only lyy part = Ixx for channel + -p^ for UB flange
12

1.73x22.8^
= 7 061 +
12

= 7061 + 1 709 = 8770 cm'*

8 770
fop = 575 cm^
15.25

Horizontal area of top flange,

= tD for channel + TB for UB

.= 1.02x30.5 + 1.73x22.8
= 31.11 +39.44 = 70.55 cm^

Width of top flange = depth of channel = 30.5 cm.

Then mean thickness of top flange Tm

_ 70.55
30.5

= 2.31 cm

To determine and pjjt

Effective length of compression flange = span

= 8.0m

10^ cm
~ 8.0 X
_
7.2 cm
111

61.72
mm 2.31

26.7

From table 3b - 188 N/mm^

Phc

table 2 Pht = 230 N/mm^

Maximum vertical bending moment = 710 kNm

Maximum horizontal bending moment = 22 kNm
Top flange

. _ 710 X 10^ Nmm 22 x 10^ Nmm

5 135 X 10^ mm^ 575 x 10^ mm^
= 138 + 38 = 176 N/mm^
Ptc = 188 + 10% = 207 N/mm^
 DEFLECTION OF GANTRY GIRDER 511

Bottom flange

_
710 X 10^ Nmm = 225 N/mm^
3 162 X 10^ mm^
Then section is O.K. for stress.

Check deflection of gantry girder selected

The maximum deflection will vary as the loads roll across the span, but exact
calculations are lengthy and unnecessary. useful assumption is that the maximum
A
deflection occurs at the centre of the span when the two wheels are equidistant on
either side of the centreline. The deflection can then be calculated using the
standard formula, viz.:

PL^
6max =
6E1 4L

where P = value of one load

a - distance of one load from adjacent reaction

For this example,

8 - 3.5
R= 285 kN =
.2
= 2.25 m
Then deflection due to crane,
“3 x 2.25
_ 285 kN X (8 mf (2.25y"
6EI 14x8 1 8 , / J

285 X 10^Nx512x 10^ mm^

[0.208 - 0.022]
6 X 2.1 X 10^ N/mm^ x 120 766 x 10'' mm'4
285 X 512 X 0.186
6x2.1 X 120.766
= 18 mm
And deflection due to gantry girder,

5x16 kN X (8 m)^
384 X 2.1 X 10® N/mm^ x 120 766 x lO'' mm''
= 0.5 mm
Total deflection = 18.5mm — say 20.0 mm
If span = 8.0 m = 8 000 mm

Deflection = 1/400 span

This could be too much. Often a deflection of 1/500 span is specified. A deeper
girder in Grade 43 steel would be a more suitable section.
512 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP DESIGN
Try girder composed of 686 x 254 x 140 kg UB with a 381 x 102 x 55 kg
channel on top flange. Grade 43 steel. Calculating properties as before.

Ixx = 190 590 cm^

Zxx top = 7 328 cm^

Zxx bottom = 4 388 cm"*

ryy full section = 8.89 cm

Zyy top flange = 918 cm^

D/7’=30.2
On span of 8.0 m,

l/ryy = 90

Then Pic~165N/mm^
Pljt = 165 N/mm^
Actual stresses,

_ 710 X 10^ Nmm 22 x 10^ Nmm

•'*^‘'7
328 x 10^mm^’^918x lO^mm^

= 96 + 24= 120 N/mm^

f
710 X 10^ Nmm
"4 388 X 10^ mm^
= 162 N/mm^

Then section is O.K. for stress and since Inertia is approximately 50 per cent more
than before, deflection will be within required limit.
Therefore, use section

686x254x 140kgUB 1 -
,

I
in Grade 43 steel.
381 X 102 X 55 kg channel 1

Design for side and gable rails

Maximum span say 4.0 m Maximum spacing say 2.0 m.

Vertical Load
Sheets and lining = 4 x 2 x 160 N/m^ = 1 .28 kN
Own weight say = 0.40 kN
1.68 kN
Horizontal Load
Apart from the eaves rail which takes only half a panel, the value of Cpg is a
maximum of ±0.7 which should be increased by 0.3 for internal pressure. Therefore
the rails should be designed for a wind load equal to q.
 SIDE AND GABLE RAILS 513

Taking the maximum value of ^7 at 676

N/m^ is conservative since this only applies
to the upper
portion of the building.
Then,
Horizontal load = 4 x 2 x 676 N/m^ = 5.4 kN say

Bending Moments
Allowing for continuity take B.M.
= ILL/ 10.

Vertical B.M. = = 0.67 kNm

Horizontal B.M. = = 2.16 kNm

Selection of section
Try 102 mm x 63 mm x 7.8 mm angle similar to purlin with long leg horizontal
Ixx = i29cm^ max = 38.2 cm^ = 19.0 cm^

lyy = 39 cm^ Zyy max = 26.2 cm^ Zyy min = 8.0 cm^
My ^
Mh
Max. fjc
Zyy max Zxx min

/.
-
Zyy min Zxx min

_ 0-67 X 10^ Nmm 2.16 x 10^ Nmm

8xl0^mm3 19xl0^mm^
= 84+ 114= 198 N/mm^

Permissible =165 N/mm^ + 25 per cent for wind = 207 N/mm^

Section is O.K. Use 102 mm x 63 mm x 7.8 mm angle
with long leg horizontal.

Design for intermediate side posts — permanent side

Height from floor to u/s roof = 1.5 m 1

Height from base to u/s roof = 12.0 m

Rail spacing = 2.0 m

Assume battened rail at 6 m from base.

Vertical Load
Reaction from truss = 42.0 kN
Side sheeting, etc. 9.5 x 4 x 0.2 = 7.6 kN

Own weight say = 4.4 kN

54.0 kN
514 engineering WORKSHOP DESIGN
Horizontal Load from wind
Take l.Oq. This load varies but it is on the top side to take an average of
537 N/m^.
Then,
Horizontal load = 1 1.5 x 4 x 537 N/m^ = 24.8 kN
24.8 X 12
Horizontal moment as a beam = = 37.2 kNm
8

Selection of size
Actual length jcx = 12.0 m Coef. 1.5 = 18.0 m effective
Actual length 77 = 6.0 m Coef. 0.75 = 4.5 m effective
Try 305 x 127 x 37 kg UB in Grade 43 steel.

„ 18 X 10^ ,

_ 4.5x 10" _
Pc = 30 N/mm"
2.58
increased for wind by 25 per cent = 37.5 N/mm"

For bending effective length of compression flange is rail spacing, i.e. 2.0 m.

2x 10"
= 78
D = 28.4
Then, llryy
yy =
2.58 T
Pbc ~ Pbt =165 N/mm" + 25% = 207 N/mm"
54xlO"N
Then actual stress
* 1 1 .5 N/mm"
47.4x10" mm"

and actual ^ ^ 37.2xl0®Nmm ,

stress

Ratio
Pc 37.5
= 0.68
^ ^=
Pbc
=
207
0,37

Section O.K.

Use 305 X 127 X 37 kg UB.

Similar section should be used for temporary posts and for permanent gable posts.

Design for main stanchions

One of the main factors to be considered is the horizontal load from the wind.
The previous calculations indicated the need to allow for a load equal to 1 .0 N/m"
on the vertical height ground to eaves, and nothing on the roof slopes since the net
effect of the various coefficients cancels out for all practical purposes.
Wind drag can have an on a large area of roof, but since the ratios of width
effect
to height and width to length are both less than 4, it can be ignored in the present
case.
 -8 1

MAIN STANCHIONS 515

The value 1.0 q N/m^ is based on + 0.7 q on windward face and — 0.3 q on
leeward face. Since, however, the two faces are connected together by the roof
structure, the proportions will be adjusted in accordance with the relative stiffness
of the main steelwork in each face.
The following treatment of the wind load is considered sufficiently accurate for
design of main stanchions.
Consider side wind on 8.0 m cts. of stanchions.
Referring to Fig. 3 and values of q as calculated

Wind load Grd m = 5 x 8 x 414

— 5.0 = 16.56 kN
» j) 5 m— 10 m =5 x 8 x 537 = 21.48 kN
» » 10 m — eaves = 1,5 X 8 X 676 = 8.11 kN
Total = 46.15 kN

Taking moment about base, reaction at eaves level

= 1^ [16.56 x 3 + 21.48 x 8 + 8.11 x 11.25]
= f2 [49.68 + 171.84 + 91.24]
= ^ [312.76] = 26.06 kN.
If 26.06 kN represents the force at the truss level to be resisted by the steelwork
Overturning moment at base

= 26.06 X 12 = 312.76 kNm

Forces in stanchions = ±
312 76
3
— —
= ± 17.4 kN
1

The moment due to the wind, i.e. 312.76 kNm, will be distributed between the
stanchions on either side which, if similar sections are used, is a function of the
centres of the two legs forming the stanchions, viz.:—

Permanent side cts of legs say 0.66 m: = 0.33: 0.33^ = 0.1

09
Temporary side »» » » 0.9 m: -^=0.45:0.45^=0.20
0.31

Then on permanent side take or say one third

and on temporary side take or say two thirds.

So for permanent side stanchion

Shear = ——
26.06
= 8.7 kN

Moment =
312 76 —j— 5= 104.25 kNm
and for temporary side stanchion

Shear = 17.4 kN
Moment = 208.5 kNm.
516 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP DESIGN
Permanent side stanchions
Loading details

46-SkN Roof leg above crane cap

Vertical Maximum Minimum

Reaction from truss 42.0 kN 15.0 kN
Load from side cladding say 3.0 kN 3.0 kN
Own weight 1.5 kN 1.5 kN
46.5 kN 19.5 kN

Horizontal

From wind at roof level 8.7 kN

From surge at rail level 14.0 kN

Roof leg below crane cap

Vertical Maximum Minimum

From above ”=
.66
34.0 kN 14.0 kN

Load from cladding say 7.0 kN 7.0 kN

Own weight say 5.0 kN 5.0 kN
Fig. 7
46.0 kN 26.0 kN
50 per cent of wind overturning = ± 8.7 kN.

Crane leg below crane cap

Vertical

From above =
.66 12.5 kN 1.0 kN
From crane 444.0 kN 192.0kN
From girder 16.0 kN 16.0kN
Own weight say 5.0 kN 5.0 kN
467.5 kN 22.0 kN no crane

214.0 kN crane remote

50 per cent of wind overturning = ± 8.7 kN.

Horizontal loads as above giving base moments

of Wind 104 kNm and Surge 133 kNm.
 MAIN STANCHIONS 517

Roof leg above crane cap

Length = 3.25 m
Effective length = 1.5 m
x 3.25 = 4.875

yy= 1.0 X 3.25 = 3.25 m

Vertical load = 46.5 kN

Bending moment from wind = 8.7 x 3.25 = 28.3 kNm |

38.8 kNm
from surge = 14.0 x 0.75 = 10.5 kNm )

Try 305 x 165 x 40 kg UB in Grade 43 steel.

4.875 X 10^
= 38 92 N/mm^ + 25% wind = 125 N/mm^
fe = 12.9
Pc = for

X 10^
l/ryy
= 3.25 = 89 Phc
= 1.65 N/mm^ + 25% for wind = 207 N/mm^
3.66

, 46.5 X 10^ N ^
fc =rrT— 9.1 N/mm^2 ratio = 0.073
51.4xl0^mm2
,
—
38.8 X 10^ Nmm - 70.0 N/mm-^i ratio = 0.34
fbc = 77?^ 77^3
560 X lO"* mm^
0.413

Try 305 x 127 x 37 kg UB in Grade 43 steel.

4.875 X 10^_
l/rxx = -= 40 Pc = 55 N/mm^2 + 25% = 69 N/mm^
12.3

3.25 X 10^
I/ryy = = 126
2.58
Pbc - 130 N/mm^ + 25% =163 N/mm^
D/T = 28

10^
= 46.5 X = 9.8 N/mm^ ratio = 0.143
fc
47.4 X 10^

10^
~ 38.8 X = 83.0 N/mm^ = 0.6
470 X 10j
fbc ratio

0.753
Section O.K.

Use 305 X 127 X 37 kg UB in Grade 43 steel.

Roof leg below crane cap

Length = 8.75 m. Spacing of lacings 2.0 m.
Effective length xx = 0.85 x 8.75 = 7.5 m
yy = 1.0 X 2.0 = 2.0 m
Vertical load (maximum) = 46.0 + 8.7 + ^
.66
= 429 kN
Crane leg below crane cap
Length = 8.75 m. Spacing of lacings 2.0 m.
Effective length xx = 0.85 x 8.75 = 7.5 m
yy=1.0x 2.0 = 2.0 m
Vertical load (maximum) = 467 + 8.7 + 374 = 850 kN.

Using same section as before,

fc = 1 50 N/mm^ Pc inc. = 1 62 N/mm^

Section proves adequate but increase to next heavier section to give margin
against eccentricity of crane loading.

Use 356 X 171 x 51 kg UB in Grade 43 steel.

Lacings

Total vertical load on combined stanchion.

From construction = 46 + 467.5 = 513.5 kN 1

531.0 kN
From wind O.T.M. = 17.5 kN )

Take 2^o as shear on lacings = 13.3 kN

Wind shear = 8.7 kN
Surge = 14.0 kN
Load carried by lacings based on 36.0 kN horizontal.

Length = vl^ + .66^ =1.2m

Force = x 36.0 kN = 65 kN on pair
0.66
= 32.5 kN each.

Try angle 63 mm x 63 mm x 6.2 mm.

/Amin
= =96 Pc = 84 + 25% = 1 05 N/mm^

^ 32.5 X 10^ 2

Fig. 8 Use lacings 63 ram x 63 mm x 6.2 mm angle.

 519
MAIN STANCHIONS
Temporary side stanchions
leading details

Roof leg above crane cap

Vertical Present
Future
Maximum Minimum

Reaction from trusses 84.0 kN 15.0 kN

Reaction from valley 100.0 kN 31.0 kN

Temporary cladding 3.0 kN

Own weight 2.0 kN 2.0 kN

186.0 kN 51.0 kN

Horizontal

From wind at roof 17.4 kN

From surge one side 14.0 kN.

N.B. When future bay added, wind load could

reduce but extra surge.

Fig. 9

Crane legs below crane cap

Vertical
Maximum Minimum
From above = 93 kN 26 kN

From crane = 444 kN 192 kN

From girder = 16 kN 16 kN
Own weight = 6kN 6kN
559 kN 32 kN present outer leg. No crane.

50 per cent wind O.T.M. ± 8.7 kN.

Base moments
Wind 17.4x 12 =209kNm
Surge 14.0x9.5 = 133kNm
342 kNm
Forces in legs from moments = ± 342 kN
.'.
Maximum load in lower shaft = 910 kN
520 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP DESIGN
Roof leg above crane cap
Length = 3.25 m
Effective length xat = 1.5 x 3.25 m
= 4.875

yy = 1.0 X 3.25 = 3.25 m

Vertical load = 186 kN

Bending moment from wind = 57 kNm

from surge =10 kNm
67 kNm
Try 305 x 165 x 40 kg UB in Grade 43 steel.

4.875 X 10^
12.9
= 38 1 Pc- 92N/mm^ Pc inc. = 125 N/mm”^

10^
llryy
= 3.25 X = 89 I = 165 N/mm^ inc. = 207 N/mm^
pi,c
3.67

fc = = 36.3 N/mm^ ratio = 0.29

. 67 X 10 ®
=‘20N/min'2 ratio = 0.58

0.87
Section O.K.

Use 305 X 165 X 40 kg UB in Grade 43 steel.

Crane legs belotv crane cap

Length 8.75 m. Spacing of lacings. 2.0 m.

Effective length xx = 7.5 m

yy = 2.0 m
Vertical load (maximum) = 910 kN.
Try 356 X 171 x 51 kg UB.

„ _ 7.5x10’ =51

Pc = 130 N/mm^ + 25% = 162.5 N/mm^

,/ _ 2x102 _
3 71

fc
= 910x102 ,

Section O.K.

Use 356 X 171 x51kg UB in Grade 43 steel.

 521
MAIN STANCHIONS
Lacings

Total vertical load on combined stanchion

From construction = 2x559 = 1 118 kN

From wind O.T.M. = 17.4 kN but ignore since above load
includes future bay.

Take 2^ per cent as shear carried by lacings = 28 kN

Wind shear =17kN
Surge (two cranes) 28 kN
Load carried by lacings based on 73 kN horizontal

Length of bar =y/2= 1.414 m

414
Force =
1
— x 73 = 104 kN on pair
= 52 kN each.

Try angle 76 mm x 76 mm x 6.2 mm.

.
, 1.414x10^
V'mm 2 49

Pc = 85 +25%= 106 N/mm^

. 52~ X 10^ vTi

fc =
'
^
^ N/mm^2 good margin
9 i 2 x'I o

Try angle 76 mm x 63 mm x 6.2 mm.

1.414X 10^
^Amin = 106 Pc = 73 + 25% = 91 N/mm^
1.33

Use lacings 76 mm x 63 mm x 6.2 mm angle.

Design for bracings

Gable wind girder at truss tie level

From previous calculations pressure coefficient for end of building -

is 0.5 ^
Allowing for internal pressure increase to — 0.8
Then reaction at tie level for wind from below will be 80% of that from side
wind.
On full effective width of 18.0 m.

Load on wind girder = 18/8 x 0.8 x 26.06 kN

= 47.0 kN.
 =

522 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP DESIGN

Wind on apex
= 18 X 3.5 X 0.8 X 676 N- 17 kN
Reaction at wind girder level

= 12.9/12 X 17= 18.2 kN

Then total load on wind girder = 65.2 kN

Assume distributed between stanchion positions as shown in Fig. 1 1-.

^on^L 77es^

32-6 kN 32-6 kN
I
j

t_ truss
/\ l\
/ ' / '
>
/ \\ /
'

\
\4m
'

V
1/ '
I /
/
\ / !

-
1 gob/e
63 kN l26kN 13-. kN /3^\kN /26kN
3-S m 3Sm 4-0 m 3Sm 3-S/n
I

Fig. 11

Length of end diagonal approximately = v4^+3^ = 4.7 m

Force in end diagonal = 47— x 26.3 = 31 .0 kN

Effective length of member, say 4.7 x 0.85 = 4.0 m.

Try 2/angles 63 mm x 5 mm x 6.2 mm.

1

—
~ 4 0x10^ =
205 Pc
= 22 N/mm^ increased for wind by 25% = 27.5 N/mm^

Actual stress fc
= tt--
^
—
31 X 10^

X Jl U
23 N/mm^ O.K.

Use 2/angles 63 mm x 51 mm x 6.2 mm for all members.

Eaves bracing

Bracing required to transfer wind on

intermediate post to main stanchions.

Wind on post from previous calculations

= 24.8 kN

6 25
Reaction at top = x 24.8

= 13.0 kN

Force in brace = x
^= 1 2.3 kN

Fig. 12 Use single angle 89 mm x 76 mm x 6.3 mm.

 VERTICAL BRACING 523

Vertical bracing

Bracing, or some other form of longitudinal stiffness is required to transfer

the reaction from the gable wind girder, and the crane longitudinal surge, to base
level.

Horizontal load from wind.

Permanent side 32.6 kN

Temporary side 65.2 kN on two legs = 32.6 kN each.

Longitudinal surge from crane = 5% x 455 kN = 91 kN

Take half at each end = 45.5 kN
Design bracing above crane for horizontal load of 32.6 kN and below crane for
horizontal load of 78.1 kN.
Above crane

Length of bar = \/4^ + 3.25^

pC
" ‘
326 kN
y''
= 5.15 m
cL 45 3 kN Force =
V
;\ / x 32.6 = 52.0 kN
\
'
\ Effective length 0.85 x 5,15 = 4.4
d^JS/n
Try 2/angles 89 mm x 63 mm
/ \ X 6.2 mm.
/
/ \
\
/ \ //r
V”mm
. =M2L1^ -
“ Tfic
1o5
\ 2 95

Pc = 34 N/mm^
7BkN 8*0/77 78kN
opprox. tjpprox.
+ 25% = 42.5 N/mm^
= 52x 10^ N
/c
VERTICAL BRACING 18.2 X 10^ mm^
Fig. 13 = 28.6 N/mm^
Section O.K. Use 2/angles 89 mm x 63 mm x 6.2 mm.

Below crane level

Assume all load taken on one bar in tension

Load = 78.1 kN
Try single angle 102 mm x 76 mm x 7.9 mm
Gross area = 13.48 cm^
524 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP DESIGN
Net area of connected leg,

= (101.6- 4) X 7.9- 18x7.9

= 740 — 140 = 600 mm^ = 6 cm^

Area of outstanding leg,

= (76.2 - 4) X 7.9

= 570 mm^ = 5.7 cm^

Then effective area.

/ 3 X 6 \ ,
—6+ '
(3x6 + 5.7/

=6+ 4.3

= 10.3 cm^

Permissible stress = 155 N/mm^ + 25%= 193 N/mm^

Actual stress,

^ 78.1 X 10^ N 2

Ample margin but section used on account of length.

Use single angle 102 mm x 76 mm x 7.9 mm counterbraced.

Design for stanchion base
Permanent side

Loading conditions

Case 1. Maximum
Roof leg vertical S=
46.0 kN
Crane leg vertical :r
467.5 kN
Wind overturning 17.4 kN
Wind moment 104kNm
Surge moment :s
133 kNm
no crane

Roof leg vertical = 26.0 kN

Crane leg vertical 22.0 kN
Wind overturning - 17.4 kN
Wind moment 104 kNm
vith crane

Roof leg vertical r=

26.0 kN
Crane leg vertical = 214.0 kN
Wind overturning - 17.4 kN
Wind moment s=
104 kNm
Surge moment 133 kNm
 STANCHION BASE 525

Fig. 14

Consider maximum loads.

C. of G. of vertical loads = 467.5 x 0.66 x ~ 0.6 m

If basemade symmetrical about this centre line.
Effective centres of base plates = 1 .2 m
Total vertical load = 532 kN
On each plate = 266 kN
Total overturning moment = 237 kNm
On each plate = 237/1 .2 = 200 kN
Then total vertical load on baseplate = 266 + 200 = 466 kN
Assuming baseplate size 0.4 m x 0.6 m = 0.24 m^

Maximum pressure = ~~ = 1 960 kN/m^

This is satisfactory.

For maximum uplift consider case 2,

Uplift on baseplate B.

From vertical load, moment equals 26 x 0.6 - 22 x 0.06 = 15.6 - 1.3 = 14.3 kNm
Uplift = = 12 kN

From overturning = = 9 kN

From wind moment = 87

Total uplift =108kN

Less vertical = 24 kN
Nett uplift = 84 kN
526 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP DESIGN

Fig. 15

Foundation bolts
Bolts strength designation 4.6.

BS 449 Part 2 1969 gives = 130 N/mm^ Add 25% wind = 162.5 N/mm^
Approximate value of nett area = 70% gross area.

22 mm dia. bolt, gross area = 380 mm^ nett area approximately = 266 mm^

Then using 2 bolts,

_ ...
Tensile stress — —N = 160 N/mm^
=—84 X 10^
:r—:
2 X 266
, 2

Using 4 bolts,

Tensile stress = 80 N/mm^

Use 4 H.D. bolts 22 mm dia. in each baseplate.

Temporary Side
Loading conditions

Case 1. Maximum future

Present crane leg vertical = 559 kN
Future crane leg vertical = 559 kN
Wind overturning = 17.4 kN
Wind moment = 209 kNm
Surge moment = 133 kNm

Case 2. Minimum present no crane

Present crane leg vertical = 48 kN

Future crane leg vertical = 32 kN
Wind overturning = — 17.4 kN
Wind moment = 209 kNm
 TEMPORARY SIDE BASE 527

Case 3. Minimum present with crane

Present crane leg vertical = 238 kN

Future crane leg vertical = 32 kN
Wind overturning = — 1 7.4 kN
Wind moment = 209 kNm
Surge moment = 133 kNm

Fig. 16

Consider maximum loads.

Using baseplates under each leg.
Maximum vertical load on each

= 559 + 8.7 + 342/1 =910 kN

Using plate 0.6 x 0.6 = 0.36 m^
Pressure = 910/0.36 = 2 530 kN/m^

which is satisfactory.

Consider maximum uplift.

Ecc. moment from vertical load = (238 - 32)(0.5) = 103 kNm
Moment from wind and surge - 342 kNm
Total moment = 445 kNm
Then max. uplift =
12 2
= 445 - 135 = 319 kN
32 mm dia. bolts, gross area = 800 mm^ 70% - 560 mm
Tensile stress for 4 bolts = = 142 N/mm^
4x560 say 0.
Use 4 H.D. bolts 32 mm dia. to each plate.
528 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP DESIGN
Design of sundry items

The permanent gable will be constructed as shown in Fig. 17.

‘obit Rofttr

Bottt ltd Roll

A tgit Rail
Futurt
/ \
T / \ T tbit sidt

/ \
/ Bcntr <td RqH^ \
/
fioor h tad .

Angit/t ?0/7 rit bract

/
\V
Sliding
/-do- \
Door
/
\
/ Brich •ork \
V J J, i

Fig. 17

Gable rafter

Maximum span 4.0 m. Use 152 x 89 x 24 kg channel.

Beams carrying gantry girder

Span 3.5 m. Point load from gantry at 0.5 m from one end, say 450 kN to include
own weight.
Then reaction on corner stanchion.

3 ^ x450
3.5

= 364 kN.

Max B.M. = 364 x 0.5 = 182 kNm

Z = 182 X
10^ Nmm =
reqd.
165 N/mm^
1.1 X 10® mm^

= 1100 cm^

Use 457 X 190 X 67 kg UB

web to be stiffened under gantry girder.

Corner stanchions
Permanent sidelpermanent end

Load roof and side say lOkN

Reaction from crane 364 kN
Own weight 10 kN
384 kN
 CORNER STANCfflONS 529

Temporary sidelpermanent end

Load from valley beam 50 kN

Load roof and side say 20 kN
Load from present and future cranes 728 kN

Own weight 10 kN
808 kN

Both stanchions will be made same size so design for maximum load.

Length jcx = 1 2.0 m Coef. 0.85 Effective = 1 0.2 m

Length 6.0 m Coef. 1.0 Effective = 6.0 m

Try 254 x 254 x 73 kg UC.

6.0 X 10^ cm
Pc- 87 N/mm
,,

6.45 cm
....stress, c 808 X 10^ N _ 2
Actual /c =
93 ^ fo^ mm^
Since full load from both present and future cranes has been taken, this would
appear to be satisfactory. Again, the effective length could no doubt be reduced.

Use 254 X 254 x 73 kg UC in Grade 43 steel.

Note: These two stanchions will require substantial anchorage against uplift from
vertical bracing.

Rafter bracing

Used mainly for erection purposes. Use 76 mm x 63 mm x 6.2 mm angle

clipped to purlins for support.

Longitudinal Ties to trusses

Use 76 mm x 76 mm x 6.2 mm angle.

Battened rails in gable and side
Use 2/ angles 89 mm x 63 mm x 6.2 mm with 89 mm leg vertical.
Vertical bracing in permanent gable
Use angle 89 mm x 63 mm x 6.2 mm.
Penultimate truss at both ends
Gable truss at temporary end
Since these form booms of wind girders main tie should be increased.
Use 2/angles 76 mm x 76 mm x 7.8 mm to allow for extra loading conditions.
 22. PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN

Foreword
The attempt to present in a few pages the basis of the plastic method of design of
steel frames has led to some inevitable omissions. Further, the
compression in these
pages is such that the designer unfamiliar with the method may be left with the
impression that plastic design is very complicated. This is not so. Plastic theory may
not be a universal panacea, but for those problems for which it is suited it will be
found to be far easier than elastic analysis; further, plastic design methods are
simple and rational, and the designer can be confident that his calculations are
reflected in actual behaviour.
The following numbered references are suggested for further reading; they are
quoted in the following pages in the appropriate places;

1. BAKER, J. F. The Steel Skeleton, Vol. 1. Cambridge U.P. 1954.

2. BAKER, J. F., HORNE, M. R., HEYMAN, J. The Steel Skeleton, Vol. 2. Cambridge U.P.
1956.
3. NEAL, B. G. Plastic Methods of Structural Analysis. Chapman- and Hall 1956.
4. HEYMAN, J. Beams and Framed Structures. Pergamon 1964.
The pitched roof portal frame is dealt with at length in
5. HEYMAN, Plastic Design of Portal Frames. Cambridge U.P. 1957.
J.
6. BAKER, F. BCSA Publication No. 21: ‘Plastic Design in Steel to B.S. 968’.
J.
StabUity problems are discussed in 2 above and column design curves are given in
7. HORNE, M. R. BCSA Publication No. 23: ‘Plastic Design of Columns’.
Multi-storey design is covered by a report from the Joint Committee of the Institute of
Welding and the Institution of Structural Engineers:
8. Fully Rigid Multistorey Welded Steel Frames. Inst, of Structural Engineers.

Introduction (1, 2*)

The work of the Steel Stmctures Research Committee, in particular their tests
on actual buildings, made it clear that a steel frame behaves very differently from
the way assumed by the conventional designer. In certain cases ‘elastic design’ may
hide so much real behaviour that it is dangerous; the real factor of safety of a
stmctural element can be much less than the designer thinks. In other cases, the
real factor of safety may beand an uneconomical stmcture will result.
excessive,
Indeed, elastic methods
poor indication of the strength of even the simplest
give a
redundant structure, although reasonable estimates can be made of deflections.
After the publication of the Final Report of the Steel Structures
Research
Committee, in 1936, it was evident that some other method of design
would have
to be found if the steel-framed building was to
advance. As a result, work started
on plastic theory, and the plastic method of design was first
permitted in this
country in 1948, when a clause was inserted in the new edition of B.S. 449.
* The numbers refer to the references listed in the Foreword.
531
532 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
Simple plastic theory concerned with the strength of steel framed structures.
is

Thus, if a analysed, plastic theory will estimate the values of the

given structure is

loads which will cause collapse of that structure. In the design process, where a
structure is required to carry given loads, attention is again concentrated on the
collapse state. The required reserve of strength against collapse is obtained by
designing the structure to fail, not of course under the working loads, but under
those loads increased by a load factor.
Before embarking on a plastic design, therefore, the designer must be satisfied
that themain design criterion for his structure is that of strength. No firm rules can
be given as to whether a particular structure is likely to be suitable for plastic
design. As a rough guide, however, if maximum permitted stresses govern a
conventional elastic design, then plastic methods can probably be used; alternatively,
if deflection limitations govern an elastic design, then they will probably preclude

the use of plastic theory for that particular structure. Similarly, other considerations,
such as fatigue, may make it essential to use an elastic design method.
The plastic design process therefore consists essentially in proportioning a
structure so that it is on the point of collapse under factored working loads. Stress

distributions under the actual working loads are not normally computed, and
working load deflections will be calculated only if it is required to check that these
do not influence the design.
Plastic theory has been developed to deal with a specific class of structure, the
ductile rigid frame. A framed structure carries applied loads mainly by bending of
the members, and plastic collapse analysis is undertaken in essence by the
e)t-amination only of bending moment diagrams, although more sophisticated
methods of calculation may mask this fact. The effects of axial loads and shear
forces on the members of a frame are assumed to be small, although allowance can
be made for these in a particular design. The potential instability of compression
members does not fit easily into simple plastic theory, and special methods have
been developed to deal with columns of building frames, which will be referred to
later on. In no case, however, is primary plastic collapse of a frame allowed to occur
by instability of a member; it is assumed that all members remain stable at collapse
of a frame, and the design of columns consists in checking that they are indeed
stable.
It will be seen, therefore, that trusses, whose members are subjected to large axial
forces rather than bending, cannot be dealt with by simple plastic theory; special
methods exist for the design of trusses which are outside the scope of this chapter.
For the purpose of this exposition of plastic theory, it will be assumed that the
structure satisfies the following requirements:

1 . Loads are carried mainly by bending, and the effects of axial load and shear
force on a member are small.
2. The designer is satisfied that strength is the main design criterion; checks on
deflections may have to be made if these are suspected to be significantly
large.
3. The design is fabricated in a ductile steel to B.S. 4360.

Subject to these limitations, plastic theory makes the design process easy and
rational. Since the design is rational, in the sense that it deals with an accurately

ascertainable criterion, that of collapse, it will also be economical; greatest economy

will be achieved if a rigid frame is used.
 BASIS OF THE THEORY 533

Basis of the Theory (2, 3, 4)

If a short length of rolled steel joist is subjected to a gradually increasing bending

moment, and the values of curvature measured, then a curve similar to that shown
in Fig. 1 (a) will be obtained. Elastic behaviour for small values of bending
moment
is followed by inelastic behaviour, greatly increased curvatures being
observed for

relatively small increases in bending moment. An actual test on an as-received

specimen will show some strain-hardening as shown by the rising curve CD\ for the
purposes of simple plastic theory, it isassumed, conservatively, that a maximum
moment Afp is reached (Fig. 1 (b)) at which curvature can increase indefinitely. The
maximum moment Mp is known as the full plastic moment, the cross-section of
a
member which is fully plastic can sustain large local increases of curvature,
and is
known as a plastic hinge. It will be assumed for the time being that
the
value of
Ae full plastic momentunaffected by axial loads and shear forces; this point is
is
discussed below, and corrections made to the value
of Mp.
Consider a simply supported beam, Fig.
2 (a), subjected to some system of
working loads which can be specified in
terms of one of their number, W. The
bending moment diagram can be
drawn and the maximum bending moment
determined. Suppose now that all the
loads acting on the beam are multiplied
M
by a
534 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
common load factor X; clearly the bending moment diagram is simply increased in
size in the ratio X, and the maximum bending moment will have value XM, Fig. 2 (b).
The load factor X may be increased until the bending moment XMjust reaches the
full plastic moment of the cross-section of the beam; the collapse condition is
therefore

XM = Mp.
LOADS W LOADS MV

1 1 I I i
'•
I

H
' '

(t>)

(<f)

Fig. 2

At this condition, the cross-section at the point of maximum moment will become
a plastic hinge, and a mechanism movement will be possible as shown in Fig. 2 (c),
the load-deflection curve for the beam being as shown in Fig. 2 (d).
This simple example has illustrated one of the basic features of plastic collapse,
namely, the formation of a mechanism permitting gross deformation of the structure
without any increase in the applied collapse load.
 535
LOAD FACTORS
Load Factors
The primary function of a load factor of course, to ensure that a structure
is,

will be safe under service conditions. In fact,

a load factor performs several duties,

since a reserve of strength in a structure is required

to cover uncertainty of the
errors in design and fabrication,
values of the loads, imperfections in workmanship,
and so on. Under these circumstances, it is difficult to fix a value of load factor on

a theoretical basis, although some probability studies

have been made.
However, there is a hard core of practical experience with existing structures
which can be used. Put in the simplest terms, steel structures designed in accordance
with B.S. 449 have shown themselves to be safe, and a plastic design incorporating
the minimum load factor implied by B.S. 449 should therefore also be safe.
This minimum load factor is found in a simply supported beam and has the value
1.75 for dead plus superimposed loading; the value may be derived from a study of
the beam bending moment diagram in Fig. 2 (a) corresponds to
in Fig. 2. If the
working values of the loads, with a maximum bending moment M, then an elastic
11'

design in steel to B.S. 4360 grade 43 would be made on the basis that the greatest
bending stress should not exceed 165 N/mm^.

M= 165Ze
W'here Zg is the elastic modulus of cross-section of the beam.
Corresponding to elastic moduli, plastic moduli are given in the section tables
from which the fuU plastic moments iWp can be calculated. (These plastic moduli are
first moments of area, and will be referred to again below.) If the collapse state of

the beam is as shown in Fig. 2 (b), then the collapse condition can be written

m = Mp = 245Zp

where 245 N/mm^ is the guaranteed yield stress of steel to B.S. 4360 grade 43, and
Zp is the plastic modulus of the beam.
Comparing the elastic design with the collapse condition, it will be seen that the
load factor X is given by

X= = 1.48
165 Ze Ze

The ratio Zp/Z^ for any cross-section is known as the shape factor, for joists,
universal sections, and built-up I sections of similar proportions, the shape
factor
has a value very close to 1.15. Thus the coUapse load factor X for a simply
supported beam of I section is 1.48 x 1.15 = 1.71 or say 1.75.
B.S. 449 permits an increase in working stresses of
25 per cent if such increase is
solely due to the effect of wdnd. It is easy
to show that this implies a reduction in
collapse load factor to 1.4. Such a reduction in load
factor is, of course, a measure
of the statistical unlikelihood of full wind and
superload acting at the same time
Thus the designer will use a load factor of 1 .75 on dead
plus superimposed loading ’
and carry out a second analysis at a load factor
of 1.4 on dead plus superimposed
plus wind loads. Naturally, the more critical of the two cases will give the actual
design.
The load factor 1.75 (reduced to 1.4 for the
wind case) will be used in all
examples given here. It must be emphasised
that, as far as can be iudged by
expenence with structures of elastic design
in steel to B.S. 4360 grade 43, the
536 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
value of 1.75 and there might be a case for reducing the value for certain
is safe,

classes of building. For example, for multi-storey office blocks, braced against
wind, where rigorous load patterns are prescribed, (8) the load factor might well be
reduced to 1.5.

Redundant Beams
As a very simpleexample of a redundant structure, which however will illustrate
the ease and power of plastic methods, consider the propped cantilever carrying a
central load W, shown in Fig. 3 (a). This beam has one redundancy, denoted by the
bending moment M, and the complete bending moment diagram is sketched in
Fig. 3 (a). This bending moment diagram consists essentially of two parts: a diagram

in' in'

(cj

Fig. 3

due to the external loading acting on a statically determinate beam, as shown in

Fig. 3 (b), and a diagram due to the redundant bending moment M, shown in
Fig. 3 (c). Fig. 3 (b) shows the free bending moments, and Fig. 3 (c) the reactant
moments. It will be seen that the diagram of Fig. 3 (a) results by superimposing
Figs. 3 (b) and (c).
 REDUNDANT BEAMS 537

In general,any structural system may be broken down in this way into free and
reactant components. The general form of the bending moment diagrams
is

independent of material properties and can be determined without stating whether

analysis lies in the
the problem is elastic or plastic. The whole problem of structural
determination of the values of the redundancies; for the propped cantilever, the
\^ue M must be found.
In order to determine values of redundancies, the moment-curvature curve must
be used, and it is instructive to follow the arguments leading to an elastic solution
to the problem. In Fig. 3 (a), the elastic value M
will be found by using the

conditions that the beam has zero deflections at both ends and zero slope at one
end. Only one value of M can be found which will lead to elastic cur\'atures of the
beam satisfying these boundary conditions. The use of slope-deflection equations or
other techniques of analysis may render the elastic problem relatively easy, at least
if the number of redundancies is few. However, the flnal solution obtained may

have little relation to reality, since the boundary conditions are implicit, and these
are difficult to satisfy in practice. For example, the supports of the propped
cantilever may sink slightly, and the slope at the ‘fixed’ end will almost certainly
not be truly zero; these anomalies can have a great effect on the elastic distribution
of bending moments.
By contrast, the plastic solution to the same problem is both easier to obtain
and bears a close relation to reality. The ‘compatibility’ boundary conditions are
not used in plastic theory; supports may sink, and an end of a beam may be
imperfectly fixed. Nevertheless, the collapse load of an actual beam will be
predicted with great accuracy by plastic methods, since the collapse load is
independent of such practical imperfections as sinking of supports, flexibility of
connections, and so on.
Returning to Fig. 3 (a), it was seen that this bending moment diagram is general,
being valid both for the elastic and for the plastic problem. The key to the
determination of the value of M for the plastic problem is the fact that, at collapse,
the beam must be capable of deforming as a mechanism. Thus plastic hinges must
be formed within the length of the beam.
Moving bending moment diagram
directly to the correct solution, consider the
of Fig. 4 where the full plastic moment Mp is reached at the two cross-sections
(a),
shown. Figure 4 (b) shows the beam in its collapse state, with two plastic hinges,
and the end support acting as a third hinge; three hinges in a straight line permit the
formation of an elementary mechanism. Thus the mechanism condition is satisfied
by the bending moment distribution of Fig. 4 (a). Further, it is clear by inspection
that the values of the bending moments reach, but do not exceed anywhere in the
beam, the value Mp.
Calculation is very simple. Comparing Figs. 3 (a) and 4 (a), it will be seen that

M = Mp
WL
4
lM = Mp.
Hence -M- WL/6. Thus, if IF represents the value of the load, and a
load factor of 1.75 is required, a beam section must be provided whose full plastic
moment is at least
{l.l5)WLf6.
It will have been noted that, in arriving
at this design of the beam, calculations
have been based directly on the bending
moment diagram. No reference has been
538 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
made to slopes or deflections, and the supports, for example, may settle slightly

without affecting the value oiMp.

These observations on the propped cantilever can be stated more formally as
three master requirements of plastic design. First, equilibrium must be satisfied;
that is, proper bending moment diagrams must be constructed which are in
equilibrium with the applied loads. Secondly, a structure at collapse must be capable

of deforming as a mechanism, due to the formation of plastic hinges. Thirdly, the

yield condition must be satisfied; the bending moments must not exceed the full
plastic values. These three conditions form the whole basis of plastic design; a
structure at collapse is required to satisfy the conditions of

1. Equilibrium.
2. Mechanism.
3. Yield.

It may be shown that these conditions are all that are required. If a design satisfies

the conditions, then the designer can be certain that he has the correct solution to
his problem (providing, of course, the fundamental assumptions of simple plastic
theory are obeyed; that is, there are no instability or other extraneous effects,
referred to above).
Returning to the example of the propped cantilever, the collapse equation can
be found even more easily if the work equation is used to replace calculations based
on the bending moment diagram. In the plastic collapse mechanism of Fig. 4 (b), it
will be seen that if a rotation d occurs at the plastic hinge at the fixed end, the
 REDUNDANT BEAMS
rotation at the sagging hinge under the load must be 26.
The corresponding
deflection of the load is {L/2)d. (The collapse mechanism has
been drawn with the
beam straight between hinge points. Although the beam will in fact have elastic

curvatures, these do not affect the calculations.)

The work dissipated at a plastic equal to the product of the full plastic
hinge is

moment arid the hinge rotation. Thus the total work dissipated in the mechanism

of Fig. 4 (b) is Mp(6) +Mp{26) = 3Mpd. The work done by the load acting on the
plastic collapse mechanism is 1V([l/2]0), and these two work quantities must be
equal, i.e. h!L/2 = 3Mp, which is the collapse equation previously derived.
It may be shown that the writing of the work equation is exactly
equivalent to
writing an equilibrium equation; thus, if the work equation is correctly formulated,
the equilibrium condition will be satisfied automatically, and the mechanism
condition is, of course, also However, if the collapse equation (WL = 6Mp)
satisfied.

is derived from work considerations, the bending

moment diagram must be
constructed to check that the yield condition is not violated. An example of such a
check is given in the next example.
It willhave been noted that the rotation 6 in Fig. 4 (b) disappeared from the
calculations when the work equation was written. The mechanism has, in fact, one
degree of freedom, specified in terms of the arbitrary 0, and this parameter occurred
as a common multiplier in all the work terms. It will have been noted also that the
bending moment diagram of Fig. 4 (a) could be determined directly from the
collapse condition, the original staticalindeterminacy of the propped cantilever also
disappearing. This feature of plastic design recurs in all structures at the point of
collapse; that part of the structure concerned in the collapse mechanism becomes
statically determinate, and this greatly simplifies the working compared with elastic

analysis.

A mle can be derived concerning the number of hinges required to turn a

structure into a mechanism of one degree of freedom. The simply supported beam
of Fig. 2, which
of course, statically determinate, required the formation of a
is,

single hinge to make

it into a mechanism. For a redundant structure, the insertion

of one hinge, whether real or plastic, will reduce the degree of redundancy by one.
Thus if a stmcture has originally a number redundancies, the insertion of iV hinges,
properly placed, will make that structure statically determinate. One further hinge
will turn the statically determinate structure into a collapse mechanism of one degree
of freedom.
to be expected, then, that a structure with A' redundancies will require the
It is

formation of (A+ 1) plastic hinges at collapse. Thus the simply supported beam
needs one hinge; the propped cantilever, having one redundancy, will need two
hinges (see Fig. 4 (b)); and a beam having both ends fixed will need three hinges,
corresponding to the two redundancies. The rule of (A + 1) hinges is always obeyed
for regular collapse mechanisms involving the whole of a structure. However,
in
complex frames, an incomplete or partial mechanism may be formed involving only
a portion of the frame. In this case, that portion of the frame involved in the
collapse will become statically determinate, and the collapse load can be calculated;
the rest of the frame, however, will remain statically indeterminate, and the bending
moment distribution cannot be found by plastic methods alone. Nevertheless,
simple theorems are available, and are referred to below,
whose use enables the
designer to be certain of his collapse load calculations, even
though the bending
moments in part of a structure have not been determined.
540 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
In thinking of an actual structure loaded slowly up to the point of collapse, it

will be clear that certain plastic hinges will form before others; if necessary, a
complete elastic-plastic history could be worked out. For the purpose of calculating
a plastic collapse load, however, such a history is quite unnecessary. The designer

can concentrate directly on the collapse state and satisfy the three master conditions
of mechanism, equilibrium, and yield. He then has absolute certainty that the
structure cannot possibly collapse at loads lower than those for which the structure
is designed.

Upper and Lower Bounds

Consider a propped cantilever under the action of a uniformly distributed load
W, Fig. 5 (a). The general bending moment diagram is again composed of free and

reactant components. Fig. 5 (b); note that the reactant line due to the unknown
bending moment Tlf is
exactly the same as before. Fig. 3 (c), being purely a function
of the structure and not of the loading. Fig. 5 (c) evidently gives the collapse
condition of the propped cantilever; a hogging hinge forms at the fixed end, and a
sagging hinge at some internal cross-section, leading to the collapse mechanism of
Fig. 5 (d). By drawing, or by analysis, the value of Mp in Fig. 5 (c) is determined as

Mp = 0.686

The difficulty in this simple problem lies in locating the sagging hinge, and the
opportunity may be
taken to introduce upper and lower bound theorems which
may be applied to approximate solutions. Suppose, for example, that a first guess
for the collapse mechanism is the configuration shown in Fig. 4 (b), where the
sagging hinge is located at midspan. If the work equation is written for this
mechanism, then, since the uniformly distributed load descends an average

distance ^0,
4

= 3Mp0

2
or Mp
3

Of the three master conditions, only those of equilibrium and

mechanism have so
far been mechanism has been guessed, and the writing of
satisfied; a plastic collapse
the work equation ensures that equilibrium has been satisfied. It may be shown
that such a solution, not necessarily satisfying the yield condition, is unsafe. That is,

the actual value of must be larger, or at best equal to, the value derived from a
guessed mechanism, i.e.

Mp

The bending moment diagram corresponding to the assumed mechanism may

now be examined; it is sketched in Fig. 6. It will be seen that the derived value of
 UPPER AND LOWER BOUNDS 541

(cfj

Fig. 5

~ exceeded
is in the ratio 25/24 (i.e. 4 per cent) at the most critical
section, so that the yield condition not satisfied.
is

Consider, however, a new design of the beam with

„ _25 2 /H^\
24'3' 8
’

\ 8 /
inconjunction with the bending mom’ent diagram of Fig. 6. This set of bending
moments satisfies equilibrium; it also satisfies the yield condition since
Mp - 0.694(lPZ,/8) is not exceeded. It may be shown that any solution satisfying
equilibrium and yield, but not necessarily the mechanism condition, is safe; that is,

Iwl\
542 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
For this particular problem, therefore, the design value of has been bracketed
between fairly close limits (4 per cent apart), and this is certainly good enough for
design purposes. In general, close limits cannot be found easily for more complicated
structures, but the unsafe solution forms the basis of a valuable technique for

Fig. 6

deriving a quick answer to a problem. This will be commented on when the method
of combination of mechanisms is described.
For the moment it may be recorded that bounds can be determined by satisfying
the three conditions in pairs, as shown:

( Mechanism Unsafe
j
Exact I Equilibrium ! „ ^
Safe
i Yield )

Continuous Beams
The ideas so far presented will now be applied to a more complicated design
problem, that of the continuous beam. A continuous purlin, for example, is a beam
resting on a number of supports; the supports are provided by the rafters of the
main frames in the building. The fact that the rafters are flexible and will deflect
slightly is irrelevant from the point of view of plastic design.
Consider first a building of four main frames, spaced uniformly at a distance I
apart; then the beam to be designed will be as shown in Fig. 7 (a). A free bending
moment diagram may be drawn as in Fig. 7 (b), consisting simply of a set of
identical parabolas of height w/^/8; this diagram has been drawn by considering each
span as if it were simply supported. Actually, a bending moment will exist at each
internal support, and the reactant line consists therefore of a continuous line which
is each span of the beam.
straight for
If a uniform section purlin is used, then it is reasonable to suppose that the end
spans, behaving like propped cantilevers, will be weaker than the internal span which
will behave plastically like a fixed-ended beam. To test this assumption, a collapse
mechanism will be tried for the end spans, and then it will be seen whether the
central span is safe.
544 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
Figure 7 (c) shows the bending moment diagram with the reactant line adjusted
to give collapse in the end spans, with = 0.686(w/^/8). It is seen immediately that
the bending moment at the centre of the internal span is less than in fact, it has
value 0.314(w/^/8). Thus the bending moment diagram of Fig. 7 (c) satisfies the
equilibrium condition, since it is a proper combination of free and reactant diagrams.
It satisfies the yield condition, since the moment A^ = 0.686(w/^/8) is nowhere

exceeded. And the mechanism condition is satisfied by the end spans. Thus the
correct solution has been obtained.
As a practical design, the uniform section purlin may be wasteful of material,
although it may be less costly than to vary the section along the length of the purlin.
However, suppose the internal span were designed to have as small a section as
possible, so that it collapses as a fixed-ended beam with A^ = The bending
moment diagram for the whole purlin is shown in Fig. 8 (d). By drawing or
calculation it is found that the end spans are called upon to carry maximum sagging
moments of 0.766(w/^/8). The end spans must therefore be strengthened, either by
providing a uniform section having this value of full plastic moment, or by using the
section for the internal span and strengthening it locally with cover plates. The
extent of such cover plates may be determined quickly by drawing the bending
moment diagram for an end span. Fig. 8. It will be seen from the next section on
‘FuU Plastic Moments’ that the size of the cover plates can be calculated easily.
A purlin of more than three spans can be designed in the same way, but the
problem of incomplete collapse arises. Consider, for example, a five-span purlin of
uniform section, collapsing as before in the end spans. Fig. 9. The reactant line is
fixed for the end spans by the collapse condition, but the collapse analysis will not
determine the bending moments for the internal spans. However, in Fig. 9 is shown

Fig. 9

dotted a reactant line for the internal spans which is drawn in the proper way; that
is, the reactant line is continuous, and straight between supports. It has been sketched

by eye to satisfy clearly the yield criterion; by inspection, the bending moments in
the internal spans shown in Fig. 9 do not exceed the value 71^ = 0.686(w/^/8).
The bending moment diagram in Fig. 9, therefore, satisfies the equilibrium
condition; it is and reactant moments. Further, a
a proper combination of free
collapse mechanism is formed in each end span. Further still, the yield condition is
satisfied by the bending moments in the diagram. Since the three master conditions
are satisfied, the correct solution has been obtained.
Other variations of this continuous beam can be investigated readily;
in design
for example, the spacing of the gable frames could be reduced so that the propped
cantUever ends of the continuous beam are of shorter span. It may be shown that if
the end spans are approximately 85 per cent of the internal spans, a uniform section
purlin can be used which will just be on the point of collapse both in the end and
in the internal spans.
 1

54b
FULL PLASTIC MOMENTS •

Full Plastic Moments (2)

The been presented, and more complex structures, such as the

basic theory has
portal frame, can now be discussed. Before moving on,
however, (Jetail design of a
cross-section will be considered, and the effects of axial load
and shear force
determined.
The ideal elastic/plastic behaviour in bending of Fig. 1 (b) stems from the ideal
elastic/plastic stress— strain curve of steel in tension or compression shown in Fig. 10.
From OtoA the material is elastic; when the yield stress Oq is reached, indefinite

extension of the material can take place. (The actual stress-strain curve will
show
some strain hardening, and the ideal curve of Fig. 10 is ‘safe’.) If a rectangular
cross-section subjected to pure bending, then the normal elastic distribution of
is

stress at yield of the section will be as shown in Fig. 1 1 (b), the

corresponding
bending moment being ^bd^Oo- The elastic modulus of a rectangular section is Ibd^.

If the bending moment is increased above this value yield will occur in the
outer
fibres, where, however, the stress will remain constant at Oq- The stress distribution

Fig. 1
546 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
will be modified to that shown in Fig. 1 1 (c), and, as the bending moment is further
increased, the limit will be reached when the whole cross-section is plastic, as shown
in Fig. 1 1 (d). Figure 12 reproduces this full plastic distribution, and it will be seen
that Mp = ^bd^OQ. The plastic modulus, \bd^, is the first moment of area of the
cross-section about the zero stress axis.

Plastic moduli may be worked out in this way for cross-sections of any shape.
For example, the plate girder of Fig. 13 will have a plastic modulus equal to

\bd^+BJld + T)

where the first term corresponds to the web and the second to the flanges.
Care must be taken when dealing with bending about an axis which is not an
axis of symmetry. For example, the T section of Fig. 14 (a) will have the fully

'

EQUAL'^'^
AREAS X
\

(o)

Fig. 14

plastic stress distribution of Fig. 14 (b), where the zero stress axis does not coincide
with the usual neutral axis for elastic bending. Instead, the zero stress axis is fixed
from consideration of the fact that, in the absence of axial load, there must be no
net axial force on the cross-section. Since the stresses in tension and compression
are uniform and numerically equal, the zero stress axis must divide the cross-section
into two equal areas. Having fixed the zero stress axis in this way, it is a simple
matter to calculate the first moments of area about that axis in order to determine
the section modulus.
 547
AXIAL LOAD
Axial Load (2)

acted upon by an axial load as well as a bending moment,

If a cross-section is

the net force across the section is equal to

then the zero stress axis will shift so that
rectangular cross-section of Fig; 1 HaJ
the axial load. Consider, for example, the
subjected to a bending moment and an axial load P (say compressive). IfM andP
M
that the cross-section is fully plastic, then the
stress
have such magnitudes
distribution will be as shown in Fig. 1be seen that this stress distribution
5 (b). It will
corresponding to the axial load
can be divided into three ‘blocks’, the central block
equations
P and the two outside blocks to the bending moment M. The following
may be written:
P = abdoQ = otPp say

M=(l =(1 -cP'y^p

Ehminating a,
2-1

M = Mp 1

Thus the full plastic moment is reduced by the presence of the axial load.
A similar analysis may be carried out for Universal Beam and Column sections;
indeed, the analysis is virtually unchanged for small axial loads, since the zero stress

axis will remain within the rectangular cross-section web. The section tables give the
reductions to be made in the plastic section modulus due to the presence of axial
load; separate formulae are given for each section in the tables for the cases of low
and high axial load. In the case of high axial load, the zero stress axis moves out of
the web into one of the flanges, and a new analysis leading to a slightly different
formula has to be made.
For low axial loads, the reduction in full plastic moment is small. Figure 16
shows the plastic modulus of a 203 x 203 x 71 kg U.C. plotted against mean axial
stress (it is assumed that the yield stress of the material is 245 N/mm^); an axial
stress of 15 N/mm^ produces a drop in full plastic moment of only
about 1 per cent.
It may be mentioned here that web buckling
may occur if the ratio djb (Fig. 13)
is hi^, and precautions must be
taken when designing built-up sections. In additiop,
certain of the Universal Beam sections are liable to web instability, and some are
not suitable for plastic design on account oi flange
instability (see below), these
548 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
sections are noted in Tables 1 and 2 at the end of this chapter. For a section in steel

to B.S. 4360 grade 43, no web buckling problems arise if the web depth to thickness
ratio djb is less than 53. If the ratio exceeds 53, premature web buckling occurs if
the mean axial stress computed on the whole area of cross-section, is greater than

1 2 125 — 25^ N/mm^ where A is the total area of cross-section in mm^. The
A \ b
)

web depth to thickness ratio should, in any case, not exceed 85.

Fig. 16

For a section in steel to B.S. 4360 grade 50, if djb exceeds 44 premature buckling

will occur at a mean axial stress greater than ^2 600 — ; djb should not

exceed 70.

Shear Force (2, 7)

Shear force acting on a cross-section will also reduce the effective fuU plastic
moment at that section, and allowance may have to be made in some designs. For
an I section. Fig. 13, it was seen that the full plastic moment could be expressed in
the form

Mp = \bd^aQ + BJXd -i-

Tpo
= Afjv +Mf
where Mw andil^are the contributions from the web and flanges respectively.
Theoretical and experimental studies of the problem have led to the following
 FLANGE STABILITY 54y

resisted by a uniform
design rules. shear force at a cross-section is assumed to be
The
shear stress r acting on the web alone; i.e. if the
shear force is F, then - bar. Then F
the full plastic moment of an I section may be
written

that
The same limiting depth to thickness ratio must be observed in order
should not
premature buckling does not occur; for steel to B.S. 4360 grade 43, djb
exceed 85, the corresponding ratio being 70 for steel to B.S. 4360 grade 50.

Flange Stability

Flange breadth to thickness ratios BjT, Fig. 15, must also be limited for stability
reasons; the limits are 18 and 15 for steel to B.S. 4360 grade 43 and 50 respectively.
Design Example 1. The two-span continuous girder shown in Fig. 17 will be
designed plastically. working values, and the design load factor
The loads shown are
is 1.75. Due to symmetry, one-half only of the girder need be considered (Fig. 18

(a)). Figure 18 (b) indicates the expected collapse bending moment diagram.

/oc'iOkN (OC'>OkN (OC’)OkN /0(OOkN

/ooo\ kN (000 kN (000 kN

A r
C\ - r
£' f \ r \

i
'

3 0m
>
j^ J.0/77^

Fig. 17

There is great flexibility in the design of this girder, since

by variation of the
flange areas, and possibly of the web, the hogging moment at E can take a large M
number of values. For the purposes of this example, it will be assumed that the
girder has a uniform cross-section throughout its length.
Ignoring for the present the fact that the full plastic moment at E will be
reduced by the effect of shear force, a uniform section design, from Fig. 18 (b),
would be given by Af= §(10 500) = 7 000 kNm.
Assume as a first trial that the actual value of M at E" is 6 000 kNm, then the
design bending moments for the girder will be as shown in Fig. 19 (a), and the shear
force diagram at collapse will be as
shown in Fig. 19 (b). The greatest shear force is
3 125 kN, be seen from the formula for reduction in full plastic moment that
it will
the shear force on the web cannot exceed Oq/Vt Using steel to
B.S. 4360 grade 43,

with a yield stress of 245 N/mm^,^^= 141 .5, so that a minimum web area of

3 125 X 10"
141.5
22.1 x 10 mm 2_-221cm required. Remembering that
is
should
not exceed 85, a 1 500 mm x 20 mm web will be tried, having area 300 cm^ and

= X 20 X (1 500)'' X 245 = 2 756 x lO^Nmm = 2 756 kNm.

^
 FLANGE STABILITY 551

3 125 X 10^
mean on the web
, .
= 104.3 N/mm^
Now, ^qq ^ jqF
at E, the shear stress is

hence, at E
= 1 860 kNm.

Tlius the flanges at E are required to contribute 6 000 — 1 860 = 4 140 kNm to the
full plastic moment. At where the shear force is small, the flanges are required to
C,
contribute approximately 7 500 — 2 756 = 4 744 kNm. Evidently the first trial of
6 000 kNm as the bending moment at E was slightly in error, and an almost exact
estimate may now be made. Assuming the same web, suppose that at E is
1 800 kNm, and thatiW^y at C is 2 700 kNm. Then, from Fig. 18 (b).

forE*; Af= 1 800+Af^

and for C: + 2 700 + = 1 0 500

From these equations, 71^= 4 600 kNm,M= 6 400 kNm, and a revised design
bending moment diagram may be constructed as shown in Fig. 20 (a), the
corresponding shear force diagram being that of Fig. 20 (b).

Jisa
Fig. 20

For the cross-section at E

7W,v =2 ISeJl- 3 = 1 830 kNm

required -
6 400 1 830 = 4 570 kNm.
552 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
For the cross-section at C

=2 756 = 2 630 kNm

required Mf — 7 300 — 2 630 — 4 670 kNm.

mm, with = 240 N/mm^,

Assuming flanges each of area^d and of thickness 30 Oq

then
240x^1 X 1 530 = 4670x 10*

i.e. A =^ mm^ = 130 x 10^ mm^ say 440 x 30 mm. Thus the uniform
36.7 X 10
girder will have a 1 500 mm x 20 mm web and 440 mm x 30 mm flanges; the total
area is 564 cm^.
The calculations may be repeated for a girder made of steel to B.S. 4 360 grade
50, with a nominal % = 345 N/mm^. For the web, the maximum shear stress is

= 200 N/mm^. Using Fig. 20 for the first trial, the minimum web area is
V3
3 158 X 10^
= 15.8 X 10^ mm^ = 158 cm^. Hence, remembering that d/b is now
200
limited to 70, a 1 200 mm x 20 mm web will be tried, having
Mw =-ix 20 X 1 200^ X 345 = 2 484 x 10*Nmm = 2 484 kNm.

2
/132) >

kXE, M,v = 2AuJl-3 1

= I 860 kNm; AT/ =6 400- 1 860 = 4 540 kNm
I 345
1

~2
( 59^1
At C, Mv = 2 484 yi - 3 |
1
= 2 370 kNm; Af/= 7 300 -2 370 = 4 930 kNm
^345j

(a)
207!

32/
i1

1429
CL0
3179
Fig. 21
 FRAME ANALYSIS
solution as before, the more accurate design conditions of
Adjusting this trial

Fig. 21 are arrived at.

855 kNm; = 6 648 - 855 = 4 793 kNm

A. M„ =2 484^ - 3 (^)' = I 1

= 2 = 2 371 kNm; 7 176 -2 371 = 4 805 kNm

At C,

mm flanges, 345 x .4 x 228 = 4 805 x 1 0‘, i.e. .4= 1 1 4 x 1 mm-^

Assuming 28 1
0^
say 420 mm x 28 mm. Thus the uniform girder in steel to B.S. 4360 grade 50, will
have a 1 200 mm x 20 mm web and 420 mm x 28 mm flanges; the total
cross-sectional area is 475 cm^, a saving of about 20 per cent over the grade 43
girder.

Frame Analysis (2, 3, 4)

The beam an essentially stable structural element, although precautions may

is

have to be taken to guard against lateral instability. As such, the stable beam
satisfies the basic assumptions of simple plastic theory, and the plastic theorems are

directly applicable. A frame, however, consists of beams attached to columns, and

the column is a potentially unstable structural element. As mentioned in the
introduction, unstable column behaviour will not be permitted in a plastic design.
It will be assumed that all columns remain stable, and checks will be made finally

to justify this assumption for any particular design.

Fig. 22

The simple rectangular portal frame of Fig. 22 has pinned feet, and thus has one
redundancy. The vertical load Fand horizontal load are highly idealised H
represeiitations of dead plus superimposed load and of
wind load; the basic
properties of the frame may be demonstrated, however,
under this ideal loading.
The same techniques that were used for beams may be used
for the plastic design
of frames. In Fig. 23 the frame has been made
statically determinate by freeing one
column foot, and Fig. 23 (a) shows the condition which
will produce free bending
mornents. The single redundancy 5- in Fig.
23 (b) will lead to the reactant diagram,
and the free and reactant diagrams are sketched
separately in Fig. 24.
554 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN

(t)

Since the frame has one redundancy, two plastic hinges will be required for a
regular plastic collapse mechanism; the only two mechanisms possible are sketched
in Fig. 25. Figures and (b) are superimposed in Fig. 26 to
24 (a) give the bending
moment diagrams corresponding to the two mechanisms.

Fig. 24

It will be seen that the mechanism which occurs depends entirely on the relative

magnitudes of the free bending moments at B and C in Fig. 24 (a). If the free
>
moment at C, VljA + Hhl2, exceeds that at B, Hh (i.e. F7/4 ///z/2), then Figs.
25 (a) and 26 (a) are appropriate, and Mp can be determined directly as F//8 +Hh/4.
Similarly, if the wind load H
is relatively high compared with V (more precisely, if

Hh/l > F//4), then the free bending moment at B will exceed that at C, and
Fig. 26 (b) gwe%Mp = Hhl2.
 FRAME ANALYSIS 555

These design values of Mp be derived directly by writing the work equations

may
corresponding to the mechanisms of collapse. For example, in Fig. 25 (a), the side
load H
moves through a distance hd, the vertical load V moving through (//2)0, so
that

me + ^MpO,

_ VI Hh , .
i.e. Mdp = +•^3 as before
8 4
Similarly, for the pure sidesway mechanism, Fig. 25 (b).

Hhd = WpO,

(o)

Fig. 26
556 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
In Figs. 25, plus and minus signs are associated with the hinge rotations. For
example, the sagging hinge at the centre of the beam in Fig. 25 (a) has rotation +20,
while the hogging hinge at the top of the right-hand column has rotation —20. It is
of great importance that the sign convention chosen for bending moments should
be the same as that chosen for the corresponding hinge rotations. Thus at the central
sagging hinge of Fig. 25 (a) where the rotation is +20, the bending moment at
collapse will be +/1^; at the hogging hinge, where the rotation is —20, the bending
moment has value —Mp. Thus the work done in the hinges is (+2d)(+Mp) +
{~26](—Mp) = 4ih^0; in all cases, plastic work dissipated at a hinge is positive.
For determining the work done in the hinges, therefore, it is necessary only to
take the numerical value of the hinge rotation and multiply by the appropriate
value ofMp. Signs of hinge rotations are crucial for the full use of the principle of
virtual work, discussed below.
In the design of this simple frame, it has been assumed implicitly that the frame
had uniform section A/p. For a large range of frame sizes and of loading, the uniform
frame is likely to give the most economical design, but non-uniform designs can be
investigated very quickly. Suppose, for example, that the two columns have full
plastic moment Me which is greater than Mg, the full plastic moment of the beam.
The two plastic collapse mechanisms will be as shown in Fig. 27, where the plastic
hinge at the top of a column forms in the beam rather than the column. The
collapse bending moment diagrams will be as shown in Fig. 26, except that is

now replaced by Mg.

Fig. 27

(t)

Should the columns be weaker than the beam, then the collapse mechanisms
change slightly to those of Fig. 28, the bending moment diagrams being shown in
Fig. 29. From Fig. 29 (a), comparing with Fig. 24 (a), it will be seen that

^HhVl
 557
VIRTUAL WORK

(6)

Fig. 29

similarly, from Fig. 29 (b), Me = Hhjl, and must be greater than VljA as well as

greater than Me-

Virtual Work (2, 3, 4)

In writing the work equation two simple collapse mechanisms discussed

for the
above, it was easy to evaluate the work done by the external loading. For practical
loading cases, involving distributed and/or a large number of point loads, this is not
always so since the work terms due to the loading are more tedious to calculate.
However, a method, based upon virtual work, is of very great use and power when
dealing with practical loading cases. It may be shown that, if Mi are bending moments
in equilibrium with the collapse loads acting on a frame, (Mp> are the full plastic
moments at sections i, and ^ are hinge rotations of a plastic collapse mechanism,
then, by virtual work.
 +

558 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN

The moments Mi can be any equilibrium set, and it is convenient to take Mj as the
free bending moments. Thus, from Fig. 24 (a) for the pinned-base portal frame, a
possible set of moments Mj is

Mj — [Ma, Mg, Me, Mg, Mg] 0,Hh,^ + ^,0,0

Now Fig. 25 (a), for example, gives the rotations of a plastic collapse mechanism;

<t>i
- [0/4 > 0Z)» <I>e]
- [-®. 20, -20, 0]

Using the virtual work equation,

(o)(-0) mm + (t + t)
^ = ^^^0

VI
which gives AMp =///? + —, as before.

The importance of this approach to the problem lies in the fact that the moments
Mj, for which free bending moments may be used, need be determined just once at
the start of the calculations. Alternative collapse mechanisms can then be tried
quickly; since each trial corresponds to an unsafe solution, the largest value ofMp
will give the correct solution. The problem now becomes one of finding the proper
mechanism for a complex structure; the simple portal frame could be studied almost
by inspection, but more complicated frames require a logical technique for deriving
the correct mechanism of collapse. Such a technique may be found in the method
of combination of mechanisms, which is mentioned later in this chapter.
Design Example 2. The portal frame of Fig. 30 will be designed to a load factor
of 1 .75 on the vertical loading, and 1 .4 on the vertical loading together with the
wind load of 40 kN. It seems obvious that since the wind load is relatively small,
this combination will not be critical, but a check will be made. In this check,
reductions in full plastic moment due to shear force and axial load will be ignored;
these effects will be investigated later.

SOOkN

Figure 31 shows the free bending moment diagram for the beam under vertical
loading only. The maximum free moment has value 2 700 kNm (unfactored), so
that, since the beam beam, the required iWp
collapses effectively as a fixed-ended
(again unfactored) 350 kNm. Thus a«section must be provided having
is 1

= 1.75 X 1 350 = 2 363 kNm, in order to achieve the design load factor of 1.75.
 559
VIRTUAL WORK

moment diagram under vertical plus wind loading is shown

The collapse bending
assuming a uniform frame, it will be seen thatMp - 1 404 kNm, so
in Fig. 32; again
that the section must provide

ATp = 1 .4 X 1 404 = 1 966 kNm.

Using steel
Clearly the vertical loading only, at a load factor of 1.75,
is critical.

to B S 4360 grade 43, a plastic modulus of 2 363 x 10^/245 x 10

=9 645 cm is

= 10 930 cm^ The effects of shear force

required; a 914 x 305 x 253 kg U.B. has Zp
on this section will now be investigated, and typical calculations will
and axial load
be made for corner B, Fig. 30.

Column carries at collapse 1 575 kN together

an axial thrust of 900 x 1.75 =
with a shear force of 1 =
350 x 1.75/4.5 525 kN. The axial stress is therefore
1 575 X 10^/323 x 10^ = 49 N/mm^; thus n = 49/245 = 0.2, and, from the section
tables, the reduction in plastic modulus is 1 5 040 x 0.2^ = 602 cm^. This last
calculation neglects the effect of the shear force acting together
with the axial load.
The combined effect is small, but may
be calculated from a formula given by Horne
{British Welding Journal, April 1958, p. 170): the combined reduction in section
modulus is 703 cm^, thus reducing the initial 10 930 cm^ to an effective 10 227 cm^
This value exceeds the figure of 9 645 cm^ required for the design.
A greater reduction in section modulus at the corner B is however realised if the
end of the beam rather than the top of the column is considered. This section is
subjected to a shear force of 1 575 kN (together with an axial thrust of 525 kN).
Tlie effect of the shear force may be calculated by the method of Design Example
1 above, using nominal dimensions for the
914 x 305 x 253 kg U.B. Thus the web
560 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
of this section has area 918 x 17.3 = 1 59 cm^ and plastic modulus g x 17.3 x 918^ =
10^ =
3 644 X 10^ mm^ = 3 644 cm^ The mean shear stress is 1 575 x 10^159 x
99 N/mm^ and the reduction in section modulus is therefore

3 644 1 - Jl-'i = 1 046 cm^

j _

Ifcombined axial load and shear are considered, the reduction is 1 112 cm^. The
initial section modulus of 10 930 cm^ is reduced to 9 818 cm^ at the end of the beam

at B, but this value still exceeds 9 645 cm^ and the section chosen is thus
satisfactory.
The columns must be checked for stability, and this will be done later. In fact
column A.5 is just stable, so that a uniform section 914 x 305 x 253 kg U.B.
represents one possible design for the frame of Fig. 30. There is, of course, no point
in increasing the column section, since the beam has minimum section. The beam
could however be increased and the columns reduced in section in an attempt to
achieve a more economical design; there is little scope for such a move, however,
for reasons of column stability. The uniform section frame is likely to be the most
economical in this example.

The Fixed-base Rectangular Frame (2)

The frame shown in Fig. 33 (a) has three basic modes of collapse, two of them
identical with those for the pinned-base frame (Figs. 33 (c) and (d)), except that
the hinges at thecolumn feet are plastic rather than simple pins. Since the fixed-base
frame, however, is more capable of resisting side load, then a third mode. Fig. 33 (b),
is possible for relatively small values of the side load H.
A uniform section frame carrying the loads of Fig. 33 (a) will collapse as shown in
Fig. 33 (b) if Vlf2 = 4Mp', the corresponding collapse equations for Figs. 33 (c) and
(d) are Hh + {VIjT) = 6Mp and Hh = 4Mp, respectively.

(c) (d)
Fig. 33
562 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
Bending moment diagrams are drawn conveniently if the frame is split at the
centre of the beam, Fig. 34. Each half of the frame becomes statically determinate,
and the free bending moments may be determined from Fig. 34 (a), and the reactant
moments (in terms of the redundancies M, R and S) from Fig. 34 (b). The two
bending moment diagrams are shown separately in Fig. 35. Note that the reactant
diagram. Fig. 35 (b), consists of three straight lines, the slopes of these lines for the
columns being equal and opposite (equal numerically to the shear force R across
the column).
Figure 36 illustrates the collapse bending moment diagram for (in arbitrary units)
/ = 2, /r = 1 , F = 1 0, //
= 8. By calculation or by drawing, the value of Mp is found
to be 3 units. Consider now the more practical loading of Fig. 37, in which the beam
carries a uniformly distributed load of 20 units. The free bending moment diagram
for such loadings can be drawn in the same way, by splitting the frame at the centre.

The collapse bending moment diagram for Fig. 37 is shown in Fig. 38, and, again by
drawing or calculation, the value ofMp is 3.016 units.

Fig. 36

Fig. 37
 THE FIXED-BASE RECTANGULAR FRAME
563
introduced
Figure 38 may be compared with Fig. 36 to show the small difference
value.
a point load of the appropriate
by replacing a distributed load by J^ ^5
maximum free bending moment for the beam alone
m Fig. 37 is M/8 (20)(2)/8
point load of
units. The same value of free
bending moment would be obtained by a
in units- P7/4 = (10¥2)/4 = 5 units. The analysis
of the point load case is, ot course,

Ilsim^er. and led to M, = 3 compared with Mp = 3.01 6 for the distributed

loading.

This technique, of replacing actual loading on a beam by of

a single point load
magnitude sufficient to give the same maximum free bending moment, is sometimes
of great value. The resulting design values of Mp are likely to be in error by only
1 or 2 per cent per cent in the above example), and the designer is able more
easily to appreciate the plastic behaviour of the frame if he is dealing with simple
loading conditions.
There are, many ways of making the simple portal frame statically
of course,
determinate in order that the free bending moment diagram may be drawn. One
convenient way is to insert three pins into the original portal, as shown in Fig. 39
(a), leading to the free bending moments of Fig. 39 (b). The reactant line, being a

function of the frame, has exactly the same form as before, and Fig. 40 corresponds
exactly to Fig. 36. The advantage of making the frame statically determinate in
this way is by the case of the multi-storey, multi-bay frame, Fig. 41.
well illustrated
It be seen that each beam is effectively isolated from its neighbours, so that
will
the free bending moment diagram can be found for each beam separately. Similarly,
each internal column length is hinged at both ends, and can carry no shear; all
wind loads are carried on the windward column. The free bending rhoment diagram
for the entire frame can thus be drawn quickly.
plastic theory and design

Fig. 40
 565
PITCHED ROOF FRAMES

Fig. 41

Pitched Roof Frames (5, 6)

The pitched roof portal frame may, under certain conditions, develop deflections
large enough to invalidate the assumptions of simple plastic theory. Thus a plastic
design must be checked to ensure that deflections are not troublesome. To this end,
mles have been developed which indicate when a particular frame is likely to be
unsuitable for plastic design. Following the usual philosophy, it will be assumed in
the first instance that deflections are small; the final design will then be checked by
the rules.

M'

l±
2

Fig. 42

Consider first the pitched portal frame of Fig. 42

carrying the uniformly
distributed loads shown. (For the sake of clarity, drag
and suction on the roof are
neglected.) An approximate loading is shown in Fig.
43 (a), and it will be found that
566 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
for normal frame approximate loading will give very accurate design
sizes this
estimates. Indeed, the even simpler approximate loading of Fig. 43 (b) is also very
accurate, and will serve to illustrate the main features of pitched roof design. The
free bending moment diagram may be drawn, as for the rectangular portal, by
splitting the frame at the apex C; Fig. 44 shows the two free bending moment
diagrams corresponding to the two approximate loadings of Fig. 43. In both of
Figs. 44, the free bending moments at the five cardinal points AtoE have the same
corresponding values.

rAJ

Fig. 44
 PITCHED ROOF FRAMES 567

The reactant line may be found by considering the effects of the redundancies
M, R and S shown in Fig. 45; it will be seen that the values of the reactant moments
at the cardinal points are

A: M + RQly + h2)

B: M-^Rh-i

C: M
SI
D: M + Rh2 2

E: M + R(hi + h2)

Thus the actual bending moment at any section can be expressed easily as the sum of
the free and reactant moments; at B, for example, from Fig. 43 (b) and the above
expressions for the reactant moments, the actual bending moment is given by

Wl SI
-y + jM + Rh,

Fig. 45

Fig. 46
568 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
Consider now the common collapse mode shown in Fig. 46, which involves
hinges at B, C, D and E. If the frame has uniform section, then the occurrence of
these hinges can be expressed by equating the actual moment at each hinge to +A^:

B: {m + Rh^ = -Mp
j

C: 0+M = Mp

It is instructive to note that the and S, and

frame has three redundancies, Af, R
therefore requires four hinges for the formation of a regular mechanism. The above
four equations serve to determinate the values of the three redundancies, and also to
determine the single collapse equation from which Mp may be found.
The equations solve to give

S=0
R = 1 Wl H
(1 + k) 8/ji 4

~M Hh2
16 8

where k = h^Jhi, and the final bending moment diagram is as shown in Fig. 47. (The
general shape of the reactant line may be noted; it consists of four straight lines,
with the slopes for columns ^5 and DE equal and opposite.)

Fig. 47

Inspection of Fig. 47 reveals that the mechanism and equilibrium conditions are
satisfied. The yield condition will also be satisfied if the moment at A is less than
Mp. This can be checked by drawing, for numerical values of the loads. Alternatively,
the actual moment at^ has value:

+ M + R{hi + h-i)+^
 PITCHED ROOF FRAMES 569

and substituting the now known values of M, R and S, is found to have the
certainly less than
value Afp - {HhJ2). Thus for relatively small values of is

Mp, andi//zi must equal 4iWp before becomes equal to -Mp.

It will be seen that for iT= 0no wind load), the above analysis gives the
(i.e.

correct mode of collapse with the moment at column foot -4 just equal to,
but not
exceeding, Mp. The same mode. Fig. 46, occurs for reasonably shaped frames
subjected to wind loads, and is the most commonly occurring basic mode. For tall
frames, and for small angles of pitch, the mode of Fig. 48 (a) may sometimes be
encountered; Fig. 48 (b) represents a very unusual mode.

Fig, 48

The writing of four simultaneous equations to express collapse, as was done

above,is one way of expressing simultaneously the equilibrium and the
mechanism
conditions. Designers who have become completely familiar with this method may
wish,by using virtual work, to avoid solving such equations; the virtual work
equation gives just one equation, and does away with the need to determine
the
values of the redundancies. It does not, however, necessarily
guarantee that the
yield condition is satisfied, but this condition can
be checked most elegantly and
easily by using virtual work again.
Figure 49 shows the basic collapse mode, with hinges
at B, C, D and E, with the
single degree of freedom specified
in terms of a rotation Q about the instantaneous
570 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN

centre I of rafter CD. Consideration of the mechanism motion leads to the hinge
rotations shown, namely

4>i={-e,2d,-{l +2k)d, 2kB)

for hinges B, C, D, E. The free bending moments at the four sections are, from
Fig. 44 (b),

Mi = ’

\ 8 ’
8 ’ 8 4 /

and the collapse bending moments are, of course,

{Mp)i={-Mp,Mp,-Mp,Mp).

Thus the virtual work equation gives

(-^)m) + (O)(20)+ {-}^+^(2ke)

= Mp[0 + 20 + (1 + 2k)e + 2ke\

1 Wl Hh2
i.e.
"
(l+k)Ll6 8

which is, of course, the correct collapse equation.

Suppose now that it is required to check the yield condition at column foot A,
i.e. the value A(4 at collapse is required. For this purpose, a virtual mechanism is

chosen involving a hinge rotation at A; for example, the mechanism of Fig. 50 has
rotations at A, B, D, E of values (—0, 0, —0, 0). These hinge rotations can be
multiplied by any set of equilibrium moments, and the sum equated to the sum of
the same rotations multiplied by any other set of equilibrium moments. Now the
collapse bending moments are certainly an equilibrium set; the values at A, B, D
and E are (M4 -Mp, -Mp, Mp). (For the signs of
,
see Fig. 46.) The free bending
moments form another equilibrium set:

/ Wl Hhi Wl Wl Wl Hh\
(8 4’ 8 ’
8 ’ 8'^4/
 PITCHED ROOF FRAMES 571

Thus

(MaX-S) + + (-Mp){-6) + (Mp)(0)

= (-I')m).

i e. MA=Mp- as before.

Design Example 3. The pitched roof frame of Fig. 5 1 will be designed in steel to

B.S. 4360 grade 43, The frame spacing is 6.0 m, the roof loading (dead plus
superimposed) 1.5 kN/m^, and the load factor 1.75. Purlins are spaced at 1.2 m on
be assumed that the wind loading is such that an approximate analysis,
plan. (It will
based upon the loading of Fig. 43 (b), indicates clearly that vertical loading at a load
factor of 1.75 is more critical than vertical loading plus wind at a factor of 1.4.)
In the absence of wind load, the approximate analysis gave

"'P (l+;t)16’

where W is the total load on the frame; the mode of collapse was that of Fig. 46.
(With the loading symmetrical, a fifth hinge will of course form at the column foot
A) For the particular dimensions of the frame, k = h^jhi = 2.48/4.2 = 0.59,

W= 12x6x 1.5= 108 kN (unfactored).

and
M 108 X 12
= 81 kNm.
16 16

Hence - 81/1.59 - 51 kNm. A section must be provided, therefore, having at

least equal to 51 x 1.75 = 89 kNm, in order that the design load factor should be
achieved.
However, before selecting a section, an accurate analysis will first be made using
the actual loading. Figure 52 shows half the frame, and the free bending moments
may be found;

A B Bi B2 B3 B4 C
-162.0 -162.0 -103.7 -58.3 -25.9 -6.5 OkNm
572 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN

Using the virtual work equation (or the simultaneous equations) the value ofMp is
confirmed as 51.0 kNm, and Fig. 53 shows th‘e net bending moments, with hinges
at A, B, C, D and E. From the figure, or by calculation, the actual bending moments
for the assumed collapse mode are:

A B Bi B2 R3 ^4 C
51.0 -51.0 -4.6 28.7 49.1 56.5 51.0 kNm
 PITCHED ROOF FRAMES 573

It be seen that the yield condition is violated at section

will where the bending
moment exceeds = 51 .0 kNm. This means that the mechanism of Fig. 46 is
incorrect, and it seems reasonable to try the mechanism of Fig. 54. The following
calculations will be done first by writing the simultaneous equations, and then by
the equation of virtual work.

With the given dimensions of the frame, the reactant moments (in terms of the
redundancies M, R, S, Fig. 45) have values:

A: M + 6.687? + 65
B: Af + 2.487? + 65

C: M
D: 71/ 2.487? - 65
E: 71/ 6.687? - 65.

Between B and C, and between C and D, the reactant line is straight. Thus the
following equations may be written for the formation of hinges at B, B^, and E:D
B: - 1 62.0 + ikf + 2.48R + 65 = -Mp
B^: - 6.5+M+0.5R +1.25= Mp
D: - 1 62.0 + M + 2.48R - 65 = -Mp
E: —162.0 + M + 6.687? — 65 = Mp
574 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
These equations solve to give

S=0
R = 25.05 kN
M = 47.I kNm
Mp = 52.9 kNm.
The following table may now be drawn up, giving the total bending moments
throughout the frame:

A B B2 B3 Ba C
Free -162.0 -162.0 -103.7 -58.3 -25.9 -6.5 0
Reactant 214.9 109.1 96.7 84.2 71.8 59.4 47.1
Total 52.9 - 52.9 - 7.0 25.9 45.9 52.9 47.1

It will be seen that the correct solution has now been obtained, since the value
Mp = 53.0 kNm is not exceeded anywhere in the frame.

To obtain these same results by virtual work, consider the mechanism of Fig. 55,
inwhich the hinge rotations are again referred to a rotation 6 about the
instantaneous centre of rafter CD. The hinge rotations shown in the figure may be
checked geometrically; in fact, they may be determined quickly by combining
mechanisms, as shown later. The following table may be drawn up:

A B B, B2 B3 Ba c D E
Free - 162.0 -162.0 -103.7 -58.3 -25.9 -6.5 0 -162.0 -162.0
Collapse -Mp +Afp -Mr, + Mr,
Mechanism
Fig. 55 -1.56 +2.50 -2.1826 -1.1826
Mechanism
Fig. 56 —0.50 +2.50 -20
Mechanism
Fig. 57 +2.5 >1/ -1.5'!'

The first three lines of this table give the free bending moments, the collapse
bending moments (i.e. Mp at the assumed hinge points), and the hinge rotations of
 PITCHED ROOF FRAMES ^

the assumed collapse mechanism, Fig. 56. By virtual work:

(_1.5)(-162.0) + (2.5)(-6.5) + (-2.182)(-162.0) + (1.182)(-162.0)

= (1.5 +2.5 + 2.182+ 1.182)(Mp)

from which Mp = 52.9 kNm.

As yet, this value an unsafe estimate of the correct value, since it has not
of Mp is

been shown that the yield condition is satisfied. The values of the bending
moments
must be found throughout the frame and this can now be done by drawing, or again
by using work. Consider, for example, the virtual mechanism of Fig. 56,
virtual
involving hinge discontinuities at B, and C; this mechanism is shown in the fourth
line of the above table. The hinge rotations may be written down
quickly by noting
that from B to Ba, Fig. 52, is a distance of four purlin points (4.8 m), while from

Ba to C is one purlin point (1.2 m). Thus the rotation at C in Fig. 56 must be
four
times that at B, while the rotation at Ba is the numerical sum of the rotations at B

and C.
Using this mechanism with the first two lines of the table:

(-0.5)(-162) + (2.5)(-6.5) + (-2.0)(0)

= (-0.5)(-Mp) + (2.5)iMp) + i-2.0)(Mc)

where Me is the bending moment at collapse at the apex C Substituting in the value
Mp= 52.9 kNm, Me is found to be 47.0 kNm. Similarly, using the mechanism of
Fig. 57,

(_1.0)(-162) + (2.5)(-25.9) + (-1.5)(0)

= (_ 1 .o)(_Mp) + (2.5)(M53) + (- 1 .5)(Mc)

On substituting Mp = 52.9 kNm,Me= 47.0 kNm, Mg is found to be 45.9 kNm.

Continuing in this way, a complete static check may be made of the whole frame.

Combination of Mechanisms (2, 3, 4)

The hinge rotations of Fig. 55 are determined quite easily, but the work becomes
tedious if each new trial mechanism has to be examined directly. Fortunately, the
technique of combining mechanisms, while being logical, also saves a considerable
amount of labour.
The basic collapse mechanism for the pitched roof frame is shown in Fig. 49
,

and, on substituting the value k - hj/hj = 0.59, the hinge rotations for design
Example 3 become, at 5, C, D and £ respectively, - 0 20, -2.1820, 1.1820. It was ,

found that this mechanism was incorrect, in that the hinge did not form at the apex
Cbut at the first purlin point .S 4 . To change Fig. 49 to Fig. 55, hinge Cmust be
suppressed, and hinge ^4 introduced. Now the mechanism of Fig. 56 involves a
hinge at B^; consider, therefore, the following table of hinge
rotations:

A B Bi Bi B-i Ba C D E
Fig. 49 -1 2 -2.182 1.182
Fig. 56 -0.5 2.5 -2
Fig. 55
2^ -2.182 1.182
576 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
It willbe seen that the hinge rotations of Fig. 55 are simply the sums of the rotations
of Figs. 49 and 56. This usage of elementary mechanisms to build up by superposition
more complex mechanisms is one of the basic tools of plastic design.
The rule for determining the number of independent mechanisms required for a
given structure is simple. If A^is the number of ‘critical sections’, at which hinges
might form, and if R is the number of redundancies of the frame, then the number

Fig. 57

of independent mechanisms is (N — R). Thus, for the pitched roof frame under the
loading of Fig. 43 (b), hinges can form only at the five sections A, B, C, D, E. Since
the frame has 3 redundancies, all possible mechanisms of collapse can be built up
from 2 independent mechanisms, and these may well be taken as the mechanisms of
Figs. 49 and 50. For the real loading, it is clear that each purlin point is a potential
critical section; further, each purlin point requires one extra independent mechanism,

and these may well be taken as those of Figs. 56, 57, etc.
The method of combination of mechanisms will not be amplified further here;
the method is discussed at length in the literature. It may be noted that the
technique sketched above differs slightly from that presented in the standard texts.

Deflections (6)

In common with elastic structural analysis, plastic theory assumes that deflections
have little on equilibrium equations. Thus additional bending moments in a
effect
column, for example, due to axial loads combined with frame sway, are usually
ignored. Plastic designs, no less than elastic designs, must be checked to see that the
design assumptions are obeyed.
The pitched roof portal frame may develop uncomfortably large deflections, and
semi-empirical rules have been developed to estimate the reduction in load factor
that might be expected. Should this reduction exceed 10 per cent, then plastic
design is not recommended. B.C.S.A. Publication 21 1963 gives the following
 DEFLECTIONS 577

for single-span pitched roof

percentage reduction (A) in the collapse load factor
frames:

Mp the full plastic moment of the section and I the second

In this expression, is

moment of area;^ is the elastic modulus ('2.1 x lO^N/mm^) and I the frame span.
The parameter /? is a function of the frame geometry only, and is given for fixed-base
for pinned-base
frames in Fig. 58 (Similar curves are given in the B.C.S.A. Publication
frames.)
A trial section is nominal load factor for a particular
selected to give the required
design. Using the section properties and the appropriate value of j8, the percentage
reduction A in the load factor is calculated.
The formula expressing the percentage reduction in load factor, while
semi-empirical, is conservative in that strain-hardening of the steel is neglected. It is

in fact improbable that the full calculated reduction in load factor would be
observed in a test to destruction, since strain-hardening will strengthen the frame.
Design Example 3 {continued). Accurate analysis of the pitched roof frame gave
Mp = 52.9 kNm. For a nominal load factor of 1 .75, the required plastic section
modulus in steel to B.S. 4360 grade 43 is thus

_ 52.9 X 1.75 X 10^ = 377x lO^mm^

245

A 254 X 146 X 31 kg U.B. section is therefore selected, having Zp = 395 cm^, and
the uncorrected value of load factor is thus

_ 245 x 395 x 10^ .

52.9 X 10®

With the given dimensions (Fig. 5 1), k = kj/ki = 0.59, = kj// = 0.207, and Fig. 58
p
gives (3 = 42. Thus

A= _ 42x245 X 395 X lO^x 12 x 10^ _

El 2.1x10^x4 427x 104
to be expected, therefore, that the collapse load factor of
It is 1 .83 might be
reduced by deflections by 5.25 per cent to 1.73.

Column Design (7)

The stability of a column carrying a given axial load depends not only on the
slenderness ratio about the minor axis, but also on the slenderness ratio about the
major axis, and, most importantly, on the torsional properties of the section of the
column. In addition, stability depends on the ratio of end moments
acting on the
column; other things being equal, a column bent in single curvature
is more likely
to become unstable than one
bent in double curvature.
Horne has published curves (B.C.S.A. Publication
23) dealing with the plastic
design of columns, in which the bending
moment acting at one end of the column
has the full plastic value Mp,
while the bending moment at the other end can have
578 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
any value ^Mp. Double curvature is indicated by /3 — 1 a pinned end by |3 = 0, and'
= ,

single curvature by = 1 For a column having certain specified torsional properties,

.

a chart, similar to that of Fig. 59, relates mean axial stress to permitted slenderness
ratio about the minor axis for various values of |8, the ratio of end moments.
(Slenderness ratio about the major axis is of relatively slight importance, and is
ignored for these plastic charts.)
The torsional property in question is the T value, which is tabulated at the end
of this chapter.
Design Example 2 {continued). Column AB of Fig. 30 will be checked for
stability at collapse. A 914 x 305 x 253 kg U.B. was selected for the portal frame,
and the column is subjected to the full plastic moment at the top. Since the portal
is pin-based, the ratio of end moments ^ is zero. At a load factor of 1.75, the column
is subjected to a mean axial stress

= (900)(1.75)(10^) = 49 N/mm^
P 323 X 10^

Now l/vy = 4.5 X 10^6.23 = 72.2, and, from the tables, T= 181 N/mm^ From
Fig. 59 for 7’= 185, the permitted axial stress for l/vy = 72.2 and for =0
p j3 is

50 N/mm^, so that the column is just stable.

Design Example 3 {continued). For the uniform pitched roof portal frame of
254 x 146 x 31 kg U.B. was selected; the stability of column DjF will be
Fig. 51, a
checked (see Fig. 54). For this column, T= 238, Ijty = 4.2 x 10^3.18 = 132,
13
= —1, and the mean is 54 x 10^ x 1.75/3 990 = 23.7 N/mm^
axial stress at collapse
Charts similar to Fig. 59 for T= 215 and 7’= 245 give the permitted axial stress as
21 and 24 N/mm^ respectively; by interpolation, the permitted axial stress for
T= 238 is 23.5 N/mm^, so that the column can be considered just stable.

Further Stability Problems (2, 7)

The charts similar to Fig. 59 show a ‘limiting slenderness ratio’. For slenderness
ratios smaller than the limiting value, any ratio of end moments will effectively
permit the development of full carrying capacity. A
column which is found to be
unsatisfactory can be brought into this ‘safe’ region by the provision of lateral
supports, thus reducing the slenderness ratio, which is based on the unsupported
length. As such, the limiting slenderness ratio curve on the charts thus gives design
rules for lateral stability of a section.
The B.C.S.A. report gives also charts for the elastic design of columns. For
example if the 914 x 305 x 253 kg U.B. had been retained for the beam of the
portal frame of Design Example 2, but the column sections increased, then those
columns would have remained elastic at collapse of the frame. The extra charts in
the B.C.S.A. report enable these columns to be checked for stability, but these
charts do of course require converting to metric units.

Repeated Loading (2, 3, 4)

Repeated loading on a steel frame does not necessarily preclude the use of plastic
methods of design. If, however, the number of reversals of load during the
estimated life of the structure can be numbered in the millions, then certainly an
elastic design should be made, with the main design criterion that of fatigue.
 CONNECTIONS
Work proceeding at Cambridge and elsewhere on the loading of a structure
is

into tlie plastic range b3' a few thousand

(rather than milhon) reversals. It is too

early j'et to draw definite conclusions, but

there seems at present to be no reason

why plastic methods should not be used, w-ithout modification.

apphcations of
There remains the problem of a vety few' (tens or hundreds)
random combinations of live load, w'hich may lead to incremental coUapse, or to
shakedow'n. Incremental collapse occurs in the foUow'ing w'ay. A
certain combination

of loads acting on a gh'en frame may cause plastic hinges to form, but not in
sufficient number to transform the frame into a mechanism. How'ever,
small plastic

deformations could occur at these Iiinges. Another, different combination of loads

may lead to the formation of other Iiinges, and so on. If all the hinges, w'hich are
formed at different stages, w'ould transform the frame into a mechanism if the}'
occurred simultaneousl}', then the small plastic deformations at the hinges can build
up into large deformations over repeated CN'cIes of loading. If this occurred, then,
although an actual mechanism w'as not formed at any one stage in the loading
history', the frame w'ould nevertheless distort incrementally into the collapse state.
Shakedow'n occurs w'hen, despite some initial plastic deformation, the frame
eventuall}’ resists all further variations and combinations of load by purely elastic

action.
For usual ratios of Iwe to dead load, the probabilit}' is small of critical
combinations of load leading to incremental coUapse. However, for unusually high
live loads, tlie designer ought to consult the literature for techniques of shakedown

analt'sis.

Connections
It will have been seen that the problem of joining togetlier two members of a

frame is mainly that of assessing the strength of the connection. From the point of
\iew of simple plastic theorv', the deformation characteristics of the connection are
not of prime importance. For example, in a continuous beam involving a change of
section, the connection must be such that the full plastic moment of the w'eaker
section can be developed without failure of the connection. In some design problems,
of course, a flexible connection, even if of adequate strength, ma%' lead to
objectionable deflections, and the designer must then ensure that the structure as a
whole is serviceable.
In other problems, the designer maN' dehberateh' use over-strong or ver^' stiff
ronnections, in order to satisfy some particular design requirement. A
good example
is haunching at the eaves and apex of pitched
roof portal frames. Consider the
collapse bending moment diagram of Fig. 53. (It will be remembered that the hinge
forms not afthe apex Cbut at the purlin point B^.) It is clear that if the designer
introduces an apex haunch, perhaps extending from to the corresponding purlin
point on the other rafter, then the collapse bending moment diagram and the
collapse load willbe unaffected. How'ever, the working load bending moment
diagram wiU have the same general features as Fig.
53, and, in particular, there w'iU
be a region of high and nearh' constant
bending moment in the neiglibourhood of
the ape.x C. Thus, although the strength
of thelrame is not affected bv the apex
haunch, deflections are likefy to be reduced
significantlv.
580 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN
By contrast, if a haunch were introduced at the eaves, B, where the bending
moment diagram is ‘peaky’, little improvement would be expected in deflection
behaviour; the collapse load, however, will be markedly increased by an eaves
haunch.
For whatever reason a connection is made, the design requirement for the
connection is the same. The connection must be strong enough to permit the
sections meeting at a joint to develop their required strengths. That is, if a hinge
should form at collapse adjacent to a connection, then the connection must be
capable of taking, without failure, whatever bending moment is transmitted through
it to the other members.
This does not mean that every connection should necessarily be full strength.
For example, returning to Fig. 53, a site connection could be made near purlin
point Bi, the connection being subjected to only very small bending moments.
In general, however, full-strength connections will be required. Greatest economy
of material, and cleanness of the connection, will almost certainly be achieved if

welding, whether site or shop, is used. The design criterion for the welds themselves
is clear; failure of an individual weld cannot be tolerated, and the welds must have
sufficient throat and run so that the full strength of the structural elements can be
developed.
Full strength connections can also be made by bolting, and high strength bolts:
will lead to the greatest economy.
For general methods of calculation of connections, the reader is referred to
Chapter 28.

Special Note
The examples shown are in steel to B.S. 4360 grades 43 and 50 only. Grade 55
steel has limited use for plastic design because of local flange instability.
 581
TAULl 1 TAULl 2

UNIVERSAL BEAMS UNIVERSAL COLUMNS

T yaUicsand Siiiiahilitx Jor Plastic Action T Values and Siiitahiliiy for Plastic Action

Information based on tables prepared by Professor M. R. Horne.

 583

//Tj

RATIO

BEAMS

SLENDERNESS

UNIVERSAL

mean axial stress N/mm2

Fig. 59
 23. COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

the metric version of C.P. 1 1 7 is under

review and is not likely to be available
AS
for some time this chapter has been metricated
from the original, and should,
principles involved. The various
therefore, be regarded only as a guide to the
references in the text are to codes and publications
which are in imperial terms and
any necessary conversions must be made by the reader. i, t •

shows a steel beam supporting a concrete slab, there being

no mechanical
Figure 1

connection between them and bond stress being taken as zero.

When the slab is
loaded, both slab and beam deflect individually; there is relative
movement at the
common interface and the whole of the load is taken by the steel joist acting alone,
the resulting stress diagram being as shown.

- -
-’•r.'r*- - i--.

Concrete Sfab
No bond resting on R.S.J.
A Stress
Diagram

If, however, there is some form of mechanical bond between the two elements to
transfer the horizontal shear from slab to beam across the common interface, so
and beam is obviated, then together the ‘composite
that relative slip between slab
section’ will behave as a
T-beam, in which all or most of the compression will be
taken by the concrete and all the tension will be taken by the steel.
Although composite action designs have been used in Europe for many years,
they have only recently been used for building work in Great Britain, although the
method has been widely adopted for bridgework in this country and is practically
beam bridges with reinforced concrete decks. This
universal for plate girder or
position has changed radically since 1960, following the publication
by the British
Constructional Steelwork Association of three brochures presenting
the sectional
properties of an extensive range of composite sections
suitable for use in steel
framed buildings. These brochures, based on elastic design,
set out a provisional
basis for design, since, at the date of issue,
official regulations did not exist in
Great Britain, although both European and
American regulations were available.

585
586 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
A considerable further step forward was taken with the publication, in January

1965, of C.P. 1 17, Part 1, ‘Composite Construction in Structural Steel and Concrete:
Simply-supported beams in Buildings.’ This sets out the detailed requirements for
the design of composite sections and includes both elastic and load-factor design
methods. Designs made to the requirements of this Code will satisfy all local
byelaw requirements and the contents of the B.C.S.A. brochures have been revised
in accordance with Code requirements, and embodied in one brochure. No. 25,
published in 1965.
There are a number of ways in which a composite beam can be constructed. The
steel beam, simply supported at its ends, can carry the shuttering and concrete
during the construction period. In this case the construction loads are carried solely
by the steel beam and the super load and weight of finishes applied after the concrete
has set and attained the requisite strength, will be carried by the composite section.
Alternatively, the beam supporting the concrete and shuttering can be con-
tinuously propped during construction so that it does not deflect, thus remaining
unstressed. In this case, after the concrete has attained the requisite strength, the
props are removed, after which both dead and superimposed loads are carried by
the composite section. For all practical purposes the beam may be assumed to be
continuously propped if it has three supports equally spaced between the ends.
From the point of view of strength of member, the second method is the more
advantageous but against this must be set ease of construction in the first case,
which leaves the floor below entirely clear of props. The resulting stress diagrams are
shown in the top two diagrams in Fig. 2, and they are the two most commonly used
methods.
Other arrangements of props are possible and a single support at the centre of
the span has advantages. If this is used, then there will be a negative moment over

the central prop due to the construction loads and the stresses induced in the steel
beam at this point will remain when the concrete sets; they are opposite in nature
to those developed subsequently. The forces due to the removal of the central prop
and subsequent application of the superimposed load will be taken by the composite
section of the full span. The final stresses will be summation of those due to the
superimposed load and those due to the positive and negative moments induced
during construction and in certain cases economy will be shown over the two
previous methods but at the cost of extra work in design.
It is also possible to secure further economy in steel by jacking a predetermined

upward deflection into the beam, or by prestressing the beam by other methods,
before casting the slab. The effect of this on final stresses is also shown in Fig. 2.
The most commonly used shear connector is undoubtedly the headed stud,
welded electrically to the steel joist by means of a ‘stud gun’ and the relative merits
of these and others forms are dealt with later on pages 592-5 and 608-9, when detail
design is investigated. The duty of shear connectors is primarily to resist horizontal
movement between the concrete slab and steel beam and so transfer the horizontal
shear. It is also necessary to restrain the slab, which is under compression, from
lifting off the beam and it is for this reason that studs are headed and that loops are

added to bar connectors. If a solid concrete casing is used, then the shear connection
ismost conveniently made by rod stirrups bent to a rectangular outline, such as are
used in conventional reinforced concrete T-beams: the material costs for these will
be less than for studs, since the stirrups can be of mild steel, whereas it is universal
to make studs of a higher quality steel.
 587
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Typical Stress Diagrams
-3 N.A.^
7
D.L. LL
A
Total Loads
Stresses wiien the dead had is taken by the steel only

— —J A^A'> 1
=>=

7 D.L
/
LL
Z
Total Loads
Stresses when the dead had is taken by the composite beam

Stresses when the steel component Is prestressed

Fig. 2

Before proceeding to investigate the design procedure it is interesting to study

briefly the economy which can be obtained by the adoption of composite action
when compared with what may be called conventional design. All multi-storey
buildings are required to have a standard fire resistance period, which varies with
the use, size and location of the building, so that the adoption of some kind of
concrete floor is practically universal. The thickness of this floor, spans being the
same, will be unaltered, whether the steel frame be designed conventionally or on
the basis of composite action. There will, however, be a considerable reduction in
both weight and cost of steelwork if used compositely.
The steel members will require some form of fire protection, and this can be
given by the use of solid casing in concrete, or hollow lightweight casings, such as
vermiculite or similar board. It is obvious that, for any given layout of the frame,
the least weight of steelwork will result from the use of hollow lightweight casings
to the beams and solid concrete casings to the stanchions, allowance being made in
the latter for the load carrying capacity of the concrete in accordance with Clause
30b of B.S. 449. However, it will often be found that the least overall cost of steel
and casing will be given by the use of lightweight hollow casings throughout, not-
withstanding the extra weight of steel in the stanchions.
Composite beam sections can be designed elastically, using the method of trans-
formed sections, final stresses in concrete and steel being restricted to those given
in the appropriate documents, C.P. 1 14 and B.S. 449. Alternatively, they can be
designed by the ultimate load, or load factor, method using a factor of 1 .75. Steel
sections obtained by this mode of design will be smaller than those obtained
elastically.

Composite stanchion sections can be designed on the basis of Clause 30b, of

B.S. 449, or they may be designed as reinforced concrete columns on the lines of
588 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
the requirements of C.P. 114, pending publication of a further part of C.P. 117
dealing with columns. The use of B.S. 449 is recommended.
Savings in weights of steel beams designed in mild steel with elastic composite
action can exceed 25 per cent, whilst if high yield stress steel is used in conjunction
with load factor design the saving can be up to 40 per cent, compared with the
weight of the steel beam to carry the same load. Savings in stanchion weight when
designed compositely vary; the greatest saving is on the smaller sizes, where the
relative load carried by the concrete is the larger and for information on this point
the reader is referred to Chapter 30.
The economy from the use of composite action in a conventional office
resulting
block, 10 storeys high was investigated by a Joint Working Party of the Ministry of
Public Building and Works and the British Constructional Steelwork Association,
and the main results are given in a paper by Mr. L. R. Creasy, M.O.P.B.W., published
in The Structural Engineer, December 1964. This paper shows, in the section
dealing with relative costs, that when allowance has been made for the increased
column stresses permitted by the 1964 Addendum to B.S. 449, and later
incorporated in the 1965 edition of the Standard, a reduction of approximately
20 per cent in the weight of the steel framework and about the same percentage
reduction in the overall cost of the carcase of the building including steelwork,
casing, floors and foundations is obtainable. Greater savings will be made on
buildings more heavily loaded.
A further and real advantage to the steelwork designer is that the adoption of
composite action for beams reduces the deflection criterion, as the stiffness of the
composite section is many times that of the steel beam required to carry the same
load. Thus one of the handicaps to the use, in beams, of more highly stressed steel
is lessened and Grade 50 steel can be used with advantage.

Design Procedure

(i) Slabs

The design of the reinforced concrete floor slab is independent of composite

action and the thickness will be determined by the span and loading conditions, or
alternatively, by the minimum thickness required for fire resistance.
To ensure compliance with local By-laws, slabs should be designed in accordance
with the requirements of C.P. 1 14, ‘The Structural Use of Reinforced Concrete in
Buildings’. The effective span of the slab should be taken as the lesser of:

(c) the distance between centres of bearings; or

(6) the clear distance between edges of supports plus the effective depth of the
slab.

Thus in the case of composite sections utOising solid concrete encasures, to which
reference is made later in this chapter, the effective
span is usually that given under
heading (h) above.
Slabs may be designed by the elastic method, or by the load-factor method.
Design factors for slabs reinforced in tension only, utilising the elastic method are
given in Table D on page 628 for the three most commonly used mixes, and for
design by the load-factor method, the reader is referred to Clause 306 of C.P. 1 14.
 DESIGN PROCEDURE 589
composite action need not
important to note that, as the stresses caused by
It is
the slabs, this implies slabs spanning in
be added to the normal bending stresses in
Slab bending moments,
one direction only, i.e. at right angles to the beam span.
arrangements of superimposed
where continuous, can be calculated for the following
load:

(a) alternate spans loaded other spans unloaded; or

and all

(b) any two adjacent spans loaded and all other

spans unloaded.

In such cases, the negative moments so calculated may be increased or decreased by

not more than 15 per cent, provided that these modified negative moments
are

used for the calculation of the corresponding span moments.

Generally, however, slabs uniformly loaded and spanning over three or more
approximately equal spans, may be assumed to have bending moment values as set
out in Table A below. Two spans may
be considered as approximately equal when
they do not differ by more than 15 per cent of the longer span.

TABLE A

At Support At Other
Near Middle Middle of
Next to Interior
of End Span Interior Spans
End Support Supports

Dead load
moment
Wdl ws m
12 10 24 12
1

Superimposed
load moment
W w
9 12 9

W(i = total dead load .

ft's = total superimposed load

The use of precast shuttering as an integral part of the composite section is

permitted by C.P. 1 14, subject to some minor constructional requirements
which
are set out in Clause 503 of that document. Hollow tile
floors can also be used
provided that over the beams there is solid concrete of sufficient
width to develop
the required moment.

(ii) Composite Sections

(a) Elastic Method
Stresses must be computed on the basis of a fully composite
section with a
modular ratio, m - 15, the concrete being
assumed to take no tension. If the steel
beam is unpropped during construction and thus
carries the surrounding concrete
casing, it any, and the floor, it must
be designed in accordance with B.S.
the stresses at this stage added to
449 and
those resulting from full composite
action when
the superload is taken into account.
The final stresses must not exceed the
stresses for steel and concrete
permissible
given in B.S. 449 and C.P. 1 14 respectively.
The
590 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
reference to B.S. 449 at the construction stage indicates that the allowable stresses
willbe those given in Tables 3a, etc., of the Standard, making allowance for the
unsupported length as set out in Clause 26a. The stresses in the final condition will
be those given in Table 2 of B.S. 449 since continuous lateral support is given by
the floor.
The effective width, b, of the concrete compression flange must not exceed the
least of the following (see Fig. 3 and 4):

For T beams : one third of the span of the beam

(slabs on both sides) : the centres of the steel beams
Fig. 3 : twelve times the slab thickness plus the width of the support.'

Fig. 3

For L beams : one sixth of the span of the beam

(slab on one side) : half the distance between centres of steel beams plus the
width of the support
Fig. 4 : four times the slab tliickness plus the width of the support.

(6) Elastic design using concrete cased beams

Provided that the steel section has approximately equal flanges, and is fully
encased in in situ concrete in accordance with the requirements for cased beams in
Clause 21 of B.S. 449 and the top surface of the top flange is not less than 50 mm
 591
DESIGN PROCEDURE

above the underside of the slab and also that the composite beam is not subjected
to heavy concentrated loads, then the stirrups or binding specified are considered
adequate to transfer the horizontal shear and no other form of connector is needed.
The detailed requirements for the concrete casing are:

minimum concrete strength, 21 N/mm^at 28 days.

minimum width of casing = h + 100 mm, where b = breadth of steel flange.
minimum cover to surfaces and edges of flanges = 50 mm.
stirrups to be at least 5 mm dia. at not more than 150 mm centres, and to
pass through the centre of the cover to the edges and soffit of the lower
flange (see Fig. 5).

(c) Elastic design with hollow casing, or with solid concrete casing and haunches,
or for beams having heavy concentrated loads

In all these three cases of elastic design, shear connectors are required.

{d) Load factor design

As an alternative to elastic design, the composite section may be designed

by the
load factor method, using an overall factor of 1.75. When
calculating the ultimate
moment of resistance, the stresses to be taken are the specified yield strength of the
steel and four ninths of the specified cube strength of the concrete; at
28 days if
592 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
ordinary Portland cement is used, or 7 days for concrete made with rapid-hardening

Portland cement. For beams unpropped, the stresses in the steel section during the
construction stage must meet the requirements of B.S. 449.
In all cases, the total elastic stress in the steel beam at working loads must not
exceed nine tenths of the yield stress, not must the elastic stress in the concrete at

working loads exceed one third of the specified cube strength.

(iii) Shear Connectors

(a) For all cases, other than that outlined in (b) above, shear connectors must
be provided to transmit the horizontal shear, ignoring any bond between the steel
beam and the concrete slab. The connectors must also prevent the slab from lifting.
In all cases, the shear connectors are to be designed by the load-factor method.
(b) The number of connectors provided must be sufficient to resist the maximum
value of the total horizontal shear load to be transmitted at collapse, between
points of maximum and zero moments, which is the total compressive force in the
concrete.

R.C. FLOOR 1
Minimum SO mm
T
5mm dio. stirrups
Solid concrete at iSOmm pitch
acting as shear
cosing
Nominoi mix connectors
1:2:4
Strength
2iN/.mm*
't't' Minimum coverSOmm
Fguoi
Elastic Design - Solid Casing

Fig. 5

(c) Types of and design loads for the most commonly used connectors are
given in Fig. 6 and Table B, extracted from C.P. 117 and for other types of con-
nector may be taken as 80 per cent of the lowest ultimate capacity as determined
by tests in accordance with Clause 10 of the Code.
((f) If concrete haunches are used between the steel beam and the slab, with a

slope steeper than 1 vertical to 3 horizontal, then tests must be made in accordance
with Clause 10 of the Code to establish the design load for the shear connector.
These test specimens must incorporate the proposed haunch and reinforcement.
 i _

DESIGN PROCEDURE 593

Not /ess tban/’SD

/4 utomat/cUtud we/d
a. Stud connector

p/rect/on of thrust on c onnector

3Smm -200mm
~/9mm /SOmm
_L d/a.—*
SOmm a
9mm f///et we/d
^/60mm
I
b. Bar connector
Direct oQ of thrust on conn e ctor
5mm fii/et w e/d
~~
JU JL
fu// width \A/' .
^
t i
c. Channei connector

Direction of thrust, ^i02mm

on connector 75mm
5 0 mm ril ni /3mm dig, j

^/3mm

6mm
pJ\- —fi//et we/d
j Hoops omitted

d. Tee connector

Length of weid t ~ 2D + /3mm

Size of we/d - jD 4- 2 mm

e. He/icai connector
Fig. 6
594 TABLE B
DESIGN VALUES FOR SHEAR CONNECTORS

Design values of
Connectors for
Concrete Strength
(N/mm^)
Connector
Types of Connector Welds
Materials
21 28 42
\

Headed studs Min. yield stress See

Fig. 6 (c) 385 N/mm^ Fig. 6 (a)
Load per stud, Pq,
Min. ult. tensile
in kN
Diam. (mm) overall (mm) stress 494 N/mm^
height

Bl
1

25 100 119 155

22 100 98 pbI 128
19 100 78 102
19 75 67 88
16 75 57 75
13 62 36 48

Bars with hoops Load per bar, Pq,

Grade 43
Fig. 6 (b) in kN

400 530 800

Channels, Fig. 6 (c) Load per channel,

Grade 43
in kN

127 X 64 X 14.9 kg x 150 mm 252

102 X 51 X 10.4 kg X 150 mm 234
76 X 38 X 6.7 kg X 150 mm 222

Tees with hoops,

Grade 43
Load per connector
Fig. 6 (d) Pq. kN
See
Fig. 6 (d)
102 X 76 X 12.7 mm T 202 222 262
50 mm high with 13 mm
diam. bar loop
1

Helices Fig. 6 (e)

Grade 43 Load per pitch,
Pq, kN
Bar diam. mm
Pitch circle
diam. mm
See
Fig. 6 (e)
19 125 162 178 208
16 125 124 136 160
13 100 86 95 112
10 75 50 55 64

Note:
1. Connector values for bars and channels of less length than those quoted above are
proportional to the length.
2. The values are not applicable where there is a concrete haunch between beam and stab
with a slope steeper than 1 vertical and 3 horizontal.
 DESIGN PROCEDURE
for which the procedure laid
(e) Except in cases with heavy concentrated loads,
the shear connectors may be
down in Appendix C of the Code must be followed,
spaced uniformly between each end of the beam
and the point of maximum
shear diagram.
moment. Their spacing need not be in accordance with the
(/) The spacing of shear connectors must not exceed 600 mm
nor four times

the slab thickness. • i * 1, *

The minimum longitudinal spacing of shear connectors will vary with the type
of connector used, since it is governed by the load
on one connector, the number
horizontal shear force
of connectors in any one transverse line and the maximum
per mm run of beam, which is dealt with in the section
which follows.
If a single row of studs is used they should be
placed over the centre of the web
steel section. The Code does not deal with the transverse
spacing of studs, so
of the
that, if they are used in pairs, it is convenient from the fabricating angle to space
thern at the normal cross-centres for transverse flange holes for rolled sections. If
for edge
the studs are regarded as rivets, then by analogy with the requirements
distance in Clause 51 of B.S. 449 there will be some limitation upon stud
diameter

in relation to flange width. These are listed in Table C, in which

the flange widths

given are the nominal widths using standard sizes of studs.

TABLE C

Nominal Flange Standard Stud Diameter

Width Cross Centres
mm mm mm
127 70 19
133 70 22
146 70 25
152 90 22
152-191 90 25
203-210 140 22
229 140 25

When three or more lines of studs are used, the maximum distance between the
outermost studs will be governed by the permittfed edge distances. Table D, showing
minimum edge distances, has been compiled having regard to the recommendations
of the makers.

TABLE D
1

Stud diameter mm 12 14 16 22 25
Edge distance mm 32 33 35 36 38

The minimum spacing of studs, governed by the welding gun, varies with the
manufacturer, but ranges approximately from 45 for 12 mm
studs to 56 mm mm
for 25 mm studs.

(iv) Maximum Horizontal Shear Force

The shear force (N/mm run) of beam, Q,

_ Ng X load in Newtons on one connector at ultimate load

Longitudinal spacing of connectors in mm
596 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
This must not exceed either

(1) ClLs\fu^+At.fy.n,Qr

( 2) C2Ls\/u^.

where Cl and C2 are constants based on units concerned.

Transverse steel reinforcement must be provided in the bottom of the slab or the

haunch and this must not be less than-^mm^/mm run of beam.

Vy
The notation used in the expressions above is:

Nc = number of connectors at a cross-section.

= specified cube strength of concrete in N/mm^.
Ls
= length in mm
of the periphery of the connectors at a cross-section. This
must not exceed the slab thickness for L beams nor twice the slab thickness
for T beams. The thickness of the slab may be taken as the depth of the
slab plus the haunch depth, provided that the haunch slope does not
exceed 1 vertical to 3 horizontal.
At = area of transverse reinforcement mm^/mm run of beam in the bottom of
the slab.
n = number of intersections of each lower transverse reinforcing bar and a shear
surface, which equals 2 for T beams and 1 for L beams.

fy = yield stress in N/mm^ of the steel reinforcement.

(v) Tie Down of Slab

The overall height of a connector must not be less than 50 mm, and the
minimum projection into the compression zone of the slab must not be less than
25 mm. The compression zone must be taken as that at the section of maximum
bending moment calculated by the load-factor method. Studs must be headed, the
diameter of the head being not less than I 5 times the stud diameter.

(vi) Deflections

Should it be necessary to verify the deflection of the composite section,

made on the elastic basis, using a modular ratio of 15 for
calculations should be
imposed loads and 30 for dead loads. The calculated deflection should not exceed
that specified in B.S. 449.

Calculation of Section Properties

(a) Elastic Basis

The position of the neutral axis in this case is determined solely by the geo-
metrical properties of the composite section and is independent of the stresses
developed.
 597
CALCULATION OF SECTION PROPERTIES
Two cases require consideration:

axis uithin the depth of the concrete slab.

(1) Neutral
axis below the slab and in tlie steel beam.
(2) Neutral
area moments about any
The depth to the neutral axis ha\ang been found by
convenient axis, the moment of inertia and section
moduli are found in the usual
maimer.

Effective breadth - b

Area in compression - b.dg

'^Centroid of steef
Area =

Is - Ixx beam
— \ c~:r^ I

r s As ms modular ratio

dgs^dg-^Jm.r (2+ m.r)~ m.rj

Ig-b.df + Js -t-As ^dg-dfj^ in sttet units.

3m
Zst - Section modulus for bottom flange of steel
= Ig In steel units.

db-d^
Zqq = Section modulus for top of slab
= m.Jg In concrete units.

de

ELASTIC DESIGN — OtSF /.

Neutral axis in slab.

Fig. 7

hi case 1,only that portion of the slab above the neutral axis is in compression
and the formulae in Fig. 7 apply; they are the usual formulae for reinforced concrete
beams, the steel section being the reinforcement.
In case 2, the whole of the slab and the portion of the steel beam above the
neutral axis are in compression and the formulae in Fig. 8 should be used.
In both cases calculations are necessary for values of a?? = 1 5 and
30, the first for
strength and the second for deflection. If it is required to find the stress in the top
flange of the steel beam it can be done by proportion to the bottom flange stress in

tension in Case 1 and compression

Tsteel^Lai^ depth'
 f

598 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

Effective brtodth = b

b.ds ^
+ < 4^ dq
2m .

dg =<
b.ds
* A,
m
b.ds^
^ b.ds
^
/» =
^ I2m m f<fe-p) As(dg-dqJ
in steei units.

7s = Section modulus for bottom flange of steei

Ig In steei units,

db-dq
^5:0 = Section modulus for top of slab
m. Ig In concrete units
de
ELASTIC DESIGN -CASE 2.
Neutral axis below slab.

Fig. 8

in Case 2. The elastic properties are also required when load-factor design is used,
in order to check that the elastic stresses at working loads do not exceed nine-tenths
of the yield stress for the steel and one-third of the cube strength for the concrete.

(b) Load-factor Basis (Plastic Design)

The position of the plastic neutral axis is determined by the full plastic strength
of the steel and concrete components of the composition section and is independent
of the modular ratio.
The basic assumptions are that:

1. The whole of thesteel beam is stressed to the yield point whether in com-
pression or tension, according to the position of the plastic neutral axis.
2. Concrete below the plastic neutral axis is unstressed.
3. Concrete above the neutral axis is stressed to its full compressive strength,
taken as %Uy^, where Mw = specified cube strength. This fraction is compounded
 CALCULATION OF SECTION PROPERTIES 599

strength
of two factors | x f, the first being an allowance for the fact that the
whilst
of concrete in a slab is assumed to be two-thirds of the cube strength,

the second is an increase in the load-factor on the concrete of 50 per

cent to

cover the greater variability of strength and lower ductility of concrete com-
pared with steel.

As for elastic design, two cases require consideration:

1. Neutral axis within the depth of the concrete slab. This occurs when the fully
plastic compression strength of the slab exceeds the fully plastic strength of
the steel beam in tension.

2. Neutral axis below the slab and in the steel beam. This occurs when the fully
plastic compression strength of the slab is less than that of the fully plastic
steel beam. This case can be further subdivided according to whether the
plastic neutral axis lies within the flange of the steel beam or within the web •

of the beam.

The depth to the plastic neutral axis having been found enables the full plastic
moment of the composite section. My to be calculated. This must be equated to, or
must exceed, the factored bending moment.
In Case 1, only that portion of the slab above the neutral axis is in compression
and the ultimate stress conditions and formulae are given in Fig. 9. This occurs
when 0,4^ is less than or equal to b ds, the meaning of the symbols being as shown
.

in the Figure.

= Fsf= U/timott ttnsi/t fore* in stttf

=

LOAD FACrOR OeS/Gf/ — CASF/.

Ntutro! oxis in s/ob.
<kr. As^ b. a.

Fig. 9

In Case 2a, in which the plastic neutral axis lies within the top flange of the steel
beam, material above the neutral axis is fully stressed in compression and
all
the
steel below the neutral axis
is stressed to yield point in tension and the ultimate
 1 -

600 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

Effvctiyt breadth = b

I
= 'Ai_ =
a ^ff
. ^
'C.G.of
tension
'Centroid of steef .xxxxxxxx-i

oc---^ Ar>o.A,

Afr = area of flange r i

= bf. tf I

Depth to plastic neutral axis

r
/ 7
Ultimate Moment of Resistance = Mr= tfc ~bf‘ dn [dn~ds)J
,

Ecc - Ultimate compression force in concrete

Iw- b.ds
s
OC P
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN- CASE 2a .

Neutral axis in beam flange,

b. ds < oC- As •< b. ds + 2oC- Af^
{
Fig. 10

Xs.
I Effective breadth = b i w i of i

Ys

C.G.of
'Centroid of steef ^st tension
Area = /4c

Afr = area of flange

=
^
|[
^ AV\^
*f
Depth to plastic neutral axis r—^
y —
2 OC. tw
Ultimate Moment of Resistance
-
Mf^ =

~
>5
^ 5 d(. Ap- (ds + tfj -tfif ( dff-r ffj^dn-dg- tf'jj
.
-

Ultimate compression force in concrete

^c
-
^
ds-b H
T^wb.ds
-
4

LOAD FACTOR DESIGN - CASE 2b.

Neutral axis in beam web
OC fAs~2A/rJ >b.ds

Fig. 1
 DESIGN EXAMPLES 601

stress conditions and moment of resistance are as shown in Fig. 10. This case occurs
when;

b . ds< (xAg <(b . dg + 2a. Af)

In Case 2b the plastic neutral axis lies within the web of the beam and the top
flange is assumed to be a rectangle of area bf x tf. As in Case 2a, all material above
the neutral axis is fully stressed in compression, whilst that below is stressed to yield
point. The ultimate conditions are those shown in Fig. 11. This case occurs when;

a{As - 2Af) >b .dg

Since the depth to the plastic neutral axis depends upon the strengths of the
separate components, it thus follows that any change in the concrete or steel
quality affects the position of the axis in each of the three cases above.

Fig. 12

Design Examples

(a) Elastic Design

Consider the composite section shown in Fig. 12, comprising a 457 x mm
152 mm x 82 kg U.B. spanning 7.315 m, spaced at 3.810 centres, carrying a m
125 mm slab. The top flange is embedded in the slab and the remainder of
the
beam is cased with solid concrete, reinforced as in Fig. 5, Shear connectors
are not
required.
The maximum effective width of slab in compression is given by twelve times
the slab thickness plus the width of the casing and equals 1 754 mm.
The neutral axis in this case falls below the slab and the formulae given in Fig. 8
are applicable.

Depth from top of slab to elastic neutral axis

= d.

b. dg
Aj - dg
2m
b. dg
+ Av
m
602 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
1 754 125^
+ 104.4 X 10^ X 307.5
2x15 4 123 841
1 7^^x_ 1_25 25 057
^ jQ4 4^ j02

= 164.6 mm
Moment of inertia about neutral axis

= h'g

b.d,
^ +Is+As(dg-dey
12m m j

1 754x 125’.1 754x 125j,^^^_^3

5j,^
12x15 15

+ 36 160 X lO'* + 104.4 x 10^(307.5 - 164.6^

= 74 619 cm'^ in steel units.

The tension section modulus in steel units

= Zjr = 74 619 X 10^ ^ (540 - 164.6)

= 1 987.7 cm•^
The compression section modulus in concrete units

= Zcc = 15 x74 619 X 10'’^- 164.6

= 68 000 cm^
The corresponding Resistance Moments will therefore be:

kNm
For Grade 43 steel Stress 165 N/mm 328.0
For Grade 50 steel Stress 230 N/mm 457.2
For 1:2:4 concrete Stress 7 N/mm 476.0
For 1:1:2 concrete Stress 1 0 N/mm 680.0

This indicates that a 1:2:4 mix of concrete for the slab is adequate, even when
Grade 50 steel is used for the 457 x 152 mm
U.B., so that if the beam is fully
propped during erection the Resistance Moment of 457.2 kNm determines the load
carrying capacity. The coexistent concrete stress will be

7 X 457.2
= 6.72 N/mm^
476.0
The maximum total load v/hich can be carried is thus 500.0 kN if Grade 50 steel
isused for the beam, the corresponding figure for a Grade 43 steel beam being
358.7 kN. It is quite clear that the shear strength of either beam is more than
adequate.
Making allowances for finishes weighing 1.197 kN/m^, 33.36 kN, slab at
2.993 kN/m^ 83.40 kN and for beam and casing at 3.342 kN/m run, at 24.45 kN,
totalling 141.2 kN, the balances available for superload are 358.8 kN and 217.5 kN
respectively.
 DESIGN EXAMPLES 603

The permissible superimposed loads are therefore:

with Grade 50 steel 12.9 kN/m^
with Grade 43 steel 7.8 kN/m^

The calculations which now follow demonstrate the reduction in carrying

capacity if the beam is unpropped during the construction stage, when the
steel

beam alone carries the construction loads.

The construction loads are:

slab 83.40 kN
beam and casing 24.45 kN
formwork 8.57 kN
116.42 kN
The corresponding bending moment is 1 06.45 kNm and the bending stress on the
steel beam, section modulus 1 555 cm^, is thus 68.46 N/mm^. At this stage the

beam is laterally unsupported and with Ijvy = 0.7 x 7.3 1 5 x 1 0^/3. 24 = 1 58.04 and
with DjT- 24.6, the safe working stress will be about 1 16.9 N/mm^, so that lateral
support is not necessary.
The composite action are thus 230 — 68.46 =
steel stresses available for

1 61 .54 N/mm^ for Grade 50 steel and 1 65 — 68.46 = 96.54 N/mm^ for Grade 43

steel. The corresponding bending moments are therefore 161.54 x 1 987.7 x

10”^ =

321 kNm 987.7 x I0~^ = 19L9 kNm.

and 96.54 x 1

These are equivalent to total loads of 351.2 kN and 209.9 kN respectively and
making the allowance for finishes of 33.4 kN, the balances available for superload
are 317.8 kN and 176.5 kN.
The permissible superimposed loads are therefore:

with Grade 50 steel 1 1 .4 kN/m^

with Grade 43 steel 6.3 kN/m^
The reduction in superload due to the extra stresses imposed by the lack of
support during construction is thus 1 .5 kN/m^ that when high yield
is, 12 per cent
used, and 19 per cent when mild steel is used.
stress steel is

As an indication of the manner in which the section moduli vary with variations
in slab width and thickness, the relative figures for slabs of 75 mm, 100 mm, and
125 mm thicknesses in widths ranging from 0.6 to 2.1 m
used with a m
457 X 191 x 82 kg U.B. are given in Fig. 13. They are based on a modular ratio of
15.
There is little point in using elastic design other than for cased sections with the
advantage of lack of conventional shear connectors, and their use should be
restricted to cases where solid concrete fire protection is required. As mentioned
previously, shear connectors will be required if the beams are uncased or have
hollow
casing. Also the steel sections required by load-factor design will always be lighter
or smaller than those required elastically. As the shear
connectors, when used, are
designed by load-factor methods, it is not proposed here to investigate
their use
with elastic designs. Their design is dealt with under the next heading and the same
principles apply.
604 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
O
o
o

EFFECTIVE SLAB WIDTH METRES

Fig. 13

(b) Load-Factor Design

Consider the composite section shown in Fig. 14 comprising a 457 x 191 x 82 kg

U.B. acting in conjunction with a 125 mm slab of effective width 1 675 mm.

Fig. 14
 DESIGN EXAMPLES 605

Using mild steel, yield point 245 N/mm^ and 1 : 2:4 concrete with an ultimate
cube strength of 21 N/mm^, the following calculations are necessary;

9 Ys_ 9 245
26.3
4mvv 4^ 21

oAs = 26.3 X 104.4 x

10^ = 275 000 mm^
A/= 191 x 16 = 3 056 mm^ 2a4/= 2 x 26.3 x 3 056 = 160 400 mm^
Mj 1= 675 x 125 =210 000 mm^
For the plastic neutral axis to be within the slab, oiAs^bds (see Fig. 9); this is

clearly not so, and therefore the neutral axis must be in the steel section.
For the plastic neutral axis to be in the top flange of the steel section (see
Fig. 10);

bds < o^s (bds + 20 4/)

/

210 000 <275 000 <(210 000+ 160 400)

This condition is therefore satisfied and the section properties can be found by
utilising the formulae in Fig. 1 0. Hence

dfi = depth to plastic neutral axis

oAs - bds
= ds +
2bfx

275 000-210 000 ,,,,

125+ 133.5 mm.
.

* ini nzco
2 X 191 X 26.3

The plastic moment of resistance, Mr

~ dc — — c^)]
•
bfdfi(dfi

= 245 [1 04.4 x.lO^ X 292.6- 191 x 133.5(133.5 - 125)] N/mm

= 245 [3 060 000-217 000] x 10”^ kNm
= 696 kNm.

The ultimate compression in the concrete, Fee

^dsb.Ys 210 000x245

^
X 10

4
=— 4 ^
or u^bds ^ X 210 000 X 10

= 1 960 kN.
If a 1;1;2 concrete is used, ultimate cube strength 31.5 N/mm^ the position of
the plastic neutral axis can be found in a similar manner.

2Il
4uw
= 2.
4^31.5
^ 17.5

oAs = 17.5 X 104.4 X 10^ = 182 500 mm^

bds = 1 675 X 125 =210 000 mm^
 606 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Since oAs is less than Mg it follows that the neutral axis falls within the slab and
the formulae in Fig. 9 apply. Hence

4j = depth to plastic neutral axis

182 500
= 109 mm
b 1 675

The plastic moment of resistance, fkf;.

= A,K
(dg d^
dc +

= 104.4 X 10^ X 245(292.6 + 8) x lO'^

= 782 kNm.

The ultimate compression force in the concrete slab is that carried by the
concrete above the neutral axis and Fqc is therefore

|x31.5x 1 675 X 109 X lO"^ = 104.4 x 10''x 245 x 10"^ = 2 560 kN

These results are shown in Fig. 15.

Properties with Properties with

Concrete mix 1:2:4 Concrete mix 1:1:2
j

b = 1675mm ^
i

dn=l33‘5mm i
^df,:z/09mm pj A \^s ~ 125mm
j

MA
Pec = f960kN Fee = 2560kN
MR = 696kNm MR = 782kNm

457x 191 X 82kg U.B.

Grade 43
Fig. 15

Similar calculations, using the same steel section but in Grade 50 material with
the yield point of 355 N/mm^ appropriate to the flange thickness of 16 mm, show
that with both concrete mixes the plastic neutral axis lies within the top flange of
the steel beam and the following figures result:

Concrete mix l:2r4 Concrete mix 1:1:2

38.04 a 26.63
139.6 mm dfj 133.3 mm
964.5 kNm Mr 1 026.6 kNm
1 958.4 kN Fee 2 836.3 kN
These results are shown in Fig. 16.
 DESIGN EXAMPLES 607

Properties with Properties with

Concrete mix 1:2:4 I Concrete mix 1:!: 2
b = 1675mm

dn=/39’6mm dn=/33'3mm 125mm

-1
A/ A
NA
Fee = l958-4kN /^e""2836-3kN
MR = 964'5kNm MR -l026’6kNm

457xl9lx 82kg US.

Grade 50
Fig. 16

The Moment of Resistance so found must equal or exceed the factored bending
moment on the section, that is, the statical bending moment multiplied by 1.75.
Tire ultimate load conditions are not affected by the mode of construction.
The Code requires in addition that the elastic stresses at working loads shall not
exceed 0 9 X5 on the steel and 0.33n\v on the concrete, so that the elastic properties
.

of these sections, using m = 15, are also required. These are Zst = 2 250 cm^ (steel
units) and 7cc = 72 400 cm^ (concrete units), from which safe working load bending
moments can be obtained.
Comparative elastic and load-factor properties for the four sections are shown
in Table E, bending moments and resistance moments being given in kNm.

The figures in italic are the controlling factors in elastic design and the degree of
economy obtained by adopting load-factor design is shown by comparing them
with the value of the ultimate moment of resistance divided by the load-factor
which are given on the right of Table E.

TABLE E

Elastic Design Load-factor Design

1

Concrete 1

Ultimate
Quality
Working Load Moments Resistance
Moment
in kNm in kNm
in kNm

Grade 43 Grade Grade Grade Grade

Grade 50
43 50 43 50

Concrete Steel Concrete Steel

1:2:4 498 368 498 509 696 965 398 552

1:1:2 746 368 746 509 782 027 447

1 586
608 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
If these sections are fully utilised under the ultimate load condition and fully
propped during construction, it will be seen from the Table that in all cases the
figure

Ultimate Moment of Resistance

Load-Factor

is less than

0.9 X yield stress in steel

Working stress in steel

so that the steel stress at working loads will always be less than 0.9 x yield stress
and need not be investigated. This will generally be the case for normal composite
sections used in buildings. Regarding concrete stresses, it will be seen that only one
case requires investigation, the 1:2:4 mix with Grade 50 steel, since it is the only
case in which the reduced resistance moment exceeds the working bending moment
based on concrete properties. Again the ratio of the figures is less than that of
0.444/0.333 and therefore the working stress will be within the prescribed limit.
This will not always be the case, and the check is easily made from the elastic
properties of the section, using the normal working stresses of 7 N/mm^ for 1:2:4
concrete and 10.5 N/mm^ for 1:1:2 concrete.
If, however, the sections are unpropped during construction, it is not possible to

effect a direct comparison between stresses at working loads and ultimate loads as
has been done in the previous paragraph and it is necessary to investigate the
working load steel stresses as has be,en done for elastic design on page 603. The
maximum total stress in the steel must not exceed 222 N/mm^ for Grade 43 steel
and 312 N/mm^ for Grade 50 steel. Concrete stresses do not normally require
investigation, since they only arise under the full composite action, but the values
to be used are those given in the preceding paragraph.

(c) Shear Connectors

Shear connectors are to be designed by the load-factor method, irrespective of

the method used for the design of the composite section. To demonstrate the
calculations required, the shear connectors required for the first of the load-factor
designs will be investigated, assuming the beam to span 9.15 m carrying a uniformly
distributed load. The spacing of connectors must not be greater than four times the
slab thickness, 500 mm, and they can be spaced equally between the sections of
zero and maximum moment, 4.58 m.
The total ultimate compression in the concrete slab, Fqc, is 1 960 kN (see page
605) so that the shear load per mm run, Q, is 1 960/4 580 = 0.428 kN = 428 N.
It will be clear from Fig. 6, that the effective length of the periphery of the

shear connectors is greater for studs in pairs than for two single studs so that studs
in pairs will be adopted.
Using 75 mm
x 19 mmheaded studs in pairs, for which the load per pair is
2 X 67 = 134 kN at 300 mm centres the total shear resisted will be 15 x 134 =
2 000 kN, which is a little more than required.
Spacing the studs transversely at the usual gauge mark of 90 mm, it follows that
the length around the periphery of a pair will be 270 mm
(see Fig. 6) but as this
exceeds twice the slab thickness, the figure of 250 mm
must be used.
 0

°
DESIGN EXAMPLES
the concrete table over the steel beam
The amount of transverse steel crossing
run of beam. In this example this will be
mm
must be not less than QiAfy per

0.428 X 1 _ 0.436 mm^ per mm run, if mUd steel bars are used, or a
4 X 245
material is employed.
correspondingly smaller area if higher tensUe
C.P. 1 17 also states that the shear
force per mm
run should not exceed the lesser

two following criteria (see page 596).

of the

(1 )
ClLs\/i^ + At.fy.n

(2)
C2Lg\/u^

Let Cl equal 0.24 and C2 = 0.64.

provided, then
Assuming that the minimum area of transverse reinforcement is

(1) ClLjVn^ +At.fy.n = 0.24 x 250 x y/Tf + 0.436 x 245 x 2

= 275 + 214

= 489 N per mm run.

(2) ClLs\fu^v = 0-64 X 250 x yfU

= 732 N per mm run.

U.D. LOAb

Total number of Total number of

r-
.Connectors = N Connectors = N
area Op 1

area a,
h

area 04
c

Fig. 17
610 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Both thus satisfied but the area of the transverse reinforcement must
criteria are
be borne in mind detailing the slab reinforcement. It can be provided by bars
when
specially placed for the purpose or the whole or part can be provided by any of the
main bottom reinforcement in the slab which is carried over the beam. Had the
conditions been such that the minimum amount
of transverse steel was insufficient
to meet the requirements of criterion 1 then must,
be increased accordingly.
it

The Code further states that such transverse reinforcement must be adequately
anchored but gives no guidance as to the procedure to be adopted. It would seem
logical, however, since it is ultimate load which is under consideration, to increase
the elastic values by applying the load factor, giving bond stresses of 1.46 N/mm^
for 1:2:4 concrete and 1.84 N/mm^ for 1:1:2 concrete. With these values the
required lengths of straight mild steel bars will be the diameter multiplied by 43
and 48 respectively, on each side of the beam centre line.
The sole remaining point to which attention should be directed is the method
specified in the Code, Appendix C, dealing with the manner in which shear con-
nectors should be spaced when concentrated loads occur resulting in large dis-
continuities in the shear diagram.The total number of shear coimectors required on
each side of the section of maximum moment is calculated in the usual manner from
the ultimate compressive force in the concrete. This number should be distributed
according to the areas of the shear diagram between the points of discontinuity but
may be uniform between these points.
Referring to Fig. 17, if the total number of shear connectors required on each
side is A^= 7 Ji +775 = 773 + 774 the number of connectors required in each length is:

( a\ \
Length /i. 77i=7V|

( 02 \
Length l^. 772= TV
j
+ 02
/

''
03 \
Length 773 =A^j
,
03+04 /
'
II
Cle. \
Length
,03 +O4/

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. VIEST, J. M., FOUNTAIN, R. S., and SINGLETON, R. C. Composite Construction in Steel

and Concrete. McGrawHill (1958).
2. SCOTT, W. BASIL. Composite Construction in Steel Framed Buildings. British Construc-
tional Steelwork Association, PublicationNo. 25 (1965).
3. SATTLER, K. ‘Composite Construction in Theory and Practice’, The Structural Engineer.
1961, Vol. 39 (4) April and 1962, Vol. 40 (1 1) November. (A paper by one of the
leading German engineers.)
4. WONG, F. K. C. ‘The Horizontal Shear Resistance of
Composite Beams’, 77/e Structural
Engineer. 1963, Vol. 41 (8) August.
5. CHAPMAN, J. C. ‘The Behaviour of Composite Beams in Steel and Concrete’, The
Structural Engineer. 1964, Vol. 42 (4) April.
6. CHAPMAN, J. C., and BALAKRISHNAN, S. ‘Experiments on Composite Beams’, The
Structural Engineer. 1964, Vol. 42 (11) November.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 611

7. CREASY, L. R. ‘Composite Construction’, Tlte Structural Engineer. 1964, Vol. 42 (12)

December and 1965, Vol. 43 (5) May. (Contains much relative cost information.)
8. C.P. 117: Part 1; 1965. British Standard Code of Practice, Composite Construction in
Structural Steel and Concrete. Part 1: Simply Supported Beams in Buildings. British
Standards Institution. (Other parts in preparation will deal with Columns and
Bridgework.)
9. PAGE, P. P., and GOLDREICH, J. D. ‘Cut Composite Construction Costs’, Engineering
News Record. 1962, Vol. 168 (25) 21 June, p. 66.
10. PROCTOR, A. N. ‘The Design of Composite Structural Members’, Concrete and Con-
structional Engineering. 1962, Vol. 57 (8) August, pp. 292-302.
11. WILENKO, L. K. ‘Building a Ten Storey Steel Frame Pre-stressed at Erection-The New
Offices of the French Electricity Board in Vans', Acier: Stahl: Steel. 1962, Vol. 27 (11)
November, pp. 479-486.
12. LANACH, W. J., and PARK, R. ‘The Behaviour under Load of Six Castellated Composite

T-Beams’, Civil Engineering. 1964, Vol. 59 (692) March, pp. 339-343.

13. ANON. ‘Weld Shear Connections’, Welding and Metal Fabrication. 1964, Vol. 32 (3)
March, pp. 94-98.
‘
14. HUGHES, B. D. “Cyc-Arc” Stud Welded Concrete Anchors’, Civil Engineering. 1964,
Vol. 59 (695) June, pp. 723-727.
 24. FOUNDATIONS

TOE total loadon the contact surface between the underside of the concrete
block and the soil is that due to the imposed load upon the stanchion, plus the
superimposed load at ground level on an area equal to that of the concrete block and
plus also the weight of the concrete and the earth immediately above it. The
pressure on the soil should not exceed the safe bearing capacity at this depth below
the free surface.

In the remarks which follow:

P= vertical load on stanchion base.

If^ weight of base, earth above it and superload if any.
R= total vertical load = P + W.
H- horizontal force at stanchion base.
M= moment at stanchion base.

Case 1

Central load:
Total load on soil = R

Soil pressure -
BL 1
1

T
- IQ
f

iU- i
L 4

Fig. 2

613
614 FOUNDATIONS

Case 2

Central load with horizontal force at base of

stanchion:
Total load on soil = R
Eccentricity induced at underside of block due
to horizontal force H
Hd

Fig. 3

1
ITI

1
Case 3
T

Plant
of
H'l
—H 9

M
P
—
'
'R

^
V?
b
i

i
Central load with horizontal force and
moment

due to
at stanchion base:
Total load on

H and M.
Hd+M = e
R
soil =R
Eccentricity induced at underside of block

T Case la
•tj
Load eccentric on one axis:
i Total load on soil = R
Eccentricity at underside of block

Px
= e
T '~R
«Q

i
 615
FOUNDATIONS
Case 2a

Load eccentric on one axis with hori-

zontal force at stanchion base:
Total load on soil = R
Eccentricity at underside of block:

Px + Hd _
^
R
For load P to left of centre line:

-Px + Hd
^=—R—-
h L—
Fig. 6

Case 3a

Load eccentric on one axis with hori-

zontal load and moment at stanchion base:

base: —HxK- T
Total load on soil = R. •b
w\
Eccentricity at underside of block
j i
-H e
Px + Hd + M = _
\
e
R 1

In general terms e =
±Px ± Hd ±M T
R
All the foregoing with the exception of ofM I
Case 1 result in non-uniform loading on
the soil and for the whole length L to be
under pressure the eccentricity e must not Fig. 7
exceed L/6.
With this proviso the stresses at the edges of the base are given by the expression:

R . Re
P=-
BL BL^ie

= -^11 ± 6e
BL\ L
The when e = L/6 are pi = zero and pj = 2RIBL (see Fig. 8).
limiting values
It isnecessary to proceed on other lines should the value of e exceed
1/6, since
the preceding formula is based upon the ordinary bending
theory which postulates
the existence of tension. This cannot occur between
the soil and the underside of
the block. In such a case, lety be the distance
from the line of action of to the R
nearest edge of the base, i.e.

L
616 FOUNDATIONS
Since the stress distribution will be linear and the centroid of the diagram must be
on the same vertical line as R
it follows that the loaded length will be

Fig. 8 Fig. 9

Consequently the maximum edge pressure

=P

2R
3.B.y
Loading Eccentric about both Axes

It will be seen by analogy with the foregoing that if and eg be the eccen-
tricities of R with regard to L and B respectively then the stresses at the four
corners of the base, using the ordinary bending

—r
’’
theory, are given by the expression

P
^ ~T~
•*5
BL~BL^I6~B^LI6
cxsy R \

_ -L BL\ L ~ B )'
1
L
For the whole area of the base to be under
Fig. 10 i.e. for there to be no tension, R must
pressure,
act within the ‘kern’ of the section, shown hatched in Fig. 1 1 The limiting values
.

of stresses for the configuration shown are minimum stress = zero and maximum
stress = 2RIBL.
 SLAB BASES 617

for resistance to
Concrete bases, unreinforced, are normally not investigated
disperse at
moment and shear, and the load from the stanchion base is assumed to
obtained as shown in
an angle of 45° from which the thickness of the base is
Fig. 12.

T
Mass concrete
1 base
About ISOmm
T
Fig. 12

Safe bearing pressures between the stanchion base and concrete block should
not exceed the values permitted by the local building regulations.
For full information on the design of reinforced concrete the reader is referred
to any standard text-book on that subject, but adequate data for the design of
simple square and rectangular bases carrying a single column is given on pages
625 to 635.

Slab Bases

Solid steel slab bases have to a great extent superseded grillages since the
is reduced to a minimum. If the load W on the steel slab is
fabrication required
assumed uniformly distributed over an area lx d and the load under the slab also
uniformly distributed over the concrete base, then

V. B.M. in plane XX = Mxx ~ "o ~0

o

W
and B.M. in plane YY = Myy ~ To (P ~ d)

Assuming Poisson’s Ratio as i it follows that

the effective moments are;

For breadth/?, Mxx ~

and for length L, Myy -

It ishowever, generally assumed that these calculated

moments are excessive
since they make no allowance for the ‘dishing’ action of the
slab and maximum
moments are assumed to occur at the edges of the
upper rectangle d x /
It IS then more convenient
to express the load on the underside
in terms of
overhang be A mm, the B.M. per mm run will be
vA (2 kT Nmm
and the moment m the direction at right angles will
be /2 Nmm.
618 FOUNDATIONS
Allowance is normally made for the effect of two-dimensional stresses as outlined
previously and therefore the effective moments for design purposes are:

For breadth D . . . M- Nmm

for length L . . . M ^ Nmm

j

If the base is square ,

i.e. L=D, and A is the maximum projection of the slab
beyond the stanchion, the above reduces to

wherein t = slab thickness in mm,'

~ permissible bending stress =185
Pbct N/mm^
This is the formula given in Clause 38.b of B.S. 449:Part 2:1969 which has
remained unaltered since it first appeared in the 1937 edition. Current thought is,
however, that a more correct value for Poisson’s Ratio is 0.3, and this value should
be used for bases where special calculations are made.

Alternatively, for a square base:

t =

where W is the total load and L is the length of one side of the base.
Where the slab is not uniformly loaded on its underside the formula given above
does not apply and the example which follows illustrates the methods which can be
used.

2N°-406xl52 x74kg U.B.

Fig. 14

Example 1. Eccentrically Loaded Foundation.

Figure 14 shows the foot of a heavy column for which a slab base and concrete
foundation will be designed.
 SLAB BASES 619

Data:

Direct central load = 1 520 kN

Mxx plc^ne XX = 145.8 kNm
Myy plans YY = 19.5 kNm
Permissible pressures:

on soil = 440 kN/m^

on concrete = 2 640 kN/m^

Assume that the concrete base is 3.0 m long and

1.5 m wide, as shown in Fig. 15.

Then the individual pressures on the soil are as follows:

Due to direct load = 1 520/4.5 = +337.8 kN/m^

due to Mxx = + = + 64.8 kN/m^

1 .5 X 3

1 9 5 y
due to Myy =± " — ^2 17.3 kN/m^
X 1

When added algebraically, the resulting pressures are as shown in Fig. 15.
It will be noted that the whole base is in compression.

X
Edge Stress Diagram
for concrete base

Fig. 15

Assume that the steel slab is 1.2 m long and 0.75 m wide. Then the individual
pressures on the concrete, shown in Fig. 16, are as follows:

Due to direct load= 1 520/0.9 =+ 1 688.9 kN/m^

due to Mxx =± 810 kN/m 2

=
1 ^2

due to Myy =- ~ =± 173.3 kN/m^

2 2^x^o^752
When added algebraically, the resulting pressures
are as shown in Fig. 16.
620 FOUNDATIONS

for slab base Fig. 16

Consider the loads in the stanchions, as shown in Fig. 17.

The direct load in each stanchion = 760 kN.
This is divided proportionally to the area of the flanges,

154 mm x 18.1 mm = 2 787 mm^

and of the web 380 mm x 10.1 mm = 3 838 mm^
to give loads of 225 kN in each flange and 310 kN in the web.
The loads in the webs at 500 mm centres due to Mxx
10^
= +-145.8 X = +291.6 kN
500
The loads in the flanges at 398 mm centres due io My y
19.5 X 10^
= + = ±24.5 kN
2x398
Now design for moments in the most heavily loaded quarter of the slab.
Check the moments about the lines XX, YY, AA (on the line of the stanchion
web) and BB (at the centres of the stanchion flanges) shown in Fig, 18.

Loads on quarter slab

= 1 520
Upwards. Due to direct load = 380 kN

810 x 0.6 x 0.375

Due to Mxx = 91.1 kN

173.3 X 0.6 X 0.375

Due to Myy = 19.5 kN
Downwards. Flange load, due to direct load = 225 kN
due to Myy = 24.5 kN
249.5 kN
Web load, due to direct load = = 155 kN

due to Mxx = ^^
2
= 145.8 kN

300.8 kN
621
622 FOUNDATIONS
350mm . 250mm.

92-Omm

Base pressures in kNlnf" 400mm

due to Myy
\

8/Omm Base pressures in kN/m

due to Mxx
337-5mm'
Fig. 18

Moments about XX
Due to upward reactions from concrete slab:
Direct load = 380.0 kN mm x
x 190 10“^ = + 72.21

Mxx = 91.1 kNx190 mm X 10-3 =+ 17.3 +94.4\

Myy - 19.5 kN X 250 mm X 10"3 = + 4.91 I

Due to downward loads from stanchion: /+16.1 kNm

Flange load= 249.5 kN x 199 mm x lO'^ = - 49.7\ -3
j
Web load = 300.8 kN x 95 mm x lO'^ = - 28.6/
Moments about YY
Due to upward loads:
Direct load = 380.0 kN x 300 mm x lO'^ +114
~
^XX 91.1 kN X 400 mm x lO'^ + 36.4 + 156.3
Myy ~ kN X 300 mm
'i
19.5 X 10-3 + 5.9)
Due to downward loads: +18.7 kNm
Flange load= 249.5 kN x 250 mm x 10-3 - 62.4 \
-137.67
Web load =300.8 kN x 250 mm x 10-3 - 75.2 J

Moments about AA (forces to left)

Due to upward loads:

^-3
Direct load (1 689 x 0.35 x 0.375) kN x 175 mm x 1

= + 38.8\
Pressure at AA due to Mxx
810 x250x 10-3
= 337.5 kN/m^
600 X 10-3
-%x( 337.5 X 0.35 x 0.375) kN x 175 mm x 10-3 = y g )+55.8\
472 5 \

( ^
— X 0.35 X 0.375 IkN x 233.3 mm x lCr3 + 7.2

}+51.0 kNm
^ 0-35 X 0.375 kN X 175 mm x 1
0'3 = + 2.0
j
Due to downward loads
Half flange load = 124.8 kN x 38.5 x 10-3
_ - 4.8/
 623
SLAB BASES
Moments about BB {forces below line)

Due to upward loads:

380 X 0.176
Direct load = kN X 88 mm x 10 ^ - +16.8
0.35
91.1 X 0.176
Mxx kN X 88 mm x 10"^ = + 4.0
0.35

Pressure at BB due to Myy

173.3 X 199 X 10"^ >+22.2 kNm

= 92.0kN/m^
375 X 10"^
Myy(92.0 X 0.6 X 0.176) kN x 88 mm x 10"^ = + 0.9

'81.3
x0.6x0.176jkNx iHmmxlO"^ =+0.5^

downward loads
~ Nil
Due to

Taking Poisson’s Ratio as 0.3, then

Moment at 1 mm width of slab = 18.7 — 0.3 x 16.1 = 13.9 kNm

for 375
for 600 mm width of slab = 16.1 — 0.3 x 18.7 = 10.5 kNm

Moment at 2 for 375 mm width of slab = 5 .0 — 0.3 x 22.2 = 44.3 kNm

1

for 600 mm width of slab = 22.2 — 0.3 x 51.0 = 6.9 kNm

Hence design for 44.3 kNm on 375 mm width.

Therefore thickness of slab at 185 N/mm^
/6x44.3x 1^ = 61.9 mm
375 X 185
Use slab 1.2 m x 0.75 m x 65 mm thick.
Assuming the base to be of mass concrete, then with an angle of dispersion at
45°, the minimum thickness of concrete equals 1.5 — 0.6 = 0.9 m.
Use base 3mxl.5mxl.0m thick.
Poisson’s Ratio has been taken as 0.3 since this is the currently accepted value
and special calculations have been made as the load is not uniformly distributed
over the underside of the slab.
Inspection of the figures above will show that if 0.25 had been used, the increase
in slab thickness would be about 1 mm
so that the selected thickness would not be
altered.
This slab base example has been dealt with at some length in order to demonstrate
the basic principles which can be applied to design when the stanchion has more
than one shaft and the load is not uniformly distributed.

Example of Design of Holding-down Bolts

Design of a base plate for a compound stanchion of the type used in a workshop
building.
The centres of the two legs of the stanchion together with the worst conditions
of loading are shown in Fig. 19.
624 FOUNDATIONS
In general, it will be found that a base plate of a length about to 3 times the
centres of the stanchions will be suitable.
In this example, a length of base plate of 1 .2 m will be used, with the holding-
down bolts placed at 150 mm
from the edge of the base plate.
The allowable pressure on the concrete below the base plate is 3 200 kN/m^
42IkN 737kN Figure 20 gives the dimensions of the base plate
and the relative positions of stanchion legs and
Roof ^
450mm ^
Crane H.D. bolts.
Leg centres Leg It may be assumed that the B.M. caused by the

stanchion loading is resisted by the two forces T

and C, J" being the tension in the H.D. bolts and C
the compression between the base plates and the concrete base.
The analogy of the resisting forces to those in a R.C. beam subjected to bending
will be obvious.
The solution is approximate, because the forces on the base plate do not
constitute a pure couple.
Adopting the R.C. beam analogy, the allowable maximum stresses in steel and
concrete are as follows:

Assuming that 22 bolts mm will be used in tension, in accordance with Clause 50

ofB.S.449;Part 2:1969,

Steel stress = = 130 + 25% = 162.5 N/mm^

Concrete stress= ^ = 3 200 kN/m^ + 25% = 4 000 kN/m^

A// dimensions in mm
Fig. 20

The two allowable stresses may be increased by 25 per cent because the large
proportion of the stanchion loads is due to wind forces.

= 162.5 N/mm^

/e
= 4 000 kN/m'= = 4.0 N/mm^
Assuming that the two maximum stresses occur together and that the modular
ratio,m, =15, then the depth to the neutral axis from the compression edge =
mfcd/(mfc +fs) where d is the effective depth to the centres of the tension steel,
1 050 mm in the example.

= 15 X 4.0 X 1 050
Depth to N.A.
15 X 4.0+ 162.5
= 283.1 mm
 EXAMPLE OF DESIGN OF HOLDING-DOWN BOLTS 625

The compressive stress has a triangular distribution, as shown in Fig. 20 and the
centre of compression is at 283.1/3 = 94.4 mm
from the compression edge.
Taking moments about T, the line of the force in the H.D. bolts,

737 x675 -421 x225 497 475 -94 725

^ 955.6 955.6
= 421.5 kN
and r= 421 +421.5 -737
= 105.5 kN
The maximum allowable concrete pressure is 4 000 kN/m^ and, if the width of
the base plate is b mm, then
421.5 x2x 10^
283.1 x4 000
= 744 mm
= say, 775 mm
The total tension to be supplied to the H.D. bolts = 105.5 kN.
Area of steel, Ay, required = 105.5 x 10^/162.5 = 649 mm^
The area of the bottom of the thread of a 22 mm
diameter bolt = 245 mm^ and
four such bolts would give a total area of 980 mm^ which is satisfactory. ,

Design of Simple Reinforced Concrete Foundations

The design of reinforced concrete in buildings is governed by British Standard

Code of Practice CP 1 14:Part 2:1969, ‘The Structural Use of Reinforced Concrete in
Buildings’, and the remarks which follow are based on that document.

Concrete Stresses

Although the Code permits design by load factor methods, it is customary to

adopt theelastic method of design for foundation blocks, using the prescribed
modular ratio, m=
15. Table A gives permissible working stresses for the three most
usual nominal mixes. These are basic working stresses for concrete made with
Portland Cement cement (ordinary and rapid hardening)’, or
to B.S. 12, ‘Portland
with Portland-blast furnace cement to B.S. 146 and with aggregates complying with
B.S. 882, ‘Concrete aggregates from natural sources’ or with B.S. 1047, ‘Air-cooled
blast furnace slag for concrete aggregate.’

TABLE A
Permissible Concrete Stresses {N/mm'^)
Mix 1

Proportions Compressive 1 Bond

Shear
Due to
Direct Bending Average Local

1:1:2 7.6 10 0.9 1.00

1:1^3 6.5 8.5
1.50
1:2:4 0.8 0.93 1.40
5.3
1

7 0.7 0.83 1.25

626 FOUNDATIONS
The stresses in Table A are based upon works
cube strengths at 28 days after
test

pouring of 30.0 N/mm^ for 1; 1:2 mix, 25.5 N/mm^ for mix, and 21.0
N/mm^ for 1:2:4 mix. Modifications are permitted to the working stresses for (a)
improved concrete strength, (b) age at loading and (c) wind forces. Modifications
due to (a) are outside the scope of this section of the Manual but attention should
be given to items (b) and (c).
Where it can be shown that a member will not receive its full design load within
a period of 28 days after casting of the member, for example, foundations, the
compressive stresses in Table A may be increased by multiplying by the factor
given in Table B.

TABLE B

Age Factor for Permissible

Compressive Stresses in Concrete

Minimum Age of Member when Age Factor

Full Design Load is Applied

Months
1 1.0
2 1.10
3 1.16
6 1.20
12 1.24

Shear and bond stresses corresponding to the increased compressive stresses must
be obtained from Table 10 of the Code and are related to an effective cube strength
obtained by multiplying the specified cube strength appropriate to the mix by the
age factor.
It would seem reasonable therefore to base designs for foundations to single-
storey sheds on the specified stresses in Table A but to allow for, at least, an age
factor of 3 months for foundations to multi-storey buildings. Design factors have
therefore been given below for both these conditions.

TABLE C

Permissible Concrete Stresses {Nlmm^)

After Ageing for 3 months

Nominal
Mix Compression Bond
Shear
Direct In Bending Average Local

1:1:2 8.8 11.6 0.9 1.0 1.5

ulUs 7.5 9.9 0.9 1.0 1.5
1:2:4 6.1 8.1 0.8 0.9 1.3

Table C gives particulars of permissible concrete stresses at age 3 months, being

the basic stresses in Table A as corrected by Table B for compression and corrected
as required by Table 10 of the Code for shear and bond stresses.
 DESIGN FACTORS 627

Reinforcement Stresses
The permissible working mild steel bars to B.S. 4449: 1969, ‘Hot
stress for

rolled steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete and B.S.

4482:1969, Hard
of concrete (metric units)’ and all plain
drawn mild steel wire for the reinforcement
bars in tension is 140 N/mm^ for effective diameters not exceeding
40 and mm
125 N/mm^ above that size. The same tensile stresses may be used in shear rein-
forcement but this is seldom, if ever, used in block bases.
High bond bars, such as cold twisted steel bars complying with B.S. 4461: 1969,
‘Cold worked steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete’ are used at stresses up

to 55 per cent of the guaranteed yield point or proof stress, subject to the over-
riding values of 230 N/mm^ for bars with an effective diameter not exceeding
20 mm and 210 N/mm^ for larger bars.

Wind Loads
The permissible stresses in concrete and reinforcement may be increased by not
more than 25 per cent, provided that the excess is solely due to stresses induced by
wind loading, as is customary in steelwork design.

Design Factors

Design factors for rectangular slabs reinforced in tension only, as will normally be
of calculation in Table D, both for
the case for foundation blocks, are given for ease
the basic stresses to be used with and for the stresses at 3 months
single storey sheds
after pouring, which are recommended for use with multi-storey buildings.
The symbols used are:

b = breadth of slab in bending (mm).

di = effective depth to the tensile reinforcement (mm) (depth from top of
concrete to centre of reinforcement).
dfj
= neutral axis depth (mm).
= depth of concrete in compression.
la = lever arm of the resistance moment (mm) (distance between centre of
compression in concrete and centre of tensile steel).
My = moment of resistance of slab to bending (Nmm) when maximum concrete
stress is used together with maximum tensile stress in steel).
= total tension in steel, or total compression in concrete, multiplied by
lever arm.

p = percentage tensile reinforcement required to develop simultaneously

maximum concrete compressivb stress and allowable tensile stress in steel,
based on effective area of section b xd\.

The reinforced concrete code does not specifically deal with bases under steel
slabs, but by analogy with Clause 340 of the Code the following
requirements are
obtained.

(a) The bending moment at any section of a base should be the moment of the
forces over the entire area of the base to one side of the
section. The critical
section for bending in the concrete base should be
taken at the edge of the
slab base.
 ) )

628 FOUNDATIONS
TABLE D

Design Factors

Factor Basic Age 3 Months

Neutral axis depth, 0.517 0.554

(multiply by di)
Percentage reinforcement 1.85 2.30
(multiply by 6di)
Lever arm, Iq 0.828 0.815
(multiply by di
Resistance moment. My. 2.14 2.62
(multiply by 2j<5 I )

Neutral axis depth, d,, 0.477 0.515

(multiply by di)
Percentage reinforcement 1.45 1.82
(multiply by id])
Lever arm, 0.841 0.828
(multiply by dj)
Resistance moment, M- 1.70 2.11
(multiply by Mj )

Neutral axis depth, d;j 0.429 0.465

(multiply by di)
Percentage reinforcement 1.07 1.34
(multiply by 6d j
Lever arm, 0.857 0.845
(multiply by di)
Resistance moment, M;- 1.29 1.59
(multiply by 6dj )

(b) The reinforcement provided to resist the bending moments should be

uniformly distributed across the full width of the section; except that for
rectangular bases the reinforcement parallel to the short edge should be more
closely spaced near the stanchion.
(c) The critical section for shear should be taken to be at a distance out from
the edge of the steel slab equal to the effective depth of the concrete base.
(d) The critical section for local bond stress should be the same as that for
bending moment.

Worked example: Square base

The following example will illustrate the calculations required. A stanchion in a

multi-storey building carries a central load of 5 000 kN, sits on a square steel slab
and is supported by a square reinforced concrete base of nominal mix 1 :2:4, the
soilpressure being 430 kN/m^ (see Fig. 21). The further assumption made will be
that the construction period for the buildijig will exceed 3 months
so that the design
factors involved will be found at the bottom of the right-hand
column in Table D.
The safe allowable compression on the concrete will be 5.3 x 1 .16, say 6.1
kN/mm^ ,
so that the area of the steel slab base = 0.82 m^ Use slab
. 10 x 1 0 m = m
l.Om^.
 DESIGN FACTORS 629

Allow for weight of base at 200 kN, giving a total load on the soil of 5 200 kN.
The area of concrete required at 430 kN/m^ = 12.1 m^. Use base 3.5 square m
= 12.25
The weight of the base and soil above it, if any, need not be taken into account
when calculating bending moment and shear, since the base is directly supported by
the soil under it. All subsequent calculations are therefore based upon the load of
5 000 kN, equivalent to a soil pressure of 408 kN/m^ which has been rounded off
,

to410kN/m^.
The depth of the base will be decided either by the bending moment or the shear
acting on it and it will generally be found that the latter is the controlling factor.
Dealing first with, bending moment, the Code states that the critical section
should be taken at the edge of the reinforced concrete column carried by the base,
so with a steel slab, by analogy take the maximum bending moment as
occurring at the edge of the slab base. The Code further states that the bending
moment should be taken as the moment of forces over the entire area on one side
of the section.
The load causing bending moment is thus that on the cantilever outstand of
1.25 m as shown in Fig. 21. This can be obtained by proportion, e.g.

3Sm SQUARE
X
x-x- Critical section for

I Bending Moment

SLAB SASE I
l-OmSQUAREX Ca)
§
to
to
to

di = effective depth

yfcK I

Centreline of
reinforcement

Shear foad-
Load on hatched area

(b)
Perimeter of square
resisting shear

Fig. 21

^ X 5 000 kN = 1 785 kN
or by using the rounded off values for the soil pressure

= 3.5 X 1.25 X 410 kN

= 1 793.8 kN
 630 FOUNDATIONS
Hence, moment at edge of slab base
= 1 793.8 X 0.625 m
= 1 121 kNm

The resistance moment of a rectangular section reinforced in tension only with a

concrete stress of 8.1 N/mm^ at age 3 months, and a tensile steel stress of 140

N/mm^ given in Table

,
D
= 1.59 bdi^ Nmm
where b = effective breadth of slab (mm)
di = effective depth of slab (mm)
= depth from top of concrete to centre-line of reinforcement.

The Code also states that the reinforcement should be distributed uniformly across
the width of the base, thus clearly indicating that the full width of the base may be
considered as resisting the moment.

Hence b - 3.5 m=3 500 mm

Equating the resistance moment to the bending moment gives;

= /l 121 X 10*
Minimum effective depth, <ii
V 1.59 x 3 500
= \/201 438 = 449 mm
Dealing now with shear, the Code states that the critical sections for shear should be
taken to be at a distance from the concrete column face (i.e. edge of steel slab in
this example), equal to the effective depth of the base, which is equivalent to a 45°

angle of dispersion.
The shear stress, q, in a reinforced concrete slab is obtained by dividing the shear
load at the section by the product of the width acting in shear and the lever arm of
the resistance moment, Iq. Reference to Table D shows that, for the concrete mix
and age used, 4 = 0.845cfi
It can be argued that, as the whole width of the base is assumed to be effective
in resisting thebending moment, it can also be effective in resisting shear and this
will be true for a rectangular base of which the width does not exceed the width of
the steel slab base plus twice the effective depth of the concrete block. A greater
•
depth will, however, be given for a square base, if the critical sections for shear are
taken as indicated in Fig. 21 (b), the load causing shear being that on the hatched
area.
The depth required for shear may be found by trial and error or by solution of a
quadratic equation, but as great refinement in calculation is unnecessary, many
designers may choose the first method. Thus, on the trial and error basis, accepting
provisionally the effective depth found necessary for moment, namely 449 mm, the
side of the shear square will be 1 m + (2 x 449 mm) = 1.90 m, so that the hatched

area will be 3.5^ — 1 .90^ = 8.64 m^ The load causing shear will be
.

8.64 X 5 000
= 3 527 kN
12.25

The safe shear at the permissible working stress of 0.8 N/mm^

= 4 X 1.90 X 10^ X 0.845 x 449 x 0.8 x 10“^
= 2 306.8 kN, which is insufficient
 DESIGN FACTORS 631

Repeating this calculation with an effective depth, of 560 mm, the side of the ,

shear square will be 2.12 m

resulting in a shear load of 3 165 kN. The safe shear

will be

4x2.12x10^ X 0.845 X 0.8 X 10"^ =3 210kN

which is sufficient.

If, however, the direct approach is preferred, the minimum depth required for

shear can be found as follows; The bearing pressure on the soil being 410 kN/m^,
it follows from Fig. 21 that the force on the shaded area
2
^ 1 000 + 2r?A
= 410 3 5 . kN
,
1 000 /

/ 1 000 + 2c?i\
The periphery of the shear square =4x
I 1 000 /

/ 1 000 + 2d I \
Area in shear =4 x X 0.845£fi
\ 1 000 /

Hence
0“^ / 1 000 + 2c?i\
Allowable shear load = 0.8 x 1 X 4X X 0.845di kN
V 1 000 /

Equating actual load to allowable load and solving the resulting quadratic equation
gives di = 557.5 mm. Thus it is clear that the shear criterion governs the design, the
effective depth from this viewpoint exceeding that required for bending moment.
An overall depth of 720 mm
will be used, which, when allowance has been made
for two layers of reinforcement with adequate cover to the lower layer, will give an
effective depth of 640 mm.

Bending Moment
The area ofr*tensile j =
T,. -1 . 1
steel required
Steel stress x lever arm
1 121 X 10^
= 14 800 mm^
140 X 0.845 X 640

Allow 31 number 25 mm diameter bars in each direction = 15 220 mm^ both ways.
Since both the effective depth and area of reinforcement provided are greater
than the minima required, it follows that the actual stresses in compression, tension
and shear will be less than the permissible stresses.
If necessary to calculate the actual stresses arising, for submission to an
it is

approving authority, the calculations must be based upon the actual sizes used. This
is because the depth to the neutral axis depends solely upon the
geometrical
properties of the section and is independent of allowable stresses.
Calculations for this purpose now follow and the nomenclature used
is set out
below. The known properties are the width
depth of the concrete and effective
base and the area of reinforcement, whilst the unknown quantities are
the depth to
the neutral axis, lever arm of the resistance moment and the resulting
stresses.

b = width of rectangular section = 3 500 mm

di = effective depth of section = 640 mm
m = modular ratio = 15
Ast = cross-sectional area of
reinforcement = 15 220 mm^
632 FOUNDATIONS
= depth to neutral axis
dfi
due to
Pcb = maximum
compressive stress in concrete
To be found
bending

Pst = tensile stress in reinforcement due to bending j

Making the standard elastic assumptions that, at any cross-section, plane sections

remain plane, that all compression is taken by the concrete and that all tension is
taken by the steel, referring to Fig. 22,

Tensile stress in steel =

dfi

Total tension in steel = Ast . Pst

= A -d„)
^st J Pcb

But the total compression must equal the total tension, hence, after removing the
common factor

~2 —
b.dn_ , Tn{di - dn)

Simplifying and rearranging

—
b.dn^
Ast m{di -dn) = 0

Inserting in this equation the only known quantities, b = 3 500 mm, di = 640 mm,
= 15 220 mm^ and m= 15, the equation reduces to:

35rf„^ -t 4 5664 - 2 922 240 = 0,

whence 4 =231 mm
231
The lever arm la = 640 -^
= 563 mm
 DESIGN FACTORS 633

- 1 121 X 10^
Hence, tensile stress in steel due to bending
15 220 X 563

130.8 N/mm^
(Permissible, 140 N/mm^)

= 2x 1 121 X 10^
and maximum compressive stress in
3 500x 231 X 563
concrete due to bending
4.9N/mm^
(Permissible, 8.1 N/mm^)
This calculation hasbeen worked in detail to demonstrate the basic method of
attack, but the results can be obtained by the use of Table E which is based
same
on the percentage ratio of A^t to bdi in rectangular beams.
The percentage reinforcement in the example is

100 X 15 220
_
3 500 X 640

Table E

Neutral Arm Neutral

Percentage Lever Percentage Lever Arm
Reinforcement Axis Depth Axis Depth
la Reinforcement la
dn dn

100 A„
(xdi) (x4;)
mA,i (.xdi) (.xdi)
bdi bdi

0-50 0-320 1-06 0-426 0-858

0-52 0-324 0-892 1-08 0-429 0-857
0-54 0-891 1-10 0-432 0-856
0-56 0-333 0-889 1-12 0-434 0-855
0-58 0-337 0-888 1-14 0-437 0-854
0-60 0-344 0-885 1-16 0-440 0-853
0-62 0-348 0-884 1-18 0-443 0-852
0-64 0-352 0-883 1-20 0-446 0-851
0-66 0-881 1-22 0-448 0-851
0-68 0-360 0-880 1-24 0-451 0-850
0-365 0-878 1-26 0-454 0-849
0-72 0-369 0-877 1-28 0-457 0-848
0-74 0-372 0-876 1-30 0-459 0-847
0-76 0-376 0-875 1-32 0-461 0-846
0-78 0-873 1-34 0-464 0-845
0-872 1-36 0-466 0-845
U-82 0-387 0-871 1-38 0-468 0-844
0-84 0-390 1-40 0-471 0-843
0-86 0-394 0-869 1-42 0-473 0-843
0-88 0-398 0-867 1-44 0-475 0-842
0.402 0-866 1-46 0-477 0-841
uva 0-405 0-865 1-48 0-479 0-840
0-54 0-407 0-864 1-50 0-481 0-840
0'96 0-411 0-863 1-52 0-483 0-839
0-98 0-414 0-862 1-54 0-485 0-838
0-418 0-861 1-56 0-487 0-838
0-420 0-860 1-58 0-489 0-837
0-423 0-859 1-60 0-493 0-836

Rectangular beams reinforced m tension only, m= 15

634 FOUNDATIONS
whence from columns 2 and 3 in Table E, c/,2 ~ 0.360 x 640 = 231 mm and
la = 0.880 X 640
= 563 mm.
It is not usually necessary to check either the average or local bond stress in

block foundations, but attention is drawn to them so that the example may be
complete.
The first is rarely critical and the average bond stress requirement will be met if

the length of the bar measured from any section is not lessthan the
the tensile stress in the bar at the section
ba diameter x
bond stress'
four times the permissible average
The length determined may have deducted from it a length equal to the bond
value of the hook at the end of the bar, which is 15 x bar diameter for the standard
U hook and 8 x bar diameter for the standard square hook. Inspection shows that
the reinforcement provided easily meets this requirement.
The local bond stress must be calculated for the section critical for bending
moment, that is, at the edge of the steel slab. Its value is given by the equation.

Local bond stress = —

la . O
where Q= total shear across the section

la= arm of the resistance moment

0 ~ sum of perimeters of the bars in tension.

0:
Load on hatched area
5 to be used for bond
o
07
o
07
calculations

L 5
*o
o 'v

Fig. 23

Figure 23 shows the conditions; the total shear at the section is given by the load
on the hatched area
5 000 x 10^ 3 500^ - 1000^
^ ^
= 1.148 X 10^ N
4 3 500

1.148 X 10^
The local bond stress =
563 X 31 X (25 x n)
= 0.84 N/mm^
(Permissible, 1 .3 N/mm^
The maximum shear stress occurs at a distance of 640 mm out from the edge
of the steel slab, so that the side of the shear square is 2.28m and the load causing
shear is

3 500^ -2 280^
5 000 X 10^ X "*
= 2.88 X 10® N
3 500
 DESIGN FACTORS
,
2.8 8 X 10^
Hence shear stress
4 2 280 x 640

= 0.49 N/mm^

(Permissible 0.8 N/mm^)

A conservative, approach should always be used when calculating the shear

resistance of foundation blocks where no shear
reinforcement is provided, as has
been done in this example.
bars have been
Figure 24 gives details of the base as designed, except that 32
for detailing symmetry. It must be pointed out that there
are other methods
used
of calculating moments and shears in foundation blocks in common use, but the
method used in the example, based upon the requirements of C.P. 114, will be
accepted by local authorities.

Concrete mix h 2:4

22No.25mm ^
32 No. 25mm ^

Fig. 24 -4h--/amm cover

Rectangular bases

Calculations should be made for both axes, as outlined for the square base, that
is, moments taken about the edges of the steel slab, with appropriate critical shear
sections. Calculations based on the width of the block will govern the design.
636 FOUNDATIONS
Pocket Bases
The attachment to concrete foundations of the bases of stanchions subjected to
end moments can be made with anchor bolts as described on pages 623—625 or
pages 526 and 527 where moments are large, but for the feet of single storey portal
frames designed with fixed bases the use of the pocket type base shown in Fig. 25
is strongly recommended. It provides a very definite fixing and is economical both

in cost, since it dispenses with a steel base and anchor bolts, and in site labour, as
the templates necessary for accurate setting of foundation bolts are not required.

Cross section through Pocketed Base

Fig. 25

Assuming the triangular pressure distribution shown in Fig. 25 and taking pressure
on both outer and inner faces of the stanchion flanges but neglecting the web
thickness, then if

b = flange width (mm),

d- effective embedment (mm),
~ permissible compressive stress on concrete
Pcb

Total horizontal pressure above or below the neutral axis

bd bd

Distance between centres of pressure -

—
2d

o
Hence
•
.
resistance moment. = PcZ? x
bd
x —
2d _
Pcb
bd^
= ^2 x Pcft x
bd^
-g—
 design factors
of universal beams
^
Table TcWp F give the pocket dimensions for the range
Fig. 26 and as that necessary
o
calculated
scheduled. Th
and columns section divided by the load
factor of 1.75,
resist the fuU P ““ maximum allowable compression on
the concrete,
° taken by the bond
It wUl be found
that the axial load is easily
7 N/mm
the concrete.
be^tween the steel and

AH dimensions in mm
Fig. 26

TABLE F

becomes necessary to increase the depth of pocket beyond 920 mm then

it is recom
If it
mended that breadths b and B should be a minimum of 460 mm and 530 mm respectively.
638 FOUNDATIONS
The concrete block thus falls within that shown in Case 3, Fig. 4 of this chapter,
but it should be noted that, if the moment at the base is not reversible, economy

in size if the stanchion is offset on the base by

of block and excavation will result
the amount e, thus giving a uniform soil pressure.
The concrete block may be unreinforced, in which case reference to Fig. 12
gives the manner in which the block thickness may be found. If a reinforced base is
used, it should be designed on the lines indicated earlier in this section, the moments
being taken at the stanchion flanges or flange tips as requisite, due allowance being
made for non-uniform soil pressure if this exists. The critical sections for shear will

be as before, at a distance equal to the effective depth of the base out from the
flanges or flange tips.
The site procedure is simple but naturally it is necessary to provide the general
contractor with a foundation plan, indicating base and pocket sizes, well in advance
of the commencement of steel erection. After the pocketed bases have been cast by
the general contractor, the steel erectors build up the bottom of the pockets to the
correct level with steel packings grouted in place, which should be allowed to set
before proceeding further.
Also prior to erection, it is recommended that the erectors scribe two setting out
lines at right-angles on the concrete base, each offset a known distance from the
required stanchion position to assist in landing the stanchions when being erected. A
number of stanchions for, say, six frames, are landed in the pockets and wedged in
place by timber wedges driven in at the top of the pocket. These wedges must not
project too far into the pocket — say about i depth, as they will interfere with the
concrete filling when poured. Longitudinal members, bracing, etc., are next erected
and the stanchions lined and plumbed.
The general contractor then fills the pockets with good quality concrete, using
10 mm aggregate up to the underside of the timber wedges. The stanchions remain
undisturbed for 48 hours, after which the wedges are extracted and the filling of the
pockets is completed.
 25. STEEL PILING

Introduction

AMONG the tables in Chapter 40 giving the geometrical properties and other data
relating to steel sections are a number appropriate to steel piling. Not only are there
sections specifically designed for piling, but there are also
sections, such as universal
may augment the range of bearing piles, or tubes of large diameter,
columns, which
which may extend the range of compound
hollow piling products. In addition,
Unissen piles, may be
sections comprising sheet piling and universal beams, such as
fabricated when strength is required in excess of the capacity of the conventional
piling sections.
It would be quite beyond the scope of this manual to give an exhaustive treatise

on the uses of steel piling. In consequence, the general notes provided here are
accompanied by a list of references from which much more information may be
obtained.

Sheet Piles

Although bearing piles are isolated and their loads are normally applied vertically
or along their longitudinal axes, sheet piling is used as a continuous wall to resist

horizontal loads. Nevertheless, sheet piling can also carry significant vertical loading
at little extra cost.
The basic sheet pile sections are either U-shaped, as in Larssen piling, or Z-shaped,
as exemplified by the Frodingham sections. In recent years, the efficiency of these
sections, i.e. their strength-to-weight ratio, has been increased by rolling piles of

greater width with an increase in overall depth. The wider sections are slightly
harder to drive, as resistance to penetration is partly dependent on width, as well as
on interlock friction, so in some cases a heavier hammer may be needed. As,
however, the increase in the efficiency of the section has brought about a reduction
in the thickness of the sheet, the selection of a section to withstand heavy driving
may become more critical. Nevertheless, where this is likely to occur the section
may be rolled in high yield stress steel, instead of the traditional mild steel. There is
a further advantage in using high yield stress steel in temporary works, as such piling
can be re-used more often.
As far as retaining walls are
concerned, there are a number of well-known
international methods of design, which when compared sometimes give widely
varying results. In some cases the methods are supported by useful experimental
evidence and here attention is drawn to References 1 to 4. Where failures have
occurred with anchored walls, they have been due to failure of the
anchorage
system or lack of penetration, rather than inadequate bending capacity
in the sheet
piling.

Tire design
of cofferdams and strutted excavations is based on the empirical
estimation of bracing loads, the problem being much
more complex than that of
anchored retaining walls and more subject to constructional
procedures on the site.

639
640 STEEL PILING
The structures being temporary' it sometimes happens that insufficient attention is
gven to safety precautions. The mechanisms of failure of cofferdams have been
discussed by S. Packshaw in Reference 5.
It should be noted that further information on sheet piling may be obtained from

the General Steels Division or the Regional Offices of the British Steel Corporation,
in particular details of such accessories as junction and comer piles and the possible
methods for capping or anchoring retaining walls.

Bearing Piles

There are three main types of steel bearing piles:—

1. H-pUes
2. Pipe-piles
3. Box-pies

H-piles comprise the purpose-made universal bearing pies and also universal
columns. For both types of section the breadths and depths are approximately equal.
The universal bearing piles, however, have flanges and web of identical thickness,
thus proriding equal resistance to driving forces and any possible corrosion. H-piles
are thus available in a vety wide range of sizes and weights for the foundations of
almost any type of structure.
The main advantages of H-piles are listed below.

1. Lengths up to 26 m are readily available from the mills.

2. Cut-offs and welded splices can be made quickly and economically.
3. B>' using welded splices lengths up to 60 m can be driven.
4. Accidental eccentric loading when driving has negligible effect on the pile.

5. Ability to withstand prolonged hard driving.

6. Ease of handling. The pile is light and can be slung from any point along its
length.
7. Capacity to develop vety high bearing values.
8. Small soil displacement.
9. Large friction area.

In foundations, when using mild steel, similar to Grade 43A to B.S. 4360, it has
been American practice to limit the rvorking stress to 1 2 000 Ib/sq in (83 N/sq mm).
Fortunately, aU but the poorest soils wiU provide adequate lateral support to the
embedded length of a pile shaft.
The recommended minimum spacing for bearing piles driven in groups is 1.1 m
or three times the diagonal measurements of the pile, whichever is the greater. \Wiere
the piles derive their entire resistance from end bearing on a stratum of sound rock,
the distance may be reduced to 750 mm or twice the width of the section.
Various authorities have undertaken research on pile caps and others pubUsh
standard designs, but it is recommended that References 6 and 7 be consulted.
Apart from certain characteristics associated with their shape, the remarks made
with regard to H-pIes apply generally to pipe and box-pies. Both may be prorided
with some kind of shoe when they become displacement pies and may produce
ground heave. They are often driven open-ended, however, when heave is lessened
and penetration is increased.
Pipes have a hi^ radius of gyration and a constant section modulus in aU
 MARINE STRUCTURES 641

directions. Not being circular in section, box piles have small variations in these
geometrical properties.
Both pipe and box piles have the advantage that they may be inspected after
driving merely by lowering a light down inside them.
While such piles are frequently filled with concrete, this does not greatly increase
the load bearing capacity and the usual reason for filling is to reduce internal
corrosion although unlikely to be significant. Where the sections are so filled,
this is

however, a simple connection may be made to any pile cap merely by inserting a
few short starter bars in the top of the pile. Where there is no concrete filling, the top
of the pile should be closed with a flat steel plate welded in place.
While the characteristics of the three types of bearing piles are compared very
thoroughly by G. M. Cornfield in Reference 8, it may generally be stated that the
most economical for use in foundations are the H-piles, while where the piles
project above bed level, as in marine structures, pipe and box piles are more
advantageous.

Marine Structures
Although there has been a steady increase in the use of steel piles in dolphins,
jettiesand other marine structures, it is probable that the greatest advances in recent
years have been made in the berthing installations for tankers and other bulk carriers,
typical details of which are given in References 9 to 13.
The German Committee for Waterfront Structures have thoroughly investigated
the problems associated with marine structures and their recommendations are
contained in Reference 4.

Dolphins

The and most robust dolphins, described for example in Reference 14,
largest
usually comprise large hollow sections, constructed by driving a continuous wall of
steel sheet piling, rather as in cofferdam construction, which are then filled with

sand or other suitable material, topped with mass or reinforced concrete into which
bollards and other ancillary equipment are embedded.
The more common dolphins, however, comprise either single piles or clusters of
piles, linked or rigidly fastened together. Such dolphins may be designed to fulfil a

number of requirements, but they are usually subjected to two types of force only:

1 . A static horizontal pull from a moored vessel, the greatest stresses being
imposed when the line is attached to the top of the dolphin.
2. Impact from a vessel, when the ship’s energy must be counteracted by the
internal work of the dolphin, which may be expressed mathematically as:

where k - a reduction factor which varies with the size of ship, speed
and
angle of approach, position of dolphin, etc. It can be 0.5 for
barges
or as little as 0.2 for sea-going ships.
m .
_
-the energy of the ship.
2
642 STEEL PILING
P = the applied force.
d= the deflection of the dolphin at the level of the force.
A - the absorption capacity of the dolphin.

In this case, the worst conditions are at low water when the dolphin is less

able to deflect under load.

The methods of design generally accepted in Europe have been described by
G. B. Godfrey Reference 15. They are based on the work of Blum, Reference 16,
in
the validity of whose formulas has been checked by a number of full-scale tests,
particularly in the Kiel Canal and in Hamburg, References 17 to 18, as a result of
which certain modifications have been introduced.
While H-bearing piles are still favoured by American engineers for dolphins, pipe
and box-piles are much more commonly used in Europe. Nevertheless, over 1 1 000
tons of H-piles were driven in the erection of the pier in Reference 9. However, the
bending yield strength of a pipe is about one-third greater than the normal yield
strength. In many European countries advantage is taken of this large shape factor
in the design of dolphins and for pipe-piles the working stress is taken as the tensile
yield stress of the material. Indeed, when designing dolphins in Amsterdam,
Risselada, Reference 19, differentiated between the sections employed. While he
designed in pipe up to the full tensile yield strength of the material, he was only
prepared to design to 90 per cent of this value for square sections and 80 per cent
for hexagonal sections.

Jetties

In theirmost simple form jetties consist of single fingers reaching out from the
shore, but where the waters are shallow, they may comprise one or more heads
running parallel to the shore joined together by a trunkway and connected with the
land by a shore arm. The superstructure of the jetties, which may be built of steel,
timber or precast concrete, or combinations of these materials, are usually designed
in a manner similar to that employed for bridges.
In jetties all the three types of bearing piles are used, either as individual members
or in trestles and bents.
In the Kwinana jetty. Western Australia, built for the British Petroleum Company,
936 Rendhex and Larssen box-piles, in lengths up to 30 m, were employed, 392 of
which were raking, the superstructure being constructed from precast concrete
elements.
As described by Murray and Collett, Reference 1 1 bents were used for the shore
,

arm and trunkway. After being driven, the piles were filled with concrete with a
special bottom opening skip which allowed the concrete to fall straight down the
pile. The connexions between the piles and the transverse beams were effected by

spun concrete muffs which were positioned and supported on temporary timber
platforms while the annular spaces between the muffs and piles were filled with
rich mix concrete, mild steel fillets having been welded to the pile heads to provide
a key. Subsequently, the transverse and longitudinal beams and road trestles were
placed in position and jointed.
Prior to driving, the piles were cleaned and given coats of Wailes Dove bitumastic
primer and enamel. Further resistance to corrosion was given by a system of cathodic
protection, designed by Spencer, as described in Reference 20.
Concrete-filled Rendhex piles were also used in the four tanker berfh? in the
Aden Oil Harbour, described by Palmer and Scrutton in Referepce 10 and
 REFERENCES 643

vertical piles were welded

constructed for the same firm. In this case, however, the
girders and broad flange beams. Raking
to a framework consisting of steel plate
piles were tied into the framework with a
reinforced concrete cap. Ah the piles
bitumastic paint, one iri the
were sand-blasted and given three coats of Wailes Dove
shop and two on the site after driving. Subsequently, the piles
were provided with
cathodic protection designed by Spencer. Further details of
cathodic protection in

the Aden area are given in Reference 21.

Corrosion Resistance

Some methods of protecting marine structures against corrosion have just been
mentioned. One of the most remarkable features of steel piles driven into undisturbed
ground, however, is their almost complete immunity from corrosion. The standard
work on this subject is the report by Romanoff in Reference 22. He examined piles
which had been in service from 7 to 40 years and concluded that regardless of the
soil characteristics and properties the type and amount of corrosion observed was

not sufficient to affect the strength or useful life of piles as load-bearing structures.

REFERENCES
1. ROWE, P. W. ‘A theoretical and experimental analysis of sheet-pile walls,’ Proceedings
I.C.E. (January 1955).
2. ROWE, P.W. ‘Sheet-pile walls at iziXme,,' Proceedings I.C.E. (May 1956).
3. ROWE, P.W. ‘Sheet-pile walls in cXd^y Proceedings I.C.E. (July 1957).
4. Empfehlungen des Arbeitsausschusses ‘Ufereinfassungen’ (EAU 1971) 4th Edition.
Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn, Berlin 1971. (An English translation is available.)
5. PACKSHAW, S. 'Coii^xdzms' Proceedings I.C.E. (February 1962).
6. ANON. ‘Investigation of the strength of the connection between a concrete pile cap and
the embedded end of a steel H-pile.’ State of Ohio Department of Highways Research
Report No. 1 (December 1947).
7. ANON. ‘Pile cap design for H-pile foundations,’ United States Steel Corporation,
Pittsburgh (July 1968).
8. CORNFIELD, G. M. ‘Steel bearing piles,’ CONSTRADO, London (1972).
9. McGOWAN, C. W. N., HARVEY, R. C. and LOWDON, J. W. ‘Oil loading and cargo
handling facilities at Mina al-Ahmadi, Persian Gulf,’ Proceedings I.C.E. (June 1952).
10. PALMER, J. E. G. and SCRUTTON, H. ‘The design and construction of Aden Oil Harbour,’

Proceedings I.C.E. (July 1956).

11. MURRAY, P. and COLLETT, D. N. 'Kwinzna ']eXty' Proceedings I. C.E. (December 1956).
12. 20th. International Navigation Congress ^Baltimore - U.S.A. 1961) Section II. Ocean
Navigation - Subject 1. General Secretariat P.I.A.N.C., Brussels.
13. Conference on Tanker and Bulk Carrier Terminals, I.C.E., 1 3th. November
1969.
14. RIJSSELBERGHE, L. van and DESCANS, L. ‘Dues d’Albe en palplanches metalliques,’
Annales des Travaux Publics de Belgique (June 1 957).
15. GODFREY, G. B. ‘Steel dolphins,’ CONSTRADO, London (1972).
16. BLUM, H. ‘Wirtschaftliche Dalbenformen und deren Berechnung,’ Die Bautechnik
..(May 1932).
17. MULLER, F. E. ‘Stahlrammpfahle
fiir DaXhenhau,' Mitteilungen der Hannoverschen
Versuchsanstalt fur
Grundbau und Wasserbau, Franzius-Institut der Technischen
Hochschule, Hannover (No. 5, 1954).
18. EBNER, H. and FORSTER, K. ‘Die Hamburger Dalbenversuche,’ Hansa (Nos.
16/17, 1957).
19. RISSELADA, Tj. J. ‘Dolphins at the port of Amsterdam,’ Dock and Harbour Authority
(June- July 1954).
20. ANON.
‘Cathodic protection installation for Kwinana Refinery jetty and
water intake
flume,’ Civil Engineering
and Public Works Review (July 1955).
21. WRIGHT, H. J. ‘Cathodic
protection,’ Proceedings I.C.E. (April 1962).
22. ROM ANOFF, M. ‘Corrosion of
steel pilings in soils,’ National Bureau of Standards
Washington (September 1965 ).
 26. GIRDERS

The follov-ing types of Orders are described and illustrated in this section:

1. Welded Compound Girders.

2. Welded Plate Girders.
3. Riveted Plate Girders.

Design of Welded Compound Girders

Where the B.M. to be resisted is greater than the resistance moment of a single
universal beam, the bending capacity of the beam may be increased by the addition
of flange plates, subject to checking the strength of the web in shear and buckling.
Clause 27a of B.S. 449 states that solid web girders should preferably be
proportioned on the basis of the moment of inertia of the gross section, with the
neutral axis taken at the centroid of the section, which will normally be the case
with welded construction. This sub-clause also states that the effective sectional
area for resisting shear shall be the product of the thickness of the web and the full
depth of the rolled section.
Clause 27b of B.S. 449 each flange plate shall be extended
states, inter alia, that
beyond its theoretical cut-off point and the extension shall contain sufficient welds
to develop in the plate the load calculated for the bending moment and girder
section (taken to include the curtailed plate) at the theoretical cut-off point.
The theoretical points of cut-off can be found quite simply by calculation or by
superimposing the B.M. diagram upon a diagram representing the variations in
section modulus of the girder. The added plating is normally in one thickness on
each flange, since each added plate requires two runs of fillet weld, the cost of which
would normally outweigh any savings on material due to the curtailment of the
outer plates as shown in Fig. 1. Reduction can, however, be made in the width or
thickness of the flange plate where the B.M. permits, but this demands full-strength
butt joints in the plates, which again, are likely to be more costly than using the
thicker material throughout.
As an example, consider a beam to carry a uniformly distributed load of
1 000 kN over a span of 10.8 m, assuming full lateral support and using steel to
Grade 43 B.S. 4360 Part 2:1969, for which the working stresses given in Table 2 of
B.S. 449 Part 2:1969 are 165 N/mm^ for
flange plating up to and including 40 mm
thick: 150 N/mm^ for plating over 40 mm thick and
N/mm^ for all universal
165
be^s, irrespective of flange 32 kN is made for the
thickness. If an allowance of
weight of the girder, the section
modulus required at a working stress of 150 N/mm^
will be 9 290 cm^ If
.the overall depth of the girder is not to exceed 685 mm, then
a suitable section
would be
a 610 x 229 x 140 kg U.B. with 330 x 30 mm mm
p ates on each flange, with section modulus of 9 421 cm^ and overall depth of
677 mm.

645
646 GIRDERS

Fig. 1

The theoretical cut-off points can be found graphically as shown in Fig. 2 or they
may be calculated as follows:

The B.M. at any point distant x m from either end of the girder is
 647
DESIGN OF WELDED COMPOUND GIRDERS
n,, theoretical cut-off points occur
where M equals the resistance moment of the
beam, of section modulus 3 620 cm^
so ,
universal
plate thickness of 30 mm, the section
bending of 165 N/mm" governed by
the
,

modulus
_5l6xl03/_i^\=^ 620
r^l 10-8/

516xl0^xx^ _ + 3 620 = 0
165 X 10.8 165

i e
- 10.8;c+ 12.50 = 0

whence x= 1 .32 m or 9.48 m

390 kN and it is from this value that
The vertical shear at these points is nearly
beam and plate should be calculated. The horizontal
the horizontal shear between
shear/mm is given by

=
^ -^- y
s
.
(see Fig. 3)

where s = horizontal shear in N/mm.

5 = vertical shear at section in kN.
a = area of material to be connected.
y = distance from centroid of a to centroid of section,
and / = moment of inertia of compound section.

390 X 10^ X (330 X 30) x 323.5

Hence
318 900X lO'^
- 392 N/mm
This is by two fillets and hence 4
to be taken mm
continuous fillets would
suffice for strength, but as the flange plates are 30 mm
thick and the beam flange
is 22.1 mm
thick, it will be seen from Table C on page 886 that 6 is the mm
minimum size weld allowable and this size will be adopted. The welds can be
continuous throughout, as will be the case if automatic welding is used, or may be
intermittent, if hand welding is employed. The ratio of effective length
of
intermittent weld to total length is found by dividing the actual
shear/mm by the
weld strength/mm, i.e.
648 GIRDERS
196
= 0.407
6 X 0.7 X 115

Welds 150 mm
effective length and 200 mm
spacing will give a ratio of 0.428 and
can be adopted. The actual length of a weld is the effective length plus the weld size
added to each free end and thus the welds are 162 long at 188 mm mm
clear spacing,
as shown in Fig. 2.
It is now necessary to check the web capacity of the beam. The end reaction is

516 kN, which is much less than the shear value of the web, 617 mm x 13.1 mm x
100 N/mm^ = 808 kN, and if the end connection is made with riveted or welded
end cleats or with a welded end plate, no further investigation need be made. If,
however, the beam is supported on the bottom flange, i.e. by a seating cleat, then it
is necessary to calculate web bearing and buckling capacities with reference to the

length of stiff bearing.

Clause 28.a of B.S. 449 deals with web buckling on the following lines. The
height of the column is to be the clear depth of web between root fillets, 543 mm

and the slenderness ratio is specified as where

t = web thickness

d = clear depth of web

543 X 1.732
This equals 71.8
13.1

The appropriate compressive Table 17 A of B.S. 449 is 1 13 N/mm^

stress given in
so that the allowable buckling load per mm run of web = 13.1
x 1 13 = 1 480 N =
1.48 kN. The length of the column required is thus 516/1.48 = 349 mm, measured
at the neutral axis of the section, as shown in Fig. 4, and allowing for 45° dispersion
in accordance with Clause 28 .a, the length of stiff bearing required is 40.5 mm.
The allowable bearing stress on steel to Grade 43 is given in Table 9 of B.S. 449
as190 N/mm^ and Clause 28 .e states that the load can be dispersed at an angle of
30° to the plane of the flange.

5 Dispersion
'4

A
3085mm

bearing length
=J5-5mm
Fig. 4

The length of web required in bearing

516 X 10^
13.1 X 190
= 207 mm
 DESIGN OF A WELDED PLATE GIRDER 649

measured at root fillet level, and with dispersion at 30 to the horizontal, the length
of stiff bearing required under the flange

= 207 - 1.732 X 37 = 207 - 64 = 143 mm

Dispersion can continue through the seating at the same angle (see Fig. 5) to
enable the stiffener outstand to be calculated.

Web bearino /enoth =207mm

/'lange bearing length ^
-143mm L 37mm
122mm
Mean flange thickness
I50mmxl2mm =^22-lmm
J2Smm pit stiffener. plate seating

Fig. 5

It is now obvious that the web bearing criterion is more severe than web buckling
and this governs the detail. If a welded tee bracket is used, then with a 150 mm x
12 mm plate seating, the stiffener plate should be 125 wide. mm

Design of a Welded Plate Girder

General Design Information

1. The girder designed in this example is 10.8 m span and is assumed to be simply
supported at its ends.
2. The loading on the girder is shown in Fig. 6. In Case 1 loading (Fig. (a)),
6
both point loads are shown at their maximum magnitude. In
Case 2 loading (Fig. 6 (e))
one of the loads is shown at its maximum magnitude and the other
at its
simultaneous minimum magnitude; this latter case gives the condition for maximum
shear in the centre length of the girder.
The self-weight of the girder, which is fust estimated, must
eventually be
checked when the girder is finally designed.
3. It is assumed that there are effective lateral restraints for the compression
flange at positions A, B,C and D (Fig. 6 (a)).

Bending Moments and Shear Forces

“‘“e ™ •*'' «« calculated by

cMdltions
® ® ® alternative loading

Girder Cross-section
 650 GIRDERS

OISE ONE LOADING ESTIMATED WEIGHT OF GIRDER

36 kN uniformly distributed

CbJ
BENDING MOMENT
DIAGRAM

77akN 766kN
CcJ
SHEAR FORCE
DIAGRAM

-766kN -77a kN

(d)
SHEAR STRESS
IN WEB

permissible shear
stress
-average shear
stress devdoped

A girder of I-shapewill be used, as shown in Fig. 7.

It should be noted that this section is built up by welding directly together the
flange and web plates, and there is no need for the flange angles used in riveted
construction.
It is first decided that a depth of 1 .35 m between flange plates and a width of
flanges of 0.38 m is likely to prove a satisfactory basic
dimension for the section.
An approximate obtained by dividing the maximum B.M. by
area of flange plate is

the depth of the girder and using a permissible bending stress of 155 N/mm^ An .

approximate required thickness of web is obtained based on the maximum shear

force and a maximum permissible shear stress of 1 15 N/mm^ The proposed section
.

shown in Fig. 8 is determined in this manner and should next be checked by

detailed calculations to ensure that the section is completely in accordance with
the requirements of B.S. 449.
 .

651
DESIGN OF A WELDED PLATE GIRDER
ESTIMATED WEIGHT OF GIRDER
S£ TWO LOADING 36kN uniformly distributed
250 kN
3-6m J
1 3-6m 1 .
4, (eJ
C D SPAN ^ LOADS
A
r 10 . am Ji
43akN
608kN

Cf)
BENDING MOMENT
DIAGRAM

608kN cg)
596kN
SHEAR FORCE
DIAGRAM
-l64kN -f76kN^
426kN -4J8kN

mm^ C/>;
SHEAR STRESS
IN WEB
-4S04N//m^ ^86-67N/mm' permissible shear
mm*
l2l5N/n '/304 'N^mm^ stress
average shear
stress developed
Fig. 6(e) to(h)

flange
2
Flanges

The flanges are designed in accordance with Clause

V
20 of B.S.449. o
In Table 2 of the Standard the allowable tensile
stress pht in bending for a plate up to 40 mm I
thick is 155 N/mm^.
web
The allowable compressive stress p^c in a plate girder
is the lesser of two values given in Table 2 and Table
8, the latter
corresponding to the critical stress Cg flange
obtained by following the detailed requirements of
Fig. 7
Clause 20.
As the flanges of the assumed section have equal moments of inertia about the
y-y axis of the girder, Case (I) applies.
Therefore Q= A N/mm^
The value of A depends on the two criteria l/ry and D/Tin Table 7.
652 GIRDERS
Now, I = the length between effective lateral restraint (see Clause 26 .b)
= 3.6 m = 3 600 mm.
ry= radius or gyration about the j —y
axis of the gross cross-section of the
whole girder at the point of maximum bending moment
= 8.7 cm. (See below.)
D = overall depth of girder at the point of maximum bending moment
= 1 410 mm.
T = effective thickness of compression flange
= 30 mm.
Hence, Ijry = 360/S.l = 41.4

and DIT= I 410130 = 41.0

Properties of Cross-section
y
1 350 mm x 10 mm Web •
j<s*o
J60x
380 mm x 30 mm Flanges
_ JOf/ange

-..(135)^ 2x38x(3)^
r
^
12 12

+ 2 X (38 X 3) (69)^ O
Vi
= 1 290 710 cm^
(38)^,135(1)3
/,,-2x3x-^+-j3—
r .
^eutra/ axis

= 27 447 cm^ §
Area = 2 x 38 x 3 + 135 x 1
all cf/mens/ons in mm
= 363 cm^ fQ

290 710 eq eg
= 59.6 cm
363

727 447 3
= 8.7 cm
0'=.
363 L 3S0 J 3S0 X 30 f/ange
Y
a . y at joint of flange and web
Fig. 8
= 38 X 3 X 69 = 7 866 cm^

On inspecting Table 7, it will be observed that the value of A exceeds 1 300.

Therefore the corresponding value of pij^ in Table 8 is 165 N/mm^.
As the value of given in Table 2 for a plate up to 40 mm thick is 155 N/mm^
this value must be used in design.
From Fig. 6 (b) the maximum bending moment is 2 784 kNm.
Therefore the maximum tension or compression stress in the flanges due to
bending,
fbt=fbc=MIZ=MDl2I
2 784 X 10^ X 705
1 290 710 X 10^

= 152 N/mm^, which is satisfactory.

 ,

653
DESIGN OF A WELDED PLATE GIRDER
It should be noted that there had not been effective lateral restraints for the
if

compression flange in this example, the permissible stress for compression

would
have been less than 155 N/mm^ It would then have been economical to make the
.

compression flange larger than the tension flange.

Web
The ratio djt of the web is 1 350/10 = 135.
As this value exceeds the limiting value of 85 given in Clause 28.b of B.S. 449,
vertical stiffeners must be provided at a distance apart not greater than l\d
=
2 025 mm.
The stiffener spacing assumed is shown in Fig. 9. In the outer-thirds of the
length of the girder the spacing is 1 200d/l 350 = 0.889<i. In the middle third, the
spacing is 1 800(i/l 350= 1.333<i.

PROPOSED WEB STIFFENER SPACING

Fig. 9

Clause 23.b of B.S. 449 states that the average shear stress on the gross
section of a stiffened web
not exceed the values of
shall given in Table 12.
By interpolation, the value of pq in the outer-thirds of the girder is 93.3 N/mm^
and in the middle third, 86.67. These values are inserted in Fig. 6 (d) and (h).
The maximum shear induced in the girder by Case One Loading in Fig.
stress fq
6 (a) occurs at the ends of the girder, where the maximum shear force is 778 kN.
Therefore
fq = in(d xt = ns 000/1 350 x 10
= 56.7 N/mm""

Thevariations in the value of fq along the girder for Case One and Case Two
Loading are shown in Figs. 6 (d) and (h) respectively.
It is interesting to consider in passing the actual stress
conditions over the full
depth of the girder. Figure 10 shows the actual shear per mm
of girder, at either end,
for the loading in Fig. 6 (a). At any point, the shear stress in the web is the shear
per mm divided by t. For example, the maximum shear stress, at the neutral
axis,
~ compared with the average stress/' already calculated of
^
57.6 N/mm .

Intermediate Stiffeners: Nos. 2,

3, 5, 7 and 8 in Fig. 9.
There is no applied end load on these stiffeners.
The stiffeners selected consist of flats arranged in pairs, that is to say, the flats
are arranged on opposite sides of the web and directly opposite one anoiher.
654 GIRDERS
614 N/mm

S76N/mm

as calculated on the approximate

assumption that web resists total
shear.

Fig. 10

Clause 28.b (iii) of B.S. 449 states that unless the outer edge of each stiffener is
continuously stiffened, the outstand of all flats shall be not more than 12 f, where t
is the thickness of the flat.

Try a pair of flats, 100 mm x 10 mm.

10 X (210)^
/of complete stiffenei ’.bout the centre of the web = = 772 cm^
12 X 10“*

Clause 28 .b (i) states that the stiffeners shall be so designed that /is not less than

1.5 X

where S = the maximum permitted clear distance between stiffeners for thickness t.

t = the minimum required thickness of web.

If 5 = 1.5£f = 1.5 X 1 350 = 2 025 mm and t = 10 mm.

, .. . . 1.5 X 1 350^ X 10^

required /, =
,
Miramum
3 p;;! ^ ip,
= 90 cm'*

Therefore, the section selected is more than adequate to meet this particular
requirement in the Standard.

StiffenersUnder Loads: Nos. 4 and 6 in Fig. 9.

As shown in Fig. 6 (a), the load on each of these stiffeners is 760 kN, applied in
the form of a line load across the top flange.
Try 180 mm x 15 mm flats, arranged in a pair located directly under the load.
In accordance with Clause 28.a (iii) of B.S. 449, the section for design as a
column, shown in Fig. 1 1 (a), consists of the pair of stiffeners together with a
 . .

655
DESIGN OF A WELDED PLATE GIRDER
equal to 20 times the
length of web on each side of the centre line of the stiffeners
of gyration is taken about the axis
web thickness, i.e. 20 x 10 = 200 mm. The radius
effective length of the column is assumed
parallel to the web of the girder, and the
to be 0.7 of the actual length of the
stiffener.

stiffeners ««

^1
fOmm web, 1
”
1
1
^
\-400- S
mm 1

a i—
shcKhdarea consfdefvcl
as column
AREA USED FOR AREA USED FOR BEARING
COLUMN LOADING (b)
(o)
STIFFENERS UNDER LOAD
Fig. 11

15x(370)\ (400- 15)x 10"

/ about centre line of web =
,

774
- +. 6 335 cm
12 X 10 12x10
Area = 360 X 15 x 10~" +400 x 10 x 10"^ =94cm2
6 335
/
0.7x135

For this slenderness ratio, the allowable stress Pc interpolated from Table 17. a of
B.S.449 is 150N/mm".
The actual stress^ is (760 x 10")/94x 10^) = 80.9 N/mm".
The stiffeners must now be checked for bearing in accordance with Clause 28.a
(iii), which also states that the outstanding legs of each pair of stiffeners shall be so

proportioned that the bearing stress on that part of their area in contact with the
flange clear of the welds does not exceed the bearing stress specified in Clause 22.
The appropriate bearing stress pf, in Table 9 is 190 N/mm^
The stiffeners are notched 25 mm
to clear the welds connecting the web to the
flanges. Therefore, the area for bearing, shown in Fig. 1 1 (b), is 2x155x15 =
4 650 mm".
Hence, the actual bearing stress fb = 760 000/4 650 = 163.3 N/mm"
Tire stiffeners selected are therefore satisfactory.

Stiffeners at Ends: Nos. 1 and 9 in Fig. 9 .

The reaction at the end of the girder is 778 kN. In this example it is applied in
the form of a line load across the bottom flange.
Try a 380 mm x 12 mm flat arranged across the end of the web and located
directly above the applied line load.
 . . . . .

656 GIRDERS
The section for design as a column consists of the stiffener together with a length
of web extending 20 times the thickness of the web from the centre line of the
stiffener, i.e. 20 x 10 mm
= 200 mm, as shown in Fig. 12 (a).

12 X 380^ (200 - 6) X 10^

/about centre line of web = = 5 489 cm^
12 X 10^ 12x lO'*

Area = 380 x 12 + (200 — 6) x 10 = 65.0 cm^

15 489
r about centre line of web = = 9.2 cm
65

/_ 0.7x 135
10.3
r 9.2

The allowable stress Pc interpolated from Table 17.a of B.S. 449 is 151 N/mm^.
The actual stress fc is 778 000/6 500 = 1 19.7 N/mm^
Now check for bearing at the bottom of the stiffener. The area available for
bearing, as shown in Fig. 12 (b) is 380 mm x 12 mm = 45.6 cm^

380mmxl2mm

shaded area considered

as column
AREA USED FOR AREA USED FOR BEARING
COLUMN IDADING (b)
M
STIFFENERS AT ENDS OF GIRDER
Fig. 12

The allowable bearing stress Pb is 190 N/mm^

The actual bearing stress ^ is 778 000/45.6 x 10^ = 170.6 N/mm^
The stiffener selected is therefore satisfactory.

Welding'. Web to Flange

The shear per linear mm between web and flange may be calculated from the
formula;
S.a.y
~T Newtons
where S = the maximum shearing force in N.
a = the area of either flange in sq. mm
= 380 X 30 = 1 1 400 mm^
-y - the vertical distance between the neutral axis of the girder and the
centroid of either flange
 DESIGN OF A WELDED PLATE GIRDER 657

= 690 mm.
/ = the moment of inertia of the complete cross-section of the girder in mm
units
= 1 290 710 cm'*.
Consider the outer-thirds of the girder.
At the extreme ends of the girder, S = 778 kN.
Therefore, the shear
778 000x 11 400x690
1 290 710 X 104

= 474 N/mm
Two welds are used, one on each side of the web. Hence, the shear per
fillet
mm
on each weld = 474/2 = 237 N.
It will be seen in Table B on page 885 that 5 mm
fillet welds would be sufficiently

strong. However, the flanges are 30 mm

thick, and as it will also be observed from

Table C on page 886 that the minimum size of fillet for plates exceeding 16 mm,
but not exceeding 30 mm thick, is 6 mm, this size must be adopted.
Therefore:
1 . Two 6 mm fillet welds might be used continuous throughout the length of the
girder. This would be satisfactory except that the amount of welding would be
considerably greater than that required for strength in this example; or
2. Intermittent welds of the minimum size (here 6 mm) might be used to reduce
the amount of welding.
The latter course will be adopted.
Now the appropriate part of Clause 54.c of B.S. 449 states that the distance
along an edge of a part between effective lengths of consecutive intermittent fillet

welds, whether the welds are in line or staggered on alternate sides of the edge,
shall not exceed 16 times the thickness of the thinner part when in compression nor
24 times the thickness of the thinner part when in tension, and shall in no case
exceed 300 mm.
Therefore, the maximum effective length of the space between intermittent fillet
welds for a web 01 mm thick is 160 mm for the compression flange and 240 mm
for the tension flange.
To meet the stress requirements, the minimum ratio of effective length of 6 mm
intermittent weld to total length is:

Actual shear/mm of joint

Strength/mm of 6 mm weld
At the ends of the girder this ratio = 237/480 = 0.50.
Therefore, decided to use 160 mm effective lengths of 6 mm
it is

mm spaces for both the compression and the tension flanges over thewelds with 160
outer 3.6 m
lengths of the ^rder.Note that the spaces may need to be adjusted to
suit the detail
requirements of the structure, a point to be
considered during the preparation of the
detail drawings.
The maximum shear in the middle 3.6 m length of the girder, which occurs under
Case Two Loading (see Fig. 6 (g)), is 176 kN. Therefore, the maximum shear

_ 176 000 X 11 400x690

1 290 710X lO'*

= 107 N/mm
658 GIRDERS
while the ratio of actual shear to strength of 6 mm weld will be
107 1
0.11
2 ^480

Theoretically, a 20 mm length of intermittent weld with a 180 space would mm

suffice.However, Clause 23 of B.S. 1856 states that the effective length of a fillet
weld designed to transmit loading shall be not less than four times the size of the
weld. Notwithstanding, on a structure of this size and type it is the usual practice
to employ a minimum length of about 75 mm or 100 mm.
In this example, 75 mm
effective lengths of weld and 150 mm
spaces will be used
for the middle 3.6 m length of girder. This provides more welding than required by
calculation, but to reduce the amount of welding would be of doubtful economy.
The spaces in the intermittent welding of the web to the bottom tension flange
could be increased to 225 mm, but detailing and marking-off will be simplified if
the same spaces are used as for the top flange.

Welding - Intermediate Stiffeners: Nos. 2, 3, 5, 7 and 8 in Fig. 9.

There are no external loads applied to these stiffeners, their function being
simply to prevent the web from buckling and hold the flanges square to the web.
The welds provided in this example comply with the minimum sizes and spacing of
welds laid down in Clause 54.c in B.S. 449.
4 mm fillet welds are used for connecting the stiffeners to the web, as shown in

Fig. 13.
For the welds connecting the stiffeners to the flanges, 6 mm fillets are used, this
being the minimum size in relation to the 30 mm flange thickness.

Welding - Load-bearing Stiffeners: Nos. 4 and 6 in Fig. 9.

Load-bearing stiffeners must be provided with sufficient welds to transmit the

whole of the load to the web.
In this case the load per line of welds = 760/4 = 190 kN.
If continuous welds were used, the total length of each weld would be 300 mm 1

(allowing for the 25 mm notches at each end) and the load per linear mm of weld
would be 190 000/1 300 = 146 N.
The minimum size of fillet weld that could be used is 4 mm, the strength of which
is 320 N/mm. It is economical, therefore, to use 4 mm intermittent welds. The

lengths and spaces of welds are determined in the manner outlined for the web-to-
flange welds, subject to the provisions of B.S. 449, Clause 54.c, and the arrangement
adopted in this example for the stiffener-to-web welds is shown in Fig. 13.
It is assumed in this case that these stiffeners are fitted to bear tightly on the

underside of the top flange plate and the welds between the ends of the stiffeners
and the flange are not required to transmit load. They are made 6 mm fillets there-
fore, as for the intermediate stiffeners.

Welding - Load-bearing Stiffeners at Ends of Girder: Nos. 1 and 9 in Fig. 9.

Load per line of welds = 778/2 = 389 kN.

As these stiffeners are not notched at the ends, the total length of each
continuous weld is 1 350 mm.
 DESIGN OF A WELDED PLATE GIRDER 659

389 X 10^ N = 288 N.

Tlie load/mm of weld is therefore
1 350
4 mm fillet welds satisfy the requirements of both minimum size and strength
(320 N/mm) and are adopted for the stiffener-to-web welds.
For the attachment of the ends of the stiffeners to the flanges, butt welds of
single-bevel type provide a neat finish at the girder ends and are used as
shown in
Fig. 13. The bottom flange butt weld is required to transmit the full reaction of
778 kN, and must, therefore, be a properly sealed full-strength weld with a throat
thickness of 12 mm. The weld is then capable of carrying the same load as the
stiffener itself.

Notes on Foregoing Design of Plate Girder

The sizes of most of the fillet welds in this example are governed by the
‘minimum size’ requirements of B.S. 1856, Clause 14.a, Table 1. These ‘minimum
size’ requirements must always be given attention as well as stress requirements.

The question whether, and to what extent, intermittent welds should be used
involves consideration of the following points:

1 . Intermittent fillet welds are not economical unless the ‘minimum of weld
size’

is being used. A longer length of smaller fillet weld is usually more economical
for the same strength. This is because the strength of a fillet weld increases
only directly as the size but the weight of weld metal as the square of the size.

2. If automatic welding is to be used the welds should be continuous.

3. If the structure is exposed, the use of continuous welds may be considered
preferable as conducive to greater ease of maintenance or longer life of the
structure.
4. If severe dynamic loads act on the structure intermittent welds must not be
used.
5. may be used to resist shear forces only and, in general,
Intermittent butt welds
be recommended.
are not to
The girder as designed above is shown in Fig. 13.

For comparison, several alternative designs for the same conditions are shown in
Fig. 14. Insome of these the flange plates have been made in more than one length
and reduced in thickness where the B.M. permits. This reduces the weight of parent
metal but increases the amount of welding on account of the additional butt joints.
Whether overall economy is effected depends on the conditions of each case. In some
cases the web plate also can be made in more than one length and reduced in
thickness where the shear permits. This again reduces the weight of parent metal
but increases the amount of welding.

Riveted Plate Girders

In B.S. 449: 1969 the principal Clauses relating to plate girders

are Clauses 20,
23, 26, 27 and 28, the detailed requirements for sectional properties
being given in
Clause 27.
The web plate is the primary element in the girder and is normally
the same
thickness throughout, as, if altered, filler plates will be
required under the flange
angles for the length of web reduced in thickness. Subject to conditions relating to
otherwise

noted

(a)
uniess

13

Fig.
mm

in

dimensions

AH
stiffener

end
662 GIRDERS

(A)
-380x30 flange plate
WT. OF STEEL 3503kg.
WT. OF WELDING lOkg.
TOTAL 3513kg.
H 1350x10 web plate
AS DESIGNED lO am SPAN

380x15 380x15
vflg.pl.-*^ 380x30 flange plate •-\'flg.plr^ fa)
WT. OF STEEL 3235kg.
WT. OF WELDING 12 kg
TOTAL 3247kg.
1350x10 web plate

FLANGE PLATES REDUCED AT ENDS

(C)
380x45 flange plate
WT. OF STEEL 4084kg.
WT. OF WELDING 14kg.
T0TAL4098kg.
1000x10 web plate
WEB REDUCED TO lOOOmm DEEP, FLANGES
WHOLE LENGTH.
380x22 380x22
)^flg.pl.-*^ -380x45 flange plate - ’^flg.pl.-*^ (D)
WT. OF STEEL 3682kg.
WT. OF WELDING 19 kg.
TOTAL 3701kg.
1000x10 web plate :

WEB LOOOmm DEEP, FLANGES REDUCED

AT ENDS.
t-* 380X 65 flange plate H (E)
WT. OF STEEL 5107 kg.
WT OF WELDING 14kg.
750x11 web plate TOTAL 5121 kg.

WEB REDUCED TO 750mm DEEP, FLANGES

WHOLE LENGTH.
380x30 380x30 .
,

Hlg.plT*^ 380x65 flange phte *^tlg.ph*\ (FJ

WT. OFSTEEL 4524kg.
WT.OF WELDING 22 kg.
t- 750x11 web plate ^ TOTAL 4546kg.
WEB 750mm DEEP, FLANGE REDUCED
AT ENDS.
all dimensions in mm unless noted
COMPARISON OF ALTERNATIVE DESIGNS OF WELDED PLATE GIRDER

Fig. 14
 RIVETED PLATE GIRDERS 663

transport and erection the web should be in as few pieces as possible. The maximum
sizesof plates normally obtainable are 12 m
in length, 3 m
in width for all thick-

nesses from 16 mm
to 40 mm, but there is in addition an overriding maximum area
in one piece ranging from 33 sq. m for plates up to 20 mm thickness falling to
16 sq m at 40 mm thickness.
Flange angles and flange plates are riveted to the web plate. Angles are not
usually readily obtainable in lengths greater than 18 m
except by special arrangement.
Flange plates up to 25 mm
thickness can be obtained up to about 26—29 in m
length in all suitable widths; the lengths fall to about half these values for plates
50 mm in thickness.
Flangesmay be composed of angles only for light work, angles and flange plates
for normal work and also angles, flange plates and flitch plates for heavy work as
shown in Fig. 15.
The depth of plate girders, when not fixed by considerations of headroom,
normally varies from about one-eighth of the span for short girders to about one-
twelfth of the span for long girders. The girder of least total weight will not

Fig. 15

necessarilybe that with the least total cost since this depends upon'elements other
than weight such as transport and erection costs, so that it is generally economical
to use a depth rather less than that giving minimum weight. It has been shown that
the least weight depth is given approximately by

cf= l.lV(M//. 0,
where maximum moment on girder,
/= allowable bending stress on flange
and t = web thickness.
Tliis formula assumes that the bending resistance of the
web is taken into account,
that the flange plates are curtailedand that the weight of stiffeners is 60 per cent of
the web wei^t. A reduction in the depth of
20 per cent from that calculated by the
formula gives an increase in weight of about
2 per cent, and the normal depths in
practice are usually considerably below those given by the
formula. To apply the
preceding principles a thickness of web must first be assumed
and the appropriate
depth found; the resulting proportions must then be checked
against the specification
requirements for the details of the design.

Moment of Resistance, Approximate Method

only be applied to girders with flanges of the type shown

in Fig. 15
fb)by reason of the assumptions made which are set out
in detail below. Consider
664 GIRDERS
the girder shown in Fig. 16. The moment of inertia of the section equals

where Ip = moment of inertia of two flanges about the neutral axis

and 1^/= moment of inertia of web about the neutral axis,
let Ap = the net area of one flange (angles and flange plates), both flanges being
identical,
^ 1
^;= the gross area of the web,
D = depth of girder overall,
d - depth backto back of angles
and h = effective depth or distance between centroids of flange areas.
=
Then Ip lApQilTf neglecting the moment of inertia of the flanges about their
,

own centroids, and I\^f = td^ jll. In the type of flange used, the centroid is not far

Centroid of

removed from the back of the angles, hence h is approximately equal to d. It is also

assumed that the flange stress /is reached at the centroid of the flange and thus, by
analogy with the basic flexure formula, M
= /. //y, then

.Apidjlf +rrfVl2]
M=f [2
dll
 —

RIVETED PLATE GIRDERS 665

now be assumed that at the critical section there are holes in the web of
If it
diameter d at Ad pitch, then the net area of the web will be three-quarters
of the

gross area and will be reduced to j4j|//8 and the formula becomes,

M = f.d
The quantity Ajy/S is often called the web equivalent and the total flange area is

therefore

Ap +Aa

where Ap = net area of flange plates,

Aa - net area of flange angles,
and Aw = gross area of web.

Rivet pitch, Approximate Method

The rivets connecting the flange angles to the web plate must transfer from the
web the horizontal shear necessary to induce the bending stresses in the
flange angles and plates, and, in addition, if there is a vertical load on the flange
plates must transfer this also.
Consider first the case of the flange with no vertical load. Then, for the rivets
connecting the angles to the web, using the basic formula for intensity of horizontal
shear stress at any point the pitch of rivets = pi ^ridifK^S (see Fig. 17), where
rx = safe load on rivet (double shear or bearing, whichever is least),

dx = depth between rivet lines,

^ {Ap + + A|y/8)
and S = vertical shear at section.

Similarly, if K2 = 7-.
(Ap+A^ +A r//8)
, i
—
^2 = safe load on rivet in single shear
and d2 - distance between flange plates,

then the pitch of flange-plate rivets.

K2S
This is the staggered pitch, and the pitch on line will be twice this amount.
If there is a vertical load on the flange plate, such as a floor or a wall resulting
in a shear load of w kN per mm
run, this must, in the case of rivets connecting
angles and web, be combined vectorially with the horizontal shear and

= ri
Pi
vmsy/dx +w"]

Moment of Resistance of Girders with Sloping Flanges

liM is the total moment on
the girder then it follows that the total flange force
isMjd, where d=depth or distance back to back of angles. It therefore
effective
follows from what has been said earlier
that the moment taken by the flange angles
666 GIRDERS
and plates = /TiAf whilst that taken by the web will be M{\ — K^). Thus for the
girders shown in Fig. 18;

K^M
(a) and T=
d cos a

(b) and (c) c=^a„d

d cos /?
r-
d cos q:

Inclined flanges affect the shear to be taken by the web. If the sections indicated
on Fig. 18 are to the left of the point of maximum moment, assuming the girder to

be simply supported, .S' = vertical shear at section and S'jy = shear to be taken by the
web, then for the various cases shown:

(a) iSfi/
=S- T %\na = S - tan a

since the inclined tension absorbs shear.

(b) % = S-:^(tana + tan/3)

as both flanges absorb shear.

(c) Sw = S-
^ (tan a - tan

In this case one flange absorbs shear and the other adds to the shear force.
/3)

must be noted, however, that these computations refer only to the shear load
It

in the web and not to the vertical reactions which support the girder.
The formulae previously given for rivet pitch require modification to allow for
the increased flange loads and the fact that the pitch may be on a sloping line.

Design of a Riveted Plate Girder

The girder designed in this example is 10.0 m span, simply supported at the ends,
and carries the loading shown in Fig. 19, which includes the weight of the girder,
assumed as 60 kN, which must be checked after it has been designed. The figure also
 DESIGN OF A RIVETED PLATE GIRDER 667

also assumed that

shows the shear force and bending moment diagrams. It is
effective lateral support is provided at each reaction and
point load.

If it is assumed that Grade 43 steel plates

not exceeding 40 thick will be used mm
in the flanges, the maximum
allowable bending stresses pbc or Pbt^ derived from

<50i OkN 65 OkN

460kN U.DL. including
60kN for girder.
'
r
:
1

^
LOAD DIAGRAM.
/O Om

S.E DIAGRAM.

Table 2 of B.S. 449, is 155 N/mm^ The . corresponding allowable average shear
stress p'q in Table 100 N/mm^ Assuming that a web thickness of 12
1 1 is . mm will be
satisfactory, then the least weight depth, as given on page 663,

_ 1 1 - 1 1
/3'312 X 10^
V /f. V 155x12
= 1 467 mm approximately
This can be considerably reduced without sensible increase in weight, and a depth
of web of 1 200 mm will be used,
being assumed that headroom considerations
it
do not dictate a lesser depth. The depth d back-to-back of angles will be made
1 210 mm in order to clear the outside edges of the web plate.

Designing upon the Approximate Method

The flange area required

_ M 312 X 10^
3
176.6 cm^
fxd 155 X 1 210 X 10^
668 GIRDERS
This can be made up as follows:

120x1.2
Web equivalent, = = 18.0 cm^
O

2 angles, 152 x 102 x 15.8 = 75.6

Plates, 400 x 30 = 120.0

213.6 cm^

Less rivet holes, 2 x 24 x 43.8 + 24 x 43.6 = 31.5

182.1 cm^

The compensate for the fact that in calculating the flange

slight excess area will
areas the depth has been taken as that over the angles, whereas the effective depth
should be that between the centroids of the flanges.
It should be noted that B.S. 449 states that flange angles should form as large

a part of the flange area as is practicable, and in the section given they form rather
more than 39 per cent of the attached material. The specification also states that
the number of flange plates shall be reduced to a practical minimum, and thus the
30 mm thickness will be made up from one 15 mm
plate (net area 52.8 cm^)
running the full length and one 15 mmplate which will be curtailed.
The net areas of the flange components are thus:

Web equivalent 16.1 cm^

Flange angles 60.4 cm^
Inner plate 52.8 cm^
Outer plate 52.8 cm^

These are used for the flange-plate curtailment diagram given in Fig. 20 giving
theoretical points of cut-off of the outer plate at 2.61 and 2.83 m
from the left and
right ends respectively, the shears at these points being 870 and 790 kN.

Fig. 20

The left-hand end of the girder is more highly stressed in shear and will be used
to decide the pitch of rivets necessary as the pitch so obtained will be adequate for
 —
DESIGN OF A RIVETED PLATE GIRDER 669

the other end. Dealing with the rivets connecting flange

angles to web plate, the

following figures result;

L.H. end.

Shear = 990 kN
Web equivalent 16.1

1 13 2
Flange angles 60.4 Ki

One flange plate 52.8

129.3 cm^

The least strength of a 22 mm diameter Grade 43 steel power-driven shop rivet,

taken as 24 mm diameter in accordance with Clause 17 (b) of B.S. 449 will be 90.7
kN in bearing on the web, at the enclosed bearing stress of 3 15 N/mm^ permitted
by Table 20. The horizontal shear load per mm, the distance between rivet lines
being 1 100 mm,

The vertical shear load per

—
= 990 x0.875 x

mm
rios
10^

run due to the uniformly distributed load of

460 kN = 46 kN. The vertical effect of this vertical load is negligible, and we
therefore have a resultant load of 787 N.
At point of cut-off of outer plate:

Shear = 870 kN
Web equivalent 16.1
166
Flange angles 60.4 K^ = 0.915
182.1
Two flange plates 105.6

182.1

10^
Horizontal shear load per mm = 870 X 0.915
100
X
1
= 724 N.

whichis less than the corresponding figure for the left-hand end.

The maximum rivet pitch at the end of the girder is therefore 90 700/787 = 115
mm and a pitch of 100 mm
will therefore be used for both end panels. The vertical
shear in the centre panel has a maximum
value of 252 kN only, but here the spacing
of rivets is controlled by Clause 51c
of B.S. 449 which limits the spacing to
(ii)
12f or 200 mm, where t is the thickness of the thinnest element through
which the
rivets pass. The web thickness of
12 mm
therefore dictates a maximum pitch of
140 mm in the centre panel.
Similarly, the calculations for the rivets connecting flange plates to
flange angles
follow, the safe load in the rivet being
that in single shear, which is 49.8 kN, and
the distance between shearing
surfaces 1 210 mm
under the action of horizontal
shear only.
670 GIRDERS
L.H. end. Shear 990 kN,

56.3
129.3

Horizontal shear load per mm = — ~ = 356 N

i 210
At point of cut-off of outer plate;
Shear = 870 kN,

K =1 ^
182.1
= 0579

Horizontal shear load per mm = = 416 N

There are two rows of rivets connecting angles and flange plates and hence the
straight line pitch

2 X 49.8 X 10^
416
= 239 mm
It is,however, not possible to use a 239 mm
pitch, as Clause 5 Ic (iii) states that
the distance between centres of two consecutive rivets in a line adjacent and parallel
to an edge of an outside plate shall not exceed 100 + 4t. So that the 15 outside mm
flange plate restricts the spacing to 160 mm
for the length of cover plate. A pitch of
180 mm (12? clause 51.c (ii)) would be permitted elsewhere. However, Clause 51.c
(iv) states that when rivets are staggered at equal intervals and the gauge does not
exceed 75 mm, the distances specified in (ii) and (iii) above, between centres of
rivets may be increased by 50 per cent. For detailing purposes, however, a spacing
of 150 mm will be used throughout.
The actual length required for the outer plates may now be calculated.
The B.M. at the theoretical cut-off points =/. ff = 155 x 129.3 x 10^ x
.

1210x10-^=2 425 kNm.

The average stress in the outer tension plate at the theoretical cut-off points

_ 155 X 129.3 X 10^ X 1 255

182.1 X 10^ X 1 210

= 114.2N/mm''

Therefore, the actual load carried by the outer plate

= 1 14.2 X 52.8 X 10"' = 603 kN

The strength of one 22 mm diameter rivet in single shear is 49.8 kN. Hence, the
number of rivets required beyond the theoretical cut-off points, to comply with
Clause 27.b of B.S. 449, is 603/49.8 = say, 12 rivets. The arrangement of rivets is
shown in Fig. 24, the actual length of the outer plate being 5.15 m.
A web thickness of 12 mm having been assumed, it is necessary to check that
this complies with B.S. 449.
The ratio d/t of the web = 1 007/12 = 83.8, where d = clear depth of web
between flange angles and t = the thickness of the web. Since this value is less than
85, the web does not require intermediate stiffeners. (See Clause 27 .f of B.S. 449.)
 .

671
DESIGN OF A RIVETED PLATE GIRDER
for unstiffened webs not
The allowable average shear stress Pq in Table 1 1
exceeding 40 thick is 100 N/mm
mm .
xt i

The maximum shear force at the left-hand end of the girder is 990 kN.

The web is 1 200 mm deep.

Therefore, the minimum thickness required for the web

990 000
= 8.25 mm
100 X 1 200

Hence the assumed thickness is satisfactory.

(ii) of B.S. 449:1959, stiffeners must be
In order to comply with Clause 28.a
points of support.
provided at the points of concentrated load and at the
Clause 28.a (iii) states that load-bearing stiffeners shall
be designed as struts,
together with a length of
assuming the section to consist of the pair of stiffeners
available, to 20
web on each side of the centre line of the stiffeners equal, where
times the web thickness. The radius of gyration shall
be taken about the axis
web of the girder and the working stress shall be in accordance with
parallel to the
effective length equal to
the appropriate allowable value for a strut, assuming an
0.7 of tire length of the stiffener.
that the
The outstanding legs of each pair of stiffeners shall be so proportioned
clear of the root
bearing stress on that part of their area in contact with the flange
Clause 22.
of the flange angles does not exceed the bearing stress specified in
the larger of the
The stiffeners under the applied loads will be designed to suit
is 190
trvo loads, i.e. 850 kN. The allowable bearing stress pt, given in Table 9
be 850 000/190 = 44.7 cm^
N/mm^ The minimum area required for
.
bearing will

If it is assumed that the dimension of the out-standing leg of the

stiffener is 127 mm,

then the length of bearing between the flange angle and the stiffener is 1 16.3 mm,
as shown in Fig. 21.

Fig. 21 Fig. 22

Assuming four angles, the minimum thickness

- 4 470 _

4x116.3
^Almm
Use 127x76x 12.6 mm angles, as shown in Fig. 22. The length of web included
in the stiffener section is 2 x 20 x 12 = 480 mm, but the packings must be ignored.
 M .

672 GIRDERS
Therefore, / about centre line of web

= 66'^
+ 4(389 + 2 409 X x lO"^)
12 X 10
“^
= 5 760 001

Area = 480 x 12 + 4 x 2 409

,
= 154 cm^

r about centre line of web

= \/(5 1601154) = 6 cm
The effective length of the stiffener

= 0.7(1 210-2 X 16)

= 825 mm
Designing as a strut,

//r = 82.5/6.12= 13.5

From Table 17.a of B.S. 449, the allowable stress Pc is 149 N/mm^
The actual stress fc = 850 x 10^/154 x 10^ = 55 N/mm^.
Hence, the section selected is satisfactory.
The detail of the stiffeners at the ends of the girder will be dependent upon the
support detail, but assuming that 305 x 305 universal columns will be used, the
arrangement shown in Fig. 23 will be investigated.

a/l dimensions
in mm

The maximum reaction, end of the girder, is 990 kN. As the area
at the left-hand
required for bearing will be 990 000/190 = 52 cm^, the minimum thickness of angle

5 200
4 X 116.3
1 1 .2 mm
and, from this standpoint, 127 x 76 x 12.6 mm angles will be satisfactory.
Although it is reasonable to suppose that the end reaction is equally shared
between both pairs of stiffeners, only the pair at the extreme end of the girder will

be investigated. In their case, only 150 mm of web is available for inclusion in the
section of the strut.
 DESIGN OF A RIVETED PLATE GIRDER 673

Thus, I about centre line of web

= + 2(389 + 2 409 X 66^ x )

12 x 10

= 2 874 cm^

Area = 150 x 12 + 2 x 24.09

= 66.18 cm^

r about centre line of web

= V(2 874/66.18) = 6.58 cm

As for the stiffeners under the loads,

I = 825 mm
Hence,

Z/r= 82.5/6.58= 12.5

Interpolating from Table 17.a in B.S. 449,

the allowable stress Pc= 150 N/mm^

The actual stress fc 24.7 N/mm^

2x66.18

Therefore, the stiffeners selected are satisfactory.

In Clause 28 .a be provided
(hi) it is stipulated that load-bearing stiffeners shall
with sufficient rivets or welds to transmit to the web the whole of the concentrated
load. It is also stated that load-bearing stiffeners shall not be joggled but solidly
packed throughout. Furthermore, in Clause 48. d, it is stated that the number of
rivets carrying shear through packing shall be increased above the number required
by normal calculations by 1^ per cent for each 1 mm
total thickness of packing,
except that for packings having a thickness of 6 mm
or less no increase need be
made. For double shear connections packed on both sides the number of additional
rivets required shall be determined from the thickness of the thicker packing. The

additional rivets may be placed in an extension of the packing.

Considering the stiffeners in Fig. 23, the load on each pair is 990/2 = 495 kN.
Assuming that 22 mm
diameter rivets are used, the least strength of a rivet is 90.7 kN.
Then the number of rivets required by normal calculations is 495/90.7 = 6.
Both packings are 16 mm thick. Hence, the number of rivets must be increased
by

1.25 |<J6 _

Therefore, the number of rivets required for each pair of stiffeners is 8.

The complete girder is shown in Fig. 24.

Designing upon the Exact Method

The design of the girder in

this method is based upon the moment of inertia, and
the following are the calculations where they differ from the preceding
figures:
long

24

l0-308m

Fig.

400xl5Plate
 MAXIMUM CROSS SECTION
Fig. 25
Deduct rivet holes

Ay^ only, self inertia negligible

y = 550 mm, 2 X 4.4 X 2.4 X (55)^ = 63 888 p. 693

y = 612 mm, 4x4.6 x 2.4 x (61.2)^ = 165 398 p. 693

229 286

Net 7 = 1 373 931 cm^

In this example allowance has been made for 5 mm
projection of flange angles,
otherwise the tables in Chapter 27 could have been used throughout.
676 GIRDERS
1 373 931
Z= = 21 637 cm^
63.5

Z required = 3 312 x 10^/155 x 10^ = 21 368 cm^

Therefore the section is satisfactory.

Moment of Inertia with 400 mm x 15 mm flange plates.
Web, as before = 172 800

Flange angles, as before 1=1 236

U 506 441

Flange plates, two 400 mm x 15 mm

Self inertia, 2 x 1 1 .2 = 22

where y = 61.25 cm, = 2 X 40 X 1.6 x (61.25)^ = 480 200

Gross / = 1 160 699 cm'*

Deduct rivet holes

y = 550 mm, as before = 63 888

y = 604.5 mm, 4 x 3.1 x 2.4 x (60.45)^ = 108 749

172 637 cm'*

Net/= 988 062 cm'*

988 062
= 15 936 cm^
62.0

637cm

Z’*21

This used in the flange curtailment diagram given in Fig. 26. Note the cut-off
is

points differ slightly from those found by the approximate method, the reason
being that in the latter the effective depth is assumed to remain constant and equal
to the depth over the angles, whereas by calculating on the moment of inertia
allowance is made for the variation in effective depth. The- difference is not,
however, of any significance.
 ,

DESIGN OF A RIVETED PLATE GIRDER 677

Rivet pitches are calculated on the more exact formula, based upon the
distribution of horizontal shear. The horizontal shear per lineal mm = S. a. y/I,
where
S= shear at section,
a = area of section to be connected by rivets,

y = lever arm about NA of area a, and

I - moment of inertia of section about NA

Then, at the left-hand end, for the rivets connecting flange angle to web, we have, as
shown in Fig. 27

all dimensions
in mm

Flange plate, ny = 60 x 6 1 .25 =3 675

Flange angles, oy = 2 x 37.78 x 57.89 = 4 374

8 049
Less rivet holes

Flange, ay = 2x2Ax 3.1 x 60.46 = 899

Web, ay = 2.4 X 4.4 X 55 =581

= 1 480

6 569
990 X 6 569
Hehce, shear/cm = = 6.58 kN
988 062
For the rivets between flange angles and flange plates,

ay = 3 675 - (2 x 2.4 x 1.5 x 61.25)

= 3 234
990 X 3 234
Hence-, shear/cm =
988 062
= 3.24 kN
Although both these values are less than those given by the approximate method,
it isonly possible to increase the rivet pitch between flange
angles and web plate,
as the other pitches are controlled
by Clause 5 1 .c. In the two end panels the
678 GIRDERS
maximum pitch of the flange angle/web rivets could be 90.7/6.58 = 13.8 cm, so
that a pitch of 130 mm
could be used here, in lieu of 100 mm
as required by the
approximate method, but the spacing in the centre panel must remain unaltered at
140 mm.
Calculations at the point of cut-off of the outer plate are made in a similar
manner.
We will now proceed show that the flexural stress assumed
to is in accordance
with Clause 20 of B.S. 449. The allowable compressive stress in a plate girder
is the lesser of two values given in Table 2 and Table 8, the latter corresponding to

the critical stress Q

obtained by following the detailed requirements of Clause 20.
As the flanges of the assumed section have equal moments of inertia about the
y —y axis of the girder. Case (I) applies.
Therefore Q
=yl N/mm^.
The value of A depends on the two criteria Ijry and D/T in Table 7.
Now I = the length between effective lateral restraint. (See Clause 26.b.)
ry = radius of gyration about the j — y axis of the gross section of the whole
girder, at the point of maximum bending moment.
D = overall depth of girder at the point of maximum bending moment.
7’= effective thickness of compression flange.
= Tfi X mean thickness of the horizontal portion of the compression flange
at the point of maximum bending moment. The coefficient Ki makes
allowance for reduction in thickness or breadth of flanges between points
of effective lateral restraint and depends on N, the ratio of the total area
of both flanges at the point of least bending moment to the corresponding
area at the point of greatest bending moment between such points of
restraint.

For plate girders with flange angles, the horizontal legs of the angles shall be
included in the area of the horizontal portion.
The values of Ki are given in Table 5 of B.S. 449.
The critical panel of the girder is the right-hand panel in which / = 4 000 mm.
Ty is derived from the data given in Chapters 27, 40 and Fig. 28.

Moment of inertia about the y —y axis:

Web, 1 200 mm X 12 mm = 17

Flange angles, four 152 x 102 x 15.8 mm

Self inertia, 4x871 = 3 484
,' where X = 5.73 = 151.1 x 32.8 = 4 956

Flange plates, two 400 mm x 30 mm

2x 16 000 = 32 000

Gross =40 457 cm^

 ,

679
design of a riveted plate girder
Area j4 = 144 + 151.1 + 240
'

ry = y/ily/A) = \/(40 457/635.1)

Now
I = 400 cm

Therefore

l/ry
= 400/8 = 50

curtailed, it is necessary
As the flanges in the right-hand panel of the girder are
and Ki in Table 5 of B.S. 449.
to calculate the values of
The area of both flanges at the point of minimum bending moment
= 2(40x 1.5 +30.5 X 1.6) = 217.6 cm^

Fig. 28

The area of both flanges at the point of maximum bending moment

= 2(40 X 3 + 30.5 X 1 .6) = 337.6 cm^

N= 217.6/337.6 = 0.64, whence = 0.84

The mean thickness of the horizontal portion of the compression flange at the
point of maximum bending moment
40x3.0 + 30.5 X 1.6
40
= 42.2 mm
Therefore

T- 0.84 X 42.2 = 35.4 mm

Now
D- \ 270 mm
Therefore
D/T= 1 270/35.4 = 35.9
Interpolating in Table 7 it will be found that the value of
^
exceeds 1 176. Hence,
the allowable compression stress in bending given in Table 8 is 1 62 N/mm^
pbc
which is more than the maximum permitted value of 155 N/mm^
as given in Table 2
for plates not exceeding 40 mm in thickness.
It willbe noted that in this case both the approximate and
exact solutions give
satisfactory designs complying with B.S.
449.
 27. MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF PLATE GIRDERS
are designed to reduce amount of work
Ae
The tables on pages 682 to 699
inertia of plate girders or other plated
involved in calculating the moments of
plate girder shown in Fig. 1.
sections. Consider, for example, the

Fig. 1

The web plate is 1.2 m deep and 12 mm thick, the flange plates are 450 wide mm
and 50 mm deep, while the angles are 203 mm x 203 mm x 25.3 mm. The moment
of inertia of this section, allowing for two rivet holes (22 mm diameter) in the web
and two rivet holes in each flange, is calculated as follows:

Inertia about axis xx for Plate Girder in cm'* units

Component fxx A Y Ay^

Web Plate (1) 172 800 - - - -

Flange Plates (2) 1 758 600 - - - -

Flange Angles (4) 1 144 556 - - - -

Web Rivets (2) — 27.54 2 862.25

Flange Rivets (4) — 66.26 3 749,43

TOTAL 3 075 956 327 310

Ixx for girder = (Ixx - Ay'^) = 2 748 646

Note
The values of the Inertia about axis xx of the full section for the web plate, flange plates and
^gles can be obtained direct from the tables. In the case of deductions for rivet holes, the self-
inertia is so small this can be ignored and the deduction is
therefore taken as equal to Ay^.

681
 x

682 MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF PLATE GIRDERS

T MOMENT OF INERTIA
1
1*
«-
"*
-
- t
-
.
OF RECTANGULAR PLATES . .

I
' about axis x—

THICKNESS t MILLIMETRES

IbI 3 4 5 6 8 10

25 .391 .521 .651 .781 1.04 1.30

50 3.13 4.17 5.21 6.25 8.33 10.4
75 10.5 14.1 17.6 21.1 28.1 35.2
100 25.0 33.3 41.7 50 0 66.7 83.3
125 48.8 65.1 81.4 97.7 130 163
150 84.4 113 141 169 225 281

175 134 179 223 268 357 447

200 200 267 333 400 533 667
225 285 380 475 570 759 949
250 391 521 651 781 1042 1302
275 520 693 867 1040 1386 1733
300 675 900 1125 1350 1800 2250

325 858 1144 1430 1716 2289 2861

350 1072 1429 1786 2144 2858 3573
375 1318 1758 2197 2637 3516 4395
400 1600 2133 2667 3200 4267 5333
425 1919 2559 3199 3838 5118 6397
450 2278 3038 3797 4556 6075 7594

475 2679 3572 4465 5359 7145 8931

500 3125 4167 5208 6250 8333 10417
525 3618 4823 6029 7235 9647 12059
550 4159 5546 6932 8319 11092 13865
575 4753 6337 7921 9505 12674 15842
600 5400 7200 9000 10800 14400 18000
1

625 6104 8138 10173 12207 16276 20345

650 6866 9154 11443 13731 18308 22885
675 7689 10252 12814 15377 20503 25629
700 8575 11433 14292 17150 22867 28583
725 9527 12703 15878 19054 25405 31757
750 10547 14063 17578 21094 28125 35156

775 11637 15516 19395 23274 31032 38790

800 12800 17067 21333 25600 34133 42667
825 14038 18717 23396 28076 37434 46793
850 15353 20471 25589 30706 40942 51177
875 16748 22331 27913 33496 44661 55827
900 18225 24300 30375 36450 48600 60750

Moments of inertia are tabulated m cni\

 INERTIA OF WEB
PLATES

moment of inertia
PLATES i, >L._ -J'

OF RECTANGULAR
x-x _f
about axis
V V
I .

thickness t MILLIMETRES

22 1
25

2.86 3.26
22.9 26.0
77.3 87.9
183 208
358 407
619 703

983 1117
1467 1667
2088 2373
2865 3255
3813 4333
4950 5625

6293 7152
5149 5721
4291 7860 8932
6431 7146
5359 9668 10986
7910 8789
6592 11733 13333
9600 10667
8000 14074 15993
11515 12794
9596 16706 18984
13669 15188
11391

17862 19648 22327

13396 16076 26042
10717 22917
15625 18750 20833
12500 24117 26529 30146
14470 18088 21705 34661
24956 27729 30502
16638 20797 39606
28516 31685 34853
19011 23764 45000
32400 36000 39600
21600 27000

40690 44759 50863

24414 30518 36621
45771 50348 57214
27463 34328 41194
51258 56384 64072
30755 38443 46132
57167 62883 71458
34300 42875 51450
63513 69864 79391
38108 47635 57162
70313 77344 87891
42188 52734 63281

77581 85339 96976

46548 58186 69823
85333 93867 106667
51200 64000 76800
84227 93586 102945 116982
56152 70189
92119 102354 112590 127943
61413 76766
100488 111654 122819 139567
66992 83740
109350 121500 133650 151875
72900 91125

Momcms of incrii;! arc tabulaiccl in chi'*.

 684 MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF PLATE GIRDERS
MOMENT OF INERTIA
d. OF RECTANGULAR PLATES
about axis x—

Depth THICKNESS t MILLIMETRES

cIh

mm 3 4 5 6 8 10

1000 25000 33333 41667 50000 66667 83333

1100 33275 44367 55458 66550 88733 110917
1200 43200 57600 72000 86400 1 1 5200 144000
1300 54925 73233 91542 109850 146467 183083
1400 68600 91467 114333 137200 182933 228667

1500 84375 112500 140625 168750 225000 281250

1600 102400 136533 170667 204800 273067 341333
1700 122825 163767 204708 245650 327533 409417
1800 145800 194400 243000 291600 388800 486000
1900 171475 228633 285792 342950 457267 571583

2000 200000 266667 333333 400000 533333 666667

2100 231525 308700 385875 463050 617400 771750
2200 266200 354933 443667 532400 709867 887333
2300 304175 405567 506958 608350 811133 1013917
2400 345600 460800 576000 691200 921600 1 1 52000

2500 390625 520833 651042 781250 1041667 1302083

2600 439400 585867 732333 878800 1171733 1464667
2700 492075 656100 820125 984150 1312200 1640250
2800 548800 731733 914667 1097600 1463467 1829333
2900 609725 812967 1016208 1219450 1625933 2032417

3000 675000 900000 1125000 1350000 1800000 2250000

3100 744775 993033 1241292 1489550 1986067 2482583
3200 819200 1092267 1365333 1638400 2184533 2730667
3300 898425 1197900 1497375 1796850 2395800 2994750
3400 982600 1310133 1637667 1965200 2620267 3275333
3500 1071875 1429167 1786458 2143750 2858333 3572917
3600 1166400 1555200 1944000 2332800 3110400 3888000
3700 1266325 1688433 2110542 2532650 3376867 4221083
3800 1371800 1829067 2286333 2743600 3658133 4572667
3900 1482975 1977300 2471625 2965950 3954600 4943250
4000 1600000 2133333 2666667 3200000 4266667 5333333
4100 1723025 2297367 2871708 3446050 4594733 5743417
4200 1852200 2469600 3087000 3704400 4939200 6174000
4300 1987675 2650233 3312792 3975350 5300467 6625583
4400 2129600 2839467 3549333 4259200 5678933 7098667
4500 2278125 3037500 3796875 4556250 6075000 7593750
4600 2433400 3244533 4055667 4866800 6489067 81 1 1333
4700 2595575 3460767 4325958 5191150 6921533 8651917
4800 2764800 3686400 4608000 5529600' 7372800 9216000
4900 2941225 3921633 4902042 5882450 7843267 9804083
5000 3125000 4166667 5208333 6250000 8333333 10416667

Momenta of inertia are tabulated in cnr'.

 INERTIA OF WEB PLATES 685

MOMENT OF INERTIA 1

1 X X

OF RECTANGULAR PLATES 1*

1
,
t

about axis x— J_
Depth
THICKNESS t millimetres
A

18 20 22 25 mm
12 15

125000 50000 166667 183333 208333 1000

100000 1
1100
133100 166375 199650 221833 244017 277292
216000 259200 288000 316800 360000 1200
172800
219700 274625 329550 366167 402783 457708 1300
274400 343000 411600 457333 503067 571 667 1400

337500 421875 506250 562500 618750 703125 1500

409600 512000 614400 682667 750933 853333 1600
491300 614125 736950 818833 900717 1023542 1700
583200 729000 874800 972000 1069200 1215000 1800
685900 857375 1028850 1143167 1257483 1428958 1900

800000 1000000 1200000 1333333 1466667 1666667 2000

926100 1157625 1389150 1 543500 1697850 1929375 2100
1064800 1331000 1597200 1774667 1952133 2218333 2200
1216700 1520875 1825050 2027833 2230617 2534792 2300
1382400 1728000 2073600 2304000 2534400 2880000 2400

1562500 1953125 2343750 2604167 2864583 3255208 2500

1757600 2197000 2636400 2929333 3222267 3661667 2600
1968300 2460375 2952450 3280500 3608550 4100625 2700
2195200 2744000 3292800 3658667 4024533 4573333 2800
2438900 3048625 3658350 4064833 4471317 5081042 2900
2700000 3375000 4050000 4500000 4950000 5625000 3000
2979100 3723875 4468650 4965167 5461683 6206458 3100
3276800 4096000 4915200 5461333 6007467 6826667 3200
3593700 4492125 5390550 5989500 6588450 7486875 3300
3930400 4913000 5895600 6550667 7205733 8188333 3400
4287500 5359375 6431250 7145833 7860417 8932292 3500
4665600 5832000 6998400 7776000 8553600 9720000 3600
5065300 6331625 7597950 8442167 9286383 10552708 3700
5487200 6859000 8230800 9145333 10059867 1 1431667 3800
5931900 7414875 8897850 9886500 10875150 12358125 3900
6400000 8000000 9600000 10666667 11733333 13333333 4000
6892100 8615125 10338150 11486833 12635517 14358542 4100
7408800 9261000 11113200 12348000 13582800 15435000 4200
7950700 9938375 11926050 13251167 14576283 16563958 4300
8518400 10648000 12777600 14197333 15617067 17746667 4400
9112500 11390625 13668750 15187500 16706250 18984375 4500
9/33600 12167000 14600400 16222667 17844933 20278333 4600
10382300 12977875 15573450 1 7303833 19034217 21629792
11059200 4700
13824000 16588800 18432000 20275200 23040000 4800
1 1764900 14706125 17647350 19608167 21568983 24510208 4900
12500000 15625000 18750000 20833333 22916667 26041667 5000

Moments of inertia are tabulated in enr'.

1
 686 MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF PLATE GIRDERS
r"” MOMENT OF INERTIA
i OF TWO FLANGES
—
i — . per millimetre of width

THICKNESS OF EACH FLANGE IN MILLIMETRES

m
Distance

d.
mm 10 12 15 IS 20 28 30 32

1000 510.1 614.5 772.7 932.8 1041 1149 1314 1480 1592 1705
1100 616.1 742.0 932.5 1125 1255 1385 1582 1782 1916 2051
1200 732.1 881.4 1107 1335 1489 1643 1876 21 12 2270 2429
1300 858.1 1033 1297 1564 1743 1923 2195 2469 2654 2839
1400 934.1 1196 1502 1810 2017 2224 2539 2855 3068 3282

1500 1140 1372 1721 2074 2311 2548 2907 3269 3512 3756
1600 1296 1559 1956 2356 2625 2894 3301 3711 3986 4262
1700 1462 1759 2206 2656 2959 3262 3720 4181 4490 4800
1800 1638 1970 2471 2975 3313 3652 4164 4679 5024 5371
1900 1824 2193 2750 3311 3687 4064 4632 5204 5588 5973

2000 2020 2429 3045 3665 4081 4498 5126 5758 6182 6607
2100 2226 2676 3355 4037 4495 4953 5645 6340 6806 7273
2200 2442 2936 3680 4428 4929 5431 6189 6950 7460 7971
2300 2668 3207 4019 4836 5383 5931 6757 7588 8144 8702
2400 2904 3491 4374 5262 5857 6453 7351 8254 8858 9464

2500 3150 3786 4744 5706 6351 6997 7970 8947 9602 10258
2600 3406 4094 5129 6169 6865 7563 8614 9669 10376 11084
2700 3672 4413 5528 6649 7399 8150 9282 10419 11180 11943
2800 3948 4744 5943 7147 7953 8760 9976 11197 12014 12833
2900 4234 5088 6373 7663 8527 9392 10695 12003 12878 13755

3000 4530 5443 6818 8198 9121 10046 11439 12837 13772 14709
3100 4836 5811 7277 8750 9735 10722 12207 13699 14696 15696
3200 5152 6190 7752 9320 10369 11420 13001 14588 15650 16714
5478 6582 8242 9908 11023 12139 13820 15506 16634 17764
3400 5814 6985 8747 10515 11697 12881 14664 16452 17648 18846

6160 7401 9266 11139 12391 13645 15532 17426 18692 19961
3600 6516 7828 9801 11781 13105 14431 16426 18428 19766 21107
3700 6882 8267 10351 12441 13839 15239 17345 19458 20870 22285
3800 7258 8719 10916 13120 14593 16069 18289 20515 22004 23495
3900 7644 9182 11495 13816 15367 16920 19257 21601 23168 24738
4000 8040 9658 12090 14530 16161 17794 20251 22715 24362 26012
4100 8446 10145 12700 15262 16975 18690 21270 23857 25586 27318
4200 8862 10645 13325 16012 17809 19608 22314 25027 26840 28656
4300 9288 11156 13964 16781 18663 20548 23382 26225 28124 30027
4400 9724 11679 14619 17567 19537 21510 24476 27450 29438 31429
4500 10170 12215 15289 18371 20431 22494 25595 28704 30782 32863
4600 10626 12762 15974 19193 21345 23499 26739 29986 32156 34329
4700 11092 13322 16673 20034 22279 24527 27907 31296 33560 35827
4800 11568 13893 17388 20892 23233 25577 291'01 32634 34994 37358
4900 12054 14477 18118 21768 24207 26649 30320 34000 36458 38920
5000 12550 15072 18863 22662 25201 27743 31564 35393 37952 40514

Moments of inertia are tabulated in cm*.

 INERTIA OF FLANGE PLATES

MOMENT OF INERTIA
OF TWO FLANGES
per millimetre of width

Distance
THICKNESS OF EACH FLANGE IN MILLIMETRES

38 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75

2048 2164 2459 2758 3064 3374 3691 4013 4341

2461 2600 2951 3308 3671 4040 4416 4797 5184
2913 3076 3489 3908 4334 4766 5205 5651 6103
3402 3592 4072 4558 5052 5552 6060 6575 7097
3930 4148 4700 5258 5825 6398 6980 7569 8166

4495 4744 5372 6008 6652 7304 7965 8633 9309

5099 5380 6090 6808 7535 8270 9014 9767 10528
5740 6056 6853 7658 8473 9296 10129 10971 11822
6420 6772 7661 8558 9466 10382 11309 12245 13191
7137 7528 8513 9508 10513 11528 12554 13589 14634

7892 8324 9411 10508 11616 12734 13863 15003 16153

8686 9160 10354 11558 12774 14000 15238 16487 17747
9517 10036 11342 12658 13987 15326 16678 18041 19416
10387 10952 12374 13808 15254 16712 18183 19665 21159
11294 11908 13452 15008 16577 18158 19752 21359 22978
11247 12240 12904 14575 16258 17955 19664 21387 23123 24872
12151 13223 13940 15743 17558 19388 21230 23087 24957 26841
13091 14245 15016 16955 18908 20875 22856 24852 26861 28884
14066 15304 16132 18213 20308 22418 24542 26681 28835 31003
15076 16401 17288 19516 21758 24016 26288 28576 30879 33197
16120 17537 18484 20864 23258 25669 28094 30536 32993 35466
17200 18710 19720 22256 24808 27376 29960 32561 35177 37809
18315 19922 20996 23694 26408 29139 31886 34650 37431 40228
19465 21171 22312 25177 28058 30957 33872 36805 39755 42722
20649 22459 23668 26705 29758 32830 35918 39025 42149 45291
21869 23784 25064 28277 31508 34757 38024 41310 44613 47934
23124 25147 26500 29895 33308 36740 40190 43659 47147 50653
24414 26549 27976 31558 35158 38778 42416 46074 49751 53447
25738 27988 29492 33266 37058 40871 44702 48554 52425 56316
27098 29466 31048 35018 39008 43018 47048 51099 55169 59259
28493 30981 32644 36816 41008 45221 49454 53708 57983 62278
29923 32535 34280 38659 43058 47479 51920 56383 60867 65372
31387 34126 35956 40547 45158 49792 54446 59123 63821 68541
32887 35756 37672 42479 47308 52159 57032 61928 66845 71784
34422 37423 39428 44457 49508 54582 59678 64797 69939 75103
35992 39128 41224 46480 51758 57060 62384 67732 73103 78497
37596 40872 43060 48548 54058 59593 65150 70732 76337
39236 81966
42653 44936 50660 56408 62180 67976 73797 79641 85509
40911 44473 46852 52818 58808 64823 70862 76926
42621
83015 89128
46330 48808 55021 61258 67521 73808 80121 86459 92822
44365 48226 50804 57269 63758 70274 76814 83381 89973 96591

Moments of inertia are tabulated in cm*.

 688 MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF PLATE GIRDERS

SECOND MOMENT
J_ OF A PAIR OF UNIT AREAS
about axis x—

Distance
d. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
mm
500 1250 . 1275 1301 1326 1352 1378 1405 1431 1458 1485
550 1513 1540 1568 1596 1625 1653 1682 1711 1741 1770
600 1800 1830 1861 1891 1922 1953 1985 2016 2048 2080
650 2113 2145 2178 2211 2245 2278 2312 2346 2381 2415
700 2450 2485 2521 2556 2592 2628 2665 2701 2738 2775

750 2813 2850 2888 2926 2965 3003 3042 3081 3121 3160
800 3200 3240 3281 3321 3362 3403 3445 3486 3528 3570
850 3613 3655 3698 3741 3785 3828 3872 3916 3961 4005
900 4050 4095 4141 4186 4232 4278 4325 4371 4418 4465
950 4513 4560 4608 4656 4705 4753 4802 4851 4901 4950

1000 5000 5050 5101 5151 5202 5253 5305 5356 5408 5460
1050 5513 5565 5618 5671 5725 5778 5832 5886 5941 5995
1100 6050 6105 6161 6216 6272 6328 6385 6441 6498 6555
1150 6613 6670 6728 6786 6845 6903 6962 7021 7081 7140
1200 7200 7260 7321 7381 7442 7503 7565 7626 7688 7750

1250 7813 7875 7938 8001 8065 8128 8192 8256 8321 8385
1300 8450 8515 8581 8646 8712 8778 8845 8911 8978 9045
1350 9113 9180 9248 9316 9385 9453 9522 9591 9661 9730
1400 9800 9870 9941 10011 10082 10153 10225 10296 10368 10440
1450 10513 10585 10658 10731 10805 10878 10952 11026 11101 11175

1500 11250 11325 11401 11476 11552 11628 11705 11781 11858 11935
1550 12013 12090 12168 12246 12325 12403 12482 12561 12641 12720
1600 12800 12880 12961 13041 13122 13203 13285 13366 13448 13530
1650 13613 13695 13778 13861 13945 14028 14112 14196 14281 14365
1700 14450 14535 14621 14706 14792 14878 14965 15051 15138 15225

1750 15313 15400 15488 15576 15665 15753 15842 15931 16021 16110
1800 16200 16290 16381 16471 16562 16653 16745 16836 16928 17020
1850 17113 17205 17298 17391 17485 17578 17672 17766 17861 17955
1900 18050 18145 18241 18336 18432 18528 18625 18721 18818 18915
1950 19013 19110 19208 19306 19405 19503 19602 19701 19801 19900

2000 20000 20100 20201 20301 20402 20503 20605 20706 20808 20910
2050 21013 21115 21218 21321 21425 21528 21632 21736 21841 21945
2100 22050 22155 22261 22366 22472 22578 22685 22791 22898 23005
2150 23113 23220 23328 23436 23545 23653 23762 23871 23981 24090
2200 24200 24310 24421 24531 24642 24753 24865 24976 25088 25200

2250 25313 25425 25538 25651 25765 25878 25992 26106 26221 26335
2300 26450 26565 26681 26796 26912 27028 27145 27261 27378 27495
2350 27613 27730 27848 27966 28085 28203 28322 28441 28561 28680
2400 28800 28220 29041 29161 29282 29403 29525 29646 29768 29890
2450 30013 30135 30258 30381 30505 30628 30752 30876 31001 31125

2500 31250 31375 31501 31626 31752 31878 32005 32131 32258 32385
2550 32513 32640 32768 32896 33025 33153 33282 33411 33541 33670
2600 33800 33930 34061 34191 34322 34453 34585 34716 34848 34980
2650 35113 35245 35378 35511 35645 35778 35912 36046 36181 36315
2700 36450 36585 36721 36856 36992 37128 37265 37401 37538 37675

Second moments are tabulated in cm'* and are for unit areas of I cm^ each.
 x

689
INERTIA OF UNIT AREAS
--r
SECOND MOMENT <lu

I I

OF A PAIR OF UNIT AREAS x—

about axis

Distance 30
25

38642 38781 38921 39060

38088 38226 38365 38503 40470
37813 37950 39903 40045 40186 40328
39340 39481 39621 39762 41761 41905
39200 41185 41328 41472 41616
40613 40755 40898 41041 43071 43218 43365
42486 42632 42778 42925
42050 42195 42341 44402 44551 44701 44850
43808 43956 44105 44253
43513 43660
45905 46056 46208 46360
45301 45451 45602 45753 47895
45000 45150 47278 47432 47586 47741
46665 46818 46971 47125 49298 49455
46513 48672 48828 48985 49141
48050 48205 48361 48516 50721 50881 51040
50086 50245 50403 50562
49613 49770 49928 52165 52326 52488 52650
51521 51681 51842 52003
51200 51360
53792 53956 54121 54285
53138 53301 53465 53628 55945
52813 52975 55278 55445 55611 55778
54615 54781 54946 55112 57461 57630
54450 56785 56953 57122 57291
56113 56280 56448 56616 58996 59168 59340
58311 58482 58653 58825
57800 57970 58141 60726 60901 61075
59858 60031 60205 60378 60552
59513 59685
62128 62305 62481 62658 62835
61250 61425 61601 61776 61952 64441 64620
63546 63725 63903 64082 64261
63013 63190 63368 66066 66248 66430
65161 65341 65522 65703 65885
64800 64980 67712 67896 68081 68265
66795 66978 67161 67345 67528
66613 69378 69565 69751 69938 70125
68450 68635 68821 69006 69192
71253 71442 71631 71821 72010
70313 70500 70688 70876 71065 73920
72771 72962 73153 73345 73536 73728
72200 72390 72581 75466 75661 75855
74498 74691 74885 75078 75272
74113 74305 77225 77421 77618 77815
76050 76245 76441 76636 76832 77028
78805 79003 79202 79401 79601 79800
78013 78210 78408 78606
80802 81003 81205 81406 81608 81810
80000 80200 80401 80601 83845
82621 82825 83028 83232 83436 83641
82013 82215 82418 85905
84666 84872 85078 85285 85491 85698
84050 84255 84461 87781 87990
86528 86736 86945 87153 87362 87571
86113 86320 89676 89888 90100
88410 88621 88831 89042 89253 89465
88200
90951 91165 91378 91592 91806 92021 92235
90313 90525 90738 94395
92881 93096 93312 93528 93745 93961 94178
92450 92665 96361 96580
94830 95048 95266 95485 95703 95922 96141
94613 98346 98568 98790
9680C 97020 97241 97461 97682 97903 98125
99458 99681 99905 100128 100352 100576 100801 101025
99012 99235

10125C 101475 101701

10351: 103740 103968
10580C) 106030 106261
10811:3 108345 108578
11045(D 110685 110921

11281 3 113050 113288

11620 3 115440 115681
11761 3 117855 118098
12005 C 120295 120541
12251 3 122760 123008

Second moments are tabulated in cm* and are for unit areas of 1 cm^ each.
 MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF PLATE GIRDERS
MOMENT OF INERTIA
I
OF FOUR EQUAL ANGLES
J l.L
about axis x—

203 X 203 152 X 152

J

25.3 22.1 18.9 15.8 19.0 15.8 12.6 9.4

764940 678609 589739 498289 455884 386738 313447 238826

945066 837933 727782 614569 560468 475207 384935 293128
1144556 1014341 880588 743252 675942 572865 463831 353042
1363409 1207831 1048158 884338 802308 679714 550133 418566
1601624 1418405 1230491 1037827 939564 795752 643842 489702
1859202 1646062 1427588 1203720 1087710 920981 744958 566450
2136142 1890803 1639448 1382016 1246748 1055399 853480 648808
2432446 2152626 1866072 1572715 1416676 1199008 969410 736778
2748112 2431533 2107459 1775817 1597495 1351806 1092747 830359
3083140 2727523 2363609 1991323 1789205 1513794 1223490 929551
3437532 3040596 2634523 2219231 1991805 1684973 1361640 1034355
3811286 3370753 2920200 2459543 2205296 1865341 1507198 1144769
4204403 3717992 3220640 2712259 2429678 2054899 1660162 1260795
4616883 4082315 3535844 2977377 2664951 2253647 1820533 1382433
5048726 4463722 3865812 3254899 2911 1 14 2461585 1988310 1509681

5499931 4862211 4210542 3544824 3168168 2678713 2163495 1642541

5970499 5277783 4570036 3847152 3436113 2905031 2346087 1781012
6460430 5710439 4944294 4161884 3714949 3140539 2536085 1925094
6969723 6160178 5333315 4489018 4004675 3385237 2733491 2074787
7498380 6627000 5737099 4828556 4305292 3639125 2938303 2230092
8046399 71 10906 6155647 5180497 4616800 3902203 3150522 2391008
8613780 7611895 6588958 5544842 4939199 4174471 3370148 2557535
9200525 8129966 7037032 5921590 5272488 4455929 3597181 2729673
9806632 8665121 7499870 6310740 5616668 4746576 3831620 2907423
10432102 9217360 7977472 6712295 5971739 5046414 4073467 3090784
11076935 9786681 8469836 7126252 6337700 5355442 4322721 3279756
11741130 10373086 8976964 7552613 6714553 5673659 4579381 3474339
12424688 10976574 9498856 7991377 7102296 6001067 4843448 3674534
13127609 11597145 10035511 8442544 7500929 6337664 5114922 3880339
13849893 12234800 10586929 89061 14 7910454 6683452 5393803 4091757
,

14591539 12889537 11153111 9382088 8330869 7038429 5680091 4308785

15352548 13561358 11734056 9870464 8762175 7402597 5973786 4531424
16132920 14250262 12329764 10371244 9204372 7775954 6274888 4759675
16932655 14956250 12940236 10884428 9657459 8158502 6583396 4993537
17751752 15679320 13565472 11410014 10121438 8550239 6899312 5233010
18590212 16419474 14205470 11948004 10596307 8951166 7222634 5478095
19448035 17176711 14860232 12498397 1 1082066 9361283 7553363 5728791
20325221 17951031 15529758 13061193 11578717 9780591 7891499 5985098
21221769 18742434 16214047 13636393 12086258 10209088 8237042 6247016
22137680 19550921 16913099 14223996 12604690 10646775 8589992 6514545
23072954 20376491 17626915 14824002 13134012 1 1(093652 8950349 6787686

Space 'S
15 15 15 15 12 12 12 12

32316 28143 24007 19904 10288 8529 6749 5015

Moments ofinertia Ix and ty are tabulated in cm^.

Dimensions of angles are in mm.
 X

oy *
INERTIA OF EQUAL ANGLES

MOMENT OF INERTIA T T'f

OF FOUR EQUAL ANGLES t
aboulaxisx—

ANGLES Depth

76 76 d»
127 X 127 102 X 102 89 X 89 <

12.6 9.4
mm
15.8 12.6 9.5 15.8 12.6 9.4 12.6 9.4

325725 264888 203182 263075 213993 164182 187619 143892 160598 123230 1000
321912 261720 200697 229215 175706 195987 150312 1 100
399420 324649 248888
480672 390521 299257 386704 314266 240889 274985 210704 234904 180086 1200
569479 462505 354289 457452 371631 284760 324927 248886 277348 212554 1300
665843 540600 413983 534155 433814 332309 379043 290251 323321 247 /lb 1400

769763 624808 478340 616813 500817 383535 437332 334801 372822 285569 1500
881238 715128 547360 705426 572639 438439 499795 382535 425851 326117 1600
1000270 811560 621042 799995 649279 497021 566430 433453 482408 369358 1700
1126857 914103 699388 900519 730739 559281 637239 487555 542492 415293 1800
1261000 1022759 782396 1006999 817018 625219 712221 544841 606105 463920 1900

1402700 1137526 870067 1119433 908115 694834 791376 605311 673246 515242 2000
1551955 1258406 962400 1237823 1004032 768128 874705 668965 743915 569256 2100
1708766 1385397 1059396 1362168 1104767 845099 962206 735803 818112 625964 2200
1873133 1518500 1161055 1492469 1210321 925748 1053881 805826 895836 685365 2300
2045057 1657715 1267377 1628724 1320695 1010075 1149730 879032 977089 747459 2400
2224536 1 803042 1378362 1770935 1435887 1098080 1249751 955422 1061870 812247 2500
2411571 1954481 1494009 1919102 1555898 1189762 1353946 1034997 1150179 879728 2600
2606162 2112032 1614319 2073223 1680729 1285123 1462314 1117755 1242016 949902 2700
2808309 2275695 1739292 2233300 1810378 1384161 1574855 1203697 1337380 1022769 2800
3018012 2445470 1868927 2399332 1944846 1486877 1691569 1292824 1436273 1098330 2900
3235271 2621356 2003225 2571320 2084133 1593271 1812457 1385134 1538694 1176585 3000
3460086 2803355 2142186 2749262 2228239 1 703343 1937518 1480629 16446431 1257532 3100
3692457 2991465 2285810 2933160 2377164 1817092 2066752 •1579307 1754120 1341173 3200
3932383 3185688 2434096 3123014 2530908 1934520 2200159 1681170 1867124! 1427507 3300
4179866 3386022 2587045 3318822 2689471 2055625 2337740 1786216 1983657 1516535 3400
4434905 3592468 2744657 3520586 2852853 2180408 2479494 1894447 2103718 1608256 3500
4697500 3805026 2906932 3728305 3021054 2308869 2625421 2005862 2227307 1702670 3600
4967650 4023696 3073869 3941979 3194074 2441008 2775521 2120461 2354424 1799777 3700
5245357 4248478 3245470 4161609 3371913 2576825 2929795 2238243 2485068 1899578 3800
5530619 4479372 3421732 4387194 3554570 2716319 3088242 2359210 2619241 2002072 3900
5823438 4716378 3602658 46187341 3742047 2859492 3250862 2483361 2756942 2107260 4000
6123813 4959496 3788246 4856230 3934343 3006342 341 7655 2610696! 2898171 '2215141 4100
6431743 5208726 3978497 5099681 4131458 315687C 3588622 274121E 3042928 2325715 4200
6747229 5464067 4173411 5349087 4333391 3311078 3763761 2874918 3191212 2438982 4300
7070272 5725521 4372988 5604448 4540144 346896C 3943074 3011805 3343028 2554943 4400
7400870 5993086 4577227 5865765 4751715 3630521 4126561 3151878 3498368 2673597 n r 1

6266762
6546552
4786129 6133036 4968106 379576C
4999694 6406264 5189315 3964678
431422C
4506053
3295131
3441 57C
3657238
3819632
2794944
2918985
E 9
9
^ *
*

6832452 5217921 6685446 5415344 4137273 4702055 3591194 3985557 3045719 tM : 1

/I 24467 5440812 6970584 5646191 4313548 4902238 3744001 4155008 3175146
a ib/zui 7422592 5668365 7261677 5881857 4493498
4900
5106591 3899992 432799C 3307267 5000

12
Hh Space
12 12 10 10 10 10 10 8 8 'S
.. in mm
5077 4016 2995 2643 2078 1541 1430 1055 894 656 i.i-

Moments oflnertia Ix and ly are tabulated in cm'*.

Dimensions of angles are in mm.
 692 MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF PLATE GIRDERS

-I'r MOMENT OF INERTIA

I
in OF FOUR UNEQUAL ANGLES
L JL TO BACK
LONG LEGS BACK
Ir about axis x—x

ANGLES
Depth

d„ 229 X 102 203 X 1 52 203 X 102

mm 18.9 15.8 12.6 18.9 15.8 12.6 15.8 12.6

1000 418246 355254 287953 496224 419790 340293 342383 277742

1100 522140 443196 358970 614228 519305 420698 425399 344850
1200 637868 541125 438028 745052 629600 509790 517605 419365
1300 765429 649040 525125 888694 750678 607570 619000 501286
1400 904823 766943 620262 1045156 882537 714036 729586 590615
1500 1056051 894832 723438 1214437 1025179 829190 849362 687350
1600 1219111 1032708 834654 1396538 1178601 953030 978327 791493
1700 1394005 1180572 953909 1591457 1342806 1085558 1116483 903042
1800 1580732 1338422 1081204 1799196 1517792 1226772 1263829 1021998
1900 1779291 1506259 1216539 2019755 1703560 1376674 1420364 1148361

2000 1989684 1684082 1359913 2253132 1900110 1535263 1586090 1282131

2100 2211910 1871893 1511327 2499329 2107441 1702539 1761005 1423308
2200 2445970 2069691 1670780 2758346 2325554 1878501 1945110 1571892
2300 2691862 2277475 1838273 3030181 2554449 2063151 2138406 1727882
2400 2949588 2495246 2013806 3314836 2794126 2256488 2340891 1891279
2500 3219146 2723004 2197378 3612310 3044584 2458512 2552566 2062084
2600 3500538 2960750 2388990 3922604 3305824 2669223 2773432 2240295
2700 3793763 3208481 2588641 4245717 3577846 2888621 3003487 2425913
2800 4098821 3466200 2796332 4581649 3860649 3116706 3242732 2618938
2900 4415713 3733906 3012063 4930400 4154234 3353478 3491167 2819370
3000 4744437 4011599 3235833 5291971 4458601 3598937 3748792 3027208
3100 5084995 4299278 3467643 5666361 4773750 3853083 4015607 3242454
3200 5437385 4596944 3707492 6053570 5099680 4115916 4291612 3465106
3300 5801609 4904598 3955381 6453598 5436392 4387436 4576807 3695166
3400 6177666 5222238 4211310 6866446 5783886 4667644 4871192 3932632
3500 6565556 5549865 4475278 7292113 6142161 4956538 5174767 4177505
3600 6965279 5887479 4747286 7730600 6511218 5254119 5487532 4429785
3700 7376836 6235079 5027333 8181906 6891057 5560388 5809487 4689472
3800 7800225 6592667 5315420 8646031 7281678 5875343 6140632 4956565
3900 8235448 6960241 5611547 9122975 7683080 6198986 6480966 5231066
4000 8682504 7337803 5915713 9612739 8095264 6531315 6830491 5512974
4100 9141393 7725351 6227919 10115322 8518230 6872332 7189206 5802288
4200 9612115 8122886 6548164 10630724 8951978 7222035 7557110 6099009
4300 10094670 8530408 6876449 11158946 9396507 7580426 7934205 6403137
4400 10589058 8947917 7212774 11699986 98S1818 7947503 8320489 6714672
4500 11095280 9375413 7557138 12253847 10317911 8323268 8715964 7033614
4600 11613334 9812896 7909542 12820526 10794785 8707720 9120628 7359963
4700 12143222 10260365 8269985 13400025 11282441 9100859 9534483 7693719
4800 12684943 10717822 8638468 13992343 11780879 9502684 9957527 8034881
4900 13238497 11185265 9014991 14597480 12290099 9913197 10389761 8383450
5000 13803884 11662695 9399553 15215437 12810100 10332397 10831186 8739427

Space ‘S
15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
in mm
i.f 3768 3068 2381 10736 8863 7007 3031 2360
» ml

Moments oflncrtia 1\ and ly arc tabulated in cm'’.

Dimensions of angles are in mm.
 693
INERTIA OF UNEQUAL ANGLES
MOMENT OF INERTIA 1
r
ir-

OF FOUR UNEQUAL ANGLES r -HH

LONG LEGS BACK TO BACK L_ JL
about axis x—

ANGLES Depth

178 X 89 152 x 102 152 X 89 152 > 76 dn-

12.6
H9 15.8 12.6 9.4 12.6 9.4 12.6 9.5

168178
mm

249829 190882 307732 250347 192108 235073 179289 218832

236192 379317 308405 236520 289890 220962 270182 ZU/b 1 11UU
309339 251023 1200
375298 286399 458458 372575 285595 350508 267031 326997
^7706 341 500 545155 442856 339332 416926 317498 389277 298708 1300
526563 401498 639408 519249 397733 489145 372362 457022 350568 1400

611869 466391 741217 601755 460796 567164 431623 530233 406602 1500
703624 536179 850581 690372 528521 650984 495281 608909 46681 1600
801827 610863 967502 785101 600910 740605 563337 693050 531 195 1700
906480 690443 1091979 885942 677961 836026 635789 782656 599753 1800
1017582 774918 1224012 992895 759675 937248 712639 877727 672486 1900

1135132 864288 1363600 1105960 846052 1044271 793886 978264 749394 2000
1259132 958555 1510745 1225137 937091 1 1 57094 879530 1084266 830477 2100
1389580 1057717 1665445 1350426 1032793 1275717 969572 1195733 915734 2200
1526478 1161774 1827702 1481826 1133158 1400142 1064011 1312665 1005167 2300
1669824 1270727 1997514 1619339 1238186 1530367 1162846 1435063 1098774 2400

1819620 1384575 2174883 1762963 1347876 1666392 1266079 1562925 1196555 2500
1975864 1503319 2359807 1912700 1462230 1808218 1373710 1696253 1298512 2600
2138558 1626959 2552288 2068548 1581245 1955845 1485737 1835046 1404643 2700
2307700 1755494 2752324 2230508 1 704924 2109272 1602162 1979304 1514949 2800
2483291 1888925 2959916 2398580 1833265 2268500 1722984 2129028 1629429 2900
2665331 2027251 3175065 2572765 1966269 2433528 1848203 2284216 1748085 3000
2853820 2170473 3397769 2753061 2103936 2604357 1977819 2444870 1870915 3100
3048759 2318591 3628029 2939469 2246266 2780987 2111 832 2610989 1997920 3200
3250146 2471604 3865845 3131988 2393258 2963417 2250243 2782573 2129099 3300
3457982 2629512 4111217 3330620 2544913 3151648 2393051 2959623 2264454 3400
3672267 2792316 4364145 3535364 2701231 3345680 2540256 3142137 2403983 3500
3893001 2960016 4624629 3746219 2862212 3545512 2691858 3330117 2547687 3600
4120184 3132611 489266S 3963187 3027855 3751144 2847858 3523562 2695565 3700
4353816 3310102 5168265 4186266 3198161 3962578 3008254 3722472 2847618 3800
4593896 3492488 5451417 4415458 3373130 4179811 3173048 3926848 3003847 3900
4840426 3679770 5742125 4650761 3552761 4402846 3342239 4136688 3164249 4000
5093405 3871948 6040389 4892176 3737055 4631681 3515828 4351994 3328827 4100
5352833 4069021 6346209 5139703 3926012 4866317 3693813 4572765 3497579 4200
5618709 4270989 6659584 5393343 4119632 5106753 3876196 4799001 3670506 4300
5891035 4477853 6980516 5653094 4317915 5352990 4062976 5030703 3847608 4400
6169810 4689613 7309004 5918956 4520860 5605027 4254153 5267869 4028884 4500
6455033 4906268 7645047 6190931 4728468 5862865 4449727 5510501 4214336 4600
6746/Ob 5127819 7988647 6469018 4940738 6126504 4649698 5758598 4403961 4700
7044827 5354265 8339802 6753217 5157672 6395943 4854067 6012161 4597762 4800
7349398 5585607 8698514 7043527 5379268 6671183 5062833 6271188 4795738 4900
7660417 5821845 9064781 7339950 5605527 6952224 5275996 6535681 4997888 5000
1

15 15 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
InliiRI
1664 1214 2791 2190 1621 1541 1125 1039 757

Moments of Inertia Ix and ly are tabulated in cm'*

Dimensions of angles are in mm.
 MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF PLATE GIRDERS
MOMENT OF INERTIA
OF FOUR UNEQUAL ANGLES
LONG LEGS BACK TO BACK
I JL
about axis x—

15.8 12.6 9.5 12.6 9.

266620 218473 166509 201880 154957 243141 199026 153074 182525 140011
327687 268369 204420 248229 190426 297716 243577 187243 223554 171394
395087 323428 246244 299398 229571 357834 292642 224865 268757 205961
468822 383649 291979 355385 272395 423495 346221 265940 318132 243712
548890 449032 341626 416191 318897 494698 404314 310469 371681 284646
635292 519578 395185 481817 369076 571444 466921 358451 429404 328765
728027 595286 452656 552261 422933 653733 534041 409887 491299 376068
827097 676157 514039 627524 480469 741564 605675 464775 557368 426555
932501 762190 579334 707606 541681 834938 681823 523117 627610 480226
1044238 853386 648541 792507 606572 933855 762485 584913 702025 537081
1162309 949744 721660 882227 675141 1038314 847661 650161 780613 597120
12867141051264 798690 976766 7473871148316 937350 718863 863375 660343
14174531157947 8796331076124 82331212638611031553 791019 950310 726751
15545261269793 9644871180301 90291413849481130270 8666271041418 796342
1697933138680110532541289297 98619415115781233501 9456891136700 869117
1847673 1508971 1145933 1403112 1073152 1643750 1341246 1028205 1236154 945076
2003748 1636304 1242523 1521746 1163787 1781466 1 453504 41 73 1339782 1024220
1 1 1

2166156 1768799 1 343025 1 6451 99 1258101 1 924724 1 570276 1203595 1447583 1106547
2334898 1906456 1 447440 1 773470 1356092 2073524 1 691 562 1296470 1 559558 1 1 92058
2509974 2049276 1555766 1906561 1457761 2227867 1817362 1392799 1675705 1280754
2691384 2197259 16680042044471 1563108 2387753 1947675 1492581 1796026 1372633
2879128 2350404 17841542187199 1672133 2553182 2082503 1 59581 6 1 920520 1467697
3073205 2508711 1 2334747 1 784836 27241 53 222 1 844 1 702505 2049 188 1 565944
9042 1 6
3273617 2672181 20281902487114 1901216 2900667 2365699 1 81 2646 21 82028 1 667376
3480362 2840813 21560762644299 2021275 3082724 2514068 1926242^319042 1771992
3693441 3014608 2287874 2806304 114501 1 3270323 2666950 2043290 2460229 1 879791
3912854319356524235842973127 1272425 3463465 2824347 2 1 63792 2605589 1 990775
4138601 3377685 2563206 3144769 1403517 3662149 2986257 2287747 2755123 2104943
4370682 3566967 2706739 3321231 1538287 3866376 31 52681 2415156 2908830 2222295
46090973761411 28541853502511 1676734 4076146 3323619 2546017 3066710 2342831
4853845 396101 8 3005542 3688610 2818860 4291459 3499070 2680332 3228763 2466550
5104927 41 65787 31 6081 2 3879529 2964663 451 2314 3679036 281 81 01 3394989 2593454
5362344 4375719 3319993 4075266 3114144 473871 2 386351 32959322 3565389 2723542
5626094 4590813 3483087 4275822 3267303 4970652 40525033103998 3739962 2856814
58961 77 4811070 3650092 4481197 3424140 5208135 424601 33252126 3918708 2993270
6172595 5036489 3821009 4691391 3584654 5451161 44440333403708 4101628 3132910
6455347 5267070 3995839 4906404 3748847 5699729 4646570 3558743 4288720 3275735
6744432 5502814 41 74580 5126236 391 671 7 5953841 4853618 3717231 4479986 3421743
7039852
7341605
7649692

12
574372 1 4357233 5350887 4088265
5989790 4543798 5580357 4263491
6241021 4734275 5814646 4442395

12 12 12 12
—
62 3494 5065 80 3879 73 4675426
1 1

6478691 5281 25G 4044568 4875038

6749430 5501 849421341 6 5078824

10 10 10
1

10
3570935
372331
3878871

I.V 1934 1522 1 113 1017 743 1834 1445 1069 952

Momenls oflnertia Ix and ly are tabulated in cm^.

Dimensions of angles are in mm.
 x

INERTIA OF UNEQUAL ANGLES

MOMENT OF INERTIA
OF FOUR UNEQUAL ANGLES -HH
TO BACK
I

LONG LEGS BACK .L^ JL

about axis x— ly

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Space 'S'
8 8 8
in mm
434 279 949 696 568 425 273 401 331 258 I.'-

Moments oflnertia Ix and ly are tabulated in cnr'

Dimensions of angles are in mm.
 1

d,. 229 X 102 203 X 152

min 18.9 15.8 12.6 18.9 15.8 12.6 15.8 12.6

1000 540312 458365 370987 548762 464012 375930 419728 340102

1100 659143 558899 452124 673238 568962 460707 512016 414670
1200 789807 669419 541300 810532 684694 554171 613494 496646
1300 932305 789927 638516 960646 811208 656323 724162 586028
1400 1086636 920421 743771 1123579 948504 767161 844020 682817
1500 1252799 1060902 857066 1299331 1096581 886687 973067 787013
1600 1430796 1211371 978401 1487903 1255440 1014899 1111305 898616
1700 1620626 1371826 1107775 1 689294 1425080 1151799 1258733 1017626
1800 1822290 1542267 1245189 1903504 1605503 1297386 1415351 1144042
1900 2035786 1722696 1390642 2130534 1796707 1451659 1581158 1277866
2000 2261115 1913112 1544135 2370382 1998693 1614620 1756156 1419096
2100 2498278 2113514 1705668 2623051 2211460 1786268 1940343 1567733
2200 2747274 2323904 1875240 2888538 2435010 1966603 2133721 1723778
2300 3008103 2544280 2052852 3166845 2669341 2155624 2336289 1887229
2400 3280765 2774643 2238503 3457971 2914453 2353333 2548046 2058087
2500 3565260 3014993 2432194 3761916 3170348 2559729 2768993 2236351
2600 3861588 3265330 2633925 4078681 3437024 2774812 2999131 2422023
2700 4169750 3525654 2843695 4408265 3714482 2998582 3238458 2615102
2800 4489744 3795965 3061505 4750668 4002721 3231039 3486975 2815587
2900 4821572 4076262 3287354 5105891 4301743 3472183 3744683 3023479
3000 5165233 4366547 3521243 5473932 4611546 3722014 4011580 3238779
3100 5520727 4666818 3763172 5854794 4932130 3980532 4287667 3461485
3200 5888054 4977076 4013140 6248474 5263497 4247738 4572944 3691598
3300 6267215 5297321 4271148 6654974 5605645 4523630 4867411 3929117
3400 6658208 ^627553 4537195 7074293 5958575 4808209 5171068 4174044
3500 7061035 5967772 4811282 750643V 6322286 5101475 5483915 4426378
3600 7475694 6317978 5093409 7951389 6696780 5403429 5805952 4686118
3700 7902187 6678171 5383575 8409166 7082055 5714069 6137179 4953265
3800 8340513 7048350 5681781 8879762 7478112 6033397 6477596 5227820
3900 8790672 7428516 5988026 9363178 7884950 636141 6827203 55P9781
4000 9252665 7818670 6302311 9859412 8302570 6698112 7186000 5799149
4100 9726490 8218810 6624636 10368467 8730972 7043501 7553986 6095924
4200 10212149 8628937 6955000 10890340 9170156 7397577 7931163 6400105
4300 10709640 9049051 7293404 11425033 9620121 7760339 8317530 6711694
4400 11218965 9479151 7639847 11972545 10080868 8131789 8713087 7030690
4500 11740123 9919239 7994330 12532876 10552397 8511926 9117833 7357092
4600 12273114 10369314 8356853 13106027 11034708 8900749 9531770 7690901
4700 12817939 10829375 8727415 13691997 11527800 9298260 9954896 8032117
4800 13374596 11299423 9106017 14290786 12031674 9704458 10387213 8380740
4900 13943087 11779458 9492658 14902394 12546330 10119343 10828719 8736770
5000 14523410 1^269480 9887339 5526822
1 13071767 10542915 11279416 9100207

MSMBM
uiuiuiralHH
15 15 15 15 15 15
1

15

i.i' 33307 27764 22053 23880 19818 15746 19797 15724

Moments of Inertia lx and ly are tabulated in cm^.

Dimensions of angles are in mm.
 x 1

INERTIA OF UNEQUAL ANGLES

based on
MOMENT OF INERTIA
OF FOUR UNEQUAL ANGLES
SHORT LEGS BACK TO BACK
about axis x—

152 X 102 152 X 89 152 X 76

12.6 9 - 15.8 12.6 12.6 9.4 12.6

298475 227787 340673 277002 212431 266883 203388 255007 19^799

363670 277402 416072 338140 259187 325353 247823 310489 238283
435315 331913 499026 405389 310606 389625 296655 371436 284942
513408 391319 589537 478751 366687 459697 349885 437849 335776
597950 455621 687603 558224 427431 535570 40751 509727 390785
I

688942 524819 793226 643810 492838 617243 469535 587070 449968

786382 598912 906404 735507 562907 669878 513326
890271 677900 1027139 833316 637640 758151 580859
1000609 761784 1155429 937237 717035 851890 652567
1117396 850564 1291275 1047270 801093 951093 728449
1240632 944239 1434678 1163415 889813 1055762 808506
1370317 1042810 1585636 1285672 983197 1165897 892738
1506451 1146277 1744150 1414041 1081243 1281496 981144
1649034 1254639 1910220 1548522 1183951 1402560 1073726
1798066 1367896 2083847 1689114 1291323 1529090 1170482
1953546 1486049 2265029 1835819 1403357 1661085 1271412
2115476 1609098 2453767 1988635 1520054 1798545 1376518
2283855 1737042 2650061 2147564 1641414 1941471 1485798
2458683 1869882 2853911 2312604 1767436 2089861 1599253
2639959 2007617 3065317 2483756 1898122 2243717 1716883
2827685 ;
2150248 3284279 2661020 2033470 2403038 1838687
3021860 2297774 3510796 2844396 2173480 2567824 1964667
3222483 2450196 3744870 3033884 2318154 2738076 2094820
3429556 2607514 3986500 3229484 2467490 2913792 2229149
3643077 2769727 4235686 3431196 3094974 2367653
3863047 2936836 4492427 3639020 2510331
4089467 3108840 4756725 3852955 2657184
4322335 3285740 5028579 4073003 2808211
4561652 3467535 5307988 4299162 2963414
4807419 3654226 5594954 4531434 3122791
5059634 3845812 5889475 4769817 3286343
5318298 4042294 6191553 5014312
5583411 3454069
4243672 6501186 5264920 3625971
5854973 4449945 6818376 5521639
6132984 4661114 3802047
7143121 5784470 3982298
6417444 4877178 17475422
6708353 5098138 4166723
7815280 4355323
7005711 5323993 8162693
7309518 5554744 4548099
8517662 4745048
7619774 5790391 8880187
7936479 6030933 9250268 4946173
5151472

15 15 12

10726 8000 8444

Momcms oflnertia Ix and ly are tabulated in cnr*.

Dimensions of angles are in mm.
 698 MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF PLATE GIRDERS
MOMENT OF INERTIA
I
Zjl OF FOUR UNEQUAL ANGLES
^
''
SHORT LEGS BACK TO BACK
about axis x—

ANGLES
Depth

a
I

dK
127 X 89 127 X 76 102 X 89 102 X 76

mm 15.8 12.6 9.4 12.6 9.4 15.8 12.6 9.5 12.6

1000 287806 235746 179590 223514 171461 249419 204139 156984 92045 147272
1

1100 351270 287594 218977 272293 208779 304694 249260 191587 234127 179456
1200 421069 344605 262275 325891 249775 365512 298894 229643 280381 214824
1300 497201 406777 309486 384308 294449 431872 353042 271153 330810 253376
1400 579667 474112 360608 447544 342801 503775 411703 316116 38541 295112

1500 668467 546610 415642 515600 394830 581221 474879 364532 444185 340032
1600 763601 624270 474588 588474 450537 664209 542568 416402 507133 388136
1700 865069 707092 537447 666167 509923 752740 614771 471725 574254 439424
1800 972870 795077 604217 748679 572986 846814 691488 530501 645549 493896
1900 1087005 888225 674899 836010 639727 946430 772719 592731 721016 551552
2000 1207475 986535 749493 928159 710145 1051589 858463 658414 800657 612392
2100 1334278 1090007 827998 1025128 784242 1162291 948722 727550 884471 676416
2200 1467415 1198641 910416 1126916 862016 1278535 1043494 800139 972458 743625
2300 1606886 1312439 996746 1233523 943468 1400322 1142780 876182 1064619 814017
2400 1752690 1431398 1086988 1344949 1028599 1527652 1246579 955678 1160952 887593
2500 1904829 1555520 1181142 1461193 1 1 1 7406 1660524 1354893 1038628 1261459 964354
2600 2063301 1684805 1279207 1582257 1209892 1798939 1467720 1125031 1366140 1044298
2700 2228108 1819251 1381185 1708139 1306056 1942897 1585061 1214887 1474993 1127427
2800 2399248 1958861 1487074 1838841 1405897 2092397 1706916 1308196 1588020 1213739
2900 2576722 2103632 1596876 1974362 1509417 2247440 1833285 1404959 1
1705220 1303236
3000 2760530 2253567 1710589 2114701 1616614 2408025 1964167 1505175 1826593 1395916
3100 2950671 2408663 1828214! 2259860 1727489 2574154 2099564 1608845 1952139 1491781
3200 3147147 2568922 1949752 2409837 1842041 2745825 2239474 1715967 2081859 1590829
3300 3349956 2734344 2075201 2564633 1960272 2923038 2383898 1826543 2215752 1693062
3400 3559100 2904928 2204562 2724249 2082181 3105794 2532835 1940573 2353818 1798479
3500 3774577 3080674 2337835 2888683 2207767 3294093 2686287 2058056 2496057 1907080
3600 3996388 3261583 2475020 3057936 2337031 3487935 2844252! 2178992 2642470 2018865
3700 4224533 3447654 2616117 3232008 2469973 3687319 3006731 2303381 2793056 2133833
3800 445901 3638888 2761126 3410900' 2606593 3892246 3173724 2431224 2947815 2251986
3900 4699824 3835284 2910047 3594610 2746891 4102716 3345231 2562520 3106747 2373323
4000 4946970 4036843 3062879 3783139 2890866 4318728 3521251 2697269 3269853 2497844
4100 5200451 4243564 3219624 3976487 3038519 4540283 3701786 2835471 3437132 2625549
4200 5460265 4455447 3380281 4174654 3189851 4767380 3886834 2977127 3608584 2756438
4300 5726413 4672493 3544849 4377640 3344860 5000020 4076396 3122237 3784209 2890511
4400 5998895 4894701 3713330 4585445 3503547 5238203 4270471 3270799 3964008 3027769
4500 6277711 5122072 3885722 4798069 3665911 5481929 4469061 3422815 4147979 3168210
4600 6562860 5354606 4062027 5015511 3831954 5731197 4672164 3578284 4336124 3311835
4700 6854344 5592301 4242243 5237773 4001674 5986008 4879781 3737207 4528443 3458644
4800 7152161 5835159 4426371 5464854 4175072 6246361 5091912 3899583 4724934 3608638
4900 7456312 6083180 4614412 5696754 4352149 6512257 5308557 4065412 4925599 3761815
5000 7766797 6336363 4806364 5933472 4532902 6783696 5529715 4234695 5130437 3918176

B
12 12 12 ,
12 12 10 10 10

5016 4000 2960 3973 2962 2623 2078 1545 2060 1527

Moments of Inertia Ix and ly are tabulated m cm^.

Dimensions of angles are in mm.
 x

INERTIA OF UNEQUAL ANGLES

MOMENT OF INERTIA
OF FOUR UNEQUAL ANGLES
SHORT LEGS BACK TO BACK
about axis x—

138993 177314
94937 136115 13969 126088 85880 114860 97440 78295
169128 216270
115461 165938 38903 1 53477 104484 139873 118630 95297
202220 137996 259098 198719 66307 183561 124912 167351 141907 113971
238269 162540 305799 234458 96181 216337 147165 197294 167270 134316
277277 189093 356373 273155 251807 171243 229703 194719 156333

319242 217656 410820 314809 289970 197146 264576 180021

364165 248229 469139 359421 330826 224873 301915 205381
412046 280811 531331 406991 340374 374376 254425 341720 232412
462884 315402 597396 382597 420619 285802 383989 261115
516680 352003 6673341511003 427289 469555 319004 428724 291490
573434 390614 741144 567446 474451 521185 354030 475924 323536
633146 431234 818827 626847 524082 575508 390882 525589 357253
695815 473864 900383 689205 576184 632524 429558 577720 392642
761442 518503 985812 754522 692234 470059 632315 429703
830027 5651521075113 822796 754637 512384 689377 468435
901570 613810 1168287 894027 819733 556535 748903 508839
976070 664478 1265334 968217 887522 602510 810894 550914
1053528 717155 1366253 1045364 958005 650310 875351 594661
1133944 771842 1471045 1125469 1031182 699935 942273 640079
1217317 828538 1579710 1208531 1107051 751384 1011661 687169
1303649 887244 1692248 185614 8046591083513 735930
1392938 947959 1808658 266870 8597581157831 786363
1485184 1010684 1928942 350820 9166821234614 838468
1580389 1075418 2053098 437462 9754301313863 892244
1678551 11421622181126 526798 1036004 1395576 947691
1779671 12109152313028 618828 1098402 1479755 1004810
1883749 1281678 2448802 1713551 1162625 1566399 1063601
1990784 1354451 2588449 810967 1228673 1655509 1 124063
2100777 1429233 2731968 1911076 1296546 1747084 1186197
2213728 15060242879361 013879 1366243 1841124 1250002
2329637 15848253030626 119375 1437765 1937629 1315479
2448503 1665636 3185764 22756415111122036599 1382627
2570328 17484563344774 338447 1 586284 2 1 38035 1451447
2695110 18332853507658 452023 1663280 2241936 1521939
2822849 19201243674414 568292 1742101 2348302 1594101
2953547 2008973 3845043 687255 1822748 2457134 1667936
3087202 2099831 4019544 2808911 1905218 2568431 1 743442
32238152192699 4197918 2933260 1989514 2682193 1820620
33633852287576 4380166 3060303 2075634 2798420 1899469
35059142384463 4566285 3190039 2163579 2917112 1979989
36514002483359 4756278 3322468 2253349 3038270 2062182

Space
10 10 10 10 10 8 8 8
mm
i

1
in
1

1430 1056 866 1042 681 655 544 426 i.f

Moments of Inertia Ix and ly are tabulated in cnr'.

Dimensions of angles are in mm.
 28. CONNECTIONS

Introduction
many problems, one of which is the
THE design of structural steelwork involves
design of connections. ,

given full consideration, tor no

work be
It is essential that this stage of
the
its individual members are connected
structural frame will function correctly, unless
to each other in such a manner that all forces
and moments can be transferred to
each other as designed. jwu-
The methods used forming connections are Riveting, Bolting, and welding,
in

each having its own advantages for specific cases and must be carefully considered
in order to select themost suitable.
types of
The following examples are given, to illustrate some of the various
connections used in the construction of steel frames.
The notes and tables given on pages 703 to 708 inclusive for rivets and bolts, on
pages 733 to 736 inclusive for hi^ strength friction grip bolts and on
pages 740 to

742 inclusive for welding are extracted from the Handbook on Structural Steelwork,
published jointly by: The British Constructional Steelwork Association and The
Constructional Steel Research and Development Organisation, the allowable stresses,

etc., being those given in B.S. 449 Part 2 :1969. :

Edge distance of holes

The minimum distances from the centre of any rivet or bolt hole to the edge of a
plate shall be in accordance with Table 21 of B.S. 449, which is reproduced below.

Distance to rolled,
Diameter of Distance to Sheared or
machine flame cut, sawn
Hole Hand Flame Cut Edge
or planed edge

mm mm mm
39 68 62
36 62 56
33 1
56 50
30 50 44
j

26 42 36
24 38 32
22 34 30
20 30 28
18 28 26
16 26 24
14 24 22
1 2 or less 22 20

701
702 CONNECTIONS
The following tables give the safe load values in tension of black bolts between
16 mm and 48 mm diameter.

Bolts ofgrade designation 4.6 to B.S. 4190: 1967

Nominal diameter 16 20 22 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48
of bolt in mm
Tensile Stress Area 1

mm^ 157 245 303 353 459 .

561 694 817 976 1 120 1 300 1470

Value in kilonew- j

tons of one bolt

at 130 N/mm* 20,4! 31.9 39.4 45,9 59.7 72.9 90.2 106.2 126.9 145.6* 169.0 191.1
1
1
1 1 1
1
1

Value in kilonew- 1

tons of one bolt 1

1 i

at 130 + 25%
N/mm^ 25.5 '

39.8 49.2 57.4 '

74.6 91.2 112.8 132.8 158.6 182.0 211.3 '

238.9
1
1
1

Allowable stress obtained from table 20 in B.S. 449 Part 2: 1969.

Bolts of grade designation 8.8 to B.S. 3692: 1967

r r~'
— r— —
Nominal diameter 1 1
1

of bolt in mm 16 i
20 22 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48

Tensile Stress Area

mm^ 157 245 303 353 459 561 694 817 976 1 120 1 300 1470

Value in kilonew-
tons of one bolt
at 335 N/mm* 52.6 82.1 101.5 118.3 153.8 187.9 232.5 273.7 327.0 375.2 435.5 492.5

Value in kilonew-
tons of one bolt
335 + 25%
1
!
!

at
N/mm^ 65.7 102.6 126.9 147.8 192.2 234.9 296.6 342.1 408.7 490.0
SI 615.6

58.2
Allowable stress is X 130 from B.S. 449 Part 2: 1969
22.6
 RIVETS AND BOLTS 703

Safe load values for rivets and bolts

Working Safe load values are tabulated for rivets of material having a yield stress of
Stresses 250 N/mm^ and for bolts of strength grade designation 4.6 in accordance
with the allowable stresses given in clause 50 of B.S. 449; 1969 as follows;—

Allowable stresses in N/mm*

Description Single Bearing
shear (Double shear)

Power-driven shop rivets 110 315

Power-driven field rivets 100 290
Hand-driven rivets 90 265
Close tolerance turned bolts 95 300
Black bolts 80 200

Multiple For rivets and bolts in double shear, the area to be assumed must be
Shear twice the area for single shear. Where the rivets or bolts are in single
shear, the permissible bearing stress must be reduced by 20 %.

Critical Bearing values printed in ordinary type are less than single shear.
Values In these cases, the bearing values are the determining factors. Bearing
values printed in prominent type are greater than single and less than
double shear, so that in the case of ;

(a) single shear, the shearing value is the criterion.

(b) double shear, the bearing value is the criterion.

Bearing values printed in italic type are equal to or greater than double
shear. In these cases, the shearing values are the criterion.

Other For bolts of other strength grade designations, the allowable stresses
Grade shall be those for grade 4.6 bolts varied in the ratio of the specified
Bolts
stress under proof load in kgf/mm^ to 22.6. In Table 13 of BS 3692,

that stress for grade 8.8 bolts is given as 58.2 kgf/mm® so that the
strength ratio multiplier is 58.2/22.6 = 2.575.
When parts are connected together by bolts of a higher grade of
material, the local bearing stress must not exceed 2.5 times the allow-
able stress in axial tension as given in Table 19 of BS 449; 1969 for the
material of the connected part.

Tables on pages 704 to 710 are reproduced by permission of the British

Constructional Steelwork Association Ltd., and the Constructional
Steel
Research and Development Organisation.
 704
SHEARING AND BEARING VALUES BASED ON
BS 449
IN KILONE^VTONS FOR POWER-DRIVEN SHOP RIVETS OF 1969
STEEL HAVING A YIELD STRESS OF 250 N/mm-

Gross Shearing Simple Bearing Value 80% of 315 N/mm' and

(i?

Dia. Value Enclosed Bearing Value @315 N/mm' (see footnote)

1

after in 110 N/mm* Thickness in mm of plate passed through or of enclosed plate

driving cm*
in Single Double
5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 18 20 22
mm Shear Shear 25

10 0.79 12.6 15.1 17.6 20.2 22.7

15.8 18.9 22.0 25.2

12 1.13 15,1 18.1 21 .2 24.2 .27.2 30.2 36.3

18.9 22.7 26.5 30.2 34.0

14 1.54 16.9 33.9 17.6 21 .2 24.7 28.2 31 .8 35.3 42.3 52.9

22.0 26.5 30.9 35.3 39.7 44.1

16 2.01 22.1 44.2 20.2 24.2 28.2 32.3 36.3 40.3 48.4 60.5 72.6
25.2 30.2 35.3 40.3 45.4 60.4 60.5

18 2.54 56.0 22.7 27.2 31 .8 36.3 40.8 45.4 54.4 68.0 81.6 90.7
28.3 34.0 39.7 45.4 51 .0 56.7 68.0 85.0

20 3.14 34.6 69.1 25.2 30.2 35.3 40.3 45.4 50.4 60.5 75.6 90.7 101
31 .5 37.8 44.1 50.4 56.7 63.0 75.6 94.5 113

22 3.80 41.8 83.6 27.7 33.3 38.8 44.4 49.9 55.4 66.5 83.2 99.8 111 122
34.6 CD
48.5 55.4 62.4 69.3 83.2 104 125 139

24 4.52 49.8 99.5 30.2 36.3 42.3 A8.4 54.4 60.5 72.6 90.7 109 121 133
37.8 45.4 52.9 60.5 68.0 75.6 90.7 113 136 151

27 5.73 63.0 126 34.0 40.8 47.6 54.4 61.2 68.0 81 .6 102 122 136 150 170
42.5 51 .0 59.5 68.0 76.5 85.0 102 128 153 170

Upper line Bearing Values for each diameter of rivet are Simple Bearing Values.
Lower line Bearing Values for each diameter of rivet are Enclosed Bearing Values.
For areas to be deducted from a bar for one hole, see table on page 709.
For explanation of table, see Notes.
1 kilonewton may be taken as 0.102 metric tonne (megagramme) force.
 705

based on
SHEARING AND BEARING VALUES
BS 449
IN KILONEWTONS FOR POWER-DRIVEN FIELD RIVETS OF
1969
STEEL HAVING A YIELD STRESS OF 250 N/mm^

Gross Shearing Simple Bearing Value @ 80% of 290 N/mm’ and

Dia.
Value Enclosed Bearing Value @ 290 N/mm’ (see footnote)
of Rivet Area
after in 100 N/mm* Thickness in mm of plate passed through or of enclosed plate

driving
in
mm
cm’
Single
Shear
Double
Shear S 6
B 8 9 10 15 18 20 22

10 0.79 7.85 15.7 11.6 13.9 16.2 18.6 20.9

14.5 17.4 20.3 23.2

12 1.13 11.3 22.6 13.9 16.7 19.5 22.3 25.1 27.8 33.4
17.4 20.9 24.4 27.8 37.3

14 1.54 15.4 30.8 16.2 19.5 22.7 26.0 29.2 32.5 39.0 48.7
20.3 24.4 28.4 32.5 36.5 40.6

16 2.01 20.1 40.2 18.6 22.3 26.0 29.7 33.4 37.1 44.5 55.7 66.8
23.2 27.8 32.5 37.1 41.8 46.4 55.7

18 2.54 25.4 50.9 20,9 25.1 29.2 33.4 37.6 41.8 50.1 62.6 75.2 83.5
26.1 31 .3 36.5 41.8 47.0 52.2 62.6 78.3

20 3.14 31.4 62.8 23.2 27.8 32.5 37.1 41 .8 46.4 55.7 69.6 83.5 92.8
29.0 34.8 40.6 46.4 52.2 58.0 69.6 87.0 104

22 3.80 38.0 76.0 25.5 30,6 35.7 40.8 45.9 51 .0 61 .2 76.6 91.9 102
31 .9 38.3 44.7 51.0 57.4 63.8 76.6 95.7 115

24 90.5 27.8 33.4 39.0 44.5 50.1 55.7 66.8 83.5 100 111 122
34.8 41.8 48.7 55.7 62.6 69.6 83.5 104 125 139

27 115 31 .3 37.6 43.8 50.1 56.4 62.6 75.2 94,0 113 125 138
39.1 47.0 54.8 62.6 78.3 94.0 117 141 157

Upper line Bearing Values for each diameter of rivet are Simple Bearing Values.
Lower line Bearing Values for each diameter of rivet are Enclosed Bearing Values.
Ror areas to be deducted from a bar for one hole, see table on page 709.
For explanation of table, see Notes.
1 kilonewton may be
taken as 0.102 metric tonne (megagramme) force.
 706
SHEARING AND BEARING VALUES
IN KILONEWTONS FOR HAND-DRIVEN RIVETS OF
STEEL HAVING A YIELD STRESS OF 250 N/mm=‘

Gross Shearing Simple Bearing Value @ 80% of 265 N/mm’ and

Dia. Value Enclosed Bearing Value @ 265 N/mm’ (see footnote)
of Rivet Area @
after in 90 N/mm’ Thickness in mm of plate passed through or of enclosed plate
driving cm’
in Single Double 15 18 20
5 6 7 8 9 10 12 22 25
mm Shear Shear

10 0.79 7.07 14.1 10.6 12.7 14.8 17.0 19.1

13.3 15.9 18.5 21.2

12 1.13 10.2 20.4 12.7 15.3 17.8 20.4 22.9 25.4 30.5
15.9 19.1 22.3 25.4 28.6

14 1.54 13.9 27.7 14.8 17.8 20.8 23.7 26.7 29.7 35.6 44.5
18.5 22.3 26.0 29.7 33.4 37.1

16 2.01 18.1 36.2 17.0 23.7 27.1 30.5 33.9 40.7 61.1
21 .2 25.4 29.7 33.9 38.2 42.4 50.9

18 2.54 22.9 45.8 19.1 22.9 26.7 30.5 34.3 38.2 45.8 57.2 68.7 76.3
23.8 28.6 33.4 38.2 42.9 57.2 71.5

20 3.14 28.3 56.5 21 .2 25.4 29.7 33.9 38.2 50.9 63.6 76.3 84.8
26.5 31 .8 37.1 42.4 47.7 53.0 63.6 79.5 95.4

22 3.80 34.2 68.4 23.3 28.0 32.6 37.3 42.0 46.6 56.0 84.0 93.3
29.1 35.0 40.8 46.6 52.5 58.3 70.0 87.5 105

24 4.52 40.7 81 .4 25.4 30.5 35.6 40.7 45.8 50.9 61 .1 76.3 91.6 102 112
31.8 38.2 44.5 50.9 67.2 63.6 76.3 95.4 114 127

27 5.73 51.5 103 28.6 34.3 45.8 51.5 57.2 68.7 85.9 114 126 143
35.8 42.9 57.2 64.4 71.5 85.9 107 129 143

Upper line Bearing Values for each diameter of rivet are Simple Bearing Values.
Lower line Bearing Values for each diameter of rivet are Enclosed Bearing Values.
For areas to be deducted from a bar for one hole, see table on page 709
For explanation of table, see Notes.
I kifonewton may be taken as 0.102 metric tonne (megagramme) force.
 BASED ON
SHEARING AND BEARING VALUES
BS 449
INKILONEWTONS FOR CLOSE TOLERANCE AND TURNED
1969
BOLTS OF STEEL OF STRENGTH GRADE DESIGNATION 4.6

Dia. Shearing Simple Bearing Value («) 80% of 300 N/mm’ and
@ N/mm’ (see footnot
1

of Value Enclosed Bearing Value 300

Bolt Area (a!

Shank in 95 N/mm’ Thickness in mm of plate -passed through or of enclosed p

in cm’ 1

mm Single
Shear
Double
Shear i 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 IS 18 20

10 0.79 7.46 14.9 12.0 14.4 75.5 75.2 27.5

75.0 75.0 27.0 24.0

12 1.13 10.7 21 .5 14.4 17.3 20.2 23.0 25.9 28.8

18.0 27.5 25.2 28.8

14 1.54 14.6 29.2 16.8 20.2 23.5 26.9 30.2 33.6 40.3
21 .0 25.2 29.4 33.6 37.8

16 2.01 19.1 38.2 19.2 23.0 26.9 30.7 34.6 38.4 46.1 57.6
24.0 28.8 33.6 38.4 43.2 48.0

18 2.54 24.2 48.3 21 .6 25.9 30.2 34.6 38.9 43.2 57.5 64.8 77.5
27.0 32.4 37.8 43.2 48.6 54.0 64.8

20 3.14 29.8 59.7 24.0 28.8 33.6 38.4 43.2 48.0 57.6 72.0 86.4 95.0
30.0 36.0 42.0 48.0 54.0 60.0 72.0 90.0
i

22 3.80 36.1 72.2 26.4 31.7 37.0 42.2 47.5 52.8 63.4 79.2 95.0 705
33.0 39.6 46.2 52.8 59.4 66.0 75.2 95.0 119
1

24 4.52 43.0 86.0 28.8 34.6 40.3 46.1 51.8 57.6 69.1 86.4 104 115
36.0 43.2 50.4 57.6 64.8 72.0 86.4 108 130

27 5.73 54.4 109 32.4 38.9 45.4 51.8 58.3 64.8 77.8 97.2 117 130
40.5 48.6 56.7 64.8 72.9 81.0 97.2 722 146 162
1

Upper Bearing Values for each diameter of bolt are Simple

line
Bearing Values
^wer hne Bearing Values for each diameter of bolt are Enclosed
Bearing Values
For areas to be deducted from a bar for one hole,
sec table on page
^ ^ 709
For explanation of table, see Notes.
1 kilonewton may be taken as 0.102
metric tonne (megagramme) force.
 SHEAJRING AND BEARING VALUES BASED ON
FOR BLACK BOLTS OF STEEL OF BS 449
IN KILONE\VTONS
1969
STRENGTH GRADE DESIGNATION 4.6

Shearing Simple Bearing Value @ 80 % of 200 N/mm* and

Value Enclosed Bearing Value @ 200 N/mm’ (see footnote)
Pi®’, Area (£

Shank
in 80 N/mm'- Thickness in mm of plate passed through or of enclosed plate
Jjy Single Double
Shear Shear 6 10 12 15 18 20 22 25

10 0.79 6.28 12.6 9.60 1

11.2 16.0
14.0

12 1.13 9.05 18.1 13.4 192 23.0 28.8

16.8 1
19.2 24.0

14 1.54 12.3 24.6 22.4 26.9 33.6 40.3

28.0 33.6

16 2.01 16.1 32.2 25.6 30.7 38.4 46.1 512

32.0 38A 48.0 57.6

18 2.54 20.4 28.8 34.6 432 51.8 57.6

36.0 432 54.0 64.8

20 3.14 25.1 5 32.0 38.4 48.0 57.6 64.0 70.4

40.0 48.0 60.0 72.0 80.0

22 3.SC 30.4 35.2 42.2 52.8 63.4 70.4 77.4

44.0 52.8 66.0 792 88.0

24 4.52 1 36.2 38.4 46.1 57.6 69.1 76.8 845 96.0

48.0 57.6 72.0 86.4 96.0 106

27 5.73 45.8 43.2 51 .8 64.8 77.S 86.4 95.0 108

54.0 64.8 81.0 972 108 119

Upper line Bearing Values for each diameter bolt are Simple Bearing Values.
Lower line Bearing Values for each diameter bolt are Enclosed Bearing Values.
For areas to De d^ucted from a bar for one hole, see table on page 709.
For explanauon of table, see Notes,
I kiloneViTon may be taken as 0.102 metric toime tmegagramme) force.
 1 I

709
AREAS IN SQUARE CENTIMETRES
TO BE DEDUCTED FOR
ONE HOLE THROUGH A MEMBER
Dia.
THICKNESS OF MEMBER AT HOLE- IN MILLIMETRES
of
Hole
in 40
6 8 10 12 15 18 20 22 25 28 30 32 35
mm 5
10 0.50 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.50 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.50 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.50 4.00
1 0.55 0.66 0.88 1.10 1.32 1.65 1.98 2.20 2.42 2.75 3.08 3.30 3.52 3.85 4.40
12 0.60 0.72 0.96 1.20 1.44 1.80 2.16 2.40 2.64 3.00 3.36 3.60 3.84 4.20 4,80
13 0.65 0.78 1.04 1.30 1.56 1.95 2.34 2.60 2.86 3.25 3.64 3.90 4.16 4,55 5.20
14 0.70 0.84 1.12 1.40 1.68 2.10 2.52 2.80 3.08 3.50 3.92 4.20 4.48 4.90 5.60

15 0.75 0.90 1.20 1.50 1.80 2.25 2.70 3.00 3.30 3.75 4.20 4.50 4.80 5.25 6.00
16 0.80 0.96 1.28 1.60 1.92 2.40 2.88 3.20 3.52 4.00 4.48 4.80 5.12 5.60 6.40
17 0.85 1.02 1.36 1.70 2.04 2.55 3.06 3.40 3.74 4.25 4.76 5.10 5.44 5,95 6.80
18 0.90 1.08 1.44 1.80 2.16 2.70 3.24 3.60 3.96 4.50 5.04 5.40 5.76 6.30 7.20
19 0.95 1.14 1.52 1.90 2.28 2.85 3.42 3.80 4.18 4.75 5.32 5.70 6.08 6.65 7.60

20 1.00 1.20 1.60 2.00 2.40 3.00 3.60 4.00 4.40 5.00 5.60 6.00 6.40 7.00 8.00
21 1.05 1.26 1.68 2.10 2.52 3.15 3.78 4.20 4.62 5.25 5.88 6.30 6.72 7.35 8.40
22 1.10 1.32 1.76 2.20 2.64 3.30 3.96 4.40 4.84 5.50 6.16 6.60 7.04 7.70 8.80
23 1.15 1.38 1.84 2.30 2.76 3.45 4.14 4.60 5.06 5.75 6.44 6.90 7.36 8.05 9.20
24 1.20 1.44 1.92 2.40 2.88 3.60 4.32 4.80 5.28 6.00 6.72 7.20 7.68 8.40 9.60
25 1.25 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.75 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.25 7.00 7.50 8.00 8.75 10.00
26 1.30 1.56 2.08 2.60 3.12 3.90 4.68 5.20 5.72 6.50 7.28 7.80 8.32 9.10 10.40
27 1.35 1.62 2.16 2.70 3.24 4.05 4.86 5.40 5.94 6.75 7.56 8.10 8.64 9.45 10.80
28 1.40 1.68 2.24 2.80 3.36 4.20 5.04 5.60 6.16 7.00 7.84 8.40 8.96 9.80 11.20
29 1.45 1.74 2.32 2.90 3.48 4.35 5.22 5.80 6.38 7.25 8.12 8.70 9.28 10.15 11.60

SPACING OF HOLES IN
COLUMNS, BEAMS AND TEES
f— Si

7 ^

Recom- Recom-
mended mended
Nominal Spacings in millimetres dia. Actual Nominal dia. Actual
flange of bm'/i flange Si b/nii*
of
widths s, S: Si S4 rivet mm widths mm rivet mm
mm or bolt mm or bolt
mm mm
119to368 140 140 75 290 24 362 146to]27
330and305 140 120
70 20 130
60 240 24 312 102 54 12 98
do. 140 120 60 240 20 300 89 50
292to203 140 24 212 76
190tol65 90 40
152
24 162 64 34
90 20 150 51 30
^ universal section may be less than the nominal size and that the
Zlt hT' r
difTerence ^
‘^e maximum diameter. The column headed b.,-. gives the
actnii mini^L
actuai mimmumwdthofnange required to comply with Table 21 orBS449-Part '>1969
for normal conditions.but adjustments
ror'rS“rSdTat!;^r''^""
reiatuelv large diameter may be necessary
Fasteners or for parucularly heavy weights of
serial size
710
SPACING OF HOLES IN CHANNELS

Nomina! Recom
mended
flange
dia. of
width rivet
mm or bolt
mm
s.
— -H-
102 55 24

89 55 20

76 45 20

64 35 16

51 30 10

38 22 -

SPACING OF HOLES IN ANGLES

Nominal Nominal

m HH
Spadngs in millimetres
leg leg s,

length length

mm mm mm
229 75 100 65 65 65 76 45
203 — 75 75 55 55 55 63 35
178 — 55 75 _ _ 57
152 - - - 32
90 55 55 51 30
137 75 45 50 _ 44 25
127 75 45 50 _ _ 38 22
102 55 — — — — 32 20
89 55 — — — 25 15

Inner gauge lines are selected Tor normal conditions and may require adjustment for specially
large diameters of fasteners or thick members. Outer gauge lines may require consideranon in relation
to a specified edge distance.
 .

RIVETED CONNECTIONS 711

Riveted Connections

Although today most connections are effected using black bolts or high
site
riveted
strength friction grip bolts and shop fabrication is tending towards welding,
joints are still used for some types of connection. In view of this the following
examples have been included.

Riveted Joints.

Tension Member
Using Grade 43 steel

Determine the number of 18 mm diameter shop driven rivets required to carry

the load in the tension member shown in Fig. I

Joint

9mm gusset p/ate

©Id)
2i0kN- s-h + + +1 y -2I0kN
'21
9mm cover plate j 69x64x7'9mm angles

^/77/77 X B6mm gusset plate

1
n
V

SECTION THROUGH SPLICE JOINT

Fig. 1

Strength ofAngles at 2-2

Area of 2/89 mm x 64 mm x 7.8-mm angles (2 x
1 137 mm^)
Less 4-20 mm diameter holes = 4(20 x = 2 274 mm"^
7.8) = 632 mm^
net area
Maximum permissible = I 642 mm^
tensile load in angles = 1 642x 155 N
= 254.5 kN
712 CONNECTIONS
Strength of gusset plates at section
1-1
= 86 mm x 9 mm
Area of 9 mm thick gusset between angles = 774 mm^
= 180 mm^
Less 1-20 mm diameter hole = 20 x 9
= 594 mm^
net area

mm thick cover plate

= 137 mm x 9 mm
Area of 9
= 1 233 mm^
= 360 mm^
Less 2-20 mm diameter holes = 2(20 x 9)
= 873 mm^
net area

= 594 + 873
Total net area of plates
= 1 467 mm^
tensile load in plates.
= 1 467x 155 N
Maximum permissible
= 227.4 kN.

Strength of Rivets at 1 10 N/mm^

mm diameter rivet in double shear = 69.1 kN
Value of 18
Value of 18 mm diameter rivet in bearing (enclosed
bearing at 315 N/mm^)
= 56.7 kN
= 113.4kN
Maximum load taken by 2 rivets = 2 x 56.7
Remainder of load to be taken by rivets in
= 210 - 113.4 kN
cover plate
= 96.6 kN
mm diameter rivet in single shear = 34.6 kN
Value of 18
96.6 = 2.79 kN.
No. required -
XT .r
..

94 kN reaction
1
0 *
No food takzn
by top cNat

\
254mm x 146mm x 43kg U.B.

o// hotzs 20mm cHa.

'^/S2mmx f02mm x9'Smm r

szating clzat 150mm long
Fig. 2
 riveted connections

Use 4 No. 18 mm diameter rivets for practical reasons.

Connections, Simple Design Grade 43
steel.
Beam End
Two Types (1) Seating cleat only.
(2) Webconnection and seating cleat.
Design a seating cleat for the loading
shown in Fig. 2
Type (1).
94 kN
Vertical load
Value of 1 8 mm diameter rivet in single shear (20 mm “ 34.6 kN
finished diameter)
mm thick) 47.9 kN
Value of ditto in bearing (9.5
94 2 12
. .
.. No. of rivets required

Use 4 No. 18 mm diameter rivets.

Check web of 254 x 146 x 43 kg UB for buckling. See Fig. 3. See clause 28 (a)

B.S.449 Part 2 1969.

; :

The supporting bracket provides a stiff bearing of 9.5 mm which, with the
dispersion of 45° to N.A. gives a total length B for buckling strength = (22.5 + 130)
152.5 mm (scaled from diagram Fig. 3).
Slenderness ratio of web where d - clear depth between roof fillets.

^
t- web thickness

= ^V?=5I.2

216mm bttwttn
root fiUtts

22mm

9-Smm

Fig. 4
714 CONNECTIONS
:.Pc (Table 17(fl) of B.S. 449) = 133 N/nun^
permissible buckling load = pc.t.B.

133 X 7.3 X 152.5

^
= 148.06 kN.
10
Check beam for bearing. Clause 27 (e) B.S. 449.
Length of bearing at junction of web and roof fillet

(see Fig. 4) L = 31 mm + tan2230°

= 31 mm + 38.1 mm
L= 69.1 mm
Allowable bearing stress =190 N/mm^
permissible bearing load = 190 x 69.1 x 7.3 N
= 95.8kN

Check shear stress clause 23 (a) B.S. 449.

Allowable shear stress (Table 11) = 100 N/mm^

Actual shear stress = -xyrr

260 X
—
94 X 10^
7.3
= 49.5 N/mm^.

These web capacities can be checked from the safe load tables.
254 mmx 146 mm
x 43 kg UB is adequate for load.

Type (2).

Web connection with seating cleat.

203mm x203mmx46kg 27SkN

f02mmxePmmx9’Smmn — No toad taken on
top cleat
wtb cleats X 295mm
long all bolt holes
6No.22mm dia. to suit close
close tolerance, tolerance
turned bolts urned bolts

4 No. 18mm dla^ 152mm xl02mmx9'5mm r

rivets CshapedJ seating deat

457mm xl90mm x 98kg UB.

Fig. 5

vertical load = 275 kN.

 —
715
RIVETED CONNECTIONS
of seating cleat is limited to accommodate
4 No. 18 nominal mm
Assuming size

(20 mm gross) diameter rivets only.

= 4 X 34.6
by rivets
seating cleat
Load carried
= 138.4 kN
(taking critical value in single shear)
= 275 - 138.4 = 136.6 kN
Remainder of load to be carried by web cleats
Using 2/102 x 89 x 9.5 mm
angle web cleats.

Check for eccentricity on web connection.

Vertical load per rivet

= 136.6 1 i-
34.15 kN.
1 XT
^

(2 X 37.5=^ + (2 X 1 12.5^) _
Modulus of rivet group = units.
flTs

-
136.6x55 =
horizontal load per rivet 30.05 kN.
250

Vector sun\,= \/34.15^ + 30.05^ = 45.49 kN.

Value of 18 nominal diameter shop driven rivet = 69.1 kN
mm
(in double shear)
4 No. 18
.'. mm
nominal diameter shop driven rivets are adequate.
Connection of outstanding legs of web cleats to Column flanges. Using turned
bolts in conjunction- with rivets [see clause 486, B.S. 449].
Value of 22 mm
diameter close tolerance turned bolt in single shear = 36.1 kN.
No. required = 136.6/36.1 = 3.78.
Use 6 - No. 22 mm
diameter close tolerance turned bolts.
Check for buckling, bearing and shear as in previous example, or refer to web
capacities given in Handbook on Structural Steelwork.

Eccentric Loading

When loads act at a distance from their support (i.e., eccentric about centre of
gravity of rivet group), bending as weU as shear stresses are set up, and these have
to be dealt with in the following manner.

There are two general cases of moments on rivet groups:

Case
I. That in which the moment is applied in the plane of the connec-
tion and the centre of rotation is at the C.G. of the rivet group.
Case 11. That in which the moment is applied at right angles to the plane
of connection. It will be assumed here that the centre of rotation
is at the
centre of the lowest rivet, although engineers are not unanimous on this point.

Consider the first case, an example of which is shown in Fig. 6.

Let P = any vertical load,
e = the eccentricity of application of P about
the C.G. of the rivet group,
n - the number of rivets in the group,
x,y- the co-ordinates of any rivet using the C.G. of the rivet
group as origin
z - the distance of any rivet from the
C.G.
= \Jipc^+y\
716 CONNECTIONS

Fig. 6

X, Y = the co-ordinates of the rivet farthest from the C.G.

Z = the distance of this rivet from the C.G.

and Fi, = the load on any rivet due to the moment M=P . e
= 0 xz, where o = load due to moment on a rivet at unit distance from the
C.G. of the group.
Then the moment resisted by this rivet

= load X lever arm to C.G.

= 0 xz^ = o X

Hence, the total moment resisted by the group

P. e
^'(Xx'^ + Xyy

Therefore the load due to the moment on the rivet receiving the maximum load
= Ft = oxZ
P. exZ _ Z

(2x^ + 2/)
or F = P.
Z
Now consider the most heavily loaded rivet, as shown in Fig. 7.
Let Fs = the direct load on any rivet due to the load P
= P/n.
Then theresultant load Fji on the rivet is a vector quantity derived from the
moment load Ft and the direct load P^. The value of Fji can, of course, be found
graphically and it is often convenient to do so.
 717
riveted connections

o o o
Fig. 7

The horizontal component of — {YlZ). Fj), while the vertical component (XfZ).

Ei, (since the line of action of Ft is at right

angles to the lever arm).

Hence

= \/(F? +Fl +2Fs.Fb cos (}>).

718 CONNECTIONS
It isrequired to calculate the stress in the most highly stressed rivets, i.e., top
and bottom right hand rivet in Fig. 8. For 205 mm
flanges the spacing of the rivet
holes is 140 mm so that the horizontal pitch for the two vertical rows of rivets is
260 + 140 = 400 mm.
Using 22 mm nominal diameter rivets at 70 mm vertical pitch the value P x e for
each bracket is 150 x 430 = 64 500 kNmm.

The modulus of the rivet group, i.e., modulus = •. See Fig. 9.

z

651 500
= 2 45 1 .6 units.
265.75
^

P.e. 64 500
Fb = = 26.3 kN
mod. of group 2 45 1 .6

150
now = 12.5 kN.
12

Fig. 10
If the values of Pj and Fj are drawn to scale as shown in Fig. 9 then the value of
iV may be found graphically to be approximately = 36.6 kN.
This is within the single shear value of a 22 mm
rivet (24 mm
diameter gross), i.e.,
49.8 kN.
 '^ ^
RIVETED CONNECTIONS
Figure 10 shows an example of the second case of a rivet group
where the applied
moment is at right angles to the plane of the connection. By analogy with the
foregoing calculations,it will be apparent that for one vertical row of rivets
the

tensile load on the topmost rivet due to the moment P.e. will be

PexY
m=

Load P acting at a distance e.

Moment Pxe = 1 09 x 225 = 109kN
Sy = 78 750/225 = 24 525 kNmm
^
Value of -~ = 350 units
(for one row)

maximum tension in top rivet

_ 24 525
(for two rows)
2x350
.\Ft = 35.0 kN
p
direct force iv=—
^ n

_109
= 13.6kN
8
Maximum stresses
..
ft tension per rivet =
. . .

—
35.0x10^

= 11 N/mm^
^ , 109x 10^
per nvet =
.

/.shear .^-j^
= 30.1 N/mm^
The resultant stress on the top rivet is a vector quantity derived from the stress
and the direct stress)^ (see Fig. 11) = 83.0 N/mm^.

Permissible stress B.S. 449 Table 20 (250 N/mm^ yield stress)

•
TT oxT
=100N/mm2.
•• Use 8 No. 22 mm diameter shop driven rivets
720 CONNECTIONS
Design of Gusset Plate

This particular part of a connection is often accepted as adequate. It is however

possible in some types of connection such as a lattice girder, dr a roof truss of large
span, that the gusset plate could be overstressed due to the loads in the members
which are connected to the gusset being out of balance. Moments are developed in
the gusset plate, which must be analysed to check the stresses arising from this
moment. The following example will illustrate this.

Eccentric Loading on Latticed Girder

It is required to design the connection for the two members of a lattice girder
meeting as shown in Fig. 12.

Fig. 12

Applied moment on connection due to 80 kN load acting at 175 mm from

centre of rivet group

80 X 175 X 10 ^ = 14 kNm.
Assuming 3 m long top panel and depth of girder 3 m the relative stiffness are
as follows;

6 734
//Z- for compression boom = = 22.4467
300

IjL for tension 0.6505

member
23.0972

Stiffness factor compression 22.4467

boom 0.9718
23.0972

0.6505
Stiffness factor tension member = 0.0282
23.0972
 RIVETED CONNECTIONS
group = 14x0.9718
moment taken by rivet
= 13.605 kNm
Value of rivet group (as example Fig. 8) = (xHy2)
= 530 units.

13 605
moment ^
Load on rivet R due to applied
530
= 25.67 kN

r-i OU = 13.33 kN
direct load per rivet

resultant value on rivet R = 25.67 + 13.33

= 39.0 kN

Value of 18 mmnominal diameter rivet in D.S. = 69.1 kN

(Shop driven 20 mm
finished diameter.)

Value of 18 mm
diameter rivet in bearing = 94.5 kN
Use 6 No. 18
.'. mm
nominal diameter rivets.

Strength of Gusset Plate

 722 CONNECTIONS
Load at section 1—1 one rivet = 26.7 kN
Load at section 2—2 two rivets = 53.3 kN
Load at section 3-3 three rivets = 80.0 kN
Area at section 3—3 = (47 + 175 + 40)15
= 3 930 mm^
Net area = 3 930 — 2(20 x 15) = 3 330 mm^
permissible load at) 3 330x 155 =
= 4 33’ 9 5 ^
516.15kN
section 3—3 |
10

Strength along line A.B.

vertical component
horizontal component

horizontal shear stress load

vertical shear stress
] net area

56.5 X 10^
= 22.2 N/mm^
[230-(3 x20)]15
80 X 122
B.M. about ^ of A.B. ^
= 9.76 kNm.
10

Z A.B. of plate

15 x2303
Ixx plate = 1 521 cm'’
12x 10^

Ixx holes (ignore centre hole and I^g of holes) = leg + AD^
nc2
= 2(15x20)x = 337.5 cm'’

net Ixx at A.B. = 1 521 - 337.5

= 1 183.5 cm'’

1 183.5 X 10'’
netZxx = = 102 913 mm^
115

^ 9.76x10®
,
stress/h^Z, =~7 =94.8N/mm^,
02 9 i 3

Max. Tensile stress = 94.8 + 22.2 = 117 N/mm^

Max. Compressive stress = 94.8 — 22.2 = 72.6 N/mm^
If the vertical edge of the gusset B-B is treated as a strut fixed at both ends (see
Fig. 13), then the effective length = 0.7 x 226 = 158 mm.

ryy for 15 mm thick plate = 4.33 mm.

7 1
CO
^ ic = 1 40 N/mm^.
1^ 433
.’. allowable compressive and tensile bending stresses are 140 and 165 N/mm^
respectively, and the gusset is adequate. It must be emphasized that usually no
analysis is carried out for gusset plates of the size shown, and the example given is
for demonstration only.
 MOMENT CONNECTIONS 723

Wind Moment Connection

When framed buildings, the joints between the

designing large multi-storey steel
beams and columns have to be capable of resisting the moments due to wind forces.
In most cases the applied moment is large, and consequently
the usual type of
connection is unable to resist the forces developed, i.e., fotcQ F = M{D where
M= bending moment, and D = depth of the beam. It is this force F in the flanges of
the beam which requires a connection of the type illustrated in the following
example.

Example: Split Beam Flange Connection

Vertical load =120 kN

Moment due to Wind= 100 kNm
Design web cleats to take vertical load.
Value of 22 mm nominal diameter rivet in bearing = 68.7 kN
(enclosed bearing 9.1 mm thick)
120
No. required = 1.74
68.7

Try 3 No. 22 mm nominal diameter rivets.

Check for eccentricity of reaction on rivet group,
(see Moment Fig, 14)= 120 x 55/10^ = 6.6 kNm
75^ ^
Modulus value of rivet group _ + 75
= 150 units
(assuming vertical spacing 75 mm) 75
Fh (moment) = 6 600/ 1 50 = 44kN
F,(vert.) = 120/3 = 40kN
Value F). (found graphically) = 59.5 kN

Design of connection of outstanding legs to column flange

Value of 24 mm
diameter bolt in single shear = 36.2 kN
No. required = 120/36.2 = 3.3

Use 4 No. 24 mm diameter black bolts.

Design of Connection of 457 x 152 UB cutting to flange of Column.

Tension force
100 X 10^
= 214kN
467.8
^ea at bottom of thread of 20 mm
diameter bolt = 245 mm^
Safe load = 245 x (130 + 25%)/ 10^ = 39.8 kN

" No. required =

= 5.37
39.8

Use 8 No. 20 mm diameter black bolts.

Design of bolts
connecting horizontal leg to beam flange

Flange shear force = ^ IQ .

= 219kN
457
 e

724 CONNECTIONS
l20kN

4S7 X 162x82 kg U.B. cutting

top and bottom xJdOmm long
SNo. 20mm d)a\ 6 No. 24mm dta. black bolts
black bolts- 5^4
(top » bottomy
* %

4No24mmdia._ 102x89x95 467-

black bolts wab doats o

wmd moment
= lOOkNm

5-4
all dimensions in mm

356x368x129 kg U.C.

Q®©

PLAN ON TOP CLEAT

Fig. 14

Value of 24 mm diameter black bolt in single shear= 36.2 kN

"
plus 25% for wind
45.3 kN

No. required = 219 = 4.84

Use 6 No. 24 mm diameter black bolts in flange.

Strength of Stem

Load from 2 No. 24 mm diameter bolts at I -I = 2 x 36.5 = 73 kN

4 No. 24 mm 2-2 = 4 x 36.5 = 146 kN
6 No. 24 mm 3_3 = 6 x 36.5 = 219 kN
 COLUMN BASES 725
1-
2- = 1 851 mm^
3- 1 =(227 -(2x27) >10.7
Net area at section 1- = 2 440 mm^
2- 2 = (282 -(2x27) }10.7
3- 3 = {338-(2x27)}10.7 = 3 039 mm^
1 = 1 851 x(130 + 25%)/10^
= 300.8 kN
Permissible load at
2 = 2 440 X (130 + 25%)/10^ = 396.5 kN
3 = 3 039 X (130 + 25%)/10^
= 493.8 kN.

Thickness required at root of flange of joist cutting.

See Fig. 15.

assumed point
of contrafloxure

P=2l4kN

4Smm
Fig. 15

214 39.6
BM on flange 2^2 = 2 124.0 kNm

368 X 18.9^
Modulus at root = 21 909 mm^
6
3
2 124.0 X 10-
Fb 21 909
= 96.9 N/mm^

Permissible stress = 165 + 25% = 206.25 N/mm 2

.'.
457 X 152 X 82 kg UB cutting is adequate.

Check BM on Column flanges.

It may be necessary to place stiffeners between column flanges to ensure that the
loads from the top and bottom flange cuttings are dispersed.
Another method of dealing with this joint is to use a welded connection of the
type illustrated in the example on page 752.

Column Bases

The type of column base required for large multi-storey columns, with heavy
loads of say 400 kN and upwards, is a slab. These slabs vary in thickness from about
18 mm to say 100 mm
thick according to the requirements, the thickness being
culated in accordance with
clause 38 (b) B.S. 449. They are machined on the top
^ace to give perfect bearing
contact with the bottom of the column, which is also
machined, and fastened to the
column by angle cleats sufficient to hold the base in
position.
726 CONNECTIONS
Gusseted, or built up bases, are required only when bending moments are applied
to the base of the column as illustrated in the following example.

Design of Stanchion Base carrying vertical load plus Wind Moment

^=
1 Vertical load on
stanchion base.

M - Moment at base
due to Wind.

1
!

Fig. 16

254x146 X 3!kg UB.

all dimensions in mm
= maximum vertical load
acting with maximum
Ve89x76x7-8mm L moment
web angles
\yl52xl02x IS- 8 mm L
4 No. 22mm dia. 4 No. 18mm dia. rivets
H.D. Bolts
340x505x25 thick
baseplate

Holding down bolts AH rivets nobbledon

L = 505 underside baseplate

Fig. 17

This type of base is common to single storey shed buildings, i.e., dead and live
loads are small in comparison to the overturning moments due to wind pressure on
the side of the buUding..

Example
W= vertical load on Stanchion Base of which 1 5 kN = dead load only.

Ends of stanchion and gussets are not faced for bearing. (Clause 38 (a) B.S. 449.)
Length of base plate parallel to stanchion web = 251 + 204 + 50 = 505 mm
(assuming two 152 x 102 x 15.8 mm base cleats).
Length parallel to stanchion flanges (assumed) = 300 mm.

Position of resultant upward thrust

~ ^^50^^

= 450 mm.
 COLUMN BASES 727
middle third, i.e.,MlW >Z,/6 there
thrust falls within the
\Vhere the resultant
no tension on base example M/W exceeds A/6 it is not
plate. If, as in this
will be

nossible for tension to

develop between baseplate and the concrete, we must draw
reinforced concrete section which will be approximate.
an analogy to a
Using the reinforced concrete beam
analogy, assuming the two stresses occur
simultaneously, and the modular ratio m = 15

.T . m.fc-d
then depth to

where fs (Grade 4.6 bolts, tension)

= 130 + 25% = 1 62.5 N/mm^
Concrete stress, fc at 4 000 kN/m^ + 25% = 5 000 kN/m^

= 5.0 N/mm^

15 X 5.0 X 433
.-.
,
depth
,
d to N.A. 136.7 mm.
(15 ^ 5.0) + 162.5

22‘SkNm

centre of compression for a triangular distribution

= 136.7/3 = 45.6 mm
take moments about Ta, ([ of H.D. bolts.

^_ 22.5x 10^ + 50x 180.5

= 81.38 kN
387.4

7fl = 81.38 - 50 = 31.38 kN.

breadth of base
plate ^_ 81.38x2x 10^
= 238 mm
136.7 X 5 000
O-c., upward force = downward
force)
increase breadth by 40% (Clause 10 (6) B.S. 449).

- 238 X 1 .4 = 333 mm.

728 CONNECTIONS
Holding Down Bolts

Minimum vertical load 15 kN

22.5 X 1 000 + 15 X 180.5
C = 65.1 kN
387.4

7a = 65.1 - 15.0 = 50.1 kN

which is greater than with maximum vertical load of 50 kN. (Clause 10 (b), B.S.

449.) This value of Ta must be increased by the factor of 1 .4.

.'.
Maximum tensional load in H.D. Bolts.
= 50.1 X 1.4 = 71.4 kN.

Permissible value in tension for

22 mm diameter bolts = (130 + 25%) x 303/10^ = 49.2 kN

for 2 bolts = 2 X 49.2 = 98.4 kN

.'. Use 2 No. 22 mm diameter H.D. Bolts each side.

The above 4-bolts will be adequate to resist the horizontal shear caused by the
Wind loading, in this case 10 kN acting at eaves level 2.25 m above base level.
Flange rivets: As end of stanchion will be cold sawn, and underside of base
cleats are not machined for bearing on baseplate, the flange rivets will be designed
to carry maximum vertical load together with maximum vertical load due to wind
moment, the rivets taking all the load.

. . vertical shear
,

"y
.
—
= 50 + 22.5 X
10^
= 11 4.6 kN

Value of 1 8 mm nominal diameter shop rivet in single shear

(Min. plate thickness 8 mm)
^ ^ ^ ^ ^3 33
No. required = 1 14.6/43.25 = 2.65

.'.
Use 4 No. 18 mm nominal diameter rivets in each flange.
Base Angle Thicknesses

Assume base angle acts mdependently of base plate and for an angle of dispersion
from H.D. bolts of 120° see Fig. 19.

Maximum B.M. in angle = tension load in one H.D. Bolt x lever arm, force in
bolt not increased by factor of 1 .4.

= ^(55-f)kNm.
Effective length le = (55 — t) x 2\/3 mm
Resistance moment of (102 leg) angle = (55 - f) x 2y/3 x-^ x Nmm.
 '

729
COLUMN BASES

•o

i20°-~~. h 0)

V 'O
/ <b
'

.1 1 1 1 I j > i-i

2
• i \ :: Jo
\ QO
I \
ie /
/
•o
/

(
1

U ^5
a// dimensions in mm
* ss
25i /
^ *

Fig. 19

Where Pic= 165 N/mm^ + 25% due to wind

= 206.25 N/mm^
B.M. = Moment of resistance.

TaiSS -0= (55 -0 X x-g- X 206.25

_ \.132Ta
Simplifying gives ( = jmlSN
Where iV= Number of H.D. Bolts and Tq = actual load tension

t = 0.09 1 = 1 4.5 mm
Use angle 152 x 102 x 15.8 mm.
Length le = 2\/3(55 — t) = 2x 1 .732 x 39.2
= 140.3 mm
Minimum length of base angle = 2 x 140.3 = 280.6 mm.
Use 340 mm breadth of base plate (see page 727).
Base Plate Thickness

Pressure distribution resulting from maximum vertical load, and maximum wind
acting together.

Maximum pressure

load on bolts C = 81.38 kN

730 CONNECTIONS
81,38 X 10^
average pressure = 1 751 kN/m^
136.7x340
maximum pressure
at base edge = 1 751 x2 = 3 502 kN/m^.
Consider base as a beam supported at the centre of the base angle vertical legs
and loaded with the pressure diagram shown. Fig. 20. This is an approximate
method, but is much easier to use.

Length of overhang of baseplate beyond angle thickness

a ~ 127 — 15.8 = 1 1 1.2 mm
Assume maximum pressure P
as constant over this length = 3 502 kN/m^

B.M. at outside face of

Pxa'^
vertical leg of angle point XX kNmm for 1 mm breadth of plate
10^x2
Moment of resistance of plate _ Pbc X tp^
at XX for 1 mm
breadth 6

• (^6c 25%) X tp^ Pxg^

6 10^ X 2

• . 2 _ Pxa^x 6
'
P 206.25 x 10^x2 68.75 X 10^

t = ? ./p
1112
P ~ ’^^
8 291.6^ 8 291 . 6

= 25.1 mm
thickness of base required = 26 mm.
 731
COLUMN SPLICES
considered as a beain,
the base
more accurate method, that is is
Tkin. the and
^ the centre of the
thickness of the vertical legs of the base angles
ted at
triangle of pressure shown
in Fig. 20,
IS with the

required - 20.8 mm.

the thickness

amount of difference, and considering the time taken in

this
Tn view of the small
it may be considered reasonable to adopt the quicker method as
latter rnethod,

to the base plate.

'^^“Sweb cleats to base to assist in the distribution of the load

Column Splice
columns is to some degree affected by questions of
The design of multi-storey
the site and also regulated by the length in which
the
transport of columns to
sections are normally available. u r , v.
sometimes desirable to design the length of column through
, i

Because of this it is

more storeys using a size of universal column

which could be spliced at the
two or
appropriate level to a length of lighter section. Clause 32 (b), B.S. 449 sets the
requirements of such spliced joints and
the following example illustrates the design

of a typical splice for the stanchion

of a multi-storey building.

305x305 U.C.

6 No. 22 mm dia.

black bolts

102x76x9-5 JL
web cleats

Ends of Stanchions
and faces of plate
machined.

2 No. 20 mm dia.
^20mm dla.
black bolts
1
bolts and rivQts
305 X 13 Flange cover plates
4No. 18mm dia. rivets

356x 368 U.C.

Fig. 21
732 CONNECTIONS
Design of Stanchion Splice

load + load \
11
Vertical load
J
fD
/ live

350 kN + 600 kN j
' > > ®
(

Wind Moment M =36 kNm

Shear (wind loading) = 20 kN
Ends machined for bearing, check for tension in column flanges due to wind
moment.
Vertical load in flanges _ 560 280 kN.
due to dead load only 2

Compression and tension forces in flanges due to wind moment

= = 1 1 7 kN (upper length)

i.e., no tension present in flanges.

Maximum compression force = + 117 = 697 kN.

As no tension stresses are developed,

it is only necessary that the splice plate be

sufficient to hold the connected members in place.

It is usual to make the length of the flange cover plates each side of the splice,

equal to the flange width or 230 mm

whichever is the greater, and the thickness,
half the thickness of the upper column flange or 10 mm
whichever is the greater.
Web cleats and a division plate must be provided, when the depth of the section
changes, to give a load dispersal of 45°. The width of the flange cover plates is made
a nominal size of 300 mm or to suit upper column size.
 733

Notes on
High Strength Friction Grip Bolts
Dimensions The bolts, nuts and washers must comply with BS 4395: 1969, ‘High
and strength friction grip bolts and associated nuts and washers for struc-
Properties tural engineering, Part 1. General grade’.

Application This must conform to BS 4604: 1970, ‘The use of high strength friction
grip bolts in structural steelwork, Part 1. General grade’.

Length The length of the bolt should be calculated by adding to the grip the
of Bolts allowance given in Table 1 below to allow for the thickness of one nut
and of one flat washer and for sufficient protrusion of the bolt end.
Where taper washers are used instead of flat washers an additional
allowance of up to 2 mm for each taper washer may be necessary when
calculating the length of the bolt.

Table 1. Bolt Length Allowances BS 4604: Part 1: 1970

Nominal size and thread diameter M12 M16 M20 M22 M24 M27 M30 M36
Allowance to be added to the grip in mm 22 26 30 34 36 39 42 48

Surfaces At the time of assembly, surfaces in contact must be free of paint or

in Contact any other applied finish, oil, dirt, loose rust, loose scale, burrs and other
defectswhich would prevent solid seating of the parts or would interfere
with the development of friction between them.

If any other surface condition, including a machined surface, is

desired, it will be the responsibility of the Engineer to determine the slip

factor to be used in the particular case.

Holes All holes must be drilled and burrs must be removed. Where the
in
number of plies in the grip does not exceed three, the diameters of the
Members
holes must be 2 mm
larger than those of the bolts for bolt diameters up
to 24 mm, and 3 mm
larger than those of the bolts for diameters larger
than 24 mm. Where the number of plies in the grip exceeds three, the
nominal diameters of the holes in the two outer plies must be as above
and the diameters of the holes in the inner plies must be not more than
3 mm larger than those of the bolts.

Where high strength friction grip bolts are used, the deduction in
cross sectional area of connected tension members must be in accord-
ance with BS 449: 1969 except that, in calculating the area to be
734 CONNECTIONS
deducted, the actual diameter of the hole must be used. No deduction
should be made in the case of compression members.

The distance from the centre of any hole to the edge of a member
and the distance between the centres of holes must be in accordance
with BS 449: 1969.

Minimum In connections using these bolts, no outer ply must be smaller in

Ply thickness than half the diameter of the bolt or 10 mm whichever is less.
Thickness
Wherever possible, this condition for minimum thickness should be
observed for inner plies.

Design (a) Shear Comections. In connections subject only to shear in the plane
of the friction faces, the number of friction grip bolts and their dis-
position must be such that the resulting load at any bolt position does
not exceed the value:

Slip factor
X number of effective interfaces x proof load of one bolt
Load factor

in which

Slip factor is the ratio of the load per effective interface required to
produce slip in a pure shear joint to the nominal shank tension
(i.e proof load) induced in the bolt or bolts.

Load factor is the numerical value by which the load which would
cause slip in a joint is divided to give the permissible working load on
the joint.

Effective interface is a common contact surface beUveen two load-

transmitting plies, excluding packing pieces, through which the bolt
passes.

Proof load is the appropriate load given in Table 2 below.

The load factor may be taken as 1.4 for structures and materials
covered by BS 449: 1969. Where the effect ofwind forces on the structure
has to be taken into consideration, this load factor may be reduced to
1.2 provided the connections are adequate when wind forces are
neglected. No additional factor is required to take account of fatigue
conditions.

In all cases where smfaces in contact comply with the conditions set
out above, the slip factor may be taken as 0.45.

Shear values of bolts per interface have been tabulated in Parts 11

and III, using the above numerical factors as the basis.
 HIGH STRENGTH FRICTION GRIP BOLTS 735

(b) Connections subject to external tension only in the direction of the

bolt axes. In these cases, the maximum permissible external tension
on any bolt must not exceed 0.6 of the proof load of the bolts used, as
given in Table 2. However, where fatigue conditions are involved, the
maximum permissible external tension on any bolt must be limited to
0.5 of the proof load.

(c) Connections subject to external tension in addition to shear. An

externally applied tension in the direction of the bolt axis reduces the
clamping action of a bolt which has been tightened to induce
effective

shank tension. To allow for this effect, the permissible resulting load
at any bolt position, as calculated from the expression in (a) above,
must be reduced by substituting for the proof load of the bolt an
effective clamping force obtained by subtracting 1.7 times the applied

external tensile load from the proof load.

Under this rule, the effective clamping action of a bolt is considered

to cease when the externally applied tension reaches 0.6 of its proof
load, which is the maximum permissible value — see {b) above.

Table 2. Proof Loads of Bolts (minimum shank tensions)

BS 4604: Part 1: 1970

Proof load Proof load

Nominal size (minimum Nominal size (minimum
and thread shank tension) and thread shank tension)
diameter kN diameter kN

M12
Ml 6
M20
49.4
92.1
144
mam 207
234
286
M22 177
ii^i 418

Note I. The proof loads in the Table are those specified in Table 4 of
BS 4395, ‘High strength friction grip bolts and associated nuts and
washers for structural engineering. Metric series’. Part 1, ‘General grade’.
Note 2. The torque necessary to induce a specified tension is determined
by actual site conditions and equipment.

Note 3. For calibration purposes, the minimum shank tensions are to

be increased by 10 per cent (see clause 4.3 of BS 4604).
HIGH STRENGTH FRICTION GRIP BOLTS
TO BS 4395 PART
: 1 : 1969 •

GENERAL GRADE .

SHEAR VALUES OF BOLTS PER INTERFACE

Diameter
of Bolt Shear Value Shear Value
Shank without wind including wind
in
mm kilonewtons kilonewtons

12 15.9 18.5

16 29.6 34.5

20 46.3 54.0

22 56.9 66.4

24 66.5 77.6

27 75.2 87.8

30 91.9 107

36 134 157

1 kilonewton may be taken as 0.102 metric tonne (megagramme) force.

 HIGH STRENGTH BOLTED CONNECTIONS 737
Friction Grip Bolts
Connections using High Strength
examples, page 718 Fig. 10, determine the number of
Example. Using previous
H S F G. bolts required,
as compared to 8 No. 22 mm
nominal diameter rivets (shop
driven).

B.M. as previous example = 24 525 kNmm

_78 750 = 350 units
Value of
Y 225

Maximum tension in top bolt _ 24 525

(for two rows) 2x350
Ft = 35.0 kN

n 109
.
direct force Fs=-^ = 13.6 kN

.’. resultant force found graphically = 37.42 kN.

Permissible load on 22 mm
diameter H.S.F.G. Bolt in combined shear and
tension (see notes).

Therefore 8 No. 22
=
^ [1 X (177 - 1.7 X 35.0)] = 37.8 kN.

mm diameter H.S.F.G. Bolts would be required which is the

same number as rivets required in previous example, page 726.
It is not advantageous to use H.S.F.G. Bolts for connections involving tension as
the shear value is lessened by the tension force exerted in the bolt, thus defeating
the purpose of these bolts.

Beam Splices
Continuous beam spliced at point of contraflexure.

Vertical shear = 1 ] 8 kN
//SkA/ 40 mm
14 ^2 No- 300mm X 6mm pIotQs

f 40 \mm
^
O 7/0 mm
+ + •

38lmm X 152 mm U B,
-f-
HO mm
•HjH
^40Xmm I
3NoJ6mm cf/a. HS.A\ G. Bo/ts
Qoch sfcfe.

60mm
USkN
Fig. 22
 CONNECTIONS
10^
Area required for plates = -118 X = 1 026.1 mm^
115

1 026.1
Net tliickness of plates required
300 -(3 X 18)

1 026.1
= 4 17 mm
246
Two 300 mm x 8 mm plates are adequate
Vertical force per bolt = 118 = 39.33 kN

Moment due to force = 118 x80 =9440kNmm

horizontal force acting on ^ 9 440
outermost bolt modulus of bolt group (1 brie)

= 9 440/220 = 42.91 kN

.’. resultant force Fj- = V39.33'' + 42.912 = 58.2 kN

permissible value of 16 mm diameter H.S.F.G. Bolt = 29.6 kN/interface

Value of 16 mm diameter H.S.F.G. Bolt = 29.6 x 2 = 59.2 kN

Use 3 No. 16 mm H.S.F.G. Bolts each side of splice.

Design of Coimection for Continuous Beams

i.e., Moment at Support.

4No.20mm cfia. tack bolts

3S6mmxl27mmx39kg U.B. IA IZ6mmx limm^Flangt p/aU

4No. 20mm dio.

^ 50kNm H.S.F. G. Bolts \SOkNm
Coach side)

356mm X 127mm X 39 kg U.B.

102 mm ''2No. 20mm dio. block

j bolts Coach sidoJ
M.S. Packs to give-
a true butt ^ 102mm x76mm x9'4mm r
sooting cleat
Fig. 23

Support Moment = 50 kNm

50 X 10^
Shear force on bolts due to moment = = 141.6 kN
 WELDING 739

Permissible load on one 20 mm diameter

= 46.3 kN
H.S.F.G. Bolt (see tables)

. , 141.6 = 3.06
No. required
2

Use 4 No. 20 mm diameter H.S.F.G. Bolts each side.

Tensile force in top flange
= 141.6 kN
10^
_ 141.6 X = 913.5 mm^
Area required in flange plate 155

tUckness required = []26 !'(2 x 22)]

.•. 126 mm x 12 mm cover plate is adequate.

The compressive forces due to the moment in the beam are dealt with by
inserting mild steel packs as necessary, thus transferring all forces into the web of
the main cross beam.

Compressive force = 141.6 kN

possible area of contact = width of flange x thickness of flange
= 126 X 10.7 = 1 348.2 mm^
permissible force = 1 348.2 x 190 N
= 256.2 kN.

therefore web of main beam willnot be overstressed. The rivets in the vertical leg
of the seating cleat should be checked for carrying the beam reaction load.

Welding

The tendency today to use welding for aU manner of cormections has greatly
increased.
The ideal situation is to have shop welded cormections in fabrication, and bolted
siteconnections. There is no doubt also that site welding of joints for rigid frame
construction (see later Rigid Frame Joints notes) can lead to a more competitive
design, as it approaches to a homogeneous structure, as in reinforced concrete
constmction.
It is now possible to
carry out on the site ultrasonic testing of welds. B.S. 3923
Methods for Ultrasonic Examination of Welds.”
 740 CONNECTIONS

Notes on
Welding
Electrodes BS 449 refers to BS manual metal-arc
639, ‘Covered electrodes for the
welding of mild and medium-tensile steel’ and states that when
steel

electrodes complying with Sections 1 and 2 of BS 639 are used for the
welding of grade 43 steel, or with Sections 1 and 4 of BS 639 are used
for the welding of grade 50 steel, or with Sections 1 and 4 are used
for the welding of grade 55 steel (see clause 4.1.1 of BS 639) and the
yield stress of an all-weld tensile test specimen is not less than 430
N/mm^ when tested in accordance with Appendix D of BS 639, the
following shall apply:

Butt (i) Butt welds. Butt weld shall be treated as parent metal with a throat
Welds thickness (or a reduced throat thickness as specified in clause 54 for
certain butt welds) and the stresses shall not exceed those allowed in
BS 449 for the parent metal.

Fillet (ii) Fillet welds. The allowable stresses in fillet welds, based on a
Welds thickness equal to the throat thickness, shall be 1 1 5 N/mm.^ for grade
43 steel or 160 N/mm^ for grade 50 steel or 195 N/mm^ for grade 55
steel.

Mixed (iii) When electrodes appropriate to a lower grade of steel are used for

Grades welding together parts of material of a higher grade of steel, the

allowable stresses for the lower grade of steel shall apply.

Combined (iv) When

a weld is subject to a combination of stresses, the stresses
Stresses shallbe combined as required by subclauses 14.c and d, the value of the
equivalent stress fe being not greater than that permitted for the
parent metal.
 WELDING 741

STRENGTH OF FILLET WELDS

FOR GRADE 43 STEEL
PERMISSIBLE LOADS IN KILONEWTONS PER mm RUN
WITH ELECTRODES TO BS 639, SECTIONS 1 AND 2.

Throat Load Leg Throat Load

Leg thickness at
thickness at length
length
in ram in mm 115 N/mm‘ in mm in mm 115 N/mm'

3 2.1 0.24 12 8.4 0.97

4 2.8 0.32 15 10.5 1.21

5 3.5 0.40 18 12.6 1.45

6 4.2 0.48 20 14.0 1.61

8 5.6 0.64 22 15.4 1.77

10 7.0 0.80 25 17.5 2.01

STRENGTH OF FULL PENETRATION BUTT WELDS

FOR GRADE 43 STEEL
PERMISSIBLE LOADS IN KILONEWTONS PER mm RUN
WITH ELECTRODES TO BS 639, SECTIONS 1 and 2

Thickness Shear Tension or Thickness Shear Tension or

in at Compression at in at Compression at
mm 100 N/mm* 155 N/mm* mm 100 N/mm* 155 N/mm*

6 0.60 0.93 22 2.20 3.41

8 0.80 1.24 25 2.50 3.88

10 1.00 1.55 28 2.80 4.34

12 1.20 1.86 30 3.00 4.65

15 1.50 2.33 35 3.50 6.43

18 1.80 2.79 40 4.00 6.20
20
2.00 3.10
 742 CONNECTIONS

STRENGTH OF FILLET WELDS

FOR GRADE 50 STEEL
PERMISSIBLE LOADS IN KILONEWTONS PER mm RUN
WITH ELECTRODES TO BS 639, SECTIONS 1 and 4

Leg Throat Load Leg Throat Load

length thickness at length thickness at
in mm in mm 160 N/mm’ in mm in mm 160 N/mm*

3 2.1 0.34 12 8.4 1.34

4 2.8 0.45 15 10.5 1.68

5 3.5 0.56 18 12.6 2.02

6 4.2 0.67 20 14.0 2.24

8 5.6 0.90 22 15.4 2.46

10 7.0 1.12 25 17.5 2.80

ITRENGTH OF FULL PENETRATION BUTT WELDS

FOR GRADE 50 STEEL
PERMISSIBLE LOADS IN KILONE\^TONS PER mm RUN
WITH ELECTRODES TO BS 639, SECTIONS 1 and 4

Thickness Shear Tension or Thickness Shear Tension or

in at Compression at in at Compression at
mm 140 N/mm* 215 N/mm* mm 140 N/mm' 215 N/mm*

6 0.84 1.29 22 3.08 4.73

8 1.12 1.72 25 3.50 5.38

10 1.40 2.15 28 3.92 6.02

12 1.68 2.58 30 4.20 6.45

15 2.10 3.23 35 4.90 7.53

18 2.52 3.87 40 5.60 8.60

20 2.80 4.30
 743
WELD GROUPS
FORCE
WELDS NOT IN THE PLANE OF THE

P.e.n _P.e
2lxX ZxX
ER = V(i=i2+F62)

VALUES OF Ixx W" THROAT THICKNESS

Values of min mm
1

150 175 200 225 250 275 300

50 75 100 125

18.8 21.9 25.0 28.1 31.3 34.4 37.5

50 6.3 9.4 12.5 15.6

42.2 49.2 56.3 63.3 70.3 77.3 84.4

75 14.1 21.1 28.1 35.2

62.5 75.0 87.5 100.0 112.5 125.0 137.5 150.0

100 25.0 37.5 50.0

58.6 78.1 97.7 117.2 136.7 156.3 175.8 195.3 214.8 234.4
125 39.1

150 56.3 84.4 112.5 140.6 168.8 196.9 225.0 253.1 281.3 309.4 337.5

175 76.6 114.8 153.1 191.4 229.7 268.0 306.3 344.5 382.8 421.1 459.4

200 100.0 150.0 200.0 250.0 300.0 350.0 400.0 450.0 500.0 550.0 600.0

225 126.6 189.8 253.1 316.4 379.7 443.0 506.3 569.5 632.8 696.1 759.4

250 156.3 234.4 312.5 390.6 468.8 546.9 625.0 703.1 781.3 859.4 937.5
E
E 275 189.1 283.6 378.1 472.7 567.2 661.7 756.3 850.8 945.3 1 039.8 1 134.4

300 225.0 337.5 450.0 562.5 675.0 787.5 900.0 1 012.5 1 125.0 1 237.5 1 350.0

§! 325 264.1 396.1 528.1 660.2 792.2 924.2 1 056.3 1 188.3 1 320.3
1
1 452.3 1 584.4

350 306.3 459.4 612.5 765.6 918.8 1 071.9 1 225.0 1 378.1 1 531.3 1 684.4 1 837.5

375 351.6 527.3 703.1 878.9 1 054.7 1 230.5 1 406.3 1 582.0 1 757.8 I 933.6 2 109.4
i

400 400.0 600.0 800.0 1 000.0 1 200.0 1 400.0 1 600.0 1 800.0 2 000.0 2 200.0 2 400.0

425 451.6 677.3 903.1 1 128.9 1 354.7 1 580.5 1 806.3 2 032.0 2 257.8 2 483.6 2 709.4

450 506.3 759.4 1 012.5 1 265.6 1 518.8 1 771.9 2 025.0 2 278.1 2 531.3 2 784.4 3 037.5

475 564.1 846.1 1 128.1 1 410.2 1 692.2 1 974.2 2 256.3 2 538.3 2 820.3 3 102.3 3 384.4

500 625.0 937.5 1 250.0 1 562.5 1 875.0 2 187.5 2 500.0 2 812.5 3 125.0 3 437.5 3 750.0

525 689.1 1 033.6 1 378.1 1 722.7 2 067.2 2 411.7 2 756.3 3 100 .^ 3 445.3 3 789.8 4 134.4
550 756.3 1 134.4 1 512.5 1 890.6 2 268.8 2 646.9 3 025.0 3 403.1 3 781.3 4 159.4 4 537.5
575 826.6 1 239.8 1 653.1 2 066.4 2479.7 2 893.0 3 306.3 3 719.5 4 132.8 4 546.1 4 959.4

— 600 900.0 1 350.0 1 800.0 2 250.0 2 700.0 3 150.0 3 600.0 4 050.0 4 500.0 4 950.0 5 400.0
 \VELD GROUPS
WELDS IN THE PLANE OF THE FORCE

Fb=—
IT

VALUES OP Ip (in an*) FOR 1 mm THROAT THICKNESS

Values of min mm
25 250 300
50 ’5
\ I

89.3 260.4 450.0 714.6

16.7 32.6 56.3

89.3 133.3 346.6 572.1 878.9

32.6 56.3

56.3 89.3 133.3 189.8 450.0 714.6 1 066.7

133.3 189.8 260.4 572.1 878.9 1 279.4

89.3

133.3 189.8 260.4 346.6 714.6 1 066.7

189.8 260.4 346.6 450.0 878.9 1 279.4

260.4 346.6 450.0 572.1 1 066.7 1 518.8

346.6 450.0 572.1 714.6 1 279.4 1 786.2 83.3

450.0 572.1 714.6 878.9 1 518.8 2 0^3.3 11.7 1

2

mm
572.1 714.6 878.9 1 066.7 1 786.2 2 411.7
In
n
714.6 878.9 1 066.7 1 279.4 2 083.3 2 772.9
of

Values
878.9 1 066.7 2 411.7 3 168.5

1 066." 1 279.4 2 772.9 3 600.0

1 279.4 1 518.8 3 168.5 4 069.0

1 518.8 1 786.2 3 600.0 4 577.1

1 786.2 2 083.3 1.7 4 069.0 5 125.8

2 0S3.3 2 411.7 2.9 4 577.1 5 716.7

2 411.7 2 772.9 3 168.5 5 125.8

i
6 351.3

2 772.9 3 168J 3 600.0 5 125.8 5 716.7 6 351.3 7 031.3 7 758.1

3 168.5 3 600.0 4 069.0 5 716.7 6 351.3 7 031.3 7 758.1 8 533.3

3 600.0 4 069.0 4 577.1 6 351.3 7 031.3 7 758.1 8 533.3 9 358.6

( 4 069.0 4 577.1 5 125.8 5 .7 031.3 7 758.1 8 533.3 9 358.6 10 235.4

5 125.8 5 716.7 8 533.3 10 235.4

746 CONNECTIONS
WELDS IN THE PLANE OF THE FORCE

VALUES OF Ip (in cm'*) FOR 1 mm THROAT THICKNESS

Values of m in mm
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300

8.3 16.4 29.2 48.2 75.0 111.2 IS8.3 218.0 291.7 381.0 487.5

16.1 28.1 44.8 67.7 98.4 138.5 189.6 253.1 330.7 424.0 534.4

27.1 44.5 66.7 95.1 131.3 176.8 233.3 302.3 385.4 484.1 600.0

41.1 65.6 94.8 130.2 173.4 226.0 289.6 365.6 455.7 561.5 684.4

ISO 58.3 91.4 129.2 173.2 225.0 286.2 358.3 443.0 541.7 656.0 787.5

175 78.6 121.9 169.8 224.0 285.9 357.3 439.6 534.4 643.2 767.7 909.4

200 102.1 216.7 282.6 356.3 439.3 533.3 639.8 760.4 896.6 1 050.0

225 128.6 196.9 269.8 349.0 435.9 532.3 639.6 759.4 893.2 1 042.7 1 209.4

250 158.3 241.4 329.2 423.2 525.0 636.2 758.3 893.0 1 041.7 1 206.0 1 387.5

s 275 191.1 394.8 505.2 623.4 751.0 889.6 1 040.6 1 205.7 1 386.5 1 584.4
s:

300 227.1 344.5 466.7 595.1 731.3 876.8 1 033.3 1 202.3 1 385.4 1 584.1 1 800.0
o-
325 266.1 544.8 692.7 848.4 1 013.5 1 189.6 1 378.1 1 580.7 1 799.0 2 034.4
:S
350 308.3 466.4 629.2 798.2 975.0 1 161.2 1 358.3 1 568.0 1 791.7 2 031.0 2 287.5

375 353.6 534.4 719.8 911.5 1 110.9 1 319.8 1 539.6 1 771.9 2 018.2 2 280.2 2 559.4

400 816.7 1 032.6 1 256.3 1 489.3 1 733.3 1 989.8 2 260.4 2 546.6 2 850.0

425 453.6 684.4 919.8 1 161.5 1 669.8 1 939.6 2 221.9 2 518.2 2 830.2 3 159.4

450 508.3 766.4 1 298.2 1 861.2 2 158.3 2 468.0 2 791.7 3 131.0 3 487.5

475 566.1 853.1 1 144.8 1 442.7 1 748.4 2 063.5 2 389.6 2 728.1 3 080.7 3 449.0 3 834.4

500 627.1 944.5 1 266.7 1 595.1 1 931.3 2 276.8 2 633.3 3 002.3 3 385.4 3 784.1 4 200.0

525 691.1 1 394.8 1 755.2 2 123.4 2 501.0 2 889.6 3 290.6 3 705.7 4 136.5 4 584.4

550 758.3 1 141.4 1 529.2 1 923.2 2 325.0 2 736.2 3 158.3 3 593.0 4 041.7 4 506.0 4 987.5

575 828.6 1 246.9 1 669.8 2 535.9 2 982.3 3 439.6 3 909.4 4 393.2 4 892.7 5 409.4

600 902.1 1 357.0 1 816.7 2 282.6 2 756.3 3 239.3 3 733.3 4 239.8 4 760.4 5 296.6 5 850.0
 747
WELD GROUPS
WELDS IN THE PLANE OF THE FORCE

f-

Tfl
i L

VALUES OF/p (in cm^) FOR 1 mm THROAT THICKNESS

Values of m in mm
100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
50 75

41.1 58.3 78.6 102.1 128.6 158.3 191.1 227.1

50 8.3 16.1 27.11
1

44.5 65.6 91.4 121.9 157.0 196.9 241.4 290.6 344.5

75 16.4 28,1
1

44.8 66.7 94.8 129.2 169.8 216.7 269.8 329.2 394.8 466.7
100 29.2

67,7 95.1 130.2 173.2 224.0 282.6 349.0 423.2 505.2 595.1
125 48.2
i 1

75.0 98.4 131.3 173.4 225.0 285.9 356.3 435.9 525.0 623.4 731.3
150
1 1

175 111.0 138.5 176.8 226.0 286.2 357.3 439.3 532.3 636.2 751.0 876.8
j 1

200 158.3 189.6 233.3 289.6 358.3 i

439.6 533.3 639.6 758.3 889.6 1 033.3

225 218.0 253.1 302.3 365.6 443.0 534.4 639.8 759.4 893.0 1 040.6 1 202.3

250 291.7 330.7 385.4 455.7 541.7 '

643.2 760.4 893.2 1 041.7 1 205.7 1 385.4

E
e 275 381.0 424.0 484.1 561.5 656.0 ;
767.7 896.6 1 042.7 1 206.0 1 386.5 1 584.1

Z 300 487.5 534.4 600.0 684.4 787.5 *

909.4 1 050.0 1 209.4 1 387.5 1 584.4 1 800.0
1

Vl
325 612.8 663.5 734.6 826.0 937.8 1 069.8 1 222.1 1 394.8 1 587.8 1 801.0 2 034.6

350 758.3 813.0 889.6 988.0 1 108.3 1 250.5 1 414.6 1 600.5 1 808.3 2 038.0 2 289.6

375 925.8 984.4 1 066.4 1 171.9 1 300.8 1 453.1 1 628.9 1 828.1 2 050.8 2 296.9 2 566.4

400 1 116.7 1 179.2 1 266.7 1 379.2 1 516.7 1 679.2 1 866.7 2 079.2 2 316.7 2 579.2 2 866.7

425 1 332.6 1 399.0 1491.9 1 611.5 1 757.6 1 930.2 2 129.4 2 355.2 2 607.6 2 886.5 3 191.9

450 1 575.0 1 645.3 1 743.8 1 870.3 2 025.0 2 207.8 2 418.8 2 657.8 2 925.0 3 220.3 3 543.8

475 1 845.6 1 919.8 2 023.7 2 157.3 2 320.6 2 513.5 2 736.2 2 988.5 3 270.6 3 582.3 3 923.7

500 2 145.8 2 224.0 2 333.3 2 474.0 !

2 645.8 2 849.0 3 083.3 3 349.0 3 645.8 3 974.0 4 333.3
1
1

525 2 477.3 2 559.4 2 674.2 2 821.9 3 002.3 3 215.6 3 461.7 3 740.6 4 052.3 4 396.9 4 774.2

550 2 841.7 2 927.6 3 047.9 3 202.6 3 391.7 3 615.1 3 872.9 4 165.1 4 491.7 4 852.6 5 247.9
1

575 3 240.4 3 330.2 3 456.0 3 617.7 3 815.4 4 049.0 4 318.5 4 624.0 4 965.4 5 342.7 5 756.0

— 600 3 675.0 3 768.8 3 900.0 4 068.8 4 275.0 4 518.8 4 800.0 5 118.8 5 475.0 5 868.8 6 300.0
 WELDED CONNECTIONS 749

Design of Welded Connections

Example. Single Angle. Tension Load =110 kN.

fnak9 76 mm min. permitted

Design end connection using balanced welds, to keep distortion to a minimum.

Use 6 mm fillet welds.
Strength of welds = 0.48 kN/mm run.
Side B. Taking moments about A.

Lb x/x 16= Px 54.4 where Lg = length of weld in mm.

f = strength of weld
110 X 54.4
f _ = 164.6 mm
0.48 X 76

make 168 mm, plus one end return of 2 x 6 mm.

Total length = 180 mm
Side A. Taking moments about B.
x/x 76 = Px 21.6

. , _ 110x21.6
^ =
0.48 x76
Make total length =76 mm (see B.S. 449 Clause 54 (/)).
Example. Double angle. Tension Load =
600 kN.
750 CONNECTIONS
Using 8 mm fillet welds,
= 0.64 kN/mm
strength of weld run.
Side A. Taking moments about B.

. , 600x55.2
length required =9 ^
x 152x0.64"

Use 180 mm run.

Side B. Taking moments about .4.

, , . ,
600x96.8
length required = 2 x 152 x 0.64 “

Use 315 mm run.

If the length of side weld is restricted, then the end of the angle can be welded.
This will reduce the side welds as follows:

Sidev4

. ,
= 600x55.2 152x0.64x76
, ,
length requited = 94.2 mm.
0.64x152
Use 100 mm run.
Side 5
,
length
® required
^
. ,
=-:r —
600x96.8
— — ftft
2x1^2x0.64
'6 = oo-c
22o.3 mm.

Use 240 mm run.

In practice it is generally considered adequate to cany' the weld all round the
angles, but to decrease the lengths of w’elds to suit.

Moment Coimection with Welded End Plate

In order to avoid excessive local flange bending in the column due to the
externally applied end moment on the beam it is desirable that the cross-centres of
the bolts be kept to a minimum, i.e., as close as possible to the column root. There-
fore the end plate width, assuming 150 mm centres of bolts, will be in the order of
225 mm.
It tvill be appreciated that almost invariably' web stiffeners will be required in the
column opposite the beam flange position, under hea^y loading, i.e.,^ and B (Fig.
26). The end plate will be fully welded to the beam; the weld around the top flange
and locally in the web resisting the force due to the end moment and the remaining
w'eb welds resisting the vertical end shear.
In fillet w'elds, failures generally occur in the tension flange of the beams and it
is significant that the initial crack invariably' starts near the root
of the sectioiL
important, therefore, to design the tension flange welds to develop the full
It is

strength of the flange and also to continue these welds dow-n the web to avoid any'
discontinuity' adjacent to the root. (Reference by' L. G. Johnson; Tests on Weld
Connections, etc., B.WJ. Jan. 1959 (6).)
 \VELDED CONNECTIONS 751

size of the weld, end plate thickness and bolt diameter

In order to determine the
required to resist the tensile forces
created by the applied moment it will be
adjacent underside of bottom flange.
assumed that rotation takes place about a point
(See Fig. 26.)

x74kg UB.

flange

tOOkN
Direct load

The stiffeners 'A' * 'B'

would be placed l9SkNm

horizontally if a
similar beam were
on the opposite ,

flange of column 4 No. 24mm dia. Grade 6'8 bolts

$ 457mm x 190mm x74kg U.\B.

356 mm x 368 mm x 153kg

\
\ 2No. 24mm
' dla. Grade 8-8 bolts
Flange stiffeners %
thickness as for
beam flanges

Fig. 27

In this particular example since

the end moment does not change sign the forces
on the bottom flange are
compressive and only a nominal connection will be
necessary.
Ifend moments from vnnd forces have
to be considered, the foregoing statement
not necessarily hold, as it may
be possible to have tensile forces applied to the
752 CONNECTIONS
treatment should be
lower flange connection. Should this occur, the following
applied to both top and bottom flanges bearing in
mind any increase in permissible
stress.
The of weld required to connect the top flange to the end plate is now
size
is applied to the centre of
calculated. It is assumed that the force in the top flange
gravity of the weld group (Fig. 28) acting about the centre of rotation (lever arm)
adjacent to the bottom flange (Fig. 26).

To calculate centre of gravity of top flange weld.

Assuming weld to be unity.

Take moments about top flange.

Weld^ 191 X 1 X 0 = 0
Weld 5 2x 90 xlx 14.5 = 2 610
Weld C 2 X 59.5 x 1 x (20.5 + 29.75) = 5 986

8 596

length of weld group = 191 + (2 x 90) + (2 x 59.5) = 490 mm.

Position of C. of G. of weld group from top flange

_ ^ 8 596 17.5 mm
^ 490

Lever arm d = 457 mm (beam depth) — 17.5 (y)

= 439.5 mm.
Force applied to C. of G. of weld group = Mjd
195 X 10^
= 443.7 kN
439.5

To determine Weld size around top flange

length of weld in top flange group = 490 mm
 WELDED CONNECTIONS 753

443.7
load per mm run of weld =“4^ = 0.91 kN.

Use 12 mm FUlet Weld (0.97 kN/mm provided^

To determine weld around remainder of section. Let weld on remainder of end
plate support the 100 kN vertical reaction

100
.'. size of weld -
length of weld

100 100
= 0.09 kN/mm
^ (2 X 377 mm) + (2 x 190 mm) 1 1 34
.’. Use 5 mm fillet weld.
To determine the size and number of bolts in the Upper Group.

This group is assumed to carry the tension from the beam end moment.
Assume weld group,
the force applied to the bolts to be equal to that applied to the
but acting at a point at the centre of the flange thickness.
Assume No. of bolts required = 4

.'. tensile load per bolt =

— —=
443.7
- 1 10.9 kN

Therefore use 4 No. 24 mm diameter Grade 8.8 bolts (1 18.2 kN).

To determine number of bolts to carry 100 kN Vertical Load
Assuming a bolt size of 24 mm diameter Grade 8.8
(Since bearing value of column flange is criterion, value of 79.5 kN to be used.)

No. of bolts = ~~ = 1 .26 bolts

Therefore use 2 No. 24 mm diameter Grade 8.8 bolts in bottom group.

To determine thickness of end plate
To calculate the thickness of the end plate it is necessary to know the position
of the top moment resisting group of bolts in the end plate.
To obtain a minimum end plate thickness the bolt group should be as compact
as possible.

x74kgU.B.

Fig. 29
754 CONNECTIONS
Assume the end plate deforms in double curvature, then the effective lever arm
istaken as the distance from the back of the weld (i.e., flange face a) to the edge of
the bolt hole (h) with a point of contraflexure occurring midway between these
points, i.e. c/2.
In this example let the distance above the flange to the centre Une of the hole
= 50 mm.
.'.
c = 50 — (hole diameter) = 50 — 13
= 37 mm.
For end plate thickness
Assume the force applied to the bolt group is divided equally between the bolts
above and below the flange.

flang^force^
Elastic moment induced in plate =
^^
— —
= 37 X 440.6
-
2 2
= 4 076 kNmm.
Design end plate plastically.

w , . ^
Modulus requned Zp =
4 076 . . X lO^x 1.75 _
29.1
,
cm'"
245 xlo^
4Z„
f where t =
thickness of plate
b = breadth of plate
4x29.1 X 10^
225
517.6

t = 22.8 mm say 23 mm.

Calculate the size of welds for the joist cutting used as a bracket in Fig. 30.

Calculate;
Centre of gravity of top flange weld.
 WELDED BRACKETS 755

Assume end moment is resisted by the top flange weld rotating about the bottom

The vertical shear may be

assumed to be resisted by the remaining 6 fillet mm
weld which extends along
each side of the web and encompasses the bottom flange.
Moment = 120 kN x 250 = 30 kNm. mm
To calculate C. of G. of top flange weld. Take moment about X-X top of top
flange.
125 mm
We/d 'a'

: V//////////A i
8 '5 mm
/9-2mm

We/ds c 356mm x/27x 33kg U.B.

%
= 65 '5mm
I

Fig. 30a

125 X 1 X 0 = 0 weld a

2(60 X 1 X 8.5) = 1 020 welds b

65 .5x 1 x^l4.5+^j = 6 190 welds c

Ay = 1210
Where A= 2 weld areas.
=
y distance from top flange to C. of G.
[(125 X 1) + (2 X 60 X 1) + (2 X 65.5 x l)lT= 7 210
[125 + 120 + 131]y=7 210
376T=7 210
_ = 7210
y = 19.2 mm.
376
Position of C. of G. of top flange weld from bottom flange point of rotation

348 - 19.2

mm
= 328.8

Force in top flange weld group

_M_30x 10^
d 328.8
= 91.2kN

•• load per mm run of weld = 91.2

length of top flange weld
length of top flange
and local weld = 37 mm
load per mm run of weld 91.2
= 0.243 kN
376
756 CONNECTIONS
Value of 6mm F.W. 0.48 kN/mm run.
is

Therefore 6 mm F. Weld adequate.

is

Since remainder of weld is assumed to resist the vertical shear from the 120 kN
end reaction the load per mm run of weld
_ shear force
length of weld
120 _ 120
(125 + 120 + 507) 752
= 0.16 kN/mm run
since value of 5 mm F.W. is 0.40 kN/mm, this is more than adequate.
In practice one would probably stipulate a 6 mm
F.W. continuous round the
whole coimection, there is very little difference between a 5 and a 6 F.W.mm mm
as regards cost.

Example. Calculate the size of welds required for the bracket shown in Fig. 31.
The force P on each plate =120 kN.

Considering Table page 745 and assuming a unit throat thickness, the loads are
calculated as follows:

P _ 120x10^ Y
^ 2{m + n) 2(275 + 300)
= 104.3 N/mm run
_ P. e.r _ 120 X 10^x315x203.5
^ 3 168.5 X 10^
/p
= 242.7 N/mm run
= \J{Fs + F^ + 2Fj. F), . cos 0).

Now cos e = 0.675

Hence, = V[ 1 04.3^ + 242.7^

+ (2 X 104.3 X 242.7 x 0.675)J
= 322.5 N/mm run.
Use 5 mm fillet welds throughout. Fig. 32
 WELDED SEATING CLEATS 757

size of welds required if the brackets in Example 2 are

Example. Calculate the
sides only as shown in Fig. 32.
welded on three
find the position of the
centroid of the welds by taking moments about
First
edge of the plate. Assume welds of unit throat thickness,
the left-hand

(2 X 275 X 137.5) -h (300x0)

= 89 mm
2x215 + 300

then
e = 315 + 137.5 — 89 = 363.5 mm

^xx (2x275 x 150^)+^ 10"

= 1 462.5 cm'*
^
275 10"
lyy 2 X- +(2x 275 X 48.5^ + (300 x 89^)
12 )
= 713.6 cm'*

~
/xx ^yy

= 2 176.1 cm".

Moment = 120 x 363.5 x 10“^

= 43.62 kNm
Maximum r = \/l50^ + 1 86^

= 239 mm
Nowcos0=^= 0.778.
1^0xl0^_ .

218.2 N/mm run

(2 X 275) -t 300
^ _ 43.62 X 10^ 239 “
Ti TTtT 77 4
2 176 X 10
479. 1 ^
— N/mm run

F/j = V[218.2^-t 479.1H (2 x 218.2 x 479.1 x 0.778)]

= 663.2 N/mm run.

Use 10 mm fillet weld (0.80 kN/mm run).

Example. Calculate the size of welds required for the seating cleat shown in
Fig. 33.
758 CONNECTIONS
If the cleat were stiffened and the eccentricity of the beam reaction increased,
the welds would have to be calculated as in Example (page 749), but in this case
there is direct load only.
The reaction =135 kN.
Effective length of fillet welds connecting cleat to stanchion = say, 290 mm.

Load per mm run - ;r^

= 0.47 kN.

Use 6 mm fillet weld (0.48 kN/mm run).

Example. Design a gusseted base for the 457 x 190 x 67 kg U.B. shown in Fig.
34, which is subjected to an axial load of 800 kN and a B.M. of 1 52 kNm.

The loading system can be replaced by a single equivalent load of 800 kN with
an eccentricity about the vertical axis of the column of 152 x 10^/800 = 190 mm,
as shown in the figure.
is made 1 140
If the base mm
long, then the equivalent load is placed 380 mm,
or one-third of the base length, from the end D
and the pressure diagram will be
 WELDED BASES 759

shown, varying from zero at a to a maximum

triangular as
at d, the value being

2PM where P is the axial load and A the area of the base.
A convenient base width is 450 mm. Checking the maximum pressure on the
concrete foundation,

2P _ 2x800
140x454x 10'^
A 1

= 3 1 18.9 kN/m^.

The base will be of the form shown in Fig. 35.

Hatched area shows zone

of pressure which provides
maximum B.M. in a gusset

Fig. 35

Gusset Plates

Assume that the two gusset plates are 400 mm high and 1 6 mm thick.
The critical points for B.M. in a gusset are at the faces of the column flanges.
In
this case the maximum B.M. is at C in Fig. 34. The load consists of the upward
pressure on the base zone hatched in Fig. 35. The intensity of pressure
plate in the
is shown in the pressure
diagram in Fig. 34 and the lever arm, which may be
obtained by calculation or graphically as shown,
is 203.25 mm. Therefore,

Mnax “ load X lever arm

_ / 3 119 + 2 175 343 x 225 203.25

]
\ 2 ^ 10 ^ 10
^

= 209.4x0.20325

= 42.55 kNm.
760 CONNECTIONS
At C the section modulus

16x400^
^ 6 6x10^
= 426.67 cm^

Hence, the maximum stress

M_ 42,55 X 10^
^ Z 426.67 xlO^

= 99.73 N/mm^

As the gusset plates are unstiffened along the compression edge, this stress is not
unduly low and it would not be prudent to reduce the height of the gusset plates.
The maximum shear stress

^3 209.4 X 10^
2^ 16x400
= 49.07 N/mm^
This is satisfactory.

Welds
In the absence of any specific guidance in B.S. 449 : Part 2 : 1969, the following
design is based on Clause 50. c of B.S. 449 : 1948, which stated:

“In riveted and welded construction for stanchions with gusseted bases, the
gusset plates, angle cleats, stiffeners, fastenings, etc., in combination with the
bearing area of the shaft, all fabricated flush for bearing, shall be sufficient to
take the loads, bending moments and reactions to the base plate without
exceeding specified stresses, but not than 60 per cent of the axial load
less
shallbe calculated as taken by the fastenings.
In the case of bending moments sufficient rivets or welding shall be
provided to transmit the full bending moment to the base.
Where the end of the stanchion shaft and the gusset plates are not faced for
complete bearing, the fastenings connecting them to the base plate shall be
sufficient to transmit all the forces to which the base is subjected.”

The forces are assumed to be imposed by the column through its flanges. Then the
force at C, due to the direct load, assuming flush bearing

Fj=-^x60%=240 kN,

while the force at C due to B.M.

B.M. _ 152x10^
^ Column depth 454
= 334.8 kN.

Therefore the total load in the flange at C= 240 + 334.8 = 574.8 kN, and the
force applied to one gusset plate = 574.8/2 = 287.4 kN.
 WELDED ROOF TRUSSES 761

Themaximum length of weld which can be laid on the inside face of the flange
is about 200
mm. Allowing 200 mm inside and 400 mm outside and deducting, say,
= 550 mm.
50 mm for end craters, the length available for welding
Hence, the force per mm run
= = 0.522 kN

Use 8 mm fillet welds (0.64 kN/mm run).

When theretension in the base plate the welds connecting the gusset plates to
is

the base plates must be capable of carrying the same

load as the holding-down bolts.
In this case no tension exists and the whole of the remaining
welds can be of
nominal size sufficient to resist handling and erection stresses, 6 mm fillet welds
being suitable.

Typical Roof-truss Connections

Figure 36 illustrates node connections for welded roof trusses.

some typical
The connection between the rafter and the tie at the shoe consists of a single ‘V’
butt joint, while at the apex joints are butt or fillet welded. Everywhere else lap
joints are used. Lap joints are usually welded all round to resist corrosion. Appendix
B in B.S. 1856 states that the minimum amount of lap shall be four times the
thickness of the thinner part, while Table 1 indicates that the minimum leg length
of single-run fillet weld shall not be less than 5 mm.
Having decided the amount of overlap to be used it is simple to calculate the
length of weld available all round the joint. Then using the allowable stress of
115 N/mm^ for all fillet welds in Grade 43 steel and factor of 0.7 for the throat
thickness, the leg length of the weld is calculated from the following formula:

Force in member
Leg length =
Length of weld x 1 15 x 0.7

Considering the central member shown in Fig. 36 (c) and assuming that the force
in the member is 15 kN and the length of weld all round is 250 mm, then the leg
length of the weld required

15 X 10^
= 0.75 mm.
250 X 115 X 0.7
This calculated size is much less than the 5 mm which is the minimum allowable
leg length.
If 325 mm of 6 mm butt weld are used for the connection in Fig. 36 (a), then
the maximum permissible force along the line of weld is

325 X 6 X 115
^
= 224.25 kN.
10
This is a much greater force than that which might be found in the tie or rafter
ot a truss.
From the foregoing it will be understood why
the welds for such roof trusses are
not usually calculated. The shoe
members are butt jointed and special arrangements
made for site jomts, but otherwise
5 mm
lap joints are frequently sufficient^
762 CONNECTIONS
The common assumptions made in the determination of forces in lattice frames are
that the external loads are applied at the node points or joints and that aU the
members of the frame meeting at apoint are represented by lines which meet at
that point. Logically, it therefore follows that the frame should be detailed in

Fig. 36
 763

Fig. 38

proportion
This B.M, will be distributed into the
members meeting at the joint in
to their stiffness. See Fig. 38 (b).
more
.

economical than
. .
m'

The types of joint shown in Fig. 37 are

but they do involve somewhat
larger
Fig. 38 ftL the standpoint of the members,

^“'*9 method of reducing the size of to

illustrates a
gusset wltout losmg
^
point. The cropp g 8
the advantage of having the gravity axes meet at a
will, of course, add to the cost.
 764 CONNECTIONS

While it is a comparatively simple matter to arrange that the members meeting at

a joint carry direct forces only, it is not so simple to arrange that the gusset plates
themselves carry direct forces only.
In order that there shall be no B.M. in the gusset plate, the resultant force at any
section must lie on the centre line of the plate at that section. It will be found that

this can rarely be done except on the simplest of connections, and

consequently the
gusset plates should be investigated from the point of view of B.M. as well
as direct
load.See example page 726.
Where members which are substantially in the same straight line are discontinuous
at a joint, the gusset plate should not be used as both gusset and cover plate unless

Fig. 41

the calculated stresses show that it is capable of doing so. The use of cover plates in
such cases is, more economical than the use of a gusset in the dual
in general,
capacity. Figures 40 and 41 illustrate the two most common instances of this type
of connection.
 RIGID FRAME CONNECTIONS 765

RIGID-FRAME JOINTS

Although the general principles on which the design of rigid joints is based are fairly
well established, the details offer considerable scope
for ingenuity. While these joints

may be riveted, bolted or welded, the theory to be developed in the following pages
will, for simplicity, be largely associated
with welding.
A v'ariety of sections may be used in rigid frames, but the most common are
Universal Beams and Columns or built-up plate sections.

Knees for Rectangular Frames

Consider a simple knee for a rectangular frame, as shown in Fig. 42. It does not
matter, in principle, whether the cross-beam butts against the column or rests on top
of it, but it is assumed that there are two sets of stiffeners, so that the web of the
joint has a rectangular frame around it.

Fig. 42
766 CONNECTIONS
At any section of a member, the stresses may be found from the normal expression
of stress derived in the chapter on Bending and Axial Stresses:

^ A-
where /= the stress in any fibre,
P = the longitudinal thrust (i.e., or in this N H case),
A = the cross-sectional area of the member,
Mxx= the B.M. at the section,
y= the distance from the neutral axis to the fibre being considered
and Ixx- the moment of inertia of the member.

Whilst the maximum B.M. in the frame occurs at the intersection of the neutral
axes of the girder and column, the B.M. taken for design purposes can be that at
the limits of the knee, i.e., in line with the inside flange of the girder or column.
The shear stress may be found in the strictly accurate manner, giving the distribu-
tion shown in Fig. 43 or, in accordance with B.S. 449, by dividing the shear force
by the gross web area. Considering the forces applied to the joint, if

fo and fi = the average bending stresses in the outside and inside flanges
respectively;

Aq andj4/= the cross-sectional areas of the outside and inside flanges respectively;

To and 7/= the forces in the outside and inside flanges respectively; while
Ho 2LnAHi = the components of the horizontal or normal thrust (or A) in the
outside and inside flanges respectively; then

Pq ~ Aofo and 7} = Ajfi

Ho=^H and =

Consequently, the girder will impose a tensile force of To - Ho in the outside

flange and a compressive force of Ti + Hjin the inside flange at the boundaries of
the knee.
The foregoing analysis is theoretical and can safely be simplified by assuming that
the flanges of the girder take the whole of the B.M. and transmit the whole of the
thrusts, while the web transmits only the shear.

Then, To = 7/ =
M (where d
— is the depth of the girder)

Ho = -
.H
Ao + Aj

IT _ Aj
.H
'
Ao+Ai
In rolled sections, where the flanges are equal in size. Ho = Hj.
As for the knee itself, experimental evidence shows that there is no tensile stress
at theextreme corner as the load takes a direct path across the web. It is possible to
assume, therefore, that the tensile forces in the outer flanges vary uniformly from a
 RIGID FRAMES 767

at points in line with the inside flanges of the frame, to zero at the
maximum
shown in Fig. 43.
outside corner, as

IIKililliniia iiiiniSiuffil

SB

1
—
slISlIlllllllll llllllllllllllll

Flange and IVeb stresses

1

Web Stresses
The knee web
tends to shorten
along the line ac.
Hence stiffeners
should follow
this line

Fig. 43

Each of the flange loads is transmitted into the knee web plate within the lengths
of its sides, and this plate is the only means by which the B.M. is transferred from
the girder to the column. Consequently, there are heavy shear forces in the knee.
Considering the shear, if

L= the length of the side of the web plate being considered,

t = the web thickness

and T= the total thrust in the flange,

then,
T
the shear per unit length of plate =
j JL/
,

rp
'''hile the shear stress = .

Lxt
In welded knees, the load per unit length of filletweld (one each side of the web
plate) r/2L.is

In the top edge of the web plate the thrust

T is equal to Tq — Hq, while in the
bottom edge it is equal to
-
(7} + Hj) —H, as shown in Fig. 42. But (7/ + Hi) —H
(7} + — (Hi + Hq) = Ti - H(j= To — Hq. Therefore the shear forces in the top and
ottom edges of the web plate are equal. Similarly,
those in the outside and inside
vertical edges are equal.
If the forces in the web tend to cause overstressing, the web may be increased in
c ess or provided with suitable stiffeners. The normal procedure
for simple
knees is to use diagonal stiffeners.
768 CONNECTIONS
American Research on Rectangular Knees
Much of the experimental work carried out on the knees of portal frames has
been done in America, particularly by the American Bureau of Standards and at
Lehigh University. One of the more easily adaptable groups of formulae for
rectangular web plates, attributed to Osgood, was published in Research Paper, R.P.
1130 (reference 4). The theory and example which follow are based on extracts
from this paper.
Consider a flat rectangular plate of uniform thickness t, loaded by forces and
couples, as shown in Fig. 44. For equilibrium.

Mx - a{2Fxy + Fy)-My- b(2Fyx + Fx).

Fig. 44

It is required to determine the stress conditions in the plate, assuming that the
normal stresses fx and fy along the boundaries x = a and y = b respectively are
uniformly varying and along the boundaries x = ~a and y = —b are everywhere zero.
Such a condition may be derived from the Airy Stress Function:

0 = b2xy + i(3c3 + d^yXa + x)y^ + i(3b3 + b^x)ib + y)x^.

It can be shown that:

^2“ “ ^i^xy + ^y) ~ 'ji^x +

4^ •^)J
J7 Ji'

_ 3My ~ 3Mx
_ r 1 1 . , ,
~ which it may be derived that:
4pbi’ 4flP?
 FRAMES 769
RIGID

where Vvv= the shear stress

- I ^
Fx = -(l \l~k+j l+k-f)b
= -2p)K

Fxy=V-pV-^ (Mo- Mb')

tiM
"
^yx~^ ~ (I + k - j)b
m n
'^M
M,
k+j I + k-}
My=-(l-2r){Mo-b[b).
their original form, but the stresses^
and
These formulae have been quoted in
opposite to
will be negative if compressive
and positive if tensile, the signs being
those given elsewhere in this section.
In the foregoing formulae p and r are
the proportions of V and M respectively,
i

at the edge y = b.lfz flange is not

which are taken by each flange of the column
construction, it will transmit stress only
wholly continuous at the knee, as in riveted
proportions
partially across discontinuous section. Consequently, k and / are the
the
of H, and m and n are the proportions of M, which are taken by the top and bottom
flanges of the beam portion of the knee at the edge x = a. Had there been no dis-
that the
continuity, k would equal / and m would equal n. It is further assumed
flanges carry no transverse shear.

For a welded frame,

Mo = V(a+A)=Hib+B), M = Mo - Va
= ~2n), My=-(Mo-Hb')(\-2p')
Fx=-(\-2])H, Fy = -(l-2p)V
Fxy=V-pV-^(Mo Hh)

,
= Area of one
_ flange of beam
/
Total sectional area of beam’

_ Moment of inertia / of one flange of beam ,

^ ’
Total I for the beam
p and r - the corresponding quantities for the column.

Principal Stresses and Greatest Shear Stresses

Although not required by B.S. 449 Part 2 1969, the principal stresses in the
; ;

knee web of a frame can be computed from the usual formula:

+ V.xy
770 CONNECTIONS
Normally the greatest stress occurs at tlie inside corner of the knee where x= +a,

y = +b.
The greatest shear stress in the web occurs at the point:

ha _ C3 . Fy . _ F^ .

64 ’
tf4’ 3My’ 3Mx
the maximum stress being computed from the formula:

%iax

It wiU be seen that it is necessary to compute two sets of coefficients, first to

obtain the principal stresses, and then to obtain the greatest shear stress. Now the
point where the greatest shear stress occursis very near the centre of the web.

Noting this Canadian engineer. Prof. D. T. Wright, has produced a formula

fact, a
for the maximum shear stress which gives results within about 2 per cent of the
exact figures derived from Osgood’s formula, viz.:

4abt

where Me = Mo —H . b —
V. a = the moment of the inside comer of the frame.
Za = the section modulus of the knee along a horizontal axis, the section including
tire vertical flanges as well as the web plate, and Zj = the corresponding section

modulus along a vertical axis.

It is often quicker to use this formula than that evolved by Osgood.

The various formulae will be demonstrated by an example.

Example. Figure 46 shows a square knee for a rectangular portal frame in which
300 mm x 25
the flanges are mm
in cross-section, and the web plate is 1 .0 x m
1.0 m
X 12 mm
thick.

0-5m O-Sm A*2-2m

Wtb thickness
^4SOkN
- 12mm
300mm x 25mm Flanges
360 kN
r Point of contraflexure-
in cross-beam

SQUARE KNEE
'I?

IT' Centre of base

360kN
in column

4aOkN
Fig. 46
 RIGID FRAMES 771

Using Osgood’s formulae,

a = b = 500 mm t= 12 mm
A = 2.2 mm ^ = 3.1 m
F=480kN if=360kN.

The proportion of the reaction V taken by each flange of the column,

Area of one flange _ Af

^ Area of whole section 2Af+Ay^

(where /and w refer to flange and web respectively)

(300 X 25)
= 0.2778.
(2 X 300 X 25) + (1 000 X 12)

The proportion of the moment M taken by each flange

If 300x25 X 512.5^/10^
''

2//+/v 2(300 X 25 X 512.5''/10^) + (12 x 1 000^/12 x 10^)

196 992.1875
= 0.3988.
493 984.3750

The proportion of the thrust H taken by each flange of the beam,

k=j‘ = 0.2778 (as above for p).

The proportion of the moment M taken by each flange,

m=n= 0.3988 (as above for r)

The moment about the centre of gravity of the knee web,

Mq = V{a + A) = H{b + B)

= 480(0.5 + 2.2)

= 1 296 kNm.
The moment at the junction with the beam (where x = a),

M = Mo-Va=l 296 - (480 x 0.5)

= 1 056 kNm.

Fx=-il- 2j)H= -160.000 kN

= - (1 - 2p)V= -213.333 kN.

Fxy- V — pV (Mq — Hb)

= 480 - - 2:398 8(1 296 - 360 x 0.5)

(0.2778 x 480)
^
0.5
= -543.415 kN
 f 7

772 CONNECTIONS
nM
Fy^ = H-jH-
~b~
= 360 - 0.3988 X 1 056
~ (0.2778 x 360)
0.5
= -582.228 kN
Mx = -Mi\ -2m)
= -l 056(1 -2x0.3988)

= -213.772 kNm
My = - (Mo - Hb)(\ - 2r)

= - (1 296 - 360 X 0.5)(1 - 2 x 0.3988)

= -225.918 kNm.

Checking for equilibrium,

- a(2F^y + Fy) =My - b(2Fy^ + F^)

-213.772 - 0.5(-l 086.830 - 213.333) = -225.918 - 0.5(-l 164.456 - 160.000)
or 436.310 = 436.310
which satisfies the expression 'LM - 0.

Stresses

The greatest compressive stresses occur at the inside corner where x == a, y= b.

Considering the stresses at this point,

3Mv
fx =— Aabt\

1 ’^213.772x0.5)
r irnn
.
/
j(0.5 + 0.5)
I

4 X 0.5 X 0.5 X 12 X 10'^ X 1 0= 05^

= -120.219 N/mm^

/v

-3
^
4X
1

0.5 X 0.5 X 12 X 10~^ X 10^

^-213. 333 +
X 225.918 X
0.5^ — j
(0.5 + 0. 5)

= -130.737 N/mm^

- — “ + + 7 ^.^ + /^. + 0 + 0]
4^^ [^x ^0-^xy ^y)
Vxy

- -
- 4 X 0.5 T
xO :57 2x 10-3x103
^-213-772 0.5(-l 086.830 213.333)

-(213.333 X 0.5) - (160.00 x 0.5)]

= -20.804 N/mm^
 RIGID FRAME KNEES 773

The shear has been computed as it is needed for the calculation of the
stress

principal stresses,but this stress is not the greatest shear stress in the knee. This will
be computed later. The maximum principal stress, in compression, is:

-120.219- 130.737

= -125.478-21.458
2 M -120.219 + 130.737
2
y
I
+ 20.804^

= —146.936 N/mm^
The formula evolved by Prof. Wright will be used to find the greatest shear stress:

_ Me L ^ cP-t ]Pt
^ Aabt ( 3Za 3Zb
Now Mc = Mo-H.b- V,a
= 1 296 - (360 X 0.5) - (480 x 0.5)
= 876 kNm
Za = Zb = Total Ija = 493 984.375/50 cml
Hence,

= 876 / 2x0.5^x 12 X 10~^x50 \

10"3
4 X 0.5 X 0.5 X 12 X 10"^
. V 3 x 493 984.375 x 10"^ /
= 87.778 N/mm^.

Knees for Rigid Frames with Pitched Roofs

It is quite common to haunch the knees of frames with pitched roofs, as shown
m Fig. 47, or by curving the inner flange, a method of treatment to be described
later.

There is ample experimental evidence to show that

the neutral axis of stress in
haunched knees moves towards the inside of the frame,
as shown in Fig. 47 (a).
Consequently the approximate force in the inside
flange may be found by assuming
mat the neutral axis occurs at the third point
along the diagonal from the inside
flange to the outside corner
of the frame. Alternatively the force in the flange
may
P'8- 47 (a), the force being known
in Irf
thpHn the inside n
-

flange of the rafter. In the type of joint shown in

Fig. 47 ('bl it is
^^”8^ forces are resolved into the bracket
flanae^ST^*^^ an alternative It may
be assumed that, say, one-half of the force
conLupf.f
ontmues along the flange of the
main member, as shown in the diagram

formulae or Olander’s formulae which are

dLribed later
between AA anfR/fv'rft"”
^ m \hatched areas can be analysed 4^’
by the
sections
formulae i '' over-stressed elsewhere,
above
be so in the it is very unlikely to
hatcheYzones
 ^
RIGID FRAME JOINTS > >

The forces in the stiffeners at the limits of the knee are found by a resolution of
forces, as at point A in Fig. 47 (a) where S is the appropriate stiffener force, and
the stiffenersand welds are designed accordingly. The remaining stiffeners inside
the knee can be of nominal size, their primary function being to prevent
local

buckling of tlie web and lateral failure of the inner flange.

Ridges in Ktched Roofs

Ridges in pitched roofs are designed in precisely the same manner as obtuse-
angled knees. Normally they present less difficulty than knee joints as the angle
between the rafters is very obtuse and the forces are much less than in knees. If joist
sections are employed it may be unnecessary to add brackets, while in lightly loaded
structures it is sufficient to butt weld the ends of the rafters. Some typical joints are

shown in Fig. 49.

typical ridge details

Knees Avith Curved Flanges

It is probable that joints with curved flanges will always be the
subject of some
controversy but here it is proposed to describe and illustrate
the articles pubHshed
or research work carried out both in this
country and abroad.
It IS of some interest to consider
a formula, known as the Winkler-Resal formula,
vyhich can be used for an initially curved
bar with parallel flanges, such as that
shown in Fig. 50.

Adeguote bracing
776 CONNECTIONS
The formula for the stress in any fibre of the bar is

N M M. c r
^ A r . A U ^r + c’
where N = the normal thrust,
A = the cross-sectional area of the bar,

M = the applied B.M.

r = the initial radius of curvature of the bar taken to the neutral axis N.A. of
the section,

c = the distance from the N.A. to the fibre being considered, being positive
when measured away from the centre of curvature and negative when
measured towards it
and U= a. figure analogous to the moment of inertia / and which may be replaced
by I when the value of r is greater than twice the depth d of the bar.

When r is less than twice d and the section is composed of rectangles,

U = r\23Q25^r'Lb log wj/wj - A),

where the symbols have the significance shown in Fig. 51

F/onffts 2S0mm x 2Smm

Wtt 4S0mm x 12mm
CURVED
BAR 62 T
+c
-e

H bt —

Z'Axis of centre of curvature

'
Axis of ctntre of curvature
of bar of bar

Fig. 51 Fig. 52

Suppose the member is of the section shown in Fig. 52, the properties being as
follows:

Flanges = 250 mm x 25 mm Web = 450 mm x 1 2 mm

Area = 17 900 mm^ r =750 mm {rjd = 1.5).

Then, U = r^(2.30258r2;fe . log W 1 /W 2 - A).

Now, 250 log 1 000/975 = 2.74875

12 log 975/525 = 3.22614

250 log 525/500 = 5.29733

hb . log W 1 /W2 = 11 .27222

 111
RIGID FRAME JOINTS
Therefore,

U= 7502(2.30258 x 750 x 11.27222 - 17 900) x

= 88 109.37 cm^
0'^
It is interesting to note that the moment of inertia / = 250 x 500^ 1 2 x 1

-238 X 450^12 x 10"^= 79 685.42 cm^

It will be observed that the general form of the stress equation resembles the
normal stress formula, i.e., A/A ± M/Z.
The Winkler-Resal formula should be used for curved members when rjd is less
than 2.5. When this ratio exceeds 2.5, the normal formula can be used with safety.

Example. Considering the member shown in Fig. 52, and assuming that it is

subjected to a B.M. of 475 kNm,

N M M.c r _N M M.r c
^ A r.A U ^r + c A r.A U +c

475 X 10^ 475 x 10^x750 c

^ ^ 750 + c
750x 17 900 88 109 x 10^

= - 35.382 - 404.327 x (N/mm^).

750 + c

If values are plotted for various depths c from the neutral axis, the stress diagram
shown in Fig. 53 is obtained.
It should be noted that the Winkler-Resal formula makes suitable allowance for
the shift of the neutral plane of bending from the N.A. of the section towards the
inner flange.

A/.A.

Fig. 54
Now the change in direction of the force in the flange of a
curved member induces
radial stresses in the
web which can be calculated from the following formula
to Professor Campus of Liege & due
uuc ,
:

s - C/Rt, (see Fig. 54)

where s = the unit radial stress,
C= the total flange force,
E = the radius of curvature of the flange being considered
and t = web thickness.
778 CONNECTIONS
Professor Magnel (reference 6) states that the radial stress should be added to
that due to the shear across the web.
The radial force is applied at the junction of web and flange and causes cross-
bending, the edges of the flanges moving away from the centre of curvature when
the flange is compressed and towards it when it is in tension, as shown in Fig. 54.

Outside Flanges

No stiffeners

Unstressed -M +M
bar applied applied
^xis of centre of curvature of members

Fig. 55

Dr. Hans Bleich (reference 7) investigated the effects of this phenomenon and
produced two coefficients v and fx (nu and mu), the first being associated with the
longitudinal stresses in the flanges and the second the transverse stresses.
If/ is the mean stress derived from the Winkler-Resal formula, then max.f=f/v
and f= p max./, where v and p have the following values with respect to the
expression b'^lRt, the symbols for which are shown in Fig. 56;

Maximum
Stress -V

- T
BuHt up Rolled Mean
Section Section Stress
:1 Q:

Sgmbols for use

I Stress Distribution
with V and p
coefficients
Fig. 56

Bleich’s Coefficients

1.000 0.994 0.977 0.950

0 0.297 0.580 0.836 1.495 1.577 1.636

1.0 1.1 1.2

0.693 0.663 0.636 0.611 0.367 0.334

1.677 1.703 1.721 1.728

 RIGID FRAME JOINTS 779

tend to lead to overstressing, the flanges must be braced either

If the radial forces
by entire web stiffeners or by small gussets, the spacing of which is a matter for
engineering judgment as no rules, mathematical or empirical, have been derived.
Some practical examples of curved knees closely resembling curved bars are
shown in Figs. 57 and 58, the latter being described in reference 8, as well as in
other papers.

Fig. 57

Porto/ Kmz
for Bridge
Fig. 58
780 CONNECTIONS
Generally knees are not shaped like curved bars, the majority being of the type
shown in Figs. 59 (a) and (b) where the outside flange is straight. The rapid change
of section at the knee, and the curvature of the centre-line affect both the magnitude
and the distribution of the fibre stresses.

Fig. 59

Professor Vierendeel devised Tapered Beam formulae for the knee shown in Fig.
60, the formulae being as follows:

On any section AA ,

_P Moo
fo
A I

fi
A I

V = +fiFi sin (t>).

Flange Area

Web thickness =b

VIERENDEEL 'S
TAPERED BEAM
SYMBOLS
Fig. 60
 .

RIGID FRAME JOINTS 781

mean stresses in the outside and inside flanges, respectively,

where /o znd fi= the
Oo and Of
= the distances of the centroids of the outside and inside flanges,
respectively, from the axis shown,

V = the shear stress

M, FandP= the bending moment, shear force and thrust at the section /l/l,

b = the web thickness,

d= the web depth,

A = bd + Fo + Fi cos 0

and I = bd^lll+FoOo^ + Fi cos (pai^. ,

These formulae are logical and give reasonable results.

When the mean flange stresses have been calculated, the maximum stresses may
be computed using Dr. H. H. Bleich’s coefficients and suitable stiffeners added
where necessary.
It should be noted that the Tapered Beam formulae can be applied to knees of
the type shown in Fig. 47.
In the U.S.A. a number of investigators have produced formulae for curved knees,
using circular sections as shown in Fig. 61.

Notation shown is for B/eich's formula

Osgood’s formulae (reference 5) are mathematically exact but

are lengthy and
cumbersome for use in design and are not quoted here.
Dr. Friedrich Bleich (reference
9) adapted the Winkler-Resal formula, adjusting
It by multiplying the whole expression by
1/cos 0. It will be noted from Fig. 61 that
r and c are measured
in a different' way, but the principles of calculation
are
Identical with those for
Example 1
782 CONNECTIONS
The amount of work involved in using Bleich’s method is less than with Osgood’s
method but greater than that with a recent method (reference 10) due to Harvey C.
Olander, which gives reasonable results and can be recommended for use in design.
Olander states that the method is simply to take circular sections that cut the
extreme fibres at right angles, such as section Fig. 62, develop the section as
shown and obtain the cross-sectional area A and moment of inertia / of the
developed section. Next, resolve all forces to the right of section ^5 into the values
Pq andA^ about the point O, the centre of the arc. Po passes through the centre of
gravity of section >15, andiU^ is the moment of the forces about O. Then, with
these values, the stresses are calculated as for an ordinary beam, except that the

M calculated about

A=Area
^ * N.M I = Moment
_t of Inertia

Developed Section

shear is determined from Mq. The total shear on section A 'B = 5 = Mglr. Then the
unit shear along the section,
,.-SQ_MoQ
It rit

where Q is the statical moment of the area of the section about the point being
considered. (Cf. British notation, v = S a y/It.)
.
.

The stresses normal to the section,

f-Pp c
^ A ~ I
where Mis the B.M. at the C.G. of the section AB.
An example will help to explain the method.
Example. Figure 62 shows a curved knee joining a 305 x 305 mm
x 198 kg mm
UC toa 610 mm
x 305 mm
x 238 kg UB. The properties of the two sections are as
follows:

Section Flartge Web Area A

Thickness Thickness ^xx
(mm) (cm*) (cm*)
(mm) (mm)

305 X 305 31.4 19.2 252 2 991

610x305 31.4 18.6 304 6 549

 RIGID FRAME JOINTS 783

The cross-beam chosen to resist the B.M. in the centre of the beam and will be
is

understressed at its junction with the knee. If the radius of the inner flange is 1.2 m,
then the radius will be almost twice the depth of the larger section or four times that
of the smaller section.
It is convenient to continue the flange breadth of the narrower section around the

knee, i.e., to use a 312 mm x 32 mm plate. The web of the knee will be 20 mm thick,
i.e., a ‘preferred’ thickness close to those of the two sections.
The knee can be divided into any number of circular sections. As, however, the
greatest stress is situated just inside the knees, these areas should be investigated.
Consequently, sections are usually chosen at 15° or 18° intervals along the inside
of the knee.
If 18° intervals are used in this case, there will be six cross-sections to consider,
as shown in Fig. 63.

Fig. 63
784 CONNECTIONS
It is advisable to check that sections 1-1 and 6-6 are in order first, before
embarking upon the knee proper.
Considering section 1—1,
P=180kN, y4 = 252 cm^
Mxx - 283.5 kNm, Zxx = 2 991 cm^

Then
Z Zxx
10^ 283.5 X 10^
_ 180 X ,

252 X 10^ "2 991 X 10^

= +101.93 or —87.64 N/mm^
Using the normal B.S. 449 procedure for joists, the shear stress

load _ 105 X 10^

gross web area 340 x 19.2
= 16.08 N/mm^.

Considering section 6—6, the properties of the rolled section should again be
taken, as those for the adjoining knee section are greater in magnitude.

P=105kN ^ = 304cm^
248.3 kNm Zc;(.= 6 549 cm^
rpi r P t
^XX
Then
^xx
105 X 10^ 248.3 X 10^
_ ,

304 X 10^ “6 549 x 10^

= +41.37 or —34.46 N/mm^
__
140 X 10^
and
633 X 18.6
= 11.89 N/mm^
Consequently, the stresses at sections 1—1 and 6—6 are acceptable.
Although dander’s method quicker than some other methods of analysis, a
is

certain amount of time is taken in calculating the geometrical properties of the

circular sections. It is desirable to devise some system of tabulation for the
calculations.
Figure 64 shows the symbols which have to be calculated for each section.

_ /? + i?(l — cos 20)

^
sin 2(f)

a= R . sm. 2(f)

{a + h) = r cos 2(f)

d= r cos 0

c = (f). r (0 in radians)

(g + e) = r . sin <f),

where h, R, 0 and g are known quantities.

 RIGID FRAME JOINTS 785

For values of 20 not exceeding 45° the radius r is measured along the column,
but between 45° and 90° it is measured along the cross-beam. (The angle subtended
by the inner flange should always be bisected in this way, even if the angle is acute
as in the caseof a frame with a pitched roof.)
The area and moment of inertia of the T’-sections traced by each circular section
are found in the normal way, the total depth being the arc length.
For sections 2—2 and 3—3,
Po~ Fc cos 0 + sin 0
M = H.y- Vc. e.

For sections 5—5 and 4—4,

Po=Ii cos ({)+ Vjj sin 0
M= Vb.x-H. e

where y is between the bottom of the column and the C.G. of

the vertical distance
the section, x is from the end of the beam to the C.G. of
the horizontal distance
the section and and refer to the column and beam respectively.
Proceeding, the relevant properties of, and the stresses in, the four sections inside
the knee are as follows:

Po A M c Jjcc
A
Section Ixx
kN 1
cm* kNm mm cm'' N/mm*
2-2 194.2 268.0 321.7 202.7 76 390.5 +92.59 or -78.10
1

3-3 203.6 308.6 348.7 304.2 192 935.5 +61.59 or -48.39

4-4 143.1 371.2 358.6 460.8 500 399.5 +36.87 or -29.16

1

5-5 125.6 327.5 304.9 351.6 268 629.5 +43.70 or -36.03

786 CONNECTIONS
Tensi/e Stresses

The complete flange stresses have been plotted in Fig. 65.

The stresses given for the inner flange presuppose that it is properly stiffened to
resist cross-bending. If unstiffened, the stresses can be calculated by Dr. H. H.
Bleich’s formulae. (See p. 781.)
Considering section 2—2,

max./=—
V

The value of b'^jRt for the flange

/ 312-20
^ Y^ 1
0.56
\ 2 / 1 200 X 32
Hence v = 0.86 (by interpolation) and max./=-.
V

92.59
107.67 N/mm^
0.86
 1

RIGID FRAME JOINTS 787

Now the cross-bending stress

/'=/xmax./

H= 1.32 (by interpolation).

~ ^ 107.67
Therefore f'

= 142.1 N/mm^.

As does not exceed the permissible stress, stiffeners are theoretically not
this

required. However it is considered good engineering practice to nominally

stiffen

the knee. Where stiffeners are needed, the shear stresses can be calculated by using
Campus’s formula (see page 777) or by Olander’s method (see page 782).

Valley Joints

The principles involved in the design of the Y-shaped valley joints in multi-bay
construction are the same as those for knee
A. joints. It is quite reasonable to design the
V inner flange of each rafter section as though
\ the joint were a knee, the other rafter being
ignored, as shown in Fig. 67. The detailing
/ should be as simple as possible. Two examples

YV / ^Design os showing haunched and curved inner flanges

for a knee shown in Figs. 68 and 69 (references 1
I
and 12 respectively).
I
j.
I To reduce the cost of heating the building
or for aesthetic reasons roofs are often made
°' of low pitch, and practical difficulties can
arise in accommodating the valley gutter. The problem may be overcome as shown
in Fig. 69, the pitch being fairly steep at the feet of the rafters and low over the
central portion of the roof.

Fig. 68
788 CONNECTIONS
s/te Joint

Fig. 69

Splice Connections

Splice connections in rigid frames should be arranged at or near the dead-load

points of contraflexure. Figures 49, 57, 68 and 69 all incorporate splice connections.
Some typical joints for a column and cross-beam are shown in Fig. 70, but it
should be noted that it is not essential that joints should occur at stiffeners. Further
details may be found in reference 13.

Column Splice Beom Splice

 .

MULTI-STOREY FRAME JOINTS 789

Rigid Joints in
Multi-storey Buildings

involved in designing a joint in a multi-storey

Although some of the calculations
building may be
lengthy, the underlying principles on which the work is based are
comparatively elementary.

Loading diagram

B.M. Diagram

II

11

11 S.F Diagram

Fig. 71

Consider the simply supported prismatic beam shown in Fig. 71 , When the load
Pis applied, a moment AT is induced at C which is distributed between the portions
of the beam AC and CB as shown. The reactions at the supports are:

-M +M
Ra- L and Rb- L •

Now the shear in AC and CB may be obtained by calculating the slope of the
B.M. diagram. Hence, the value of the shear = MjL, which is, of course, equal to the
reactions at the supports A or B.
At C the moment
diagram undergoes an abrupt vertical change of moment, equal
toM, and the corresponding shear is infinite. This results from the assumption that
the moment is applied at a point, as drawn in Fig. 7 1

Much the same state would

couple as
result if the moment M were applied through a
shown in Fig. 72.
If, however, the

equa and opposite

M
moment were to be applied through a couple formed by two
forces of value P
as shown in Fig. 73, then the change of
moment at C would be less abrupt and the S.F. between the two loads could be
calculated.

+ i^CR _
Thus,
Y - ^CA c)
-

c
790 CONNECTIONS
As before, the shear on either side of the apphed moment would be of constant
value, being equal to cPjL.
Now it is proposed to give a practical example to demonstrate how such joints
can be treated.

Loading diagram

B.M. Diagram

S.F Diagram

Fig. 73

Example. Figure 74 shows a portion of a rigid-frame building, consisting of a

section or girder BD and sections of two columns and BO, A, C and D being the
points of contraflexure in the B.M. diagram for the worst conditions of loading on
this portion of the frame.

The maximum B.M.s at the junction of the neutral axes of the girder and coluirms
are as follows:

Mbc = + 90 kNm
Mba ~ kNm
Mbd ~ —165 kNm.

It is not proposed to design the columns or cross-beam. It will be assumed that

the sections shown in Fig. 75 are adequate.
 791
MULTI-STOREY FRAMES

Fig. 75

B calculated from the slope of the

Considering the joint at fi, the sltear across is

B.M. diagram.

(74.1 +59.1)10"
Hence ^ ”
533

= 249.9 kN.

, , 1-1 f
thickness of a
onr,
x on
203 V x SQ ke
ZUj1 V
-5
g UC- • is 9.3 mm and the gross area
Now the web
of the web = 210 mm x 9.3 mm 1
= 953 mm .

Therefore the shear stress in the web.

24 9.9 X 10^ = 128.0 N/mm'

V =•
1 953

maximum permissible shear stress °

This stress exceeds the
the resistance o ear.
number of expedients may be adopted to increase
rectangu ar p a e
One of the most common methods is to weld two
of the column. The clear web depth of a 203 x 203 x 59 g '
’
, I
o^ e
mm wide and 5 mm thick, were welded, one each
SI e ,
plates, 160
shown in Fig. 76, then the shear stress would be,

249.9 X 10^ = N/mm^

V = 61.7
210 X 19.3
which would be acceptable.
e ° j j i i f
>
be noticed that two sets of stiffeners have been
It will
introduced at
the flanges of the girder. These should be of approximately the same
section as the

girder flanges and, in this case, are made 1 5 thick. mm

 VIERENDEEL GIRDERS 793

Instead of thickening up the web some

kind of triangulated system of stiffeners
such cases the diagonal or oblique
may be used, such as those shown in Fig. 77. In
stiffeners supplement the strength of the web, or the web may be entirely
may
ignored, when the stiffeners form a truss framework and are designed accordingly.
is to deepen the
Another method to avoid overstressing the web of the column
of the girder or to provide brackets at the
junction of the girder and column,
end
the steep slope of the B.M. diagram, i.e., to reduce the
the object being to reduce
shear force in the joint. Various
expedients are shown in Fig. 78.

Open-frame or Vierendeel Girders

The most obvious characteristic of open-frame girders, some examples of which

are shown in Fig. 79, is the complete absence of
diagonal members in the panels,
the girders depending on the rigidity of the joints for their
stability.

The open-frame girder is not commonly used in Great Britain, but many examples
exist in Europe, particularly in Belgium, where they are associated with
the pioneer
work and development of the late Professor Vierendeel after whom they are usually
named.

Fig. 79

Although there are many Vierendeel bridges in Belgium, only one such bridge,
for pedestrians, has been built in Great Britain. Examples in structures taking static
loads have usually resulted from a demand for a free unobstructed space where the
use of diagonals has been precluded. Consequently, Vierendeel girders can be used
for clerestory lighting in churches and other structures or for spanning any gap
where a plate girder or truss would be used but for the fact that the web would
provide an obstruction.
Many foreign authors have devoted
whole books to the analysis of Vierendeel
girders, but,unfortunately, the literature relating to the design of joints is com-
paratively scanty. Here, it is proposed to deal witli girders with parallel top and
bottom booms. Provided that the booms are parallel, analysis by Slope Deflection
is possible but
lengthy, but if the top and bottom booms are of identical section in
each panel the girders may be analysed quickly and accurately by Naylor’s applica-
tionof Moment Distribution, as demonstrated in Example 15 in the section on that
method of analysis. See page 267.
The analysis and design of a joint for a multi-storey
building frame has just been
given. Now a single-bay,
multi-storey building of the type described in Examples 9
1 1 in the section on Moment Distribution is really a Vierendeel girder erected
wrtically, so that the
principles
underlying the design have already been described.
owever, it is usual for the axial forces in the
members of Vierendeel girders to be
very great compared
with those in the analogous members in building frames.
794 CONNECTIONS
Most of the loads applied to Vierendeel girders are applied at the panel points
but sometimes the booms take comparatively li^t loads, usually uniformly
distributed, v/hen a design by Moment Distribution vi-ill incorporate the derices
associated vrith inter-panel loading (c.f. Example 16 in iloment Distribution). Inter-
panel loading can also be treated by Slope Deflection,

Formulae for Jomts

Vierendeel evolved a number of formulae for different ri'pes of joint. For the
‘T-joint shovm in Fig. 80 , the formulae resemble the Tapered Beam formulae given
earlier in this section, viz.:

P Mai

A' I

p = ^ [V—fiFi sin Pi -r sin p^]. (using appropriate signs for/i and /2)

A =bd-rFi cos 6i +T2 cos 62.

/= ^ + Fi cos piSj T F2 cos 62C2-

These formulae may be used for a joint in a multi-storey building where the
radius of the top flange is small so that the flange does not project above floor leveL
Normally in Vierendeel girders pi = 62-

This type of joint is not used in Belgium for bridges or other structures taking
dynamic loading. It is the invariable practice to emplot' the type shov.m in Fig. 81 ,

where the posts are planted on the booms and the radii of cun'ature may be as
much as one-third of the panel length.
 VIERENDEEL GIRDERS 795

In this case the post is symmetrical about the vertical axis, and the flange stresses
due to the moment only are:

‘
^ d{F cos + bdl€)’
4>

M equals T times the lever arm about the section considered.

At the junction of post and boom, as cos ^= 0, the moment is taken by the web
only.

The due to —N = —NjA. The values of v and A are found as before.

stresses

The B.M. diagram for a boom is drawn as shown in Fig. 82. The lines between
the tangent points of the post are parabolas.

Professor Magnel of Ghent (reference 6) quoted the following formulae for the
section shown in Fig. 83;
r = P3 + Pj sin 0- P2 sin d

T. OX-M^P^.OX
N = Pi cos 0 +P2 cos 6,
796 CONNECTIONS

N sin 6 +
M cos 6
from which- .

Pi = '

sin (0 + 0)

N .smcp —
M cos 0
P^ =
sin (0 + 6)

Ps T- J}L
OX'

The member shown has but the same formulae could be

straight sloping sides,
used for curved flanges although Magnel stated that the formulae should not be
used when (0 + 6) exceeds 90°. However, he quoted experiments carried out by
Professor Campus in which he proved that in joints such as that shown in Fig. 81
the critical sections were those in which (0 + 0) varied from 0 to 90°.
The stresses derived from Magnel’s formulae are as follows:

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. HENDRY, A. W. ‘An Investigation of the Stress Distribution in Steel Portal Frame Knees,’
The Structural Engineer (March- April 1947 and December 1947).
2. HENDRY, A. W. ‘An Investigation of the Strength of Welded Portal Frame Connections,’
The Structural Engineer (October 1950 and September 1951).
3. HENDRY, A. W. ‘An Investigation of Certain Welded Portal Frames in Relation to the
Plastic Method of Design’, The Structural Engineer (December 1950 and September
1951).
 797
CONNECTIONS
of a Riveted steel Rigid
. ^bepnspAN M and OSGOOD, W.R. ‘Strength ot Standards, yoiirau/
R r: 1130, U.S. National Bureau

Vol. Iffil (1938).^^ Rigid

OSGOOD, W.R. ‘Strength of a Riveted Steel
Standards,
®^Se^kvte Sed Inner Flange’, R.P. 1 161, U.S.
National Bureau of

Jrmio/'Weit.Vol. XXI (1938).

mi. T- und 1-
S'kV^P—sSSntrn Sta-be

of Rigid Frame Knees’, An,

erienn te«n(. o/W Consm
9

, n n, Sr 'nc'-A method of calculating stresses in Rigid Frame Corners’, Jo„rml of

Engineer (January 1951).

.
iverooor Welding and Metal Fabrication
t
Fabrication (April 1953).
Is
14
S' ‘WdSLtal
LYNN
BEEDLE,
Frame Retort Houk. ^Mding and^ietal
S. Plastic Design of Steel
Frames, John Wiley, 1958.
 29 SURFACE PREPARATION OF STRUCTURAL
STEELWORK

IN recent years,
advances in design techniques and the development of higher
strength steels of welding quality have established a trend towards more efficient
lighter
and placed greater emphasis on the protection of
weight steel construction
structures which will be exposed in service to a corrosive environment. This trend

has been paralleled by the development

of new methods of protective treatment
and in particular, new techniques for the surface preparation of steelwork.
The essential element in a first-class anti-corrosion treatment is the removal of
the mill scale which forms on the surface of the steel plates and sections during the

hot rolling process, before the protective coating is applied. The traditional method
of wire brushing, sometimes combined with extensive weathering at site, is still
widely used for preparation of the surface and may be adequate in those cases where
the steelwork will be exposed in an environment which is at worst only marginally

corrosive. However, this method does not remove tightly adhering mill scale, an

essential prerequisite for the successful use of modern high grade protective
systems. For such systems, more consistent and rapid means of surface preparation
are required.

Methods used to prepare the surface of structural steelwork in ascending order

of their effectiveness are:

Flame Cleaning.
Pickling.
Blast Cleaning.

(1) Flame Cleaning

In this process, an oxy-acetylene flame is passed over the surface of the steel-
work rapidly heating it locally to between 95° and 150°C when the differential
expansion rates of the scale and steel results in the loosening of mill scale and at
the same time facilitates the removal of the rust. The surface is cleaned down by
wire brushing and immediately given a priming coat of paint, preferably before
the steel hascooled down. Not all the tightly adherent scale is removed by this
method of treatment. With plates and sections less than 6 mm
thick, the heat of the
flame may result in buckling
and distortion. Where steelwork has to be painted in
the open, at site for
example, flame cleaning is often the most satisfactory method
of preparing the
surface.

(2) Pickling

describe the process in which steelwork is immersed in a tank

^ e with cold dilute
hydrochloric or hot dilute sulphuric acid for as long as is
necessary for the
iron oxides to be removed by chemical action, this period varying

799
800 SURFACE PREPARATION OF STRUCTURAL STEELWORK
from a few hours to a few minutes, depending on the type and concentration of
acid used. Individual components up to 12 m in length inay be treated. Inhibitors
are usually added to the acid to slow down the attack on the base steel after the
scale has been removed.
This process is the estabUshed means of preparing steelwork for hot dip
galvanising, but has not been widely adopted for the preparation of structural steel-
work for painting, although it gives results comparable with blast cleaning. However,
the Footner pickHng process in which steel is immersed in hot dilute sulphuric acid-
then rinsed in hot water and finally dipped in hot dilute phosphoric acid is
extensively used for the surface preparation of steel plates for the roofs, sides and
bottom plates of oil storage tanl«. The priming paint is applied over the thin phos-
phate film formed on the surface of the steelwork, preferably while the metal is
stiU warm.

(3) Blast Cleaning

The most effective means of removing mill scale is by blast cleaning, a term used
to describe the projection at high velocities of a hard abrasive material on to the
surface of the steel. There are two basic processes in use, one in which the abrasive
is propelled by compressed air, usually termed ‘hand’ or ‘manual’ blasting, and the
other in which the abrasive is thrown from the rim of large diameter impeller wheels
rotating at high speed. The latter method of cleaning is known as ‘airless’ or
‘mechanised’ blasting.

(a) Manual Blasting

With manually operated equipment, the abrasive is ejected by compressed air at
pressures of 420 to 560 kN/m^, through chilled iron or ceramic nozzles usually
6 mm to 10 mmdiameter. Cleaning rates are of the order of 3.7 to 11 .2 m^ per hour
per operator, depending on the shape and size of the steelwork and the degree of
cleaning required. Although an effective means of removing mill scale, manual
blasting is slow and a relatively expensive process, but the equipment is cheap and
portable and is widely used where the volume of cleaning is small or the steelwork
is of intricate shape and therefore unsuitable for mechanised blasting. This process

is also used for preparing steelwork on site for maintenance painting. Where blasting

is carried out on site or in fabricators’ works on an occasional basis only, it is usual

to provide temporary enclosures and to use an expendable abrasive, but for a more
regular demand, steel-plated rooms large enough to accommodate finished fabrica-
tions are provided complete with abrasive recovery and ventilating systems. This
type of fixed installation is gradually being replaced by the mechanical blasting
plant described later.
A refinement of the manual type of equipment is an enclosed system in which
the nozzle surrounded by a suction hood which draws the abrasive back into the
is

collecting after impingement on the surface. The abrasive is then cleaned

chamber
and returned to the hopper feeding the nozzle. A range of machines is available,
from small portable units to large machines designed for specific appMcations. In
general the method is slower than open blasting but the advantage of this type of
enclosed system is that there is no necessity to transfer the steelwork to separate
shops or temporary enclosures and it has particular value where localised areas only
are required to be cleaned.
 BLAST CLEANING 801

(b) Airless or Mechanical Blasting

For cleaning structural steelwork on a large scale,

manual blasting equipment is
plants. These permanent installa-
gradually being replaced by airless or mechanised
fabricators’ works and can be divided into
tions are normally located in the steel
types, (i) Standard machines sub-divided into equipment
designed
two distinctive

to clean steel plates up to 4.0 m wide and section machines which can deal with
beams up to 920 deep as received from the rolling mills, (ii) Custom built
mm
ranging from
machines which are designed for the treatment of finished fabrications
simple beamwork to the large and complex fabrications required for major bridges.

Although these plants differ in such details as size of blasting chamber, the
number and location of impellers and method of work handling handling, their
operating principles are similar. These are illustrated in Fig. 1 which relates to
equipment designed for cleaning finished fabrications up to 5 m deep by 1.8 m
wide by 36 m long by 50 000 kg in weight. The steelwork is traversed through the
chamber on specially designed bogies at a pre-selected speed which can be infinitely
varied between 0 and 3 m per minute. A faster speed is available for moving the
bogies when they are unloaded.
The impellers are mounted on a heavy frame and so positioned as to give com-
plete coverage of steelwork passing through the plant including stiffeners, etc., at
right angles to the line of travel. Fabrications up to 1 .8 m deep, depending on shape,
can be cleaned in one pass and deeper fabrications are dealt with by raising the bank
of the impellers and reversing the steelwork through the plant.
After striking the steel surface the abrasive falls through an open grid floor and
via beltand bucket conveyors is returned to the hoppers feeding the impellers,
passing on route through desiltering equipment vyhich removes fines. The interior of
the plant is under suction and all the dust formed during the blasting operations is
drawn through ducting to dust collecting equipment.
In typical plate cleaning machines for the descaling of plates prior to fabrication
the impellers are positioned to give complete coverage of both sides of plates as
they are passed through the plant on power-driven rollers. Mechanised handling
equipment is usually incorporated on the input and output side of the machine.
Small sections such as light angles can also be blast cleaned in this type of plant.

Type of Abrasive
In mechanised impeller plants, chilled iron angular grit or round steel shot
are
the two types of abrasive in general use, the choice being normally
determined by
the primary function of the plant.
In purpose plants designed to prepare the surface of finished fabrications
all '

to
receive metal or paint primers, chilled iron angular grit
is generally used. This
abrasive produces the type of surface profile and depth
between peak and valley
necessary to ensure that metal coatings are satisfactorily
keyed to the base metal.
Typical of the abrasives used is a mixture of G47 grit
and S340 chilled iron shot.*
As a result of the immediate breaking down of the round
iron shot on impact and
the continual removal of fines by the exhaust
and desiltering equipment the
abrasive in circulation is a graded mixture
containing a wide range of angular
p3.rtici6 sizes.

Chilled iron angular grit, though considerably

cheaper per tonne in first cost is
less economical than round steel shot
owing to higher consumption per
unit of area
802 SURFACE PREPARATION OF STRUCTURAL STEELWORK

Fig. 1

1 . Elevator 9.Overflow
2 . Spiral screw feed 10 Solenoid feed valve
.

3 . Overflow 1 cwtimin \l. Adjustable volume control slide

4 . Adjustable chutes 12 . Rise and fall panel
5. Tundishes 13 . Pressure vessel for hand blasting
6 . Elevator 14 Ground level
.

1. Desilt er 15 Conveyor
.

8 . Impellors

blasted and higher plant maintenance costs as a result of greater wear and tear on
the impellers and other items of equipment.
For these reasons, round steel shot is generally used in pre-fabrication blast
cleaning plants. A typical grade of abrasive is 330 gauge round annealed steel shot
and produces a surface which is suitable for pre-fabrication primers. The steel-
this
work normally coated with a very thin film of the primer, 12 to 25 microns in
is

thickness, immediately after blasting to prevent re-rusting and to ensure protection

of the surface during the fabrication processes.
 BLAST CLEANING
compressed-air equipment, depending on whether the
In manually-operated
or round
surface is being
prepared for metal or paint primers, either chilled iron grit
where it is possible to recover and recirculate the abrasive. Where
steel shot is used
conditions of operation are
such that the abrasive must be regarded as expendable,
such as crushed slag or non-metaUic silica-free compounds,
cheaper materials are used

Quality of Surface

t\Tien assessing the quality of surface preparation produced by a blast cleaning

process, there are two criteria: (a) surface cleanliness and (b) surface roughness.

(fl) Surface Cleanliness

For any particular plant, whether it be a mechanised or manual type, the degree
of surface cleanliness achieved is primarily determined by the blasting rate. For
mechanised plants, this is a function of the linear speed at which the steelwork is
traversed past the impellers. In practice, speeds generally range between 1 m and
2.4 per minute, depending in the case of finished fabrications on the contour of
m
the surface to be cleaned as well as the degree of cleaning required.
With manual equipment, for a given quality of surface, the cleaning rate depends
on the size of nozzle used and in practice ranges between 0.05 and 0.20 m^ per
minute.
1966, ‘Protection of Iron and Steel Structures from Corrosion’,
CP 2008 :

recommends that two standards of cleanliness should be adopted for structural steel,
First Quality (white metal) and the other Second Quality. These are defined in
B.S. 4232 1967 and generally as follows:
{White Metal Finish) is a surface with a grey white metallic cover,
First Quality
roughened to form a suitable anchor pattern for coatings. The entire surface should
show evidence of blast cleaning and should be clean base metal. No part of the
surface being inspected should contain or be discoloured by mill scale, rust, rust
stain, residues of paint or other coating or any other form of contamination.

Second Quality Fmish - the entire surface should show evidence of blast cleaning
and 90 per cent of the surface should be clean base metal. In addition, no single
square of the surface of side 25 mm
should contain more than 20 per cent of its
area discoloured by discontinuous areas of mill scale, rust, rust stain, residues
of
paint or other coating or any other form of contamination.
It is possible to over-specify the grade of surface
cleanliness required since there
is a considerable difference
between the cost of achieving the above qualities of
finish.

A white metal finish is essential as a preparation for metal spraying and for some
of the modem and sophisticated protective paint systems. However, for a conven-
tional paint system
it is generally accepted that the lower standard of finish is
satisfactory, a
lower standard stiU corresponding to a higher blasting rate might be
accepted where the service
conditions are only marginally corrosive.

(b) Surface Roughness

defined as the maximum amplitude between adjacent peak and

V a ey. or new steel, the maximum amplitude is a function of the type and grade
804 SURFACE PREPARATION OF STRUCTURAL STEELWORK
of abrasive used. Where a paint system is subsequently to be applied, the smoothest
possible surface, consistent with complete removal of mill scale, should be produced
by using a fine grade of abrasive, but economic and practical considerations
determine the minimum grades which can be successfully used. The grades referred
to previously can be expected to produce a maximum surfaceamphtude of the
order of 75 to 100 microns in mechanised impeller plants and a somewhat rougher
surface in manual equipment.
necessary to consider the roughness of a blast-cleaned surface relative to the
It is

subsequent treatment. When cleaned, the steel is in a vulnerable condition and not
only must it be primed as soon as practicable (within 4 hours is generally specified),
but also sufficient paint must be applied before it leaves the shops for the site or
for storage in the open, to ensure that the film thickness over the peaks is adequate
to afford full protection until the final coats of paint are applied. In practice, this
means a minimum of two coats with most paints.
Modern priming paints for appUcation to blast-cleaned steelwork are formulated
so that they dry rapidly; in the case of pre-fabrication primers, within seconds of
application. This reduces any tendency for the paint to drain away from the peaks
and thus helps to ensure that the steel is fully protected during fabrication. Primers
which have a high percentage of zinc in the dry film can afford protection under
cover in the shops for up to 6 months, and the best will give a substantial degree of
protection fully exposed out of doors.

Application of Metal Coatings

The optimum anti-corrosion treatment adopted after the removal of mill scale
and rust depends on the service conditions. Such factors as the type of environment
to which the steelwork will be exposed, access for maintenance painting and its
expected life, will determine the relative economics of the various treatments avail-
able. Three or four coats of paint is the most common treatment for steelwork
which has been blast cleaned but there are applications where the adoption of hot
dip galvanising or metal sprayed coatings has special merit and is economically
attractive.
The principal fields of application for metal coatings (other than sheeting) so far
have been steelwork for bridges, transmission towers, railway electrification over-
head structures and light lattice construction. Power Station Switch House steel-
work is a new example where access for maintenance painting presents a special
problem and zinc coatings have been adopted.
Zinc or aluminium are the two metals involved in sprayed coatings which are
generally specified for priming steelwork, with zinc the pre-eminent material in
this field.

Metal Spraying

As previously referred to, the first requirement is to blast clean the steel using
an abrasive which will remove mill scale and provide the necessary mechanical key
or anchor pattern as it is termed, for the metal.
Metal spraying equipment consists essentially of a gun which feeds the metal in
the form of wire orpowder through an oxy-fuel gas flame where it is fused and
atomised and then projected on to the steel surface by a stream of compressed air.
 GALVANISING 805

In the case of the wire

process, a compressed air driven rotor feeds 3 or 5 mm diameter
wre from a through the oxy-fuel gas flame; in the powder process the powder
coil,
and
is conveyed
by compressed air from a storage hopper along the supply tubing
nozzle into the melting zone. In both cases,
through the central aperture of the
the nozzle projects the
compressed air issuing from an annular ring of apertures in
molten, atomised zinc particles on to the surface
of the steel.
Although the zinc coatings produced by the two methods differ slightly
in

appearance there is no significant difference in their performance and

the choice of

processis based on practical and economic

considerations. 5 wire mm
guns spray
zinc at the rate of 27/30 kg per hour and the larger type of powder gun has a
the fusing
throughput rate of the order of 36/40 kg of zinc per hour. Losses occur in
and atomising processes and the deposition factor, i.e., weight of metal sprayed to
weight deposited depends to a large extent on the size of the areas being treated.
For structural steelwork a deposition factor of 50/60 per cent is about average.
Overall spraying rates between 5.6 and 1 1 ,2 m^ per hour per operator for a
75 microns coating are usual, depending on the type and shape of the fabrication.
Coating thickness of 75 to 100 microns are generally specified but where necessary,
considerably heavier coatings can be applied.
Although zinc is the most widely used metal for the protection of structural
steelwork, aluminium is also used, particularly where sulphur compounds are
expected to be present in the environment. Recently introduced zinc/aluminium
alloys are said to give better results than either metal alone for some applications,
but these can only be applied by the powder process.

Hot Dip Galvanising

Hot dip galvanising is one of the oldest and still one of the most effective methods
of protecting steel against corrosion.
Essentially the process consists of the removal of rust and mill scale by pickling
inhydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid, followed by fluxing with ammonium chloride
and them immersion in a bath of virtually pure molten zinc.
As a refinement of this basic process, water wash and pre-fluxing tanks containing
zinc ammonium chloride are sometimes introduced immediately after the pickling
process. The fluxed work is then passed through a drying oven prior to immersion in
the galvanising bath. During dipping, the zinc reacts with the steel forming a zinc
iron alloy layer and during withdrawal from tlie bath, an additional thin layer of
pure zinc is added.
The weight of coating deposited on the article is influenced by the bath
tempera-
ture, time of immersion, and
withdrawal speed as well as the shape and size of the
article.

In normal practice, these factors are

more or
constant for any given item of
less
steelwork and the coating weight
cannot be varied significantly. It is generally
etween 610 and 765 g/m^, 75 to
100 microns thickness for most classes of
structural steelwork.
This is satisfactory for most purposes but if in special circumstances a heavier
coating is required, this can be produced by grit blasting the steel prior to pickling
The roughened surface results in a greater build-up of the
galvanising.
^
layer and a coating
weight of
alloy
the order of 916 to 1 220 g/m^ can be obtained. The
806 SURFACE PREPARATION OF STRUCTURAL STEELWORK
use of steel %vitli an alternative method of obtaining heavier
a high silicon content is

coatings which has been adopted in Sweden but not

so far in the U.K.
Galvanised coatings vary in appearance from dull grey to bright metallic depend-
ing chiefly on the. composition and thickness of the steel. Heavy items of structural
steelwork cool slowly after being withdrawn from the bath and the alloy layer
continues to grow, thus reducing the thickness of the pure zinc layer. In extreme
cases, there is virtually no pure zinc present and the article has a dull grey appearance.
These grey coats are in no way inferior in respect of their anti-corrosion properties,
although they do tend to acquire a ‘patina’ superficially resembling rust which
although disfiguring, does not indicate a failure of the coating.
The period over which protection is afforded by zinc coatings is a linear function
of the thickness of the coating and can be regarded as independent of the method
by which the zinc is appUed provided the coating is uniform. In a non-industrial
atmosphere the corrosion rate of zinc is about 1/15 to 1/20 of that of steel and a
life of 20/25 years may be expected from coatings of 75 to 100 microns thickness.

In industrial environments the corrosion rate generally varies between 1/5 to 1/10
to that of steel depending on the sulphur content of the atmosphere and except in
extreme conditions, lives of 5—8 years may be anticipated.
The relative economics of hot dip galvanising and zinc spraying depend on the
nature of the work and in particular, the ratio of surface area to wei^t. The higher
this ratio is, the more economically attractive becomes the galvanising process and
conversely zinc spraying shows to a special advantage when dealing with articles of
low surface area to weight ratio.
In general, for most classes of structural steelwork which can be accommodated
by existing plant, the galvanising process should prove to be the lower cost process.
Steelwork up to 10.5 m long by 1 m by 1.2 m represents the approximate limits of
size which can be galvanised, but where the cross-section is small, lengths above
10.5 m can be dealt with by a double dipping technique. The Hot Dip Galvanisers
Association publish full details of the plant installed by their members and the
maximum size of pieces which can be handled.
Within these size limits, zinc spraying may prove to be more suitable for hght
and bulky fabrications because of distortion problems in galvanising and where
selective application of a metal coating is required, e.g., exterior surface only of box
members.
There are virtually no size limits as far as metal spraying is concerned and the
largest components for bridges and other structures can be treated.

Summary
Thorough surface preparation is the essential foundatioil for a high grade anti-
corrosion treatment for steel structures which will be exposed to a corrosive
environment in service. Blast cleaning, pickling and to a lesser extent flame' cleaning,
are effective methods of removing mill scale and rust and the installation in
fabricators’ works of high production mechanised impeller blast cleaning plants for
the treatment of finished fabrications, or alternatively, plates and sections prior to
fabrication, has resulted in a marked increase in cleaning rates and a significant
reduction.in costs, compared with manual methods of blasting using portable
equipment.
 SUMMARY 807

By varying the cleaning rates, different standards of surface cleanliness can be

achieved, from a white metal finish which is essential for metal sprayed coatings
and the more sophisticated paints, to the lower standards suitable for conventional
protective paint systems. The development of more efficient methods of blast
cleaning, combined with improvements in the performance and efficiency of metal
spraying and galvanising equipment, has led to a position where the constructional
steelwork industry can offer a range of effective anti-corrosion treatments for its
products to suit any environment to which they may be exposed.
 30. DESIGN OF MULTI-STOREY STANCHIONS

Multi-Storey Steel Frameworks

necessary
considering the detailed design of multi-storey stanchions
it is
Before
steel frameworks as a whole. Some attention
to consider the design of multi-storey
will be given to this in the following paragraphs.

Stability

All multi-storey frameworks must be capable of resisting the effects of horizontal

forces both laterally and longitudinally. There are several alternative
ways of doing
this, of wliich it is frequently considered that the most
economical is to introduce a

series of vertical shear walls or bracing systems. In these systems (i) the floors
act as

deep horizontal girders to transmit the horizontal forces to the vertical stiffening
elements and these (ii) serve to hold the structure in position and transmit the
horizontal forces to the foundations.
An method of providing the necessary stability is the use of rigid joints
alternative
in the frameworkso that the latter is made capable of transferring the horizontal
forces to the foundations without undue sway.
Emphasis will be based in this chapter on the design of multi-storey stanchions
where the stability is provided by shear walls or other similar construction and for
the design of multi-storey stanchions subject to sway conditions, reference should
be made to suitable text books or other publications of a similar nature.

Design

At present the accepted design standard for multi-storey steel frameworks is

B.S. 449: Part 2: 1970 ‘The Use of Structural Steel in Buildings’. This standard is at
present under review and it is possible that when the revised version is issued rules
for guidance in the design of multi-storey structures will be modified. At present,
however, the standard permits the use of one of three design methods, namely,
‘simple’, ‘semi-rigid’ and ‘rigid’. Each of these methods is considered in more detail
below.

(a) Simple Design

Where beams are supported by seating cleats, web cleats or simple end plates
designed to carry the beam The only bending moments which need
reactions only.
to be allowed for in the design of the stanchions
are those induced by the
eccentricities of the beam reactions; B.S.
449 gives certain rules for ascertaining
these eccentricities and for applying the
bending moments indliced thereby.
The detailed calculations which are given in this chapter
are based on this method
ol design.

809
810 DESIGN OF MULTI-STOREY STANCHIONS
(b) Semi-rigid Design

As the types of connections usually adopted between beams and columns

inevitably provide a degree of restraint, this will tend to reduce the bending
moments in the beams. The Steel Structures Research Committee which
investigated this problem some years ago produced a report which permitted the
transference of some moments between the beams and columns. The method
suggested was not universally adopted, however, a simplified rule is written into
B.S. 449 whereby advantage can be taken of the semi-rigid nature of the
connections. References 1 and 2 give details of the application of semi-rigid design
methods.

(c) Rigid Design

Where beams are rigidly connected to the stanchions by means of welding or
high strength friction grip bolts the connections can be made capable of developing
the full strength of the members, the analysis of the framework thereby becomes
extremely complex. The standard permits the use of two design techniques, namely
‘elastic’ and ‘plastic’.

(f) Elastic

For this purpose B.S. 449 states ‘The design shall be carried out in accordance
with accurate methods of elastic analysis and to the limiting stresses permitted in
this British Standard’.
A number of multi-storey
frameworks have been designed and constmcted on
this basis and The development of the use
details are given in various publications.
of the electronic computer for the solution of engineering problems has made the
method of analysis much less tedious, whilst at the same time providing a degree of
accuracy of information which enhances the value of the method of design. An
example of this treatment is given in reference 3.

(//) Plastic \

Again B.S. 449 states ‘Alternatively it shall be based on the principles of plastic
design so as to provide an adequate load factor, and with the deflections under
working loads not of the limits implied in this British Standard.
in excess
A Joint Committee of the Institution of Structural
Engineers and the Institute
of Welding has examined the problems of the design of rigid frame structures and
have made recommendations of a design method which allows for a degree of
plasticity in the beams whilst the stanchions are designed elastically. Reference
should be made to the second report of the Joint Committee for details of the
design method proposed. (See reference 4.)
Alternative plastic design methods will be found in reference 5.

Multi-storey Steel Stanchions

The general description ‘multi-storey’ applies equally to stanchions two or three

storeys highand to stanchions 28 to 30 storeys high. This wide variation in height
and correspondingly in loads to be carried, had led to the demand from the
 COLUMN BEHAVIOUR
section
sections from the smaller hollow steel
designer of a wide range of structural
to the larger universal beam and column
section.
.• n
under review internationally,
Since the range of sections available is at present
reference should be made to the current Safe
Load Tables for details of the
on a range
maximum axial loads which the various sections are capable of carrying
figures for the different grades of
of heights. These Safe Load Tables also include
steel commonly used for structural
purposes, namely grades 43, 50 and 55 in

B.S. 4360. . . ,
universal column sections
,

This chapter will be confined to the consideration of

as multi-storey stanchions, since these are the sections
most frequently used for this
purpose. Examples of calculations to B.S. 449: Part 2: (1970) will be
given but it \s

desirable to examine the various factors affecting the design method

used.
first

Column Behaviour
A ‘short’ column fails by permanent deformation of the material at the yield

stress.

A ‘long’column becomes unstable at the ‘Euler’ load, and fails by buckling. The
Euler load is given by the expression ir^EAlQIrY, where E is Young’s Modulus, A is
the cross-sectional area, I is the length, and r is the radius of gyration, a geometrical
property of the column section. The term (//r) is referred to as the ‘slenderness
ratio’, and is a critical factor in column design.
Practical columns are neither ‘short’ nor ‘long’ but fall somewhere between the
two extremes, failing by a combination of yielding and buckling. Also, they suffer
from certain imperfections such as (i) departure from ideal straightness, known as
‘initial curvature’, (ii) variation of yield point across the section and (iii) residual

stresses due to the method of manufacture.

The formula given in B.S. 449 for calculating the safe loads on practical columns
is a modification of the Perry-Robertson formula, which was evolved by Professor

Perry on the assumption that all practical imperfections can be represented by a

hypothetical initial curvature of the column. The formula gives the intensity of end
loading which, at an extreme fibre at the mid-height of the column, would cause
the combined axial and bending stresses to reach the yield point. This intensity of
end loading, when divided by a suitable ‘load factor’ is referred to as the ‘permissible
axial stress’.
The practical application of the formula was made possible by Professor
Robertson, who carried out a series of closely controlled experiments which
enabled him to recommend suitable values for both the load factor, and for the
expression in the formula representing the initial curvature.
With the passage of
time, other experimenters have suggested
modifications to these values, all tending
to greatereconomy. A more detaUed account of the historical background,
and of
the work leading up to the most recent changes will be found
in Reference 6
The latest revision to B.S. 449 (Appendix B) states:
‘The average stress on the gross sectional
area of a strut or other compression
member in steel with a specified minimum yield stress
shall not exceed the value of
Pc obtained by the formula:
812 DESIGN OF MULTI-STOREY STANCHIONS
where Pc= the permissible average stress, N/mm^.
K2 = load factor or coefficient, taken as 1.7 for the purposes of this standard.
Ys = minimum yield stress, N/mm^.
„
Co = Euler critical stress = 777 x2
_7r''210
7771
— N/mm
000,„
^2
2
.

{l/rf {llrf
7? = 0.3(//100r)^

I'
,

r
,
= slenderness
.

ratio = — ~—
effective length
radius of gyration

Values derived from this formula are given in Table 17fl (Grade 43 steel). Table
lib (Grade 50 steel) and Table 17c (Grade 55 steel) of B.S. 449 Part 2 which are
reproduced on pages 816 to 818 inc.

Effective Length Factors

The length, /, to be used in the column formula is the ‘effective length’, which is

the actual length measured centre to centre of floor beams, multiplied by an

effective length factor. The value of this factor depends upon whether the ends of
the column are (i) held in position, and (ii) restrained in direction, i.e., fixed,
partially fixed or pinned. Effective length factors for a variety of end conditions
are given in Clause 31 and Appendix D of B.S. 449.

Maximum Slenderness Ratio

Clause 33 of B.S. 449 states that for any member carrying loads resulting from
dead weights, with or without imposed loads, the maximum slenderness ratio shall
not exceed 180. This limitation clearly applies to multi-storey stanchions.

Bending and Axial Compression

Clause 14.a of B.S. 449 states that:
‘Members subject to both axial compression and bending stresses shall be so
proportioned that the quantity

fc
^ fbc
Pc Pbc
does not exceed unity at any point, where

= the calculated average axial compressive stress.

fc
Pc = the allowable compressive stress in axially loaded struts (see Table 1 7).
fhc = the resultant compressive stress due to bending about both rectangular
axes.
Pbc = the appropriate allowable compressive stress for members subject to
bending (see Clause 19).

If unity represents the carrying capacity of the member as an axially loaded

stanchion, the first factor in the expression represents the fraction of this capacity
which is actually being utilised.
 .

81
FIRE PROTECTION AND STRUCTURAL CASING
Similarly, if unity represents the carrying capacity of the member as a beam
subject to bending only, the second factor indicates the
fraction of this capacity
which is actually being utilised.
Clearly, if the member and bending moments simultaneously,
carries axial loads

the sum of these two factors should not exceed unity.

Fire Protection and Structural Casing

In multi-storey buildings often necessary to provide a degree of fire
it is

resistance to the steelwork to satisfy bye-law requirements.

A number of proprietary systems of hollow lightweight casings are available,
and details are given in Reference 7.

Where solid reinforced concrete casings are used for fire protection, the casing
and the steel core may be assumed to act compositely in carrying the load,
provided that the casing complies with the requirements of Clause 30.b of B.S. 449,
illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 1.

Ordinary dense concrete with 10 mm

aggregate CUniess solidity con be obtained
With larger aggregate) works strength
not /ess than 2/ N/mm^ at 2B days when
50mm tested in accordance with B.S. /88/
nvn
Method of testing concrete

SOrmmih binders to B.S.4449 at

iVire
5mm at not more than
/east
'^^150 mm pitch attached to
I

' /ongitudino/ spacing bars at /east

I 4 in number

Stee/ core unpainted

Fig. 1

It is normal practice for the structural casing of the stanchions to

be carried out
storey bystorey, in conjunction with the placing of the
floors. Where this is not
done, the construction loads on the uncased stanchions should be limited to safe
values.

Design Examples

Typical details of part of a multi-storey

steel framework are given in Fig. 2. The
uddmg is stiffened laterally and longitudinally by vertical shear walls or bracing
sys and by the floors. The design of the stiffening elements is considered to
outside the scope of this chapter.
be
 A m m

814 DESIGN OF MULTI-STOREY STANCHIONS

Roof
t 1

ri
1
r 1 1

\ F! Walls 225mm
o! 1
F3 F4 -1
r 1
1 .
I
I
\

5th Floor *
F2
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

*o
.S'Om /0.O m

4th Floor PLAN ON FLOORS

ROOF
J'S
at.

, 3rd Fl^or 20mm Asphalt

50mm Ughtweight screed

Precast units
J-5/w
Plaster

2nd Floor LL.

FLOORS
JSm DL

1st Floor
0-5 kN/m Finish 0* J kN/m
0'5 kN/ Screed 0'5 kN /m
.

2-OkN /m Precast units 2-2 kN /m

m
03 kN / m Plaster 0'3kN /
4-0
33kN/m 3-3kN /m
1-5 kN Im Partitions 0-7kN/m
,, Ground Floor
|
4'BkN /m L.L. 25kN Im
1
0-Sm
6’5kN /m

SECTION A- 225mm wall plastered both sides 5.5kN/m '

Fig. 2
 815

TABLE 1

ECCENTRICITY OF BEAM REACTIONS RELATIVE TO COLUMN AXES WHEN

UNSTIFFENED BRACKETS USED AND REACTION ACTS AT 100 MM FROM FACE
OF SECTION

Serial Ecc. Ecc. Serial Ecc. Ecc.

Wt/m Wt/m
Size XX yy Size XX yy

mm mm kg mm mm mm mm kg mm mm

356 X 406 634 337 124 305 X 305 137 260 107
551 328 121 118 257 106
467 318 118 97 254 105
393 310 115 254 X 254 167 245 no
340 303 113 132 238 108
287 297 111 107 233 107
235 291 109 89 230 105
Column core 477 314 124 73 227 104
356 X 368 202 287 108 203 X 203 86 211 107
177 284 107 71 208 105
153 281 106 60 205 105
129 278 105 52 203 104
305 X 305 283 283 113 46 202 104
240 276 112 152 X 152 37 181 104
198 270 110 30 179 103
158 264 108 23 176 103

Comparative designs will be given for the stanchion shown on Section A.A. as
follows;

Example 1 A Lightweight cased— Grade 43

Example IB Concrete encased —Grade 43
Example 2A Lightweight cased—Grade 50
Example 2B Concrete encased -Grade 50
Example 3A Lightweight cased—Grade 55
Example 3B Concrete cased —Grade 55
For aU examples the following notes should be considered.

Dead Loads
The make-up of the floor and roof loading are given in Fig. 2 and can be
considered as representative for this type of structure.

Imposed Loads
Imposed loads for the roof and floors are also
given in Fig. 2,' and are based on
^ ‘Loading’ applied to office
tmildingf^”'®''^'
816

TABLE Via. ALLOWABLE STRESS ON GROSS SECTION

FOR AXIAL COMPRESSION

Intermediate values may be obtained by linear interpolation.

NOTE. For material over 40 mmthick, other than rolled I-beams or channels, . and for
Universal columns of thicknesses exceeding 40 mm, the limiting stress is 140 N/mm’.
 817

TABLE 176. ALLOWABLE STRESS ON GROSS SECTION

FOR AXIAL COMPRESSION

Intermediate values may be obtained by linear interpolation.

NOTE, For material over 65 mmthick, the allowable stress pa on gross section for axial
compression shall be calculated in accordance with the procedure in
Appendix B taking
Vn equal to the value of the yield stress agreed
with the manufacturer, with a maximum
Viilqe of 350 N/mm».
818

TABLE 17c. ALLOWABLE STRESS ON GROSS SECTION

FOR AXIAL COMPRESSION

Pa (N/nim*) for grade SS steel

0 1 2 3 4 1 5 6 7 8 9

0 265 264 264 263 262 262 261 260 260 259
10 258 258 257 256 256 255 254 254 253 252
20 252 251 250 250 249 248 248 247 246 246
30 245 244 244 243 242 241 240 239 239 238
40 236 235 234 233 232 230 229 227 226 224
50 222 220 219 217 214 212 210 208 205 203

60 200 197 195 192 189 186 183 180 178 175
70 172 169 166 163 160 157 154 151 148 146
80 143 140 138 135 133 130 128 125 123 121
90 118 116 114 112 110 108 106 104 102 100
100 99 97 95 93 92 90 89 87 86 84

110 83 82 80 79 78 76 75 74 73 72
120 71 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 62
130 61 60 59 58 57 56 56 55 54 .
53
140 53 52 51 50 50 49 49 48 47 47
150 46 45 45 44 44 43 43 42 42 41

160 41 40 40 39 39 38 38 37 37 37
170 36 36 35 35 34 34 34 33 33 33
180 32 32 32 31 31 31 30 30 30 29
190 29 29 23 28 28 28 27 27 27 27
200 26 26 26 25 25 25 25 25 24 24

210 24 24 23 23 23 23 23 22 22 22
220 22 22 21 21 21 21 21 20 20 20
230 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 18
240 18 18 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17
250 17
1

300 12

350 9

Intermediate values may be obtained by linear interpolation.

NOTE. For material over 40 mm

thick, other than rolled I-beams or channels, and for
Universal columns of thicknesses exceeding 40 mm, the limiting stress is 245 N/mm*.
 5 9

PERMISSIBLE AXIAL STRESSES 81

this Code permits

For certain occupancies, including offices, Clause 5(a) of
reductions to be made in the total imposed floor loads
carried by stanchions and
their foundations, as follows:

Number of Floors Per Cent Reduction

including the of Imposed Load on
Roof Carried by all Floors above the
Member under Member under
Consideration Consideration

1 0
,2. 10
3 20
4 30
5 to 10 40
over 10 50

In this example the reductions have been calculated as follows:

Area supported at any one level = 9x3. = 31. 5 m^.

Imposed load at roof level = 3 1 .5 x 1 .5 = 47 kN.

Imposed load at any one floor level = 31.5 x 2.5 = 79 kN.

Number of
Storey
Floors
% Reduction Reduction in Imposed Load {kN)

Roof - 5 th 1 0 0
5th - 4th 2 10 13
4th - 3rd 3 20 41
3rd - 2nd 4 30 85
^
2nd - 1st 5 40 145
1st - G 6 40 177

Effective Length Factors

From an examination of Clause 31 and Appendix D of B.S. 449, it appears that
an effective length coefficient of 0.7 is appropriate for both axes for the two upper
lengths and 0.85 for the lower length. As the effective lengths about both axes are
similar in this example, it is only necessary to calculate the slenderness ratio about
the y-y axis, since for a Universal
Column the radius of gyrationis least about this
axis. This is shown in the calculations, and for convenience the actual length is
measured base to floor or floor to floor. In every case
the slenderness ratio is much
less than the limiting
value of 180.

Permissible Axial Stresses

The permissible axial stresses for steel

stanchions are given in Tables \la,
and 17c of B.S. 449 and for convenience these tables
Mb
have already been reproduced.
820 DESIGN OF MULTI-STOREY STANCfflONS
The limitations of stressmentioned at the foot of the various tables refer to heavier
sections than be
willrequired for this example.
For uncased stanchions the slenderness ratio is calculated using the radius of
gyration of the steel section and the permissible stress is considered as acting on
the area of steel section. For stanchions encased in concrete, which complies with
the requirements given in B.S. 449, the radius of gyration about the weaker axis of
the section may be calculated having regard to the assistance provided by the
concrete and the area of concrete encasement within certain limits, may be used to
assist in carrying the axial load.
The detailed calculations show the method of utilising these concessions, but
attention is drawn to the limitations imposed in B.S. 449, which are not applicable
in this example.

These are as follows:

1. In no case shall the actual load on a cased strut exceed twice that which would
be permitted on the uncased section.
2. The slenderness ratio of the uncased section on the full length, centre to
centre of connection must not exceed 250.
3. The amount of concrete cover used in computing the allowable axial load on
the cased stanchion must not exceed 75 mm.
4. The clauses permitting calculations for cased stanchions do not apply when
the overall dimensions of the steel member exceed 1 000 mm x 500 mm nor
do they apply to hollow box sections.

Eccentricity of Beam Reactions

Clause 34 of B.S. 449 specifies that the eccentricity shall be taken as 100 mm
from the face of the section, or at the centre of the bearing, whichever dimension
gives the greater eccentricity. Since in this example it has been assumed that the
beams are supported by unstiffened angle cleats the former requirement is
applicable. Table 1 on page 815 gives the eccentricities of beam reactions relative to
the two axes for the universal column sections when the reactions are applied at
100 mm from the face of the section.

Distribution of Bending Moments Produced by Eccentricity of Beam

Reactions
According to Clause 34.b of B.S. 449 the effect of the moments produced at any
floor need only be considered at that floor. The clause also states that the moments
may be divided equally between the stanchion lengths above and below that floor,
provided the IjL value of one length does not exceed 1 .5 x^the IjL value of the
other length. Where this is not the case the moments must be proportioned in
accordance with the IjL values.
In this example each stanchion section extends over two storeys so that it is only
necessary to check the lower storey length of each section. The design moments
from the floor at mid-height of each section will be divided equally between the
upper and lower storey lengths since the IjL ratio is almost the same for both.
 821
PERMISSIBLE BENDING STRESSES
axial loads, will
each section, being over-designed for
The uDoer storey length of
change of section at the
the^additional moments induced by the
amply cater for
upper splice.

Permissible Bending Stresses

steel are
bending stresses for the different grades of
TLe permissible compressive
and 3c, 3Z; and 3c of B.S. 449, and depend
upon the D/T and //ry
riven in Tables 2
case / is the effective length of
the compression flange bending asm
ratios. In this

factors in Clause 26, with the stanchion

^^^ComparLon of flie beam effective length
in Clause 31 suggests that when
establishing the permissible
effective length factors ,

stanchions it is reasonable to use tire

stress for multi-storey
compressive bending
for finding the permissible axial compressive stress.
same //a, ratio that is used
stresses given in Table 2 are 165, 230 and
The maximum permissible bending
280 N/mm^ for grades 43, 50 and
55 respectively but these are to be reduced when
specified values. The sections used in these
examples,
the material thickness exceeds
therefore the maximum values stated can
however, do not exceed these limits and
be used. Again, it will be seen from
Tables 3c, 36 and 3c that provided the //ry ratios
reduction is required for the //ry - D/T
do not exceed 90, 80 or 75 respectively no
ratios and again the sections used in
these examples do not necessitate a reduction
on account of the flange instability. , r-
In considering concrete encased stanchions
B.S. 449 permits the Vy value oi tne
ratio provided that the permissible
cased section to be used in determining the l/vy
bending stress for the cased section does not exceed 1-|- times that
which would be
permitted for the uncased section. For cased columns used in the context shown

by these examples, this is never critical and may be ignored.

The actual bending stresses are calculated on the steel section alone and the
this is
concrete encasement is only allowed to assist in carrying the axial load,
obviously conservative but is a requirement of the present B.S. 449.

Combined Axial Load and Bending

Reference has been made earlier to Clause 14.a of B.S. 449 where it is stated that
the sum of the ratios of

actual axial stress actual bending stress

^
permissible axial stress permissible bending stress

must not exceed unity. dealing with concrete encased stanchions the first
When
ratio is usually taken as actual axial load divided by actual permissible load, since
this is in effect identical with the former requirement.

Calculations

Calculations in a tabular form are given on the following pages' for the six
alternative forms of construction referred to earlier, but to assist in understanding
these expanded calculations will be given for one shaft in each of the six cases.
storey Hem Total on Total on Live load Design
Height Loading details of Loads Storey Shaft reduction Load
m load kht kN kN kN kN
 Permissibft

Proptrtias Stresses Design Calculations

Stclien and
Nlmm^

43 steel. Concrete encased

Grade

L . 3*5 Axial load • 526 kN

4<h.Roof
(210-99) X 181 = 20200 kNmm
152 x 152 x 37 kg UC coef. • 0*7
size .
Steel
( 34 - 5 ) X 104 .
= 3 020 kNmm
262 x255 mm / = 2-4S
Cased size «
20200 X 10 ^
^
3 020 x lO^
47-4 c/n^ Ur = 48 '
2 X 274 X 10 * 2x92 X lO^
4rea ot steel =

Pc : 135 = 37 16 : 53 N/mm^
Area ol cone. •

= 3-87 cm Pbc « 165 Safe axial load on cosed shaft

uncased

cased =0-2x 255 = 5-1 cm Axial stress Stee/ s 47'4 X lO^x (35 X 640A'/V
rmtn

on concrete Concrete- 664x1 Ox 4*3 x 10 ^ 286 kN

7.x for steef - 274 C/77’^ »

= 0-19 X 165
9 26 kN
92 cm^
Zn for s(9ef = • 31-4 „
Ratio:
Act. axial load
Safe axial load
—
psc
ftc

fee XX axis 181 mm 135

> 4.3
31-4
104 mm ' = 0.09
fee yy axis a = if ^ iS
Section proves O.K.

L • 3-5 Axial food : 1 168 kN

z203 X 203 X 60kgUC coef. . 0-1 BM,,-. (210 - 99) X 205 * 22 BOO kNmm
Steel size

z 2.45 BM„-. (34 - 5) X 105 . 3 050 kNmm

Cosed size 1 3 10 X 305 mm /
22 800 X lO’ 3 050 x 10*
''''
Area of steel . 75-8 cm‘ Ur M o 2x581 X lO* 2x199x10*
Area of cone. . 945 cm^ Pr < 139 :204- 8 z 26 N/mm^ ,

r.h. uncased z 5-19 cm Pt: > 165 Safe axial load on cased shaft
rmin cosed z0 2x 305 s 6-1 cm Axial stress Steel . 75 8 x 10*x 139 x 10 * • I OGOkN
Zt. for steel z 581 cm^
on concrete Concrete: 940x10x4-43 x 10'* z AZOkN
= 0-19 X .'65
Meow
Zrr lor steel . 199 cm^ •3M I
1^0 2R
+0-17 = 0-96
fee XX axis • 205 mm 139 1^
. 4.43
31*4
fee yy axis = 105 mm Section proves QK.

B-jcc
/
L. > 4*5 Axial load = 1800 /-A/
Steel size •254 X 254 X 89 kg UC coef. • 0.85
BM..-. (210-99) X 230 z 25 600 *A^mm

Cosed size •360 X 360 mm • 3-62 BM,y s (34 - 5 ) X lOS = 3 050 kNmm
f

Area ol steel
25 600x10* 3 050 x10*
• 114 cm^ Ur » 54 ^*''2x1099x10* 2x379x10*
Area of cone. 300
= 1
cm^ P: • 130 r 12 + 4 =16 N/mm^
rmi. uncased » 6-52 cm ptc > 165 Safe axial load on cased shaft
r :in cosed •0-2 X 356 = 7-12 cm Axial stress Steel zll4 X IO*x 130x lO'* r \ ABOkN
1

Z., for steel 099 on concrete

« 1
cm^ 1

Concrete: I 30Ox iO*x 4.15 x lO'* r 640*-A^

Zrr
= 0.19 X 165
lor steel 2 \20kN
• 379 cm^ • 31-4 •

f'c XX axis • 230 mm „

Ratio
. 1 800 16
0.05 + 0-10
t = 0*95
130
z4.JS
1 ^5 =

yy axis 31-4
• 105 mm Section proves O.K.
1
 9

Ptrwissible

Proptrtits Stresses Design Ca/cu/olions

Stction and
Nfmm^

43 steel. Lightweight casing

Grade

Axial load - 522 kN

4t>.Roo/
{210- 99)x 202 = 22 42 0
Steel size =203 x 203 x 46 kg UC L = 3-5 BM„- (34-5) X 104 3 020 kh/mm
=260x260 mm coef. = 0-7 522 X lO^
Cased size Axial stress ic 8 9 Nlmm^
58-8X 10^
steels 58-8 cm^ / -- 2-45
Area 0/ 22420x10^. 3020x10^
Bending stress fsc ;

2 X 449X10’"^ 2 151 X lO^

r,in uncased ' 5-11 cm Ur - 48
25 + lO
Zr, for steef - 449 am^ pc - 135
35 Nlmm^
steel - 151 e/n® pbc = 165 69 35
Z„ lor
Ratio
fc
- + ~
(te

Pc ptc 136 165

fee XX axis = 202 mm
= 0-66 + 0-21 = 0-87
fee yy axis 104 mm
Section proves O.K.

Axioi toad r 1 I5B A-jV

5A<«= (210-99) X 227 = 2Z 200 kNmm

Steel size =254 x 254 x 73 kg UC L • 3-5
BM,r- (34- 5) X 104 = 3 020 kNmm
Cased size =3l0x310tnm coef. ‘ 0-7 I158 X 10®
Axioi stress fc . 124 Nfmm’
92-9X 10*
Area of steel S 92-9 cm^ / • 2-45
Bending stress /its
25 200 X IQ® 3 020x10 ®
2 X 894 X lO®
“ 2x305x10®
r«/» uncased 3 6-46 cm f/r = 38
= 14+5
Zer for steel = 894 cm^ - 140
= 1 Nlmm^
Z,r for steef C 305 cm^ pAc = 165
Ratio
fc
- t —
fbc 124
^
19
fee XX axis - 227 mm Pc Pbc 140 165

= 0-69 +0-11 = 1-0

fee yy axis = 104 mm
Section proves O.K.

Axioi load : 1 -JQiikN

BMr.c ( 210 - 99) X 258 28 640 kNmm

Steel size 305 x305 x
=
1 18 kg UC L = 4-5
BM,r= (34-5) X 106 3 070 kNmm
Coserf i,>,
=360x360 mm coef. = 0-85 1 784x10®
Axial stress fc = z 119 N/mm^
149-8x10®
-^reo of steel = 149-8 cm^ / --
3-82
28 640x10 ® 3 070x10®
‘"’COSfrf Bending stress fbc c
= 7.75 c/JJ
t/r = 49 2x1755x10®' 2X587X10®
for steel 1755 cm^ pc - 135 8+3
^>r for steel I I Nfmm^
.
537 ^m^ pbe - 165
fc fbc M9 n
xsr axis 258 Ratio ^
=
mm Pc Pbc 135 165

// oxis c
106 „„ = 0-88 + 0-07 I 0-95
Section proves O.K.
 Ptrm/s sib/e
Calculations
Strtssts
St cl/on and Prop trt its
N/mm^

Lightweight casing
Grade 50 steel.

Axial load 521 kN

41 b. ffoof
i

37 kg U C 3-5 3 020 kNmm

steel size = 152 x 152 x i =
^
521 X 10
coef. - 0-7 z 110 Nlmm^
Cased size =210x210 mm ^
= 47-4 X 10 ^“

- 474 cm^ / = 2-45 20 200 xl 0 ^ 3 020 x 10 =

Area of steel
2 x 274 x 10
^ 2 x 92 x 10
cm Hr = 63
3-e7
rmin uncased =
= 37+16
274 cm^ pc -- 164
Zxz for steel - = 53 Nlmm^

- 92 cm^ pbc = 230 fe fbc

Z„ for steel
164 230
pc
Pt pbc
p6e
Ecc XX axis - 181 mm
= 0-67 + 0-23 = 0-90
fee yy axis - 104 mm
Section proves O. K.

pud, ^tb Axial load = I 155 kN

i9A<xx= (210-99) X 205 = ZZ^OOkNmm
Steel size =203 x 203 x 60 kg UC L • 3-5
BMrr- (34- 5) X 105 = 3 050 kNmm

s260x260min coef. = 0-7 '53 Ntmrn^

Cosed size Axial stress U --

cm^ • 2-45 "

7S'8 3 050 X 10
/
Area of steel =
22 600x10" .

Bending stress *==

2 x 561 x lO' 2 X 199 x 10^
ritin uncased ’ 5- 19 cm Hr = 47
= 20+6
Zxx for steel - 561 cm^ p, = 167
: 28 Nlmm‘
230
Zrr for steel • 199 cm^ ptc =
-
pe
fc
+ —
fze

Pbz
153
167
.
^
230
fee XX axis = 205 mm
= 0-62 + 012 = 0-94
fee // axis » 105 mm
Section proves O.K.

B-Zbt Axial load = Mil kN

= (210 - 99 ) X 230 = 25600 kNmm
Steel size =254 x 254 x 89 kg UC L =4-5

Cosed size =310x310 mm coef. - 0-85

/SAIQI Sfrwss fc = litiiiiu
10 ^
. .
114 X
Area of steel = 114 cm^ / = 3-82
"
„ , 25 600 x 10 ". 3 050 x 10
rmin uncased = 6'52 cm Hr = 59 2 x 1099 x 10" 2 x 379 x 10?

Zxx for steel = 1 099 cm^ Pc

--
171 = 12+4
= 16 Nlmm^
Zyy for Steel = 379 cm^ pbc =230
fee XX axis 230
_
Ratio
.
-fe + —
fzc 156
^
16
= mm Pc pbc 171 230

fee 105 : 0-91 +^ 0-07 : 0-98

yy axis = mm
Section proves O.K.
 Permissible
Design Calculations
Stction and Properties Stresses
Nlmm^

Grade 50 steel. Concrete encased

L « 3-5 Axial toad ' 523 kN

4'"- Poof
(210-99) X 179 = 19 900 kNmm
152 x 152 x 30 kg UC coef. • 0‘7
Steel size »

BMyt- ( 34 - 5 ) X 104 ' 3 020 kNmm

»260x255 mm / = 2-45
Cased size
19 900 X 10 ^ 3 020 X lO ^
Area of steef - 3 8-2 cn^ Hr = 48 2x221x10^ 2x73x10^

Area of cone. % 664 cm^ p^ = 186 : 45 -t- 2 1 = 66 N/mm^

rmin uncased = 3-82 cm ptc • 230 SofQ oxiaf /ood on co^ed shoft

Cmin cased = 0-2 X 253 = 5-06 cm Axial stress S/ee/ = 36-2 x lO^x IB6 x lO'^« 710 M
221 an concrete Concrete^ 664x10x4*25 x10^ * 282 kA/
z.. for steel = cm^
.0-19 X 230 992 kN
Zrr for steel = 73 cm^ •"
43-9 _ .

Potio: —
Act.
— - axial load
Safe axial toad
—— + —
ftc
puc
fee XX axis a 179 mm = -4-2S
43-9
fee yy axis = 104 mm : IP
992
+
23 0
^ = 0-53 + 0-29 I 0-82

Section proves O.K.

4»> ‘ 3-5 Axioi toad = 1 161 kN

Steel size s203x 203x 46 kgUC coef. • 0-7 BM„-. (210 - 99) X 202 r 22 400 kNmm
2-45
BM„c. (34- 5)x 104 « 3 020 kNmm
Cosed size • 305 x 305 mm t •
^
22 400 X 10 ^ 3 020 x 10
Area of steef » Sfl-8 cm^ Hr = 40 2x449 x10* 2x152 x10*
Area of cone. - 930 cm^ Pc = 193 z 25 4- lO = 35 N/mm^
rrnin uncosed s 5-1 1 c/n PCc . 230 Safe axioi load on cosed shaft
rmw cased =0-2x 303 = 6-06c/» Axioi stress Steel c 58BxlO*xl93 x lO’^ « 1 130A-/V
on concrete Concrete^ 930 x 10%.4-4 x lO’*
Ztt tor steel = 449 cm^ = 4iOA’A^
-1«=4-4 1 SAOkN
Zrr for sleet » 152 cm^ 43-9

fee XX axis % 202 mm ItS? * 2To

= -'O’'
£cc yy axis = 104 mm Section proves QK.

B-Za c 4-5 Axial load = 1 791 kN

Steel size =254 x 254 x 73 kg UC coef = 0-85 BM.,-. (210 - 99 ) X 227 = 25200 kNmm
Cosed size .355 x 355 mm I • 3-82 BMn= (34 - 5) X (04 • 3 020 kNmm
4/-f(7 of steel
25 200 X 10* 3 020 x 10 *
= 92-9 cm^ Hr = 54 2x 894 X 10* 2 x 227 x 10 *
Area of cone. . 260 c/n* - 179
1
Pc = 14 * S N/mm^
= 19
rmin uncosea z 6-46 cm pbe = 230 Safe axial load on cased shaft
r.in cosed .0-2x354 = 7-08 c/n Axial stress Steel =92-9x 10*x 179x 10^ = 1 660/tyV
Zc, for steel • 894 on concrete
c/n-'
Concrete^ 1 260'<10*x 4-1 x lO'* = 518/1-A'
Zrt tor steel . 305 43-9
cm-' 2\7BkN
fee jr>- axis . 227 mm 791 1 19
+ °
'^‘'''°'2l78 2 0 T = 0-9'
fee yy axis - 104 mm
Section proves O.K.
Sterty Ittm Total on Total on Live load Design
Htight Loading dttalls of Loads Storey Shaft reduction Load
m load kN kN kN kN kN

182 - 182

534 13 521

887 41 846

I 240 8S I 155
 Ptrmissibit
Dtsign Calculations
and Proptriits Strtssts
Stctfon
N/mm^

Grade 55 steel. Lightweight casing

4th. _ , Axial toad = 521 kN

,
4»'- Root
f^oof
BM,:,-- (210- 99) X 179 = 19 900 *///n/n

Steel size = 152 x 152 x 30 kg UC ^ ,3.5 (34- 5) x 104 • S

3 020 kNmm

Cased size =210x210 mm co»/. *

coet. « 0-7 jxiol stress fc =
3e-2 x T ^ ”
= 136 Nlmm^

= 245 *
Area of steet = 38-2 cm^ t
19 900x10*. 3 02 0 xlQ
Bending stress tic =
2x 73x10*
2 x 221 x lO"^
r mtn uncased = 3-82 cm Hr = 64
= 45 + 21

Zee for stet! c 221 cm^ Pc r 189

= 66 N/mm^

Zrr for site/ = 73 cm^ ptc z 280 fc he 136 .

66
Ratio - + = 280
189
Sec XX oxfs = 179 mm
= 0-72 « 0-24 » 0-96
See yy axis = 104 mm
Section prove* O.K.

Axiat load : 1 ISS kN

BMeec (210-99) X 202 * 22 400 kNmm
Steel size =203 x 203 x 46 L • 35 BMrr-- (34- S) X 104 s 3 020 kNmm
Cased size =25Sx25Smm coet. • 0-7 lJ|^.Lj.gL
Axiat stress ft z , 197 N/mm^
588 X 10*
Area of steet » 58-8 cm^ / • 2-45
Bending stress hk
r«/« uncased • 5-11 cm Ur = 50
' 2x449x10* 2x152x10*
= 25 .r 10
Zee for steet » 449 cm^ Pc --
222
= 35 N/mm^
Zrr for steet • 1 52 cm^ ptc = 280
— fc
—
tic 197 35
Ratio - t
Pc ptc
' 222 2 W0
£cc XX axis • 202 mm
= 0-88 0-12 = 1-0
fee yy axis » \OA mm
Section proves O.K.

B-Z^ e Axial load = 1 775 kN

BMeeC (210 - 99) X 227 = 2B 200 kNmm
Steel size = 254 x 254 x 73 L = 4-5
BMrr » (34-5) X 104 . 3 020 kNmm
Cosed size =305x305 mm eoeA 0-85
=
Axial stress fc *
1775x10* —
::^
92-9x 710*
* i90 ff/m/rr
,

Area of steel = 92-9 cm^ / = 3-82

Bending stress ft
25 200x10*, 3 020x10*
tmln V/lCOSfC^ » 646 cm Ur = 59 2x894x10* 2x305x10"
Zee for steet 894
* cm^ Pc = 203 = 14 + 5

: 19 Nlmm^
Zrr for steet • 305 cm^ Pic
~ 280
Ratio 190 ^ 19
fee XX axis 227 mm 7
=
Pc ptc 5S5 * 5eO
See yy axis -
104 mm :0-93N- 0-07 = 1-0

Section proves O.K.

 -

Ptrmissibl*
Calculations
Design
Strtssts
Stctien and Proptrtits

Concrete encased
Grade 55 steel.

L 3*5 Axiat foad * 523 kN

4>i<- Roof
(2.0- 99) X .76 « \OtOOkNmm
UC coe/. • 0-7 990kNmm
sire • >52 x 152 x 23 kg 04 - 5) x .03 * 2
Steel BMrr‘
*2-45 2990XJO*
size .255 x 255 mm /
.9 600 X .O ^ .
Cased
• 49 2x .66 X .O^ 2X53X.O
29-8 cm^ Ur
Area of steel =
224 s 59 4- 28 ' 87 N/mm^
of oonc,
Area or
ArtQ cone. *
• 650 cm^ P‘
'
* 280
28< Safe axiat toad on cased shaft
uncased
j * 3-68 cm
r.,v.

... ...
:: :::;r :
4-2 x .O" * 27^
o« concrete Co.cr,r,= 650 x .0*x
= cm^,
66 cm
Z„
Zs. steel
for stet/ 1

.0.19
•0..9 x 280 9AA khi
5 3 cm^ . 53*2 Act, axial toad
Z„ for stee/ = ^
Safe axial load P^^
Zee XX ox/s « .76 mm 53*2
= 4-2
523 87 0,56 4 .
o-3. * 0*87
fee yy ox/s .03 mm 944 280
Sect.on proves OK.

'

3*5 Axial food « . .6. khl

t- '

BM„s (2.0- 99)x 202 * 22 AOO kNmm

203 46kgUC coef. • 0-7
Steel size = 203 x x
.04 3 020 kNmm
(34 - 5)x »
* 2*45 ®
Cosed size .30Sx 305 mm /
22400x10® 3 020 x .0
j

58-8 cm^ Hr - 40 2x449 X .6® 2X.52X.O®

4rfo of steel «

930 cm^ Pc * 236 < 25 4- .0 x 35 N/mm^

4reo of cone. *

* 280 Safe axial load on cased shaft

uncased i 5«. . cm P*'

Steel . 58-8 X .C?x 236 X lO'®* 1 390A:A/

r„. cosed =0-2x 303 • 6-06cm Axiaf stress
^ AlOkN
on concrete Concrete: 930 X .0*x 4-4 X 10 «

Zr for sleet
steel -
= 449 end BOOkN
. 2o0 .

A,
Z„ tor steel
for = .52 cm-*

£ce XX axis * 202 mm

ffg,io, '

.
^
800 280
4- 0-65 + 0-09 » 0-74

fee axis .04 mm Sect.on proves O.K.

yy

> 4-5 Axial load . 79. khl

BM..Z (2 . 0 - 99 ) X 227 * 25200 Ar/Vmm

Steel size >254 X 254 X 73 kg UC coef > 0-85
BM,,c (34 - 5) X .04 * 3 020 khimm
Cosed >355 x 355 mm / > 3-82 «
size
25200X 0 ® .
^
3 020 X 0 s® .

Area of steel > 92-9 cm^ l/r =54 2x 894 X .O* 2x305xltf
Area of cone. . . 260 em^ pc * 2.4 : .4 4 5 = .9 N/mm^

Ta.n uncased > 6-46 cm I ptc .

> 280 Safe axial toad on cosed shaft
r./n cosed >0-2x354 = 7-08c» Axial stress Steel =92-9 X .0®x 2.4x .O'® « . 990A-A^
nnnr-r^to
Pin concrete
on
Z,, for steel » 894 cm^ Concrete^ . 260 x .Ox 4 x .O SOAkff
214 . 2 A9AkN
Ztr tor steel > 305 cm^
fee XX axis > 227 mm Ratios 1^
2494
4.
280
0-72 4- 0-07 » 0-79

fee yy axis > . 04 mm Sect.on proves OX.

834 DESIGN OF MULTI-STOREY STANCHIONS
Example 1 A. Grade 43 Steel— Lightweight Cased
Examine shaft between 2nd and 4th floors.

The critical loading conditions will be those at the 3rd floor level. These are
shown in sketch below, Fig. 3.

Beam 2
34 kN

Eccentricity x-x^ p/2 + lodjmm

^^Eccentricity y.y* (j^2+/00^ mm
Beam ! -BeamJ
99kN 2/0 kN

Beam 4
SkN

Fig. 3

The axial load on the under consideration will be the load from above plus
shaft
the sum of the loads at the level shown including an allowance for the weight of
this stack of stanchion and its casing, less the permitted reduction in live load, thus:—

Load from above (see tabulation) = 889 kN

Load at 3rd level = 348 kN
Weight of stanchion and casing = 6kN
1 243 kN
Deduct for live load reduction 85 kN
Nett axial load = 1 158 kN
The effective length of the stack under consideration is the actual length floor
to floor multiplied by the coefficient. In this case since the web beams are load
carrying this will be taken as 0.7.
Then:—

Actual length floor to floor = 3.5 m

Coefficient = 0.7

Effective length = 0.7 x 3.5 = 2.45 m.

Try section 254 x 254 x 73 kg U.C.

Actual size = 254 x 254 mm.

Area A = 92.9 cm^ : Web thickness t = 8.6 mm

Radius of gyration = 1 1 . 1 cm : ryy = 6.46 cm

Modulus of section Z^x = 894 cm^ Zyy = 305 cm^ :

 835
DESIGN EXAMPLES

Uj. = = 38 ; Permissible axial stress " 1^0 N/mm^

p^c =165 N/mm
6.46 X 10
Permissible bending stress

Eccentricities:— xx =
^ + 100 ^ — 227 mm
+ 100^ =
^

^^=^1+100^= ^M+ 100 104mm

M,;, = (210 - 99) X 227 = 25 200 kNmm Myy = (34 - 5) x 104 = 3 020 kNmm
Bending moments divided equally into stack above and below

1 158 X 10^
Actual axial stress = 124 N/mm^
92.9 X 10^

Actual bending stress

IxZxx 2xZyy
3 020 X 10^
_ 25 200x10^
2 X 894 X 10^ 2x 305 X 10^
= 14 + 5=19 N/mml

Ratio of— +~ not to exceed unity.

Vc Pbc

Then .i£+ik =
Pc Pbc
^+ ^ =
140 165
0.89 + 0.11 = 1.00.

Section selected is satisfactory.

Example IB. Grade 43 Steel Encased in Concrete to requirements of

B.S. 449

Examine shaft between 2nd and 4th floors

Loading conditions at the 3rd floor level as sketch: Fig. 4.

Beam 2
(n/ N
'Eccentricity x-x /2
(fl+/00) mm
minimum^
^^centricity y-ys f /O^ mm
f 3
Beam / Beam 3
99kN 2IOkN

{D-^/Ot^mm
Beam 4 minimum
SkN
836 DESIGN OF MULTI-STOREY STANCHIONS
Axial load on shaft under consideration
Load from above (see tabulation) = 896 kN
Load at 3rd level = 348 kN
Weight of stanchion and casing = 9kN
Total = 1 253 kN
Deduct for live load reduction = 85 kN
Nett axial load = 1 168 kN
Actual length floor to floor = 3.5 m
Coefficient = 0.7

Effective length = 0.7 x 3.5 = 2.45 m

Try section 203 x 203 x 60 kg U.C.

Actual size = 210 x 205 mm :

Zxx - 581 cm^ : Zyy = 199 cm^
Cased size =310x305 mm say.

Area of steel = 75.8 cm^ ; Web thickness = 9.3 mm

Area of concrete casing = 310 x 305 = 94 500 mm^
Radius of gyration Vxx - 8.96 cm : = 5.19 cm
Effective minimum radius of gyration of cased section

= 0.2(5 + 100) = 0.2(205 + 1 00) = 61 mm

= 6.1 cm
2 45 X 10^
~ 40 : Permissible axial stress " 139 N/mm^
^ IQ
Permissible bending stress pic = 165 N/mm^
These stresses are on the steel shaft only but the concrete casing can be used to
assist in carrying the axial load.
Permissible stress on concrete casing (ignoring any casing in excess of 75 mm
beyond overall dimensions of steel)

Pc
0.19 xpbc 0l5fr65“4-43NW.
The treatment for bending is similar to uncased shafts.
Then

Eccentricity xx = 100 100 = 205 mm

j ^

Eccentricity yy= + 100 + 100 = 105 mm

^ ^

Mxx = (210 - 99) X 205 = 1 1 1 X 205 = 22 800 kNmm

Myy= (34 - 5) X 105 = 29 x 105 = 3 050 kNmm

Actual bending stress

^
Jbc -^
22 800x10^
+
2x581x10^
——
3 050 X 10^ .

2x199x10^
= 20 + 8 = 28 N/mml
 DESIGN EXAMPLES
safe axial load on the steel plus the
The axial load is treated by determining the
concrete thus

Safe load on steel = 75.8 x lO"" x 139 x_10'^ = 1 060 kN

Safe load on concrete = 94 500 x 4.43 x 10
^ = 420 kN
Total safe load = 1 480 kN

Actual axial load fj,c

Then ratio of ^ must not exceed unity.
Safe axial load Phc

1^, ^ = 0,79.0,17 = 0.96.

.'. Section selected is satisfactory.

Example 2A. Grade 50 Steel-Lightweight Cased

Examine shaft between base and 2nd floor.

The critical loading conditions will be those at the 1 st floor level. These are as
shown in sketch, Fig. 3 previously given.
The axial load on the shaft under consideration will be the load from above plus
the sum of the loads at the level shown including an allowance for the weight of
this stack of stanchion and its casing, less the permitted reduction in live load,
thus:-

Load from above (see tabulation) = 1 596 kN

Load at 1st level = 348 kN
Weight of stanchion and casing = 10 kN
Total = 1 954 kN
Deduct for live load reduction 177 kN
Nett axial load = 1 111 kN

The effective length of the stack under consideration

the actual length base to is
ist floor multiplied by the
coefficient. In this case since the web beams are load
carrying this will be taken as 0.85.
Then;-

Actual length base to 1 st floor = 4.5 m

Coefficient = 0.85
Effective length = 0.85 x 4.5 = 3.82 m
Try section 254 x 254 x 89 kg U.C.

Actual size - 260 x 260 mm

Area A = 114 cm^ Web
thickness t = 10.5
:
mm
Radius of gyration 11.2 cm :rvv = 6.52cm
Modulus of section Z^x = 1 099 cm^ Zyy 379
= cm^ ;

3.82 X 10^
-59 : Permissible axial stress Pc=\l\ N/mm"
6.52 X 10
Permissible bending stress = 230 N/mm^
838 DESIGN OF MULTI-STOREY STANCHIONS

Eccentricities;— xx = H-
100 + 100 = 230 mm
j j

yy= 100
= + 100 = 105 mm
j j

Mxx = (210 - 99) X 230 = 25 600 kNmm : Myy = (34 - 5) x 105 = 3 050 kNmm
Bending moments divided equally into stack above and below.

1 777 X 10^
Actual axial stress 156 N/mm^
114x102

^xx ^
^yy
Actual bending stress fbc
2 X Zxx 2 X Zyy

25 600 X 10^ 3 050 X 10^

2x 1 099 X lO^"^ 2x379x 10^
= 12 + 4 = 16 N/mm^.

Ratio of — + — not to exceed unity.

Pc Pbc

Then APc
+ fbc =
Pbc
1^
IVl
+ ^= 0.91
230
+ 0.07 = 0.98

Section selected is satisfactory.

Example 2B. Grade 50 Steel Encased in Concrete to requirements of

B.S. 449
Examine shaft between base and 2nd floor.

Loading conditions at the 1st floor level as sketch; Fig. 4 previously given.

Axial load on shaft under consideration

Load from above (see tabulation) = 1 606 kN
Load at 1 st level = 348 kN
Weight of stanchion and casing = 14 kN
Total = 1 968 kN
Deduct for live load reduction 177 kN
Nett axial load = 1 791 kN

Actual length base to 1st floor = 4.5 m

Coefficient = 0.85
Effective length = 0.85 x 4.5 = 3.82 m
Try section 254 x 254 x 73 kg U.C.

Actual size = 254 x 254 mm Zxx ~ 894 cm^

; ; Zyy = 305 cm^
Cased size = 355 x 355 mm say
 DESIGN EXAMPLES 839

Area of = 92.9 cm^

steel Web thickness = 8.6 mm
:

Area of concrete casing = 355 x 355 = 126 000 mm^

Radius of gyration = 1 1 I cm = 6.46 cm- :

Effective minimum radius of gyration of cased section

= 0.2(5 + 100) = 0.2(254 + 100) = 70.8 mm

= 7.08 cm.

= 54 ; Permissible axial stress Pc = 179 N/mm^

7.08 X 10
Permissible bending stress - 230 N/mm^
pjjc

These stresses are on the steel shaft only but the concrete casing can be used to
assist in carrying the axial load.
Permissible stress on concrete casing (ignoring any casing in excess of 75 mm
beyond overall dimensions of steel)

Pc 179
= 4.1 N/mm\
0.19 xp6c 0.19x230

The treatment for bending is similar to uncased shafts.

Then:—

Eccentricity XX + oo

Eccentricity + oo (¥^'oo) 104 mm

Mxx = (210 - 99) X 227 = 1 1 1 X 227 = 25 200 kNmm
Myy= (34 - 5) X 104 = 29x 104 = 3 020 kNmm.

Actual bending stress ^ MX

2 X 894 X 10^
-
IO; iP 20 x 10
2 X 305 x 10^
^

= 14 + 5= 19N/mm2

The axial load is treated by determining the safe axial load on the steel plus the
concrete thus

Safe load on steel = 92.9 x 1 0^ x 1 79 x 1 0'^ = 1 660 kN

Safe load on concrete = 1 26 000 x 4.1 x 10"^ = 518 kN
Total safe load = 2 178 kN

Actual axial load

Then ratio of must not exceed unity.
Safe axial load
Pbc

1 791 19
~ 0.08 — 0.91
2 j7g 230
-- Section selected is satisfactory.
840 DESIGN OF MULTI-STOREY STANCHIONS
Example 3A. Grade 55 Steel— Lightweight Cased
Examine shaft between 4th floor and roof.

The critical loading conditions will be those at the 5 th floor level. These are as
shown in sketch. Fig. 3 previously given.
The axial load on the shaft under consideration will be the load from above plus
the sum of the loads at the level shown including an allowance for the weight of
this stack of stanchion and its casing, less the permitted reduction in live load, thus:—

Load from above (see tabulation) = 182 kN

Load at 5 th level = 348 kN
Weight of stanchion and casing = 4kN
Total = 534 kN
Deduct for live load reduction 13 kN
Nett axial load = 521 kN
The effective length of the stack under consideration is the actual length 4th to
5th floor multiplied by the coefficient. In this case since the web beams are load
carrying this will be taken as 0.7.
Then:—
Actual length 4th to 5th = 3.5 m
Coefficient = 0.7
Effective length = 0.7 x 3.5 = 2.45 m
Try section 152 x 152 x 30 kg U.C.

Actual size = 158 x 153 mm

Area A - 38.2 cm^ Web thickness t = 6.6
: mm
Radius of gyration txx = 6.75 cm /jj = 3.82 cm :

Modulus of section Zxx = 221 cm^ ^j= 73 cm^

:

2.45 X 10^
l/ryy = 64 : Permissible axial stress = 189 N/mm^
3.82x10 “ 280
Permissible bending stress

Eccentricities:— xx = ^-^+ 100

j
= ^— + lOoj = 179 mm
yy= + looj = + 100^ = 104 mm
Mxx = (210 - 99) X 179 = 19 900 kNmm Myy = (34 - 5) x 104 = : 3 020 kNmm.
Bending moments divided equally into stack above and below.

521 X 10^
Actual axial stress = 136 N/mm^
38.2 X 10^

Mxx Myy
Actual bending stress fbc +
2 ^xx 2 X Zyy
19 900 X 10^ 3 020x 10^
2x221 X 10^ 2x73 X 10^
= 45 + 21 = 66 N/mm^.
 841
DESIGN EXAMPLES

Ratio of — + not to exceed unity.

Vc Pbc

Then
fc + 0 72 + 0.24 = 0.96
Tc Ptc 189 280

.'. Section selected is satisfactory.

Example 3B. Grade 55 Steel Encased in Concrete to requirements of

B.S. 449
Examine shaft between 4th floor and roof.

Loading conditions at the 5th floor level as sketch; Fig. 4 previously given.

Axial load on shaft under consideration

Load from above (see tabulation) =183 kN
Load at 5th level = 348 kN
Weight of stanchion and casing = 5 kN
Total = 536 kN
Deduct for live load reduction 13 kN
Nett axial load = 523 kN

Actual length 4th to 5th = 3.5 m

Coefficient =0.7
Effective length = 0.7 x 3.5 = 2.45 m.

Try section 152 x 152 x 23 kg U.C.

Actual size = 152 x 152 mm Zxx - ; 166 cm^ : Zyy = 53 cm^

Cased size = 255 x 255 mm say.
Area of = 29.8 cm^ Web thickness = 6.1
steel : mm
Area of concrete casing = 255 x 255 = 65 000 mm^
Radius of gyration rxx = 6.5 1 cm = 3.68 cm :

Effective minimum radius of gyration of cased section

= 0.2(5 + 100) = 0.2(152 + 100) = 5.04 mm

= 5.04 cm.

10^
~ 2.45 X = 49
V^nin
5.04 X 10
: Permissible axial stress pc = 224 N/mm^
Permissible bending stress p^c = 280 N/mm^

These stresses are on the steel shaft only, but the concrete casing can be
used to
assist in
carrying the axial load.
Permissible stmss on concrete casing (ignoring
beyond overall dimensions
any casing in excess of 75 mm
of steel)

_ 224 ,

0.19xpfc 0.19 x 280

 —
842 DESIGN OF MULTI -STOREY STANCHIONS
The treatment for bending is similar to uncased shafts.
Then:—

Eccentricity xx = 100 ~ = 176 mm

^ j

Eccentricity yy= + 100^ = + 1 00 = 1 03 mm

^^ ^ ^

Mxx = (210-99)x 176= 111 X 176= 19 600 kNmm

Myy= (34 - 5) X 103 = 29x 103 = 2 990 kNmm

Actual bendmg
.
stress
. = 19 600x 10^ .
2 990x10^
/.e
-^66 ^ ^53 x 10^
= 59 + 28 = 87 N/mml
The axial load is treated by determining the safe axial load on the steel plus the
concrete thus

Safe load on steel = 29.8 x 1 0^ x 224 x lO"^ = 670 kN

Safe load on concrete = 65 000 x 4.2 x 10“^ = 274 kN
Total safe load = 944 kN

_
Then ratio off
Actual axial load ^
r-r-; 3
Safe axial load
+ — — must^ not^ exceed unjty

= 0.56 0.31 =0.87

^3
Section selected is satisfactory.

Connection Details (See Fig. 5)

The figure indicates one method of construction only, namely shop riveted and
sitebolted construction. The details given can readily be adapted to suit fully
bolted, or shop welded and site bolted construction.

Beam to Stanchion Connections

The design of these connections is outside the scope of this chapter, but it is
perhaps of interest to note that there is a tendency on the part of designers to
discard the traditional top and bottom cleats in favour of end plates welded to the
beams or bolted double cleated ends.

Splices

The ends of each section of the stanchion will be machined over the whole area.
The calculations show that the bending stresses are small compared with the direct
compressive stresses, so that no tension develops in the stanchion. In these
circumstances the only requirement of Clause 32.b of B.S. 449 is, that the splice
 ) '

843
DESIGN EXAMPLES

2/225 X lOmm Flang* p/attc

2/225 xZSmm Packs
4^ 203x20^ X 60 kgUC
'l/2S6xZSmmx260 Dlv. plats

4lePx 8 9x9-4 Angtss (It's6)

-f
4- SPLICE
+ -i-
4- r+
+ +
+

2nd FLOOR LEVEL

Ea
\m BV

!+ +1
I ±_j

+ : +
AU rlvsts 20mm gross dta
+ i +
AH bolts 18mm tHa
Shop rlvsts thus +
Shop bolts (black :

Sits bolts (black) tI” 254x254x8 9 kg UC

aA —

2/l52xl02x IZ-( mm Angiss

l/680x 68 0x48mm Bassplats
2/ 25mm dia Grout holss
25mm Thick grout
4/ I8mmx 5 OOsg.sg.ojt. holding
down bolts with lOOmm sguars
X 9mm thick washsr flats
sst In tapsrsd timbsr sissvss

+ +

II
i
ec gfPMgSggW lie
* ^ 4 ft « «
_ *
• » O ^

'^FOUNDATION,

Fig. 5
844 DESIGN OF MULTI-STOREY STANCfflONS
plates and connections shall be sufficient to hold the connected members accurately
in place.
In the absence of guidance from the Standard the splice shown in the figure has

been proportioned in accordance with the following empirical rules (a) the
projection of the flange plates beyond the end of the members is equal to the upper
flange width or 225 mm, whichever is greater, (Z?) the thickness of the flange plate
is half the thickness of the upper flange or 8 mm, whichever is greater, (c) nominal
web plates are provided when the serial size of the members is the same above and
below the splice, (d) web cleats and a division plate are provided where the serial
size is different, to give a load dispersal of 45°.

Slab Bases

The end of the stanchion will be machined and fastenings provided sufficient to
hold the slab in position. Slabs 50 mm
or less in thickness will be flattened. Slabs
over 50 mm
thick will be machined on the upper surface only. Grout holes will be
provided where necessary.
be assumed that the concrete foundations are of Ordinary quality 1 ;2;4
It will

mix with a permissible bearing pressure of 4 000 kN/m^.

General information relating to slab bases is given in Clauses 67 and 76a of
B.S. 449 and Clause 38b gives the following formula for calculating the thickness
of slab required:

where t
= the slab thickness in millimetres.
A = the greater projection of the plate beyond the stanchion in millimetres.
B = the lesser projection of the plate beyond the stanchion in millimetres.
w = the pressure or loading on the underside of the base in N/mm^.
- the permissible bending stress in the steel specified as 185 N/mm^ for
Phct
all steels.

Example: Base to stanchion as example IB.

Shaft 254 x 254 x 89 kg U.C. Total axial load 1 800 kN..

Area of base required = = 0.45 m^

4 000
Therefore base slab 0.68 x 0.68 m is satisfactory.

o 0.68x10^-256 =
projection = 212 mm
.
,
Greater

Lesser projection = = 210 mm

Base pressure 3-9 N/rum^
gg ^

Ti, /3 x3.9 2102\

)=47mm.
4
Use flattened plate 48 mm thick.
 DESIGN EXAMPLES
Comments on the Results of the Design Examples

Eccentricity of Beam Reactions

beams are all positioned on the stanchion centre lines.

In these examples the
Where in practice some of the beams may be offset
from the centre lines they will
of course produce bending moments about
both axes of the stanchion simultaneously,
and these bending moments must be provided for.

Joints

been provided at 2 storey intervals, as giving a convenient and

Joints have
are often
economical arrangement but joints at three or even four storey intervals
interval has
adopted. From the point of view of erecting the steelwork the 2 storey
as to be
obvious advantages since thelength of the members do not become such
difficult in handling.

Sections

It is frequently considered that the minimum sizeof universal column sections

suitable for multi-storey 203 x 203 mm.
work is Smaller sections almost inevitably
require beams connecting to the web
to be notched and limit the space available for
the end connections. Despite these factors the use of 152 x 152 universal column
sections, where possible, have been recommended as it is considered that these will
give overall economy.

Steel Quality

For comparison purposes examples have been provided in Grades 43, 50 and 55
steels. It should, however, be appreciated that Grade 55 is not as yet readily available
in small quantities. The user who can justify an order of 50 tons or more will not
experience great difficulty in obtaining supplies. Orders for smaller amounts depend
on the prospects for further demands or the ingot stock position.

Economics
The economic factors governing the adoption of one or other type of construction
cannot be discussed in detail here, since these can change rapidly. However, it is
interesting to note that using the uncased stanchion in grade 43 steel as unity there
is a saving of approximately 33|% in the weight of the steel core when this is made
of grade 43 steel concrete encased or when it is made of grade 50 steel uncased. To
offset against this saving it must be remembered that
the concrete encasure could be
more expensive than the lightweight casing and alternatively the cost
of the raw
material in grade 50 is more than that in grade 43. There
are, however, other factors
which require to be taken into consideration such as the
reduction in size of the
member which cannot be discussed fully in this chapter.
Apart from very large tall buildings where there could
be obvious economies in
using grade 55 steel, one of the main
advantages can be gained by using a common
section throughout a project with the
different loads being covered by the selective
846 DESIGN OF MULTI-STOREY STANCHIONS
use of the three grades of steel. Such a procedure could simplify the architectural
requirements and when pre-formed lightweight fire protection is used effect a
considerable saving due to the limited number of moulds required in casting this fire
protection.
Further information on the economy of stanchion design can be found in
Reference 8.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. B.C.S.A. Notes on the Modified Method of Semi-Rigid Design, 1960.

2. ALLWOOD, B. O., HEATON, H. and NELSON, K. Steel Frames for Multi-Storey Buildings.
B. C.S.A. Publication No. 16, 1961.
3. BATES, W. Modern Design of Steel Frames for Multi-Storey Buildings. B.C.S.A.
Publication No. 20, 1963.
4. ‘Joint Committee Second Report on Fully Rigid Multi-Storey Welded Steel Frames’. The
Institution of Structural Engineers and the Institute of Welding, 1971.
5. BURNETT, N., JOHNSON, L. G., MORRIS, L. J., RANDALL, A. L. and THOMPSON,
C. V. Plastic Design, B.C.S.A. Publication No. 28, 1965.
6. GODFREY, G. B. ‘The Allowable Stresses in Axially Loaded Steel Struts’. The Structural
Engineer, Vol. XL No. 3, March, 1962.
7. B.C.S.A. Modern Fire Protection for Structural Steelwork. Publication No. FP2, 1963.
8. B.C.S.A. The Economics of Structural Members in High Strength Steel to B.S. 968 :1962.
Publication No. H.S.l, 1962.
 31. WIND ON MULTI STOREY BUILDINGS

THE wind loads required to be used by Local Authorities in Great

practically all

Britain are those set out in the British Standard Code of Practice,
CJP.3: Code of

Basic Data for the Design of Buildings, Chapter V, Loading: Part II:
1970 Wind
Loads.
This 1970 edition of C.P.3, Chapter V, presents wind loading in a far more
detailed manner than any of the former editions, being based on a careful study of
wind data which have only become available over the last few years.
The wind speed has been investigated in many places in the British Isles and by
statistical analysis of the records of this investigation values of the basic wind speed

have been evaluated for all parts. These are indicated in the Code and range from
38 m/sec in the London area to 56 m/sec in the North of Scotland. The values
represent the three second gust speed at ten metres above ground in an open
situation which is not likely to be exceeded on the average more than once in fifty
years.
The basic wind speed is adjusted to give a design wind speed by the application
of three factors, namely.

51 topographic factor,
52 ground roughness, building size and height factor,
53 building life factor.

A full explanation of these factors is given in the Code and need not be repeated
here. It is sufficient to appreciate that the design wind speed is governed by all the
which could affect the free
relevant factors flow and is variable for a particular
dependent upon the height of the elements above the ground.
structure
From the design wind speed the dynamic pressure, q, is found by applying the
formula

q = kVi
where ^ is a constant taken as 0.613 in SI units,
fj is the design wind speed.
The application of the dynamic pressure for any particular example is
governed
by the size and shape of the building and whether or not the cladding
or the
structure is being examined; for the purpose of
this Chapter the latter only will be
considered.
The total horizontal force, F, to be considered is found from the expression

F-CfqAe
where, Cf= force coefficient obtained from the Code

q = dynamic pressure of wind

Ae - area of exposed face.

Since q varies with height above

ground, the total area^^ is usually sub-diviited
to suit eachchange in the value of q.

847
848 WIND ON MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS
In certain circumstances, apart from the direct pressure on the exposed face given
by the foregoing, frictional drag must be taken into consideration. Examination of
tireCode will determine if this is necessary in a particular case.
The 1952 edition of Chapter V permitted the designer to omit direct calculation
for the effect of wind forces provided that certain requirements as to the building
dimensions and the relationship between these were satisfied. The present edition
omits this relaxation but does not preclude the use of shear walls, core structures
etc., in assisting the resistance to wind loads. For the purpose of this Chapter, however,
such aids have been ignored and it has been assumed that the whole of the wind
forces are to be resisted by the steel framework.
Clause 13 of B.S. 449; Part 2: 1969, permits certain stresses to be exceeded by
25% in cases where such increases in stress are solely due to wind forces, provided
that the steel section than that needed if the wind stresses were
is not less

neglected. The higher working stress is allowed because of the transient nature of
the load and also because the steel structure is sufficiently elastic to allow it to
absorb such design loads without permanent deflection. The increase is not
permissible on foundations and provision for the over-turning effect must be made at
normal stresses.

Simple Design
Prior to the introduction of the rigid frame was customary to design the frames
it

as portals or cantilevers to resist the lateral wind

loads, with connections designed to
transfer wind moments from beams to stanchions. Such methods are still adequate
for relatively low buildings provided that the frame has been designed on the basis of
simple design as set out in B.S. 449. There are several approximate methods by which
the forces may be calculated and the three methods in most common use are briefly
dealt with in the notes which follow.
The basic assumptions are three in number:

(a) Wind loads are applied at floor levels.

(b) The total horizontal shear at any levelis resisted by the columns at points of
of contraflexure immediately below that level.
(c) There is a point of contraflexure in each column between floor levels and at
mid-height.

These assumptions are illustrated in Fig. 1 (a), which for the sake of simplicity is
shown as a single bay frame.
Referring to Fig. 1 (b), the upper portion of the diagram shows the forces on the
portion of the frame above the points of contraflexure A and D, while the lower
portion shows the forces induced in the portion of the frame. The vertical
forces are found by taking moments about the appropriate points of contraflexure.
The shear force in the beam BE is the difference between the vertical forces in the
columns, i.e.

WrH, (IPi + _ WyH, + {W, +

^

L 2L 2L 2L

The resulting moments in the frame are shown in Fig. 1 (c).

850 WIND ON MULTI-STOREY BULDINGS
The moment in the upper portion of the column at B due to the force at A
Hx^WJh
2^2 4

while that in the lower portion of the column at B due to the force at C is

2 ^"2 4
’

The moment in the beam at £ = the shear force in the beam x Z,/2

.. h^i//i + (lVi+ H^2W2 L _ W,H,+{W^ + W2)H2

'^2 ’

2L 4

from which itbe seen that the moment in the beam at B is equal to the sum of
will
the moments in the column, both upper and lower, at B. This is true for every joint
in the frame and irrespective of the method used, i.e. the algebraic sum of the
moments at any joint must be zero.
The three methods previously referred to differ only in the distribution of vertical
and horizontal loads.

Method 1. Continuous Portal

The assumptions made are:

(a) there is a point of contraflexure at mid-height of each column;

(b) the axial stress in the columns is proportional to the distances of the columns
from the centre of gravity of the columns as a whole;
(c) the total horizontal shear is divided between columns in proportions to their
stiffness in the direction of the wind forces.

Method 2. Cantilever

(a)
As Method 1
(b) j
(c) There is a point of contraflexure at mid-span of each beam.

Method 3. Portal

(a) As Method 1
(b) As (c). Method 2.
(c) Each bay acts as a simple portal and the total horizontal load is divided
between the bays in proportion to the spans of the bays. With equal bays this
results in no vertical load in the internal columns.

An example will serve to demonstrate the differences in the results obtained by

the three methods. This based on a ten storey building 21
is m
in width, in three equal
bays of 7 m, and 45 m long, in ten equal bays of 4.5 m. The storey heights are
3.5 m
each which gives a total of 35 m. heigjit
To of C.P. 3: Chapter V: Part 2: 1970, in determining
illustrate the application
the wind loads on a structure of this nature a building located in the vicinity of
London will be considered, where a basic wind speed of 40 m/sec is appropriate.
 SIMPLE DESIGN 851

With factors for SI and S3 of unity, the design wind speed will be

I^ = 40xlxS2xl= 40S2 m/sec

The value of S2 depends on ground roughness, building size, class and height
Class B,
above the ground. Taking ground roughness Category (3) and building size
factor are
the value of S2 can be obtained from Table 3. Though variations for the
given for certain values of the height, for convenience in the particular example
the

total height of the building will be divided into four parts, giving the following:-

Ground to 3rd floor — S2 = 0.74; Ks= 40 X 0.74 = 29.6 m/sec

3rd to 6th floor — S2 = 0.9 ; I^ = 40x0.9 =36.0 m/sec
6th to 8th floor — S2 = 0.97 Fs = 40x0.97 = 38.8 m/sec
8th to roof — S2 = 1 .01 = 40 X 1 .01 = 40.4 m/sec

The dynamic pressure of wind, q, can be calculated from the formula q = 0.61
or read from Table 4, approximating as necessary.
The force coefficient Q-for the example is obtained from Table 10 and can be
1 .05. (The tables referred to are from C.P.3 Chapter V.)
taken as
Then

Ground to 3rd floor q = 540 N/m^ jF = 1 .05 x 540xy4e= S9AAe

3rd to 6th floor q = 794 N/m^ F= 1 .05 x 794x^e= 834 ylg
6th to 8th floor q = 930 N/m^ F= 1 .05 x 930xA= 976
8th to roof ^ = 1010 N/m^ F= 1 .05 x 010 xAe= 1 060 /le

These loads are multiplied by the storey height and bay widths to give a total
load on each storey as follows

Roof to 9th Wl =3.5 x4.5 X 1 060 X 10“^= 16.8 kN

9th to 8th It^ = 3.5 x4.5 X 1 060 X 10"^= 16.8 kN
8th to 7th R^3 =3.5 x4.5 X 976 X 10'^= 15.4 kN
7th to 6th W4 = 3.5 x4.5 X 976xlO-^=15.4kN
6th to 5th IP5 =3.5 x4.5 X 834 X 10”^= 13.2 kN
5th to 4th W6 = 3.5 x4.5 X 834 X 10'^= 13.2 kN
4th to 3rd Wl =3.5 x4.5 X 834 X 10"^= 13.2 kN
3rd to 2nd h^ = 3.5 x4.5 X 594x 10'^= 9.4 kN
2nd to 1 st = 3.5 x4.5 X 594x10"^= 9.4 kN
1st to Grd h/10 = 3.5 x4.5 X 594x10"^= 9.4 kN
This shows reactions at the various levels as follows

Reaction at roof kN
8.4
" » 9th floor 16.8 kN
M ,> 8th floor 16.1 kN
” ’» 7th floor 15.4 kN
" 6th floor 14.3 kN
’> >>5th floor 13.2 kN
’> 4th floor 13.2 kN
” " 3rd floor 11.3kN
” " 2nd floor 9.4 kN
" » 1st floor 9.4 kN
’» » Ground 4.7 kN
 852 WIND ON MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS
The above loads are all indicated in Fig. 2 and form the basis from which wind
loads and moments are to be calculated.

e4kN Root
1

4 '
:

: 1060
16-akN 9th

[ 1 16-1 kN ath

976
tS-4kN 7th

14-JkN 6 th

€
>0

US^kN Sth
nfm \

IJ-2kN 4lh
<s
«>•

10

n-SkN 3rd
/ Column y^Vtrtical foad^
/

^
1
i
Shtar

9-4kN/ / 2nd

9-4kN/ Vtrlieal toad-f

/
/
— ^ momtnt
^
rr
Isl
r

Ground Floor

T 1
7-Om ,
7‘Om

Fig. 2

Comparative results have been calculated and are shown in Table (A) for beams
and columns at second floor level.

Method 1 fails if there are more than four equal bays since then there is no point
of contraflexure in the outer beams.

Method 3 undoubtedly the simplest from the design and detail angle.
is

It must be methods are only applicable to multi-storey

stressed that these
buildings designed on the basis of simple design to B.S. 449 and they must not be
applied to a frame designed on any other basis.
The beams are designed as simply supported under the vertical loading only, at
normal stresses, and checked with the increased stresses applied to the slightly higher
maximum bending moment obtained when the fixing moment diagram is imposed.
The moment connections at their ends are designed in the usual way to resist moment
and shear at the increased stresses and for vertical loads only at the normal stresses.
A completely worked example of an eight-storey building, using the Portal
method, is given in Brochure No. 16, ‘Steel Frames for Multi-Storey Buildings’,
published by the British Constructional Steelwork Association.
 RIGID FRAME DESIGN 853

TABLE A

Comparison of results for approximate methods

Method 1 Method 2 Method 3

External column
Above 2nd floor
Shear kN n.i 16.3 18.1

Vertical load kN 18.8 18.8

Bending moment kNm 48.0 28.6 31.8
Below 2nd floor
Shear kN 29.5 17.7 19.7
Vertical load kN 23.6 23.6 26.3
Bending moment kNm 52.0 31.0 34.6

Internal column
Above 2nd floor
Shear kN 27.2 38.0 36.2
Vertical load kN 6.3 6.3 nil

Bending moment kNm 48.0 66.5 63.6

Below 2nd floor
Shear kN 29.5 41.2 39.4
Vertical load kN 7.9 7.9 nil

Bending moment kNm 52.0 72.0 69.2

1

Beams at 2nd floor 1

External bay
Moment at outer end kNm 100 60 66.4
Moment at inner end kNm 20 60 66.4
Internal bay
Moment at both ends kNm 80 80 66.4
j

Post-war experience and the introduction of much higher buildings led to a

re-appraisal of the methods of dealing with wind loads in order to reduce costs,
since the fabrication and erection costs of riveted or bolted moment connections
became prohibitively high when moments became large. This led to the use of rigjd
frames with welded or high-strength friction grip bolted joints, with the frame taking
all the loads and moments. The current trend in Great Britain, however, is for

maximum utilisation of all structural components of the building and the transfer
of wind loads to points where they can be dealt with in a less costly manner than by
dealing with them at their points of application. Architectural and planning require-
ments, particularly the demand for large unobstructed floor areas in office buildings
frequently dictate the maimer by which wind loads are to be handled. Both systems,
rigid frames taking all loads or simple design frames with wind loads carried by shear

walls or braced frames at suitable intervals, have their merits and combinations of
the two can be very effective.

Rigid Frame Design

The calculations for a multi-storey rigid frame are lengthy and complex and can
only be carried out
economically by using an electronic computer. In every case it
ISnecessary to select provisional sizes for the
beams and columns before the analysis
of displacements, loads and moments can be carried out by the computer. There is
854 WIND ON MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS
no direct approach to this part of the design, and hence accuracy in provisional sizes

depends upon the experience of the designer.

Clause 9.6.3 of B.S. 449 states that:

‘Fully Rigid Design

This method, as compared with the method for simple and semi-rigid design, will

give the greatest rigidity and economy in weight of steel used when applied in
appropriate cases. For this purpose the design shall be carried out in accordance with
accurate methods of elastic analysis and to the limiting stresses permitted in this
British Standard. . .
.’

Analysis by the slope-deflection method (see Chapter 1 3) is accurate when

correctly applied. It is usual to design the frame in the first instance for vertical
loads only at normal stresses and then to make a separate calculation for wind loads,
the'results of which are appHed, at the increases stresses, to the sections obtained for
vertical loads. For information generally on rigid frame design by computer, the
reader is referred to Chapter 38.
It is not possible to give a complete example of a frame designed by this method,

owing to limitations of space, but an excellent exposition of the method is given in

Brochure No. 20, ‘Modern Design of Steel Frames for Multi-storey Buildings’,
published by the British Constructional Steelwork Association. This Brochure
repays detailed study as it gives a complete and exhaustive analysis by the slope-
deflection method of an office building 43.5 m
height, including the effect of wind
loading, to the former edition of C.P.3. Chapter V.
It must be emphasised that, as analysis of the rigid frame has been based on fully

fixed joints throughout, it must be detailed accordingly. Joints can be made with
high-strength friction-grip bolts but the use of these necessitates additional jointing
material such as end plates to beams and splice plates to columns, which can add
appreciably to the weight of the main material. Erection, however, can be carried
out in the conventional manner. Alternatively, site welding can be used and the
beam to column connection made by using either fillet welds of the requisite strength
round the beam profile or by butt-welding the beam to the column. Both methods
necessitate some temporary connection between beam and column prior to welding.
Fillet welds do not require any end preparation to the beam, so that shop
fabrication is simple. The welds must, however, be designed to the stresses laid down
in B.S. 449, namely 115 N/mm^ for steel to Grade 43 and 160 N/mm^ for steel to
Grade 50. It is also necessary to use overhead site welding for the undersides of
beam flanges.
Butt welds on the other hand require costly end preparation to the beams but
use less weld metal since the welds can be stressed to the design values for the parent
metal on a thickness equal to the throat thickness or a reduced throat thickness if an
incomplete penetration butt weld is used (see B.S. 449, Clauses 53. a (i), 53z? and
54.6). It therefore follows that the butt welds need not be designed if they are of
the full thickness of the beam flange.

Braced Frames
A very economical solution, if architectural and planning requirements permit, is

given by the use of braced frames at selected positions, such as gable walls or walls
enclosing lift and staircase wells as is shown in Fig. 3. Such braced frames can of
 BRACED FRAMES 855

course be used with the main building

frame designed on any basis, e.g. simple, semi-
rigidor fully rigid, but necessitate some form of horizontal girder to transfer the
wind loads from the walls of the building to the braced frames.

The horizontal wind girders can conveniently be made of steel, where a false
ceiling is incorporated for purposes of fire resistance, thus giving a
void in which the
diagonals can be placed, as shown in Fig. 4.
On the other hand, in most districts, fire-resistance requirements necessitate the
use of some kind of reinforced concrete floor, which can usefully fulfil the additional
function of transferring the wind loads to the selected points. There is no doubt
about the capability of a solid concrete floor to perform this duty, since even in
narrow slab type buildings of about 15 m width and with frames spaced about 60 m
apart, the concrete stresses when the floor acts as a horizontal girder, both com-
pression and shear, be virtually negligible and the edge reinforcement required
will
to take the tension will be of the order of 6.5 cm^. If the depth of the horizontal
girder is restricted to half the building width, the distance between frames can be
of the order of 45 m with approximately the same results.
Many types of precast concrete floors can also be used in this way.
The braced frames may extend the whole depth of the gable wall, or may be in
pairs to give a clear corridor space, thereby allowing an unobstructed window at the
end of the corridor, as shown in Fig. 5. The design of the frames as vertical cantilevers
is main booms being a pair of stanchions, with floor beams acting
conventional, the
as struts with diagonals as requisite. Allowance must be made for reversal of loads

and the bracing may be of N, K or X type or of X type with diagonals acting in

tension only. Alternatively, braced portals can be used and these may be required to
meet fenestration demands. There is thus considerable scope for ingenuity in arrange-
ment of bracing and consultation with the architect is essential at the early planning
stage in order to arrive at an economical and satisfactory solution.
As the design of the braced frames is on the normal statical basis it is not
proposed to include a detailed example and the reader is referred to the BCSA
Brochure No. 16 previously mentioned this gives complete information on the
;

design and detailing of frames for an office building about 70 m

higli by 14 wide. m
Typical solutions taken from practice are given in Figs. 6 to 1 1 which follow.
Figure 6 indicates schematically the solution adopted for the Seagram
Building
in New York. This building is about 160 m
high and the tower block shown in plan
IS about 42 m wide and 33 m deep. The wind loads are taken by braced frames up to
e
29th floor, placed in the walls between the lifts
and staircases and between the
I ts and
toilet areas. Above the 29th floor the main frame
absorbs the wind load,
w St below the 17th floor the braced frame
acts in conjunction with the reinforced
concrete walls in which it is embedded.
 856 WIND ON MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS

ELEVATION

The method used in the building of the Statistical Service Headquarters of Western
Germany is shown in Fig. 7 This fourteen-storey building is about 60 m long by
.

19 m wide and the transverse braced frames are in pairs in the gables and in the walls
adjacent to the main entrance halls. The gable walls enclosing the bracing are solid
and the windows in the ends are restricted to the centre portions of the walls. In
order to equahse foundation loads as far as possible the transverse
frames are on one
side of the building for the first four storeys and on the other
side for the remainder.
Also in Germany is the Thyssen Hochhaus at Diisseldorf and the scheme used
here is a good example of the method. The building, some 64 min height, consists
of three blocks about 6.4 m wide staggered in plan as shown in Fig. 8. The wind load
is taken entirely by two braced vertical cantilevers
with main booms at about 14 m
centres and an architectural feature is that the bracing is exposed
in the gaps of
about 2 m between pairs of blocks. Each braced frame extends across two of the
 BRACED FRAMES 857

Fig. 5

blocks only, leaving the third entirely unobstructed; in the

outer blocks the frames
are in the gable walls, whilst in
the centre block they are concealed within the
staircase walls.
An example from Great Britain
the Shell Tower. This tower block is about
is
m by 24 m in plan, with a projecting \ving about 1 7 by 4.5 m m
in plan. There
were severe restrictions on the
position of diagonal wind bracing.
p to the second floor level the steelwork is constructed as two-storey
three-bay
portal frames, interconnected
by main beams with rigid joints to provide for wind
the vertical bracing adjacent to the lift shafts.
if The steel-
level is designed to act as a rigid frame in
with h e conjunction
frames and typical cross-sections are shown
.
in Fig. 9. The main portal
floor level were site welded but above
in
this the moment joints
boltsin tancTed w" """ friction-grip
858 WIND ON MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS
Roof

Unbraced above
29th floor

J-J/n

heights

Storey

I
m
8-0

Fig. 6
 ,

COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION 859

Mixed or Composite Construction

The walls around staircase wells and lift lobbies, which isolate means of access
from the body of the building, are always required to be
of fire-resisting construction,
partly to form a safe means of
escape in case of fire and partly to permit safe access

by personnel of the fire brigade when a fire actually occurs. These walls may, on
occasion, be constructed in reinforced concrete and in such cases it would appear
logical to investigate the possibility of the tower so formed acting additionally as a
vertical cantilever to resist wind loads, so taking the place of braced frames.
From this consideration has arisen what can be termed ‘Core’ or ‘Mixed’
construction whereby all lateral loads are resisted by a reinforced concrete core
surrounding the service and access areas of the building, leaving the steel frame to
transmit vertical loads only.
The elements of such a scheme are shown in Fig. 10. The floor beams span
between external columns and the concrete core, to which they transfer all lateral
loads and part of the floor load. The stanchions carry vertical loads only and thus the
steelwork scheme becomes very simple. There is a number of buildings in Europe
utilising this principle which has also been used in a building for the Cooperative

Insurance Society at Manchester.

An interesting and ingenious use of the composite principle is shown in the Albany
block of flats in Bournemouth, 1 8 storeys high. A typical floor plan is given in Fig. 1 1

from which it will be seen that the building is in the form of two Ys’ with the stems
‘

joined together to form a spine. The steel frame, which takes no wind loads, is

mIBI |B
IHB m
IBS!
sa IHi
HHm
\fsa^
mi
IHIIII
iBi

HHI mi
mnn mi
BSI HHI
sa IBHmi
1 hhm\BB
m\
IB
Fig. 7
23-Om
 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION 861

stiffened by the two triangular cores, which accommodate service and access facilities,
with their reinforced concrete walls and by other reinforced concrete walls which
have been located to accord with the planning of the flats. Steel beams in the planes
of stiffening walls are double channels, the walls being continuous through them.
The floors act as horizontal wind girders to transmit wind loads to the stiffening
wallsand are of reinforced concrete ribbed form, using woodwool units left
permanently in place to form the ribs, which together with the 63 mm
thick topping
are cast in situ. The lightweight floor with high insulating and acoustic properties
has been found adequate as a lateral girder.

Other Methods

There are occasions when the architectural features permit of wind bracing being
placed in external walls thereby allowing the internal steel framing to be designed
for vertical loads only. A classic and unusual example of this type of construction is
provided by the framing of the IBM building in Pittsburgh, U.S.A. This thirteen-
storey building has a diamond
pattern structural steel grid in the external walls to
transmit wind loads to the
foundations in addition to providing support for the
floor beams which frame into it.

References

A list of articles dealing with the treatment of wind loads in completed steel
ramed buildings, supplied
by the BCSA, will be found at the end of this Chapter.
862 WIND ON MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS
Side Sway
Two questions are often asked but seldom answered satisfactorily: they are, what
is the deflection or lateral displacement at the top of the building under the action

Theoretical calculations may be made for the first of these but no guidance is given
by B.S. 449 on the second point, as clearly the deflection limits for simply supported
beams in Clause 15 and for single storey stanchions in Clause 31.h, are not necessarily
applicable.
The problem facing the designer is to decide whether the steel frame is, or is
first

not, prevented from sidesway at loads less than would cause failure of the individual
members of the frame. Much has been written on this point and some more or less
approximate methods have been propounded, but in the main, this is still a matter
of engineering judgement.
In the opinion of the authors, the frame may be considered as prevented from
sidesway, and hence from failure by frame instability, if it has been designed by any
elastic method and lateral stability provided either by shear walls, diagonal bracing,
braced towers, braced portals, core-type construction or any combination of these.
The same can apply if there are shear walls, such as gables, which have not been
included in the wind resistance calculations.
Where curtain walling is used and the building has no positive lateral bracing
system, then sidesway should be considered in tall buildings. It is not possible to
define the word ‘tali’,depends on overall building stiffness and all that can
since it

be said is that the problem should not arise in a building with height/depth ratio of
about 8-10 less, if the frame has the conventional storey heights and plan grid. Large
beam spans accentuate the trouble.
It is quite common
make the theoretical deflection calculations on the bare
to
steelframe, using the wind loads used in the stress calculations but the results
obtained in this way are usually greatly in excess of the real answer, for a variety of
reasons, all of which tend to reduce the calculated figure. The safety of the structure
having been secured by any of the means so far discussed, it is, in the author’s
 SIDE SWAY 863

opinion, essential to adopt a more realistic approach when considering deflection

displacement be a criterion, leading to the need for pro-
and particularly so, should
an estimate of what is likely to happen under the worst conditions and
not a
ducing
purely hypothetical figure known
to be too large.

\Vhilst accepting that from

considerations of safety and strength, it is prudent to
design the frame on the
assumption that it carries the whole of the wind load, the
same assumption need not necessarily be made when calculating sidesway
movements
under wind, when there are other stiffening media which can come into operation.

The building acts as a vertical cantilever and any sidesway of the frame must
necessarily be accompanied by movement of the building as a whole which will

bring into action any non-structural components which may feature in the layout,
such as cross walls, staircase walls, etc. If such exist, then some attempt should be
made to assess the relief which they can give to the steel frame: appropriate stresses
are given for reinforced concrete in C.P. 1 14: The structural use of Reinforced
Concrete in Buildings, and for brickwork in C.P. 111: Structural Recommendations
for Load-bearing Walls. The total wind load on the building should then be
apportioned between the frame and the other components and the frame deflection
calculated on the reduced load. This applies irrespective of the manner in which the
frame has been designed, or the type of bracing used.
There will, of course, be many cases, such as office blocks, where cross walls do
not exist and the frame alone must take the total load.
It is interesting to note that blocks of flats eleven storeys in height have been

built solely of brickwork, the cross walls between flats being amply strong enough

to resist the wind loads when considered as vertical cantilevers.

\Vhen dealing witli calculations for the frame, allowance can be made for the
stiffening effect of solid casing where used, both for columns and beams.

If the frame has been designed on the rigid, elastic basis the deflections can be

obtained as outlined in Chapter 13. If, however, the frame has been designed using
one of the approximate methods given earlier in this chapter, then an assessment of
sideways deflection by similar simple calculations is not possible. An approximate
answer can be found by treating the frame, storey by storey, as fixed ended portals,
using the moments given by the selected method, on the lines of the second example
in Chapter 13. Alternatively, the deflection may be calculated using the moment of

inertia of stanchions only, calculated about the central axis of the frame. If, however,

the deflection is to be a criterion, then the frame should not be designed upon any
approximate method, but should be designed on a more accurate basis.
The deflections of braced frames can be calculated arithmetically, or graphically
by means of a Williot-Mohr diagram, as outlined in Chapter 1 1 If, however, the
.

depth of members is compared with their length, with consequent increased

large
psset plate recommended that they-be analysed making allowance for
sizes, it is
joint stiffness and this is best done
by computer. Should the bracing be embedded in
a wall, then allowance
should be made for the stiffening effect and the loads
apportioned accordingly.It will be clear that in order to keep the deflection as low
as possible
the depth of the braced frame should be the largest which can
conveniently be accommodated
in the structural layout. It will be noted from Fig. 8
at a satisfactory'
solution has been obtained with frames of height/depth ratio
near y 7 and the same applies to Fig. 7. With regard to core construction, using
rein orced concrete
as the constructional medium, it is not usual to calculate
e actions and
it is assumed that sufficient
stiffness will be assured if the height/depth
864 MND ON MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS
ratio of the vertical cantilever does not exceed 10 if a 1:2:4 mix is used or 9 if a 1:1:2
mix is used.
There now remains the vexed question as to what limit, if any, should be placed
upon the must be remembered that deflection as such, is not
lateral deflection. It
dangerous and the purpose of a limit is not to lay down a safety requirement, since
this is controlled by stresses, but to give a limit which will avoid damage to non-
structural components and avoid objectionable vibration. The maximum deflection
of a simply supported beam, given in Clause 15 of B.S. 449 due to imposed loads, is
^ven as 1/360 of the span which is equivalent to 1/180 of the length of a cantilever
beam; whilst Clause 31.h states that in single storey buildings, the deflections at the
tops of stanchions due to lateral forces must not exceed 1/325 of the stanchion
height, except that greater deflections may be permitted provided that they do not
impair the strength of the structure or lead to damage to finishings. No guidance is
given on the question under review, nor so far as can be ascertained in 1965, is any
limit given in any European or American regulations.
It is thus a question of opinion. A figure of 1/500 of the height has been

mentioned but in the opinion of the authors this is too severe a restriction. Bearing
in mind the transitory nature of wind gusts, the wind loads and their applications
specified in C.P. 3: Chapter V, and the fact that calculated deflections wiU not be
realised in practice, it seems to the authors that the maximum calculated deflections
at the top of the building could well be satisfactory if not more than 1/300 of the
building height.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 865
BIBLIOGRAPHY

dealing with steel-framed buildings having reference to the

method of dealing
List of Articles

with wind loads.

Simple and Rigid Frame Design

A.

1 ANON. ‘Huge Frame Nears Completion’, Engineering News Record, 1962, Vol. 168 (4).

Jan. 25, p. 49.

DE UGARTE, JUAN M. ‘The S.E.A.T. Multi-Storey Building for Car Showrooms, Barcelona ,
2
Acier-Stahl-Steel, 1962, Vol. 27 (3). March, pp, 1 16-118.

3. ANON. ‘New York Double Header’, Engineering News Record, 1962, Vol. 168 (21). May 24,
(Pan-Am Building.)
p. 30.

4. ANON. ‘A Giant
Rises from the Tracks’, Engineering News Record, 1 962, Vol. 168 (25).
June 2, pp. 52-60. (Pan-Am Building.)
5 WIENHOLD, WOLFRAM A, ‘The Pan-Am Building a Bold Achievement in Steelwork’,
Acier-Stahl-Steel, 1963, Vol. 28 (5). May, pp. 208-210.

6. ANON. ‘Two Giants Spearhead

Boom in Hotel and Motel Construction’, Engineering News
Record, 1962, Vol. 169 (13). Sept. 27, pp. 38-41. (New York Hilton Hotel.)
7. ANON. ‘Blue-Tinted Hotel Tower Pierces New York Skyline’, Engineering News Record,
1963, Vol. 171 (1). July 1, p. 31. (HUton Hotel.)
8. ANON. ‘Column-Free Floors Make Room for Research’, Engineering News Record, 1963,

Vol. 170 (23). June 6, pp. 40-41. (Research Building, California University.)
9. ANON. ‘Boston’s Pru Tower Puts New Life Into Back Bay’, Engineering News Record, 1964,

Vol. 172(8). Feb. 20, pp. 38-39.

10. BLODGETT, OMER W. ‘The Efficient Use of Steel in Multi-Storey Structures’, Welding
Journal 1962, Vol 41 (3). March, pp. 209-218.
11. ANON. ‘TheCLL. House, Montreal’, Ac/er-Sfa/j/-5tee/, 1962, Vol. 27 (3), March,

pp. 116-118.
12. ROGERS, ERNESTO. ‘Departmental Store, Roms' Architectural Design, 1962, Vol. 32
,

(6). June, pp. 286-289.

13. ANON. ‘Welded Goal-Post Bents Speed Erection of Apartment House’, Engineering News

Record, 1962, Vol. 168 (26). June 28, p. 44. (Single-storey frames in 10 storey
structure.)
14. GROTENHUIS, EUGENE N. ‘Building Economies Realised Through’, Civil Engineering
(U.S.A.), 1962, Vol. 32 (8), Aug., pp. 49-50.
15. COVRE, G. ‘The New Steel-Framed Rinascente Building in Rome’, Acier-Stahl-Steel, 1963,
Vol. 38 (1). Jan., pp. 1—5.
16. ANON. ‘United Engineering Centre, New York', Acier-Stahl-Steel, 1963, Vol. 28 (1). Jan.,
pp. 15-18.
17. McHALFIE CLARK. ‘New Headquarters Building for ISCOR, Pretoria’, Acier-Stahl-Steel,
1963, Vol. 28 (2). Feb., pp. 51-56.
18. ANON. ‘Tailored Sections Frame Welded Tower’, L’Hgj’neermgVews Recorcf, 1963, Vol. 170
(20). May 16, pp. 36-27, (Sunset-Vine Tower, Los Angeles.)
19. ANON. ‘Sunset-Vine Tower, Los kngsXss' , Acier-Stahl-Steel, 1965, Vol. 30 (3). March,
pp. 143-144.
20. JOLLIOT, ROBERT. ‘Design of a 27-Storey Building under Construction at Nancy’,
Acier-Stahl-Steel, 1963, Vol. 28 (6). June,
pp. 291-296.
. REBOUET, PAUL. ‘Functional New Headquarters Building for the S.A.F. Esso Standard,
^(^^^r-Stahl-Steel, 1963, Vol. 28 (40). Oct., pp. 437-445.
O')
li-. ANON. Multi-Storey Frame in High-Yield-Stress
Steel’, L’ngr/reer, 1963, Vol. 217 (5635).
(Littlewoods Mail Order Stores, Liverpool.)
EK, STEPHANE and TAMIGNIAUX, RENE.
‘New Grouped Sales and Administrative
oepMtments in Brussels for Anc. Etabl. d’lteren
Freres’, Acier-Stahl-Steel, 1964, Vol 29
(1). Jan., pp. 1-10.
. anon. ‘O ffices, Detroit’, Architect fl«dBHi7dmgAfews,
1964, Vol. 226 (13). Sept. 23,
PP* 582.
2^ ANON. Building Has Removable
28-Storey Section’, E'ngjneenngAtews Record, 1965,
VOL 174 (3). Jan.
21, pp. 34-35.
866 WIND ON MULTI-STORY BUILDINGS
B. Diagonal Bracing, Braced Towers and Core Construction
1. FINZl, L. and NOVA, E. 'The E.N.I. Administration Block at the Rome E.l5.R.\Acier-Stahl-
Steel, 1962, Vol. 27 (1). Jan., pp. 5-12.
2. ANON. 'Headquarters Building for the Rhone Poulenc Company, Paris’, Acier-Stahl-Steel,
1962, Vol. 27 (2). Feb., pp. 71-75.
3. MEASOR, E. O. and WILLIAMS, G. M. J. 'Features in the Design and Construction of the
Shell Centre, Lonion' Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers, 1962, Vol. 21.
,

March, pp. 475—502.

4. ANON. 'Engineering Features of the Shell Centre’, Surveyor, 1962, VoL 121 (3646). April 21,

pp. 547-549.
5. ANON. 'The Shell Centre’, Civil Engineering and Public Works Review, 1962, Vol. 57 (671).
June, pp. 749—751.
6. ANON. 'The Building of the Shell Centre’, Architect and Building News, 1962, Vol. 222 (5).
Aug. 1, pp.161—164.
7. 'Features in the Design and Construction of the Shell Centre’, Proceedings, Institution of
Civil Engineers, 1963, Vol. 24. March, pp. 409—424. (Discussion on item B3.)
8. VERSWIJVEREN, A. 'The New K.N.H.S. Centre Laboratory at Ijmmden', Acier-Stahl-Steel,
1962, Vol. 27 (3). March, pp. 111-115.
9. ANON. ‘Shear Studs Stiffen 42-Storey Bank Tower’, Engineering News Record, 1962, Vol. 168
(9). March 8, pp. 28-29.
10. DEFAY, A. 'Steel Framed Building at RmsseXs', Acier-Stahl-Steel, 1962, Vol. 27 (5). May,
pp. 202-206.
11. CAIN, GEORGE B. ‘Composite Building Construction comes of Age’, Civil Engineering
(U.S.A.), 1962, Vol. 32 (6). June, pp. 50-53.
12. ANON. ‘Royal Hilton Hotel, TchctaN, Acier-Stahl-Steel, 1962, Vol. 27 (9). Sept, p. 400.
13. ANON. ‘Royal Teheran Hilton YloteV , Architect and Building News, 1963, Vol. 223 (13).
March 27, pp. 464-466.
14. ANON. 'The Offices of the NiUmij Life Assurance Company at The Hague’, Acier-Stahl-Steel,
1962, Vol. 27 (10). Oct, pp. 403-408.
15. JEAN, POL and PILLARO, JACQUES. ‘Jewish Refugee Centre in Paris’, Acier-Stahl-Steel,
1962, Vol. 27 (10). Oct, pp. 416-418.
16. ANON. ‘Prefabricated Office Block’, E'nginee/-, 1962, Vol. 214 (5574). Nov. 23, pp. 911-912.
(Design Centre for Krupps.)
17. ANON. ‘Composite Design Lightens Tower’, Engineering News Record, 1962, Vol. 169 (24),
Dec, 13, p. 38. (Wenner-Gren Centre, Stockholm.)
18. ANON. ‘C.I.S. Offices, Manchester' , Architect and Building News, 1963, Vol. 223 (3). Jan.
16, pp. 85-94.
19. ANON.‘Manchester, New Offices for the C.I.S. and C.W.S.’, Architects Journal, 1963, Vol.
137 (7). Feb. 13, p. 341.
20. ANON. ‘C.LS. Building, Manchester’, 1963, Vol. 121 (6251). March 8, pp. 489-493.
21. ANON. ‘Connection Details Simplify Hotel’s Er&me' , Engineering News Record, 1963,
Vol. 170 (10). March 7, pp. 44—45,
22. EIERMANN, EGON. ‘Steel Company Offices, Olienhnr^ , Architectural Design, 1963,
Vol. 33 (6). June, pp. 270-273.
23. ANON. ‘Skyscraper is a Synthetics Showcase’, Engineering News Record, 1963, Vol. 170
(25). June 20, p. 149. (33-storey building at Leverkusen.)
24. LEABU, VICTOR F. ‘Detroit’s Automated Post Office’, Civil Engineering (U.S.A.), 1963,
Vol. 33 (3). March, pp. 34—38.
25. LAVEND’HOMME, R. ‘New Building “Delta-Hainault” at Mens’, Acier-Stahl-Steel, 1963,
Vol. 28 (10). Oct, pp. 413-419.
26. GOFFAUX, R. and HEYWANG, C. ‘The Westbury Hotel at Brussels’, Acier-Stahl-Steel,
1964, Vol. 29 (2). Feb., pp. 75-78.
27. PASCAUD, S. ‘The New Faculty of Law at Paris’, Acier-Stahl-Steel, 1964, Vol 29 (6). June,
pp. 291-300.
28. ANON. ‘Stronger Steels Cut Column Costs’, Engineering News Record, 1964, Vol. 173 (12).
Sept. 17, p. 171. (22-storey building at Tampa, Florida.)
29. ANON. ‘Steel Pipe Columns Support 20-storey , Engineering News Record, 1964,
Vol. 173 (15). Oct. 8, pp. 66—68. (20-storey LB .M. building at Seattle.)
30. ANON. ‘Office Block, BeX^nm' Architect and Building News, 1965, Vol. 227
, (3). Jan. 20,
pp. 121-122.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 867

31 . CULOT-FONTAINE, M. ‘The United States Gypsum Building, Chicago', Acier-Stahl-Steel,

1965, Vol. 30 14-16.
(1). Jan., pp.

ANON. ‘West’s Tallest Skyscraper opens in Downtown, Dallas’, Engineering News Record,
32.
1965, Vol. 174 (5). Feb. 4, p. 29. (52-storey building.)

C. Miscellaneous Types, not Covered Above

1. ANON. ‘Pittsburgh Office Building Features Special Steel Design’, Civil Engineering (U.S.A.),
1962, Vol. 32 (6). June, p. 96. (13-storey I.B.M. building with “diamond” pattern wall
framing.)
2. ANON. ‘Building’s Lattice Wall Carries Beams, Resists Wind’, Engineering News Record,
1962, Vol. 169 (10). Sept. 6, pp. 34-41. (I.B.M. building, as Item Cl.)
3. GRINDROD, J. ‘Super-Strength Steel in Pittsburgh Building’, Builder, 1963, Vol. 121
(6245). Jan. 25, p. 200. (I.B.M. building.)
4. ANON. ‘Twin Towers go to 110 sioxeys' Engineering News Record, 1964, Vol. 172 (4).
,

Jan. 23, pp. 33-34. (World Trade Centre, New York.)

5. ANON. ‘How Columns will be Designed for 1 10-storey Buildings’, Engineering News Record,
1964, Vol. 172 (14). April 2, pp. 48-49. (World Trade Centre, New York.)
6. GOETA, F. ‘Steelwork for the second S.N.A.M. Office Block at S. Donato Milanese’,
Acier-Stahl-Steel, 1964, Vol. 29 (12). Dec., pp. 566-570.
7. ANON. ‘Pyramid Will Rise 100-Storeys’, Record, 1965, Vol. 174 (13).
April 1, p. 14. (John Hancock Centre, Chicago.)
 32. FLOORS

THIS section deals with floors

that are generally of some form of reinforced concrete

construction. Many criteria may be used for classifying

the various types of floors

and following table gives a convenient pattern as, in addition to solid in situ
tlie

concrete floors, there are types corresponding to almost

every combination of these
characteristics.

TABLE 1

CLASSIFICATION OF FLOORS

Method of Materials Used Apart from

Initial Strength
Construction in situ Concrete

Mainly in situ None, requiring complete Clay or concrete blocks or tiles

support until concrete

Partially hardens. Precast (and possibly prestressed)
prefabricated concrete beams of channel,
Adequate to carry con- hollow rectangle, joist, rib or
Completely struction loads (a) with tee profile
prefabricated or (6) without inter-
mediate supports Precast (and possibly prestressed)
hollow or solid planks and
Fully self-supporting at all panels.
stages after erection
Sheet steel

Wood-wool formers

Most of the floors embodying preformed units are proprietary products and have
been patented. Particulars of manufacturers and other information may be obtained
from the Association of Constructional Floor Specialists, 13 Goodwin’s Court, St.
Martin’s Lane, London, W.C.2. Much information on a wide variety of such floors
is contained in a booklet issued jointly
by the British Constructional Steelwork
Association and the British Steel Makers and entitled Publication No. M2, 1964:
(Revised 1965) ‘Prefabricated Floors for Use in Steel Framed Buildings’.
The design of reinforced concrete slabs is adequately treated in
most textbooks
on reinforced concrete. Other
information may be obtained from the relevant
British Standard Codes of Practir.f*

In many
cases, floors are designed to be simply supported over single spans and
this treatment can be economic for various reasons including convenience for
initial planning
and'possible future alterations also suitability for mass production.
ther types of floors,
probably mainly those with in situ ribs, are more readily
3 apted to take advantage of
the reduced bending moments associated with

869
870 FLOORS
continuity. In such cases, the bending moment must allow for possible variations in
loading on different spans. Table 2 gives the bending moment values for nominally
uniformly loaded slabs continuous over three or more approximately equal spans,
that is, not differing by more than 15 per cent of the longer span.

TABLE 2

BENDING MOMENTS IN UNIFORMLY LOADED CONTINUOUS SLABS

At Support At Middle At Other

Near Middle
Next to End of Interior Interior
of End Span
Support Span Supports
'

Moment due to - Wr].l + Wd.l 1

-Wd.i
dead load 12 10 24 12

Moment due to - Ws-l + Ws.l -Ws-l

imposed load 10 9 12 9

Where = total dead load per span

Wg = total imposed load per span

When proprietary floors are used, advice should be obtained from the makers
regarding any reinforcement that may be necessary. The main reinforcement is often
fully supplied within precast concrete units but many types allow for reinforcing
bars within in situ concrete ribs. Continuity or anti-cracldng reinforcement is often
necessary or desirable over supports.
The selection of the most appropriate floor for any application requires con-
sideration of many factors in addition to initial cost and ability to carry the floor
loading. Modern buildings involve many services and several types of floors
incorporate ducts for such services: in other types services may be laid in a concrete
screed. Either deliberately or incidentally the floor serves also as a fire barrier
between two storeys. Many types of floors have considerable inherent fire resistance,
and in all cases the resistance can be augmented by screeding on the top or by
applying an incombustible material such as asbestos or plaster to the soffit.
Suspended ceilings can be provided to enhance fire resistance and to modify acoustic
properties. They can serve also to conceal services suspended below the floor.
TUE Building Regulations, 1965, which came into operation on 1st February,
1966, include a of thicknesses of materials in concrete floors for various periods
list

of fire resistance. A metric version of this list is given below as Table 3.

The floor can also contribute substantially to the stabiHty of the structure by
acting as a horizontal girder carrying lateral forces to selected strong points such as
braced frames or walls. This is amplified later.
Reference to tables of floor sizes and capacities will show that in some systems
the strength varies with the depth while in other systems a constant depth is retained
and the reinforcement is varied. Nevertheless the weights for different types of
floors of various depths do lie within fairly clearly defined boundaries as shown by
the lines in Fig. 1.
 871

REGULATIONS

FLOORS

3
BUILDING

CONCRETE

lAlSLli

“THE

VIII;

FROM

PART

EXTRACTED
872 FLOORS
The weight of about 2 kg/m^ of floor
solid concrete slab obviously has a constant
area per mm of thickness. For all minimum weight per m^
other types of floor, the
seems to be about 0.8 kg/mm of thickness. For floors using wood-wool or similar
formers the upper limit of weight seems to be about 1.2 kg/mm of thickness and
for other types using precast units of almost any shape, the upper limit seems to be

Fig. 1

about 1.5 kg/mm of thickness. These figures allow generaUy for all the materials of
the floor including load bearing structural concrete toppings but they do not allow
for finishing screeds or plastering applied to the floor. Whilst a hghter floor obviously
means less load to be carried by superstructure and foundations a heavier floor may
have counterbalancing qualities for other reasons, such as fire resistance or reduced
noise transmission.
The wide variations in carrying capacities for floors of similar depths or weights
indicate that any attempt at such correlation could hardly produce useful results.
The prefabricated floors booklet previously mentioned gives limiting spans for
various loadings for each individual floor hsted.
General descriptions of some of the types follow. The sequence is the more or
less alphabeticalarrangement of materials used as given in Table 1 and there is no
attempt to arrange types in order of merit or importance nor to illustrate individual
makers’ products.
Clay or concrete blocks or tiles are generally hollow \vith intermediate webs in
the larger sizes. Standard sizes for some such clay blocks are specified in B.S. 1190.
For an hollow block floor the tiles may be laid end'to end in rows when the
in situ
reinforcement runs in one direction as sho\vn in Fig. 2 or the reinforcement may be
mn in two directions, at right angles to each other, when the tiles are isolated and
provision is made to prevent concrete entering the open ends. Hollow tile floors are

designed as T-beams, the breadth of the ribs being regulated by the amount of
reinforcement to be housed and the depth by the span and load to be carried.
HoUow tile in situ floors are usually constructed to be continuous over several spans.
 — •

°
FLOORS
the bending moment on such slabs and
These are various methods of determining
one set of values has been quoted earlier.

—
-ii
11
II II
^

Lc # ——— 9 .

Fig. 2

until the concrete

Floors of this type require shuttering and external supports
has hardened sufficiently. The shuttering may be conventional
formwork supported
frequent
on struts but telescopic centerings are available which are designed for
re-use to avoid obstruction to the floor under.

4 “1

Di) m Fig. 3
£
Hollow concrete or clay blocks are used in another type of floor illustrated
generally by Fig. 3. In this, the cross-hatched members are precast beams which are
usually designed to span between the main supports and be capable of supporting
the constructional loads unaided until the added concrete has hardened. The hollow
tiles may be of various widths, they serve as shuttering between the precast beams

and a wide range of capacities can be achieved by suitable combinations of reinforce-

ment within the precast members and thickness of in situ topping.
The precast beams in these floors may be of various sections, the most usual
being tees, joists and steel assemblies having the bottom member enclosed within a
concrete flange. The strength of this type of floor can be varied also by using two
beams side by side at each rib (Fig. 4) and again by using the beams side by side
without spacing tiles (Fig. 5).

Fig. 4
874 FLOORS
The next type of floor is essentially precast and possibly prestressed units. It
comprises beams of channel, Fig. 6, or hollow rectangular form, Fig. 7, which are
designed to carry the construction loads unaided and frequently also to be able to
support the total load without in situ structural concrete topping although topping
can easily be placed either to augment the capacity or simply to provide a more
continuous surface and to accommodate service ducting. Many of these floors use
units having sloping sides or with a ledge at the bottom edge to facilitate the grouting
that is often used to bind the components into a continuous floor.

Fig. 7

Some manufacturers make these hollow rectangular floors in multi-unit widths

so that each component comprises a substantial panel of flooring. Fig. 8,

Fig. 8

Figure 9 shows another type of floor of substantial breadth. The units are precast
double tees, having prestressed tendons.

A similar finished profile shown by the rib type floors of Fig. 10 which utilise
is

sheet steel formers which may

be used as permanent shuttering and reinforcement,
or may be removed for use elsewhere. The steel troughs m^y be supported on the
lower flanges of precast tee beams which may incorporate a latticed steel rib or the
 1

FLOORS
designed to span between main supports possibly with only a
few
trouglis may be
varied by altering the
intermediate props. The strength of such floors can be widely
amounts of the reinforcement and in situ concrete.
An almost axiomatic feature of a plank floor is that it is intended to act
carry the
compositely with a sufficient thickness of added in situ concrete to
the full
working load. The plank will often incorporate the main reinforcement for
load. Whilst a plank suggests a solid rectangle as shown in Fig. 1 1, yet
the base

Fig. 1

elements of such floors may also be as shown in Fig. 7. In a variant of this type of
floor shown in Fig. 12, precast concrete shutter panels span between secondary steel
or concrete beams which may be spaced up to about 1.5 m
apart. These secondary
beams are normally designed to act compositely with the concrete.

Fig. 12

Floors using sheet steel formers have been mentioned above. Other types are
shown in Fig. 13. The sheets may vary in thickness or in shape and these variations
together with different thicknesses of in situ structural concrete allow a wide range
of carrying capacities. The steel sheet formers may sometimes require propping
until
the concrete has hardened but addition^ supports are not always necessary. The

Fig. 13
 1

876 FLOORS
manufacturers make a feature of the facility with which electrical services, for
example, can be passed along the cavities. In one type, the cavity element which is
shown dotted, can be omitted or incorporated where it is wanted. In the other
sketches, the cavities are an automatic result of the pattern. The wide variations in
cavities made it impossible to show these floors adequately in Fig. 1.
The last type of floor mentioned in Table 1 is simply described as woodwool
formers. Some patterns are shown in Fig. 14.

t 1

1 11'
-r-y-er

I 111
r./TY^Ydrir-WL J
1 j 1 i 1 )

'

'”.'0
[ 0

u fl [ 1- fl
—
Fig. 14

The formers may be solid or hollow as indicated by the dotted lines. Alternatively
two components may be superimposed to form a unit. These formers are usually
made in convenient lengths for delivery and site handling so that temporary support
is usual until the in situ concrete has hardened. The reinforcement is introduced into

the ribs as required, the design being generally in accordance with that for normal
reinforced rib floors.
The foregoing has considered these floors almost without regard to how they are
integrated into the building. The easiest way to support such floors on a beam is
obviously to sit them on the top flange. Where this is not practicable, they may be
supported on ledge angles attached to the web of the beam or they may sit on
concrete haunches which should be adequately secured. This may necessitate
specially shaped ends to the floor units and many manufacturers have appropriate
end details as standard patterns. Other standard variations are often available for
special loadings such as partitions, for bridles at openings in floors or for special
width units at boundaries.
Whilst the floors are designed primarily to resist vertical loading, yet many types
are able to carry substantial additional horizontal forces from wind loading without
exceeding the appropriate stresses. A series of tests* was carried out on full-size
floors in three square panels giving an overall size of about 10 m by 83 m and made
of hollow rectangular precast floor units placed side by side and having the joints
grouted in normal fashion. lightly reinforced 75 mm thick in situ concrete edge
trimmers were provided to finish the floor. Loading was applied horizontally by
hydraulic jacks at the third-points of the 10 m length and subsiantial loads were
carried on both the unloaded floors and on the floors with weights added to simulate
the live load. The tests were made with the floor units parallel with the long sides
and also with the floor units parallel with the short sides.
* Reported in Building with Steel, Vol. 2, No. 8.
 FLOORS 877

The design of beams taking account of composite action with the floor slab is
considered in Chapter 23 and little need be included here. The typical sketches show

that some types of floor are more readily suitable than others for this application. In
some cases, it may be desirable to have a more or less substantial area of solid
concrete adjacent to the steel beam and some types are more readily adaptable to
this.
 .

33. FLOOR PLATES

types of rolled steel floor plates with non-slip raised patterns have
now
The various
been reduced and the British Steel Corporation roll only Durbar plate which is

illustrated in Fig. 1

These plates are normally supplied in standard widths, lengths and thicknesses
but the rolling mills are prepared to discuss variations from these standards if a
sufficiently large order of a particular size is required.
Table 1 gives the metric thicknessesof the plain plate together with the weight
in kg/m. It should be noted that the pattern projects approximately 1 .5 mm
above
the plain plate.

TABLE 1

Thickness on plain Approximate weight

mm kglm}

3.0 28.7
4.5 40.5
6.0 52.2
8.0 67.9
10.0 83.6 ,

12.5 103.1

The recommended standard sizes of plates are:—

600 mm wide in lengths of 2 000, 2 500 and 3 000 mm

1 000 mm „ „ „ „ 2 000 mm
1 250 mm „ „ „ „ 2 500 mm
1 500 mm „ „ „ „ 3 OOO mm
1 750 mm „ „ „ „ 4 oOO and 6 000 mm
2 000 mm „ „ „ „ 6 000 mm
879
 880 FLOOR PLATES
These must be cut to the required finished size and it should be noted that the
detail of the pattern adopted is such that plates can be used in either direction
without spoiling the appearance of a floor area. This was not possible with the old
diamond pattern plate which had to be cut to match in one direction only thus
frequently incurring considerable waste.
It is usual to consider floor plates as supported on all four edges even though two

edges may only be supported by stiffeners or joint covers. If the plates are securely
bolted or welded to the supporting system they may be considered as encastre which
increases the load carrying capacity slightly but reduces the deflection considerably.
Safe loads have been calculated for rectangular plates either simply supported or
encastre on all four edges using Pounder’s formulae and these are tabulated in
Tables 2 and 3. The formulae used are as follows:—
Plates simply supported on all four edges

4ft^
1 .
P=-
3kB^ 1.^(1

, _ — 1 5kpB^
2 .
^ 32Et^

Plates encastre on all four edges

2fe
P=-
kB^

_ — 1 kpB‘*
4. <1 =
^ 32Et^ 517
where

L = length of plate in mm,

B = breadth of plate inmm,
t = thickness of plate in mm,

/= allowable skin stress = 165 N/mm^ for Grade 43 Steel,

p= pressure on plate in N/mm^
E = Young’s modulus of section = 2.1 x 10^ N/mm^,

^ = Poisson’s ratio (m is taken at 3.0 in this e:^ercise).

cl = maximum deflection in mm.

 FLOOR PLATES 881

Thickness Length L in mm Breadth

B
1 250 1 500 1 750 2 000

600
1 000
1 250
1 500

1 750

2 000

600
1 000
1 250

1 500

1 750
2 000

61.51

23.09 1 000
15.74 1 250
12.09 1 500

10.20 1 750
9.31 2 000

99.49 97.26 96.55 96.11

44.71 39.57 37.25 36.Q8 1 OQO

37.26 29.70 26.32 24.60 1 250
25.87 21.22 18.88 1 500
19.01 15.94 1 750
14.55 2 000

Note: Loads to right of zig-zag line cause

deflection greater than 5/ 100.
882 FLOOR PLATES

TABLE 3

Safe uniformly distributed loads in kNlm^

on steel plates stressed to 165 Njmm}

Encastre on all four edges

 34. WELDING PRACTICE

British Standards

The foUowng British Standards are associated with welding:

B.S. 4360 : Part 2. Weldable structural steels.

B.S. 639. Covered electrodes for the manual metal-arc welding of mild steel and
medium-tensile steel.

B.S. 1719. Classification, coding and marking of covered electrodes for metal-arc
welding.
B.S. 1856. General requirements for the metal-arc welding of mild steel.

B.S. 2642. General requirements for the arc welding of carbon manganese steels.

B.S. 449. The use of structural steel in building.

B.S. 499. Welding terms and symbols.

incfuded angle
Wild face
excess weld
^meta!

excess
weld metal

TYPICAL BUTT WELDS

Single V Double V Single U Double U

Double J Single bevel

Double bevel

Close sgt/are Open sguore Double V automatic

deep penetration

Fig. 1

883
884 WELDING PRACTICE
Types of Weld
Fillet and butt welds are normally used in structural steelwork, the appropriate
nomenclature and details of typical welds being shown in Fig. 1

Butt Welds
Notes on Butt Welds are given in Appendix A of B.S. 1856.
The size of a butt weld is specified by its throat thickness, which is taken as the
thickness of the thinner plate when the plate thicknesses vary and as the plate
thickness when the plates are equal in thickness. For full stress butt welds must be
reinforced with excess weld metal and sealed as shown in Fig. 1 although the
additional thickness of weld involved is ignored in calculations. Where a sealing run
cannot be employed, say in a single ‘V’ butt weld where the back of the plates is
inaccessible, the effective throat thickness is taken as five-eighths of the thinner
plate thickness.
The permissible stresses in mUd-steel butt welds, calculated on an area equal to
the length of the weld times the throat thickness, must not exceed the permissible
tensile, compressive and shear stresses of the parent metal. Consequently there is
normally no need to make calculations for complete penetration welds.

Fillet Welds
The size of a normal penetration fillet weld shall be taken as the minimum leg

length of a convex or flat fillet weld or 1.41 times the effective throat thickness of
a concave fillet weld, as shown in Fig. 2.

A deep penetration weld is one in which the depth of penetration beyond the
root is2.4 mm
or over. Consequently, the size of a deep penetration weld is taken
as the minimum leg length plus 2.4 mm in the case of a convex or flat fillet weld
and as 1.41 times the effective throat thickness plus 2.4 mm in the case of a concave
fillet weld.
Notes oti fillet welds are given in Appendix B of B.S. 1856. The following are of
interest here:

Angle between fusion faces. Fillet welds connecting parts, the fusion faces of
which form an angle of more than 120° or less than 60°, should not be relied
upon to transmit calculated loads at the full working stresses unless permitted
to do so by the standard for the particular application.
It is appreciated that full penetration to the root of a 60° fillet weld may

not be attained, but this point is allowed for in determining the effective
throat thickness (see Table A).

End returns. Fillet welds terminating at the ends or sides of parts, or members,
should be returned continuously around the corners for a distance not less
than twice the size of the weld. This provision should apply particularly to
 TYPES OF WELD 885

table a. - EFFECTIVE THROAT THICKNESS OF FLAT OR CONVEX

FILLET WELDS

60-90° 1 OO
o
101-106° 107-113° 114-120°
Angle between fusion faces

0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50

Factor by which fillet size
is multiplied to give

throat thickness

side and end welds connecting brackets, seats and similar connections at
fillet

the tension side of such connections.

Size at toe of rolled section. Where a fillet weld is applied to a rounded toe
of a rolled section, the specified size of the weld should generally not exceed
75 per cent of the thickness of the section at the toe.

The weld must not exceed the permissible shear stress in the
stress in a fillet

parent metal, e.g., forGrade 43 steel the maximum permissible stress is 1 1 5 N/mm^. The
following table gives the strengths of 60—90“ angle fillet welds, i.e., based on a
throat thickness of 0.7 times the leg length. For different angles between the fusion
faces the values of the strength per mm
run must be varied directly with the factor
given in Table A.

TABLE B. - STRENGTH OF FILLET WELDS IN kN/mm RUN

FOR 60-90° ANGLES BETWEEN FUSION FACES

Safe Loads on Fillet Welds in kN/mm run

Leg Throat
Grade of Steel + Allowable Stress
Length Thickness
in in 43 50 55
mm mm 115 N/mm* 160 N/mm* 195 N/mm*
1

5 3.5 0.40 0.56 1

6 4.2 0.48 0.67

8 5.6 0.64 0.90
10 7.0 0.80 1.12 1.37
12 8.4 0.97 1.34 1.64
15 10.5 1.21 1.68
18 12.6 1.45 2.02 2.46
20 14.0 1.61 2.24 2.73
22 15.4 1.77 2.46
25 17.5 2.01 2.80 3.41
1

Clause 14a of B.S. 1856 (see also Appendix D, B.S. 1856) states:

Minimum size of first run. On parts 9.5 mm and over in thickness, the minimum
size of a single run fillet weld or the first run in a multi-run fillet
weld made by a
manual process using electrodes
of Class 2 or 3 to B.S. 1719, Part 1 shall be as
,

Table C to avoid the risk of cracking without preheating.

^ere the thicker part is more than 50.8 mm thick, special precautions
snail be taken to ensure weld
soundness.
886 WELDING PRACTICE
TABLE
MINIMUM SIZE OF SINGLE RUN FILLET WELDS FOR MANUAL ^\ELDING USING
ELECTRODES OF CLASS 2 OR 3 TO B.S. 1719, PART 1

Thickness of Thicker Part Minimum size

of Single Run
Fillet Welds
Over Up to and Including

mm mm mm
9 16 5
16 30 6
30 and over - 8

Symbols
The type and size of weld is indicated on dra\\'ings in one of the following ways

(c) By the use of the symbols in B.S. 499 : Part 2 : 1 965.

(b) By the use of the following letter symbols mth the appropriate dimension:

FiUet Weld F.W.

Single V Butt Weld S.V.B.W.
Double V Butt Weld D.V.B.W.
Single U Butt Weld S.U.B.W.
Double U Butt Weld D.U.B.W.
Single J Butt Weld SJ.B.W.
Double J Butt Weld D.J.B.W.
Single Bevel Butt Weld S.B.B.W.
Double Bevel Butt Weld D.B.B.W.

(c) By a complete description, e.g., 10 mm fillet weld.

Deep-penetration welds must be separately and clearly defined.

 35. STEEL SHEET ROOFING AND CLADDING

General
commonly used in building as a cladding for roofs and
Profiled steel sheet is
and speed
sidewalls, its main properties being strength, light weiglit, durability, ease
cost. Cladding sheets are now available in long lengths,
thus
of erection and low
obviating end laps.

Types of Surface Protection

formed from cold-reduced steel sheet or coil of a quality
Cladding sheets are
described in B.S. 1449. Appropriate surface treatments are as follows:

Galvanised Coating

The standard protective surface is a tiglrt-bonded uniform coating of 98.5 per

cent zinc appUed by the continuous hot-dip process. According to the conditions
under which the coating is applied, the resulting surface is either a matt grey or a
crystalline spangle.

TABLE 1
TABLE OF ZINC COATING WEIGHTS
TYPES OF MATERIALS AND WEIGHTS OF COATING
(ABSTRACTED FROM B.S. 3083:1959)

Weight of Zinc Coating

Type
{including both sides)

Min. Max.
g/m^ g/m-

125 381 455

150 458 548
180 550 608
200 610 762

Note. The weight of zinc on one side of a sheet is half that quoted above. The
first-listed coating type is the most readily available commercial quality.
A%en exposed to the atmosphere, the zinc layer corrodes at a relatively slow rate
untilit is all consumed.
This rate of corrosion depends on the nature of the
atmosphere, being quickest in
polluted industrial atmospheres and in coastal areas
^jectedto winds off the sea. Elsewhere the zinc
is a long-lasting, reliable protection,
the heavier the
coating, the longer the life of the galvanised sheet.

887
888 STEEL SHEET ROOFING AND CLADDING
Perforated Galvanised Sheet

In certain industries such as laundries, etc.,where steam and humidity levels are
high, direct ventilation of the cladding sheet is desirable. Corrugated galvanised
sheets are available with specially cut crest perforations which allow air penetration
but exclude rain.

Aluminium Coating
Similar in nature to the standard galvanised sheet is a sheet coated with a thin

layer of tightly-bonded aluminium of about the same thickness (0.025 mm) as the zinc
on a galvanised sheet. The aluminium coating is considered to have certain advantages
such as greater corrosion resistance in industrial atmospheres, brighter appearance
and greater solar heat reflection.

Plastic Coating
Protection of exceptional durability is obtained when a tightly-bonded layer of
plastic is applied to either a plain or a galvanised steel sheet. The plastic, on one or
both sides of the sheet as required, is applied either as a laminate or as a roll-coated
plastisol. A plastic surface permits colour and attractive surface textures to be
featured on steel sheet claddings. Sheets coloured differently on opposite sides are
obtainable. The bond between plastic and steel is such that in places where accidental
blemishes occur, corrosion is confined to that area and does not spread beneath the
plastic. Profile forming of sheets does not affect either the plastic or the bond
between steel and plastic. Plastic coated sheet needs no maintenance and is
impervious to most chemicals, polluted atmospheres, frost, hot sun, and prolonged
dampness. It does not support fire.

Vitreous Enamel Coating

Vitreous enamel is a glass-like porcelain which, when fused to steel sheet, forms a
tough, permanent, colour-fast protection. As a cladding, vitreous enamelled sheet is

most frequently used as a flat curtain walling or exterior panelling material. Profiled
roof tiles and cladding sheets are, however, available to order. The durability and
longevity of vitreous enamelled steel is its main feature, maintenance' not being
required. The material is impervious to chemicals, polluted atmospheres, frost, sun,
dampness and abrasion, and will not support fire.

Pre-painted Sheet

One of the of painting cladding sheets on site is to ensure that the

difficulties
and free from dampness and that paint is applied in a
sheets are initially clean
uniform coating. Such difficulties can be avoided if the paint is applied under
controlled factory conditions before delivery of the sheet. Pre-painted steel cladding
sheet is now available. Such features as a uniform thickness of the correct quality
paint properly bonded to the sheet can thus be assured.

Built-up Weatherproofing

Composite steel claddings comprising a trough sectioned profile with layers of

weatherproofing, vapour seals and tough outside surface layers built up on the top
 889

Weatherboard,

deck trough.

deck trough.

deck trough with tray.

built-up deck.

PROFILE SHAPES. Fig.l

890 STEEL SHEET ROOFING AND CLADDING
surface of the sheet (see Fig. 1) are in widespread use, particularly for industrial
buildings. Such systems are exceptionally durable and are strong enough to form
horizontal roof decks able to carry pedestrian and other traffic. Thermal insulation
isnormally incorporated within the built-up layers. Since the vapour seals and
thermal insulation are attached to the exterior surface of the cladding sheet,
condensation problems are by-passed, for the steel remains on the warm, interior
side of the deck.

Bitumen-Asbestos Felted Sheet

A common protective for cladding sheets on industrial buildings is a layer of

blended bitumen and asbestos felt. The felt is tightly bonded to both sides of a
corrugated or trouglr profiled sheet and forms a durable weather resistant protection
with good fire-resisting properties. The felt can be coloured.

Asbestos Covered Sheet

Wliilst steel claddings as a whole have a Class A rating for resistance to spread of
flame, as specified in B.S. 476, asbestos covered steel sheets which offer exceptional
resistance to fire are available. The profile is the standard 76.2 mm corrugated and
the steel sheet is sandwiched between pressed-on layers of asbestos.

Types of Profile

A detailed description of all the cladding profiles manufactured in the United

Kingdom, including details of manufacturers, coatings and design spans may be
obtained from Strip Mills Division of the British Steel Corporation.
Profile development is increasing rapidly, spurred in part by developments in
modular construction and by the greater range of coatings now available.
For details of and design data for all profiles other than the corrugated profiles
described in the following pages, it is necessary to consult manufacturers’ literature.

Specification for Galvanised Corrugated Cladding Sheets

Shape
A symmetrical, sinusoidal waveform, both edges of a sheet turning downwards
from the crest of the outermost corrugation.

Dimensions and Coverage

TABLE 2

1
Coverage
Number of

m
Pirch of DeprJi of
Corrugations 1 Corrugation j Corrugation 2 Corrugation
Corrugation* Corrugation* 1
Per Sheet Corrugating* Side Lap Side Lap Side Lap

mm mm mm j

mm mm mm
660 610

m
572 533
76.2
19
812 762 724 686
j
965 914 876 838

711 635
127 32 1

838 762

* Tolerances should be as given in Clause 12 of B.S. 3083.

 TYPES OF PROFILE 891

Note 1. Sheet width tolerances are given in B.S. 3083.

Note 2. The most commonly used widths of the 76.2 mm profile are those with
8 and 10 corrugations.
The wider sheets are more economical to use since less
material is wasted in sidelaps;
furthermore, the total number of fastenings will be

less since the number used per sheet is normally the same for all widths.

Length
TABLE 3

Pitch Length Range* Usual Increments

mm mm
76.2 1 219 to 7 620 150
111 1 219 to 3 048 150

* Depending on gauge.

Certaineconomies can be effected with longer sheets, notably the reduced

number of fixings required, the elimination of sheet wastage at endlaps, and the
possibility of using flatter roof pitches where the sheet is continuous between ridge

and eaves.

Strength and Stiffness

The resistance of bending is proportional to the
a cladding sheet to longitudinal
depth of corrugation and the gauge thickness. The strength of a sheet, as indicated
by the yield stress in the outside fibres of the steel, is proportional to the section
modulus of the profile. The stiffness of the sheet, as indicated by its deflection under
load, is proportional to the moment of inertia of the profile section. Properties are

as follows:—

TABLE 4

Pitch
Approximate Moment Approximate Modulus
of Gauge'\
Corrugation* B.S. 3083 of Inertia per of Section per
Metre Width Metre Width

mm cm** cm^

{ 10.65 11.29
15 9.56 10.21
16 8.46 9.13
17 7.64 8.06
18 6.69 7.01
19 6.00 6.45
76.2 20 5.32 5.37
21 4.78 5.00
22 4.32 4.46
23 3.82 4.03
24 3.41 3.60
25 3.00 3.17
1^26 2.73 2.85
'

— J

designated as nominal to cover the slight differences between the results

nhfained by the
various types plant used by manufacturers,
auge to B.S. 3083 should
not be confused with Birmingham Gauge.
892 STEEL SHEET ROOFING AND CLADDING
TABLE 4 {continued)

Approximate Moment Approximate Modulus

Pitch of Gauge\
of Inertia per of Section per
Corrugation* B.S. 3083 Metre Width
Metre Width

mm cm* cm^

/
14 30.44 19.08
15 27.03 17.00
16 23.89 15.05
17 21.57 13.55
18 18.98 11.93
19 16.93 10.64
111 20 9.46
15.01
21 13.51 8.49
22 12.01 7.58
23 10.79 6.71
24 9.82 6.07
25 8.87 5.59
1^26 8.05 5.05

* This dimension is designated as nominal to cover the slight differences between the results
obtained by the various types of plant used by manufacturers,
f Gauge to B.S. 3083 should not be confused with Birmingham Gauge.

TABLE 5

MAXIMUM UNSUPPORTED SPANS OF CLADDING SHEETS ON PITCHED ROOFS

Total Imposed Load {kN/m^ ) normal to Roof Slope

Gauge 0.50 kN/m’ 0.75 kN/m" 1 .00 kN/m^ 1.25 kN/m" 1.50kN/m=
to
B.S. 3083 Corrugation Corrugation Corrugation Corrugation Corrugation

mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
76.2 127 76.2 127 76.2 127 76.2 127 76.2 127

14 3.37 m 4.72 m 3.00 m 4.27 m 2.77 m 2.47 m 3.50 m

(3.00 m) (4.20 m) (2.67 m) (3.80 m) (2.45 m) (2.20 m) (3.11 m)
16 4.50 m 2.62 ra 3.30 m 2.32 m 3.15 m
m) (2.33 m) m)
(4.00
[gym (2.93 m) (2.00 (2.80 m)

18 4.20 m 2.62 m 3.67 m 2.40 m 2.22 m 3.00 m 2.17 m 2.77 m

(3.73 m) (2.33 m) (3.25 m) (2.10 m) (2.00 m) (2.67 m) (1.90m) (2.45 m)
20 2.77 m 3.82 m 2.47 m 3.22 m 2.17 m 1.95 m 2.50 m 1.80 m 2.40 m
(2.45 m) (3.40 m) (2.20 m) (2.85 m) (1.95 m) (1.70 m) (2.20 m) (1.60 m) (2.10 m)
22 2.62 m 3.37 m 2.92 m 1.95 m 1.80 m 2.32 m 1.65 m 2.10 m

24

26
(2.33

2.40
(2.10

2.17
(1.95
m) (3.00 m)
m

m
m)
3.15
m) (2.80 m)
2.85
(2.50
m

m 1.80m
m) (1.60 m)
(2.60

2.62
(2.33

2.40 m
m) (1.70 m)
m
m)
1.72
(1.50

1.57 m
(2.10 m) (1.40 m)
m
m)
m (1.60

1.57
(1.40

1.42
(1.25
m) (2.00 m)
m

m
m)
2.02
m) (1.80 m)
1.87
(1.65
m

m
(1.45

1.42
(1.25

1.27
m)
m
m)
m
(1.85

1.87
(1.65

m) (1.10m) (1.50 m)
1.72m
m)
m
m)
 TYPES OF PROFILE 893

allowance for the dead

1 The quoted maximum unsupported spans include an
weight of the cladding as laid.
2. Limiting fibre stresses; 115 N/mm^
- 14 gauge; 93 N/mm^ - 26 gauge;
intermediate values by interpolation (M = WLl 10.)
Limiting deflection t^en as Span ^ 100. (Deflection
= 3 WL^I384EI.)
3
4. The spans quoted above do not apply to curved roofs, whosq^ spans would
normally be greater.

5. Where the sheets are used over single spans the figures in brackets should be
adopted.

Curved Sheeting

Corrugated sheets wholly or partially curved along their length are available.
Curvature radius limitations, which depend upon gauge, are as follows;—

TABLE 6

MINIMUM RADIUS OF CURVATURE

Minimum Radius
Gauge*
of Curvature

mm
16G 914
17G 914
18G 762
19G 762
20G 610
21G 457
22G 457
23G and over 305

* The gauge numbers specified above are in accordance with the accepted practice of the trade and
are related to the number of sheets in 1 016 kg in accordance with Appendix B, B.S. 3083.

Pitch of Roofs
In order to ensure weather-tightness, the following minimum roof pitches for
various types of steel roofing are recommended;—

TABLE 7

Roof Type Pitch

1. Built-up felted roofs. 1° (1 in 60)

2. Long, corrugated sheets with no end
lapsbetween ridge and eaves. 5°
3. Long sheets in other profiles such as
trough, tiles, etc., with no end
laps between ridge and eaves. 5°
4. All unprotected, profiled sheets
where end laps are necessary. 15°
S94 STEEL SHEET ROOFING AND CLADDING
The above recommendations are based upon accepted practice in the building
industr}’. The modem trend in roofing design is towards flatter pitches, and it
should be possible to use a pitch less than the standard minimum of 15“ for
standard roofs, although special sealing arrangements for end-laps v>ould be
necessarv’ since, at low pitches, end-laps are Milnerable to rain penetration,

Sidelaps

Typical side-lap arrangements are shot\’n in Fig. 2. A one-corrugation overlap is

suitable for sheltered side-wall claddings, but not generally for roofing. A iT corru-
gation overlap is suitable for most roofs subject to moderate exposure; the 1^ efiect

is obtained by inverting alternate sheets. In cases vrhere buildings are ver}' exposed,

1 8l2rntn ovzrail ,

762 mm cover , \ 50mm

686mm cover ,
126mm ,

76'2mm corrugated steel sheeting.

838mm overall

'
27mm
I
699mm cover. ,
I39mm ,

6ll27mm corrugated steel sheeting.

TYPICAL 81DELAP ARRANGEMENTS.

Fi2.2
 WEIGHT 895

is recommended. The edge of a top overlapping sheet

a 2 corrugation overlap
should always turn
downwards to ensure maximum resistance to rain penetration.
the case of the 127
In
mm
corrugated profile and the various trough profiles

mm or more deep, a one normally sufficient for roofs.

corrugation side-lap is
25
When cladding a building, it is advisable to lay sheets such that exposed side-laps
are downwind from
the prevailing wind.

Endlaps

Normal practice is as follows;

Side-wall Sheeting: 100 mm minimum when the lap is over a support purlin,
otherwise 150 mm.
Roof Sheeting: a minimum of 1 50 mm for slopes of 20° and over. For flatter
slopes, either a 225 mm lap or 1 50 mm with mastic sealing, especially where
exposed to driving rain.

Gauge

normally sold by the tonne, sheet thickness being defined by the

Steel sheets are
number of sheets of a particular size in a parcel of a certain weight, as listed in
B.S. 3083.
Gauges commonly used for moderate-sized buildings are 20—26. 26 Gauge
galvanised corrugated sheets are acceptable in B.S. 2053, ‘General Purpose Farm
Buildings of Framed Construction’, as a material suitable for cladding farm buildings.
The life of a galvanised sheet is proportional to the thickness of the zinc coating
and not to the thickness of the steel. Once the zinc has been consumed, a 22-gauge
sheet (say) will last only marginally longer than a 26-gauge sheet. The surface area
covered, however, by a tonne of 26-gauge sheets is considerably greater than by a
tonne of 22-gauge sheets.

Weight

TABLE 8

Approx. Weight per

Approx. Weight per
Gauge rrd of Galvanised
of Cladding as Fixed
Corrugated Sheet

N N
16 160 180
17 135 165
18 121 145
19 106 130
20 95 115
21 86 105
22 77 95
23 70 85
24 64 75
25 55 65
26 48 60
896 STEEL SHEET ROORNG AND CLADDING
Notes:
1 . The weights per include side and end laps.
2. Where long sheets with no end laps are used, deduct about 3j per cent from
the weight per m^.
3. Add 5 N/m^ for hook bolts, seam bolts and washers.
4. The table above is sufficiently accurate for design purposes, using either
76.2 mm
or 1 27 mm
profiles, but should not be used for estimating.

Layout of Sheeting
Accessories

Ridgecaps, comer and eaves closures, aprons, louvres and flashings are usually
made from flat, galvanised sheet and bent to whatever angle is required. Such pieces
are normally cut from standard width sheets of 300 mm, 375 mm or 450 mm in the
same gauge 849) flashings of 21 S.W. gauge
as the cladding sheet. Zinc sheet (to B.S.
minimum may be used, or alternatively lead sheet flashings (to B.S. 1178) of Code
No. 4 minimum weight. End-laps of 75 mm
are usually sufficient, although the open
lap end should face downwind from the prevailing wind.
General advice concerning the installation of all types of accessory is contained in
C.P. 143, Part 2. Specifications for steel gutters and other fittings are laid down in
B.S. 1091, which includes sizes, shapes and fixing methods.
Specifications regarding fixing accessories are laid down in B.S. 1494.
Numerous fastening methods are now available for attaching cladding sheets to
purlins and for securing side-laps. A selection of fastening systems is shown in Fig. 4.
8 mm diameter hook bolts and 6 mm diameter galvanised bolts are still commonly
used for fastening, respectively, sheets to purlins and side-laps. Other methods,
however, such as self-tapping screws, rivetting, drive screws, stud welding, bullet
studs and curtain wall studs are often used and are gaining favour.
Also gaining favour are plastic cappings to protect projecting bolt heads, and
plastic sealingwashers instead of the traditional felt type. Steel washers, usually
diamond shaped, are used in conjunction with sealing washers.
Bolt holes are usually drilled through the crest of a corrugation, but in some
instances, such as with bullet studs or curtain wall studs, trough fastening is used.

Loading
Code of Functional Requirements of Buildings, C.P. 3, Chapter V, ‘Loading’,
B.S.
contains basic loading data and gives guidance on loadings for various degrees of
building exposure, building height and roof slope. It is recommended that the Code
be studied carefully before the design of any budding is carried out.
In general, all roof sheeting should be designed to
resist the probable snow, wind,
maintenance trafficand other anticipated loads. However, special provisions such as
walktvays may avoid the necessity of designing for loads occurring during
maintenance.
Normally side wall cladding has only to resist moderate wind pressure or wind
suction. ChapterV indicates, however, that wind pressures on the walls of tail
buildings may be very high and indeed exceed the combined snow and wind loads
on roofs.
 686mm J26mm 76'2tnm crs. corrugations
cover r j-three thicknesses.

mmwm
686mm
-'
coyer "
,

I
corrugations.)
,

Issmi! pjijii
three thicknesses.
724mm 88mm
(i^fz corrugations)

iinninnHHBnuiiiuniMHBi
I I

J L I
.

UJJiLLUIIXJ
oo^^three
^omm thicknesses
724mm a

762mm ^three thicknesses

cover -^^corrugation )

450mm
for wall sheeting
only.

tbOmm -three thicknesses

typical layouts
and end laps
OF 76-2mm CORRUGATED STEEL SHEETING.
Seam Fastener. Purlin Fastener.
6mm dia. galvanised steel bolt. S mmdia. galvanised hook bolt
Placed at450 centres for sidelaps. Placed at37S centres max.

(dimensions in mm)

Seam Fastener. Purlin Fastener.

Self tapping screw. Drive screw.

Seam Fastener. Purlin Fastener.

Blind rivet. Galvanised bolt, movable hook.

Purlin Fastener. Purlin Fastener.

Stud welded bolt. SheetcHp.

Purlin Fastener. Purlin and insulation Fastener.

Pistol fired stud. Curtain wall stud.

SELECTION OF FASTENING METHODS.

Ftcr 4
900 STEEL SHEET ROOFING AND CLADDING
Design

2 gives guidance on the design and detailing of standard 76.2 mm

C.P. 143, Part
(B.S. 3083) cladding. The Code, moreover, states that any profile is permissible
which provides adequate strength for the particular loading conditions. It should be
borne in mind that the Code of Practice applies to steel claddings generally. Where
specific standards are available they should be used, e.g., B.S. 1754, Steel barns with
curved roofs, and B.S. 2053, General purpose farm buildings of framed construction.
Good design should not only ensure a sound weathertight and economical roof
but should also take into account the prevention of corrosion (see section on
‘Maintenance’).
C.P. 143, Part 2 includes recommendations regarding end and side-laps for sheets
and methods of fixing. Typical sheeting layouts are shown in Fig. 3. Method A is
customarily adopted.
Where long sheets
are employed it is possible to take advantage of continuity of
span. Table 5 refers to continuous spans, which should, in the case of simply
supported sheets, be reduced by 10 per cent.
The use of long sheets (spanning two or more purlins) results not only in
economies in material and elimination of end laps but speeds erection and simplifies
the layout of sheeting. Sheets are normally supplied in 150 increments of mm
length up to 7.620 m. Where transport can be arranged, however, longer sheets are
obtainable.
Standard 76.2 mm corrugated sheets may be designed either from first principles
or by reference to Table 5 which gives purlin spacings for 0.25 kN/m^ increments of
loading between 0.5 and 1 .5 kN per m^ Approximate section properties of sheeting
are shown Table 4. For estimating and design purposes the approximate weights
in
per square metre of 76.2 mm
and 127 mm
corrugated sheet are listed in Table 8.
C.P. 143, Part 2 indicates the maximum permissible stresses for the usual gauges
of B.S. 3083 sheeting (see footnotes to Table 5).
The maximum permissible deflection for B.S. 3083 sheeting isgiven in the Code
of Practice as the span 100. This is for profiled cladding sheet. Where built-up
weather-proofing layers and/or thermal insulation are to be attached to the profiled
sheet, a deflection limit of span 240 is considered adequate.
Where special profiles are to be designed, it is advisable to use the stress and
deflection limits quoted above.

Thermal Insulation
The cost of heating buildings is high, and the Ministry of Power has long fostered
the idea of economy through adequate thermal insulation.
A great variety of materials, ranging from the traditional fibreboard to modern
cellular plastics, can be used for insulating a steel cladding sheet which of itself has
little insulation value. The Ministry of Power’s Thermal Insulation (Industrial
Buildings) Act of 1957 lays down minimum U value requirements for the roofs of
industrial buildings. As a result, aminimum U value of 1.7 W/m^/h/°C has become a
standard insulation requirement for commercial buildings where people are working
in a heated environment. U values lower than this can readily be obtained, however.
Insulation material can be applied in one of three ways: (i) on the exterior

surface of the cladding sheet; this is the method commonly used in built-up cladding
 901

basic advantages, such as weather protection for the sheet,

systems and has certain
easy fastening and
the avoidance of condensation problems, (ii) Sandwiched between
sheet and support purlins, (iii) Attached to
the inside of the support
cladding
wall or ceiling surfaces are
purlins: of particular advantage where unbroken internal
desired.
Careful consideration must be given to the problem of cold bridging, which limits
the efficiency of an insulation system,
and to condensation which is best avoided
through careful design, the ventilation of potentially cold surfaces, and the use of
proper vapour barriers. Such barriers inhibit the movement of moist air through
insulation materials, most of which are porous, and therefore restrict
the flow of

moist air against cold surfaces.

Thermal insulation, however, is a specialised subject and guidance either from
experts or from the extensive technical literature on the subject should be sought.
Examples of typical U values of finished steel claddings;

TABLE 9
Component Materials
V Value
W/mVhrC
Corrugated steel sheet; 25 mm thick mineral wool pad; 6 mm asbestos
board backing 0.85

Corrugated steel sheet; 25 mm expanded polystyrene bonded on 1.00

Corrugated steel sheet; 150 mm thick compressed straw slab below
purlins 1.10

Built-up steel deck comprising; troughed steel sheet; 25 mm asbestos

fibre board; rubberised/bituminous weatlierproof felt. 1.10
1

Maintenance and Sheet Protection

The life of a galvanised sheet is dependent on the nature of the atmosphere to

which it is exposed. It is recognised that galvanised cladding sheets subjected to
urban or marine atmospheres deteriorate more quickly
than those inland rural areas
and require, therefore, paint treatment at regular
intervals.
Other types of steel claddings, such as those with
plastic or vitreous enamel
coatings or those with built-up weatherproof felting, need no such maintenance.
Galvanised sheets will last indefinitely if properly
maintained.
New galvanised sheets may be satisfactorily painted
straiglit away. Dirt and any
residual grease should first be
removed with white spirit, naphtha, etc., after which
calcium plumbate primer
should be applied. Either a further coat of primer and a
mi^ coat of alkyd gloss, can then be applied,
or simply one or two finishing coats
n y g OSS. A total paint thickness of about 25 mm
is desirable.
exceptionally corrosive atmospheres where paint manufacturers may
aHv-c
chlorinated rubber, epoxy, polyurethane, etc.,
cannot be used. A special ‘etch’
primer such as a phosphoric acid
wash ic
galvanised surface, after which normal paints
can be
primer must be thoroughly washed off first.
Caiv •

alternatively be erected and allowed to weather

chemica^bvTn active, until
y then painted. No special primers are
then necessary although
902 STEEL SHEET ROOFING AND CLADDING
piumbate primers are often used since thej' are hardly different in price from
standard chromate or red lead primers. It is essential, however, that before painting,
the sheets should be quite dry and completely free from dirt, oil, scale and other
grime.
The majority of paint failures are attributable to inadequate preparation and such
carelessness as painting damp sheets.
Careful cleaning and preparation particularly' appHes to old sheets where the zinc
coating has been consumed and rust has appeared. In areas of rust, cleaning (by sand
blasting, mechanical wire brushing, power hosing, etc.) down to the bare metal is
essential. Then a primer and two topcoats can be applied.
Paint manufacturers should generally be consulted, especially' when unusually'
corrosive atmospheres are likely' to be encountered.

British Standards

B.S. 476;Part 1 — Fire tests on building nmterials and structures.

: 1 953
B.S. 476:Part 2:1955 — Flammability test for thvi flexible materials {^vithdra^vii).
B.S. 476:Part 3:1958 — External fire exposure roof tests.
B.S. 476:Part 4:1970 - Non-combustibility test for materials.
B.S. 476:Part 5:1968 — Ignitability test for materials.
B.S. 476:Part 6:1968 — Fire propagation test for materials.
B.S. 849:1939 — Plain sheet zinc roofing.
B.S. 1091 1963 — Presses steel gutters, rainwater pipes, fittings and accessories.
:

B.S. 1178:1 969 — Milled lead sheet arid strip for building purposes.
B.S. 1449:Part IB: 1962 — Carbon steel sheet and coil, rolled by the continuous
process.
B.S. 1494:1964 — Par/ Fixing accessories for building purposes.
1

B.S. 1 754: 1 96 1 — Steel bams mth curved roofs.

B.S. 2053:1965 — General puipose farm buildings offramed construction.
B.S. 2989:1967 — Hot-dip galvanised plain steel sheet and coil.
B. S. 3083:1959 — Hot-dipped galvanised corrugated steel sheets for general purposes.

C. P. 3,Chapter V: 1952 — Code offunctional requirements of buildings: Loading.

C.P. 3, Chapter V:Part 1:1967 — Dead and imposed loads.
C.P. 3, Chapter V:Part 2:1970 — Wind Loads.
C.P. 143:Part 2:1961 — Sheet roof and wall coverings. Galvanised corrugated steel.
 36. STEEL WINDOWS AND PATENT GLAZING

Steel Windows

Three different types of steel windows commonly used are.

(1) Metal Casement

Windows and Casement Doors.
Industrial Buildings.
(2) Steel Windows for
(3) Agricultural Windows.

The windows described of the domestic variety, and,

in the first classification are

although they are used in the administrative blocks of industrial buildings, they
are
not considered here.
normally set in brickwork or masonry. Consequently, they are

The windows in the second, class are those which are used in the production blocks,
where they are frequently attached directly to steel frames.
boiler-houses, etc.,
Although the methods shown are by no means exhaustive, the diagrams in Fig. 1

demonstrate some of the methods of fixing the windows and show how the lead
flashings may be arranged.

Patent Glazing

General

The following information on Patent Glazing must be considered as of general

use and more specific information on individual systems must be obtained from the
manufacturer concerned.
While the sheets of glass used for patent glazing are frequently 600 mm
wide, the
spacing of the glazing bars may be varied according to design conditions and as glass
can be supplied in other widths it is a matter for the designer to adopt the most
suitable dimensions for any particular application.

Minimum Slopes

Orthodox patent glazing can be fixed with complete success at any slope between
the vertical and the
recommended minimum pitch of 20°. The lower limit is dictated
by two separate factors which are common to glass disposed at shallow
pitches:

(a) the tendency of condensation to collect more readily into large drops and
thus fall directly from the glass.
(b) in exposed positions rainwater sluggishly drained away on the outside surface
tends to be
blown under the top flashings.

903
 «< <

STEELWORK.

TO

FIXING

115
 MID-ROOF AND NORTH-LIGHT GLAZING 905

Shallower slopes of patent glazing are successfully installed under certain con-
ditions using special sealing techniques, but the advice of a patent glazier should be
sought before a pitch lower than 20° is decided upon.

Mid-Roof and North-Light Glazing

Methods of fixing mid-roof and north-light glazing are shown in Figs. 2 and 3.
906 STEEL ^VINDOWS AND PATENT GLAZING
The dimensions to specify are as follows:

Mid-roof Glazing North-light Glazing

Pitch Roof pitch on rafter back. Roof pitcli on rafter back.

A Back to back of purlin cleats. Back to back of purlin cleats.
B Hekht— lower purlin above rafter Height— lower purlin above rafter
back. back.
C Height— upper purlin abot'e rafter Height— upper purlin above rafter
back. back.
D Back of purlin cleat to lower fixing Back of purlin cleat to lower fixing
hole. hole.
E Back of purlin cleat to upper fixing Back of purlin cleat to upper fixing
hole. hole.
F Overhang required.
Run Total run of slazing between end Total run of glazing between end
rails. rails.

Height Height of glazing above ground level. Hei^t of glazing above ground level.

Ends of patent glazing runs may be finished in various ways, a typical example
being shown in Fig. 4. The spacing for the fixing bolts sliould not exceed 400 mm.

Vertical Patent Glazing

Recent years have seen an increasing emphasis on glazed wall construction, and
has achieved popularity in meeting this demand. Tj'pical methods
vertical glazing
of fixing vertical glazing are shown in Fig. 5.

Patent Double Glazing

The modem need for fuel economy has increased the demand for double glazing
owing to its greater thermal insulating qualities and a number of proprietary sj'stems
are available. The use of patent double glazing reduces heat losses by approximately
50 per cent as compared with single glazing.
Condensation is where
also eliminated or reduced, thereby offering advantages
falling droplets could be a nuisance or could cause corrosion or spoilation of stock
or equipment.
 TYPICAL DETAILS FOR VERTICAL GLAZING

.Sheet/ng

"^Lead
I
Flashing

ini

25 2S)^
\
lOmm Dia Holes
lin
Glazing
-4c Glazing Bar
/

l!ll

Windguard \ /0mm Dfa Ho/zs

12mm Did
Timber Holes /
/
1

-Draught /
Excluder
/ ^ //
^•^.1
Alternative i

Flashing

Details of Drilling in
Rails for Fixing Glazing
Bars,

Fi
908 STEEL WINDOWS AND PATENT GLAZING
Weight per Square Metre
Patent glazing is wei^t at 30 kg/m^ for the lead-clothed bar
usually reckoned in
system. This figure is of the weight of of 6
inclusive mm
thick glass and envisages
the bars being spaced at approximately 600 centres.mm
Ventilation

Ventilation, either controllable or permanent, is often required in patent glazing,

and, in the former type, the ‘top hung’ method has become general. Most makers
are prepared to supply ventilators either in separate units or continuous ranges.
They can be constructed in steel, galvanised or lead covered.
Since these ventilators are situated in remote positions, mechanical opening gear
is frequently necessary to operate them and a variety of methods, manually,
electrically or hydraulically controlled, is available.
Details of construction both for the ventilators and the operating gear differ
considerably, and early consultation with the makers is recommended to ensure
that satisfactory preparations are made for fixing them.

SECr/ON x-x

Fig. 6
 WALKWAYS 909

Walkways
recommends that walkways
The Code of Practice, C.P. 145, for patent glazing,
glazing bars, but difficulties often arise in attach-
should not be attached to ordinary
ing them to, or through, other
forms of roof covering. An illustration is given in
Fig. 6 which shows a method
by which both these objections are avoided.
consists of introducing ‘T’-bearers fixed direct to the purlins
between pairs
This
loads are not imposed on the bars.
of closely spaced glazing bars, so that additional
cranked to form a
The bearers extend beyond the lower edge of the glazing and are
horizontal cantilever support for the walkway. To simplify the design
of purlins
to be fixed
and to minimise the number of bearers required, the latter are intended
immediately over the roof trusses.
The major dimensions have been interpreted in accordance with the Factories
Act and Building Regulations. It should, however, be borne in mind that such walk-
ways are intended as working platforms only, and not as gangways for the passage
or stacking of materials which would, under the Building Regulations, necessitate
heavier and wider construction.

Glass

The varieties of glass which are used in patent glazing are:

() 6 mm wired cast (hexagon mesh);

() 6 mm Georgian wired cast (square mesh);
(c) rough cast;
(d) clear plate;
(e) heat-absorbing glass;
if) the heavier types of sheet glass;

(g) 6 mm diamond wired;

Qi) toughened cast, plate and sheet;
O’) toughened heat absorbing;
(k) toughened coloured cast and plate;
(0 laminated.

It may
perhaps be mentioned here that wire-reinforced glass has achieved con-
siderable popularity because of its ability to delay the spread of fire
and the
additional safety factor which it confers. This is not, as is sometimes supposed, due
to any greater resistance to breakage but rather to the effect of the wire mesh
in
restraining the glass
from falling after it has once been broken. Glazing bars are
usually spaced about 600 mm
from centre to centre and, although wider spacing is
occasionally employed, it should only be specified
with due caution and recognition
given to the increased difficulties
of obtaining and handling the wider squares of
glass involved.
Glazing bars should not normally exceed 3 m
in length. Here, again,
convenience of handling the glass is one of the
criteria, but it is also important to
remember that the cost of glass replacements in
these sizes is proportionately high.

Lead Flashings

Lead flashings are a necessary adjunct

to patent glazing and generally 20 kg/m^
exposed situations the weight should be increased to
24 kX^®*
 37. WALLS

General
features of external brick walls, curtain waUing and
THIS chapter describes the basic
precast concrete facing panels. In
addition, the basic rules for the determination of
single-storey buildings and typical fixing details for
\raU thicknesses are set out for
facing panels are given. Mention is also
both curtain walling and precast concrete
to the steel designer
made of other aspects of wall construction which are of interest
resistance and jointing.
such as clearances, dimensional tolerances, fire

Design of External Brick Walls for Single Storey

Buildings

Introduction

The necessary thickness of brick walls can be determined by one of two methods:

(a) The thickness of the wall can be related to the height and length of the wall,
(b) The thickness can be determined in relation to the load to be carried by the
wall in conjunction with certain specified permissible stresses.

Method (a) is dealt with in the relevant clauses of the Ministry of Housing and
Local Government, Series IV, ‘Model Byelaws’, ‘Buildings’ (1953).
Method (b) is dealt with in C.P. 1 1 1 :1970, ‘Structural Recommendations for
Loadbearing Walls’, Part 2. Metric Units.

Design

The following example is based upon two typical methods of construction for
single-storey sheds (for details of the buildings see Figs. 1—3 inch):

(1) Portal frame construction where the side wall brickwork is non-loadbearing,
but the gable end waU supports the purlins.
(2) Roof truss construction where the side wall brickwork supports the roof
tmss and the gable end wall the purlins.

The design is carried out in both cases by Method (a). However, where large point
loads can occur, as in the case of roof truss construction, the stability of the
supporting wall should be checked against Method
(6).
The relevant points relating to the design of such
single-storey buildings are
summarised below.
The height of the wall shall be measured
from the base to the highest part of the
w or in the case of a storey comprising of a
,
gable, to half the gable height. Hence
the mean height of the
gable is;

6.0 m ^^=8.25 m.
-I-

911
912

WALLS

4'Sm
914 WALLS
All measurements for the length of walls shall be made from the centre of the
return walls, piers or buttresses.

Definition of Pier or Buttress

Piers and buttresses have dimensions (1) not less in thickness (to include the
shall

thickness of the wall) of 3 x wall thickness, (2) not less in breadth than \ x wail
thickness, (3) can be of height extending upwards from the base to within a distance
from the top of the wall equal to 3 x wall thickness. (Fig. 4.)

<t/2

^St
2

^l2

////A.
MINIMUM DIMENSIONS FOR PIERS AND BUTTRESSES.
Fig. 4

Numerical Example. The thickness of any wall of a building of the warehouse

class shallnot be less than 1/14 of the height {H). However, for buildings of only
one storey, the thickness may be taken as 225 mm with suitable reinforcing walls of
thickness /f/ 14. The reinforcing walls shall have an aggregate length of 1/4 of the
total wall length. For practical purposes, all wall thickness measurements are taken
to the nearest half brick size.
For the side wall in the example:

m = 450 mm
Height _ 6.0
“14
H"
Length _ 4.5 m
= 25 mm 1 1
4 ~T~
Hence, 450 mm walls are placed at 4.5 m centres; are of length 1 125 mm and have
225 mm walls between them, as shown in Figs. and 2. 1

For the gable end walls:

Height _ 8.25 m = 675 mm

~T^~~T4“
Length _ 22.5
4
~m 625 mm spread over 4 reinforcing walls.
Therefore, the length of the reinforcing wall = 1 462.5 mm is 675 mm
thick, spaced
at 4.5 m centres with 225 mm walls between. These reinforcing walls fall inside the
category of a pier and can be stopped short in height a distance of 3 x wall thickness
from the top of the building, i.e., 3 x 225 rmn = 675 mm.
 CURTAIN WALUNG 915

Cavity Walls

Cavity walls have a

thickness equivalent to the sum of the two leaves as shown in
less than 50 mm and no more than 75 mm. Ties
Fie 4 The cavity itself shall not be
be placed at 900 mm horizontal and 450 mm vertical centres.
should

Curtain Walling

Curtain walling in its broadest sense, is any form of walling which is non-load-
bearint', and recent years have
seen considerable developments in this field. There

has been an increasing tendency to replace brick and stone walls by thin sheet

materials in large panels or by liglitweight frameworks with various forms of

infilhng. The main function of any form of walling is
protection against the weather.
In addition to providing this, curtain walling also affords rapid erection, fixing from
the inside of the building, a saving in foundation loads, increased floor areas and
good insulating properties.

Requirements

Ideally, curtain walling should be durable, weatherproof, simple to attach to

steelwork or to a floor, attractive in appearance, self-cleaning, easily removable,
easily maintained and have sufficient strength to withstand wind pressure.
There are many types on the market which possess some or all these requirements.
The panel frames are made of steel, aluminium, or timber, but the infilling includes
materials such as thin stone, asbestos cement, porcelain enamelled steel, aluminium
sheet, stove enamelled glass, timber, plastic sheet, P.V.C. coated steel and various
forms of sandwich construction.

Jointing

Joints must be completely waterproof and yet allow for thermal and structural
movement which can be as much as 25 mm
in 45 m: allowance should also be made
for the building tolerances. Obviously the larger the panels,
the less the number of
joints required, but fabrication and erection problems then occur. Broadly speaking,
there are three different ways of sealing joints:

1 . Rubber or plastic strips.

2. Clamping or interlocking connections.
3. Plastic jointing compounds.

EXTERNAL FACE
OF PANEL
916 WALLS
A good example of simple interlocking design is shown in Fig. 5.
AH manufacturers have devised their own method of jointing, but these are too
numerous to list.

Insulation

The which is frequently employed, embodies a separation

‘semi-curtain wall’
between the outer skin and the thermal insulation behind it. The insulating backing
is generally built up from hollow blocks, clinker blocks or cellular concrete. This

type of wall must also be provided with a ventilated air cavity and a vapour barrier
to prevent internal condensation. With the ‘integral curtain wall’ on the other hand,
all these items are incorporated in a single prefabricated composite unit.

Fixing to the Framework

The fastening devices must secure the panels rigidly, even if the structure
undergoes deformation due to temperature variations. Moreover, they should be
corrosion resistant and as far as possible fireproof. Scaffolding should be kept to a
minimum and hence internal fastenings are to be preferred. As there are tolerances
in the manufacture of the cladding units and in the structure as a whole, fixing
devices must be capable of masking and compensating for dimensional discrepancies.

Fire Resistance

Fire protection requirements vary considerably with the location, sizeand use of
the building, but most regulations call for a minimum hour for the
rating of 1

external walls of buildings. Most curtain wall systems have a low fire resistance and
this has resulted in the widespread adoption of a back-up wall behind the cladding
Fig. 6. The point to remember in design is to prevent flames which are escaping out
of a window from spreading to the floor above.

Precast Concrete Panels

Introduction

Concrete facing panels can be an attractive and economical means of cladding

many different types of multi-storey structure. They have been widely specified in
recent years in the construction of blocks of flats, offices and school buildings.
Although they form an integral part of a number of proprietar>' building systems,
large quantities are also purpose made. Concrete facing slabs are also used as infilling
panels below windows and as an external cover to brickwork, lightweight blocks
and in situ concrete: such applications, however, are not widespread.

Surface Finish

As both concrete and aggregate can be obtained in different colours, many

varieties of finish are possible. Variations in texture depend on the size of aggregate
 917

TYPICAL CURTAIN WALLING INSTALLATION.

Fig. 6
Bin

SEALANT. I

\l<*Z*t*l*t*l*l‘\

/. OPEN JOINT

-SPRING CLIP.

SEALANT.

2. COVER STRIP JOINT.

NEOPRENE
EVACUATED
SEAL.

3. CAP -FILLED JOINT. {SEE ALSO PAGE

COMPRESSION SEAL.
>
/
STEEL CONNECTING
/ PLATE.
''45 '
'US'
li
li
1 r 1

1
H 1
i|
M
1

4. LAPPED JOINT.

TYPICAL VERTICAL JOINTS

FOR PRE-CAST CONCRETE PANELS,
 9

PRECAST CONCRETE PANELS 91

d (which can
range from 6 mm
to 50 mm)
and on the final treatment given to
slabs. For example, by grinding with carborundum, a smooth face is
the face of the
texture is possible if, before hardening, the surface of the
btained and a medium
^ncrete is sprayed
with water. Various patterns may be obtained by profiling the
treatment to the joints.
slabs and/or applying a special

Maximum Sizes and Tolerances

Panels should not weigh more than 55 kg unless mechanical lifting aids are
available. When framed
slabs are used, the thickness of the material between the

stiffening ribs should

not be less than 50 mm: Unless special precautions are taken,
inaccuracies are likely to occur in
length, out of squareness, lack of straightness,

twisting and flatness. For slabs

of reasonable proportions (up to 3 m
in length) a

minimum tolerance of 5 mm
should be allowed in each of these cases. Reinforcing
bars or wire mesh is generally
used in the slab as a safety precaution against fracture.

Jointing

Where large precast panels are used, there are four types of vertical joint in
common use:

1. Open drained joints.

2. Joints sealed over by cover strips.
3. Gap filled joints.

4. Lapped joints.

A great deal of importance should be attached to the choice of a suitable joint. Not
only has it and wind, but it must provide
to resist rain a degree of insulation
equivalent to the panels themselves. Examples of such vertical joints are shown in
Fig. 7.

Horizontal rebated joints are generally adopted for both light and heavy forms
of construction. Free drainage must always be maintained and special attention is
necessary to avoid capillary action.

Fixing

There are numerous methods of fixing precast concrete panels to the framework.
The fixing device must allow for a certain amount of movement, without
impairing
the efficiency of the joint. Two
good examples are shown in Fig. 8.
 38 USE OF COMPUTERS IN STRUCTURAL
DESIGN

Introduction
introduced into the Manual in 1966, the use of
SINCE this chapter was first
computers in structural design has developed to a stage when few engineers have not

had occasion to use one or other of the many services available. The general
information which follows may, however, enable a better appreciation to be made
of the advantages to be
gained by the proper use of the merits of computers.
Mechanical methods of solving arithmetical problems are not new. Even the use
of the fingers for counting can be considered a mechanical method. The development
of the use of electronics, however, of comparatively recent date and has
is

progressed rapidly as the advantages of speedy calculations became apparent.

In the design of structural steelwork, the most common tool in the past has, of

course, been the slide rule. If at the outset the computer is considered as an

electronic slide rule, much more powerful, speedy and accurate, its advantages will
immediately become apparent.
There are two main forms of electronic computer with different basic
characteristics:

(a) Analogue computer.

(b) Digital computer.

Whilst in both cases the source of power is electricity, the analogue computer is

used to solve one problem at a time based on the problem being simulated by
varying voltages, whereas the digital computer works by a series of electrical
impulses of constant magnitude.
Several kinds of digital computer are made, some of these being suitable for
commercial purposes and others for scientific and technical problems and this
chapter will be concerned with the latter type of machine.

Digital Computers
Once it isappreciated that numbers can be represented by a sequence of digits,
the simple mechanics of an electrical device to represent such numbers can easily be
understood.
All numbers can be shown in binary form consisting of ones and zeros. The
binary table can be written as follows

Number Binary Equivalent

1 0000001
2 0000010
3 0000011
4 0000100
5 0000101
6 0000110

921
 .

922 USE OF COMPUTERS IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN

7 0000111
8 0001000
9 0001001
10 0001010
11 0001011
12 0001100
13 0001101
14 0001110
15 0001111
16 0010000

32 0100000

64 1000000

etc. etc.

Hence the number 57 for instance can be represented in binary by the figure
0111001 made up of:

32 0100000
16 0010000
8 0001000
1 0000001

57 0111001

Once it has been appreciated that the figure one or the zero can be represented
by an electrical switch, i.e. the switch ‘on’ meaning figure 1 and the switch ‘off
meaning zero, the recording of a binary number electronically by a series of
switches becomes very simple.
The arithmetical rules of adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing can be
applied to binary numbers as weU as to ordinary numbers, particularly when it is
concerned with addition
realised that these arithmetical functions are all basically
and subtraction. Thus multiplication can be replaced by the successive additions of
the same number to itself, and division by a similar succession of subtractions.
Regarding the number 57 used in the previous example; the multiplication of
this by 3 in binary digits can be represented by the following sum:

0111001
+ 0111001
+ 0111001

= 10101011

which of course, the binary equivalent of 1 71

is,

Considering again the electrical switches which are either ‘on’ or ‘off, the simple
multiplication just shown can be represented electronically by the flow of current
instead of physically by writing, printing, etc.
In order that simple calculations of the type just illustrated can be carried out, it
is obvious that there must be some method of instructing the machine. This is
 DIGITAL COMPUTERS 923

programming and consists of writing down a sequence of arithmetical

as
necessary instructions to carry out the operations in the correct
operations with the

°^^Some means must

be devised for conveying these instructions and the data with
the particular problem
to the computer, and this can be done by preparing
esoect to
ehher punched
paper tape, punched cards, or a magnetic tape, whichever is
opriate for the particular
computer being used. In a similar manner the results
when they have been carried out by the machine must be
of the instructions
recorded or conveyed
to the user.
computer, or ‘hardware’ as it is normally called, consists
The basic equipment of a
storage unit, an arithmetical unit and an output device, the
of an input device, a
diagrammatic layout being shown in the
sketch. Fig. 1

STO K&dE •iMTHMtTIC

INPUT
UNIT
4 UNIT

OUTPUT

Fig. I

The function of the input and output devices has already been referred to, the
from the ‘software’, i.e. the punched tape or other
former reads the instructions
medium, by means of an electronic eye, and the latter performs a similar function
produces punched tape, cards, etc., giving the answers.
in reverse, i.e.

The second and perhaps the most important part of the ‘hardware’ is the storage
unit. This is designed to accept and retain binary
numbers representing instructions
or figures in specific locations from
which they can be withdrawn as required. The
storage unit of a computer is governed
by its size, and this, in turn, governs the
magnitude of the operation which can be successfully and rapidly carried out.
The final item in the hardware is the arithmetical unit in which the actual
ralculations areperformed. This arithmetical unit has facilities for withdrawing
romthe storage unit the numbers it requires,
performing aritlimetical operations on
these numbers and
accumulating the results until the completion of the operations,
when the product can be
transferred back into the storage unit or delivered via the
output unit as an answer
depending upon the instruction given.

Uses of a Computer

which the digital computer can be employed with

advantage as a
mechanical calculator viz.:
924 USE OF COJȣPUTERS IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN
(a) Solution of a series of simple aritlimetical expressions.
(b) Solution of repetitive matliematical arguments.
(c) Solution of a multiplicity of simultaneous equations.

In considering these, two points should be borne in mind:

(i) Few people have constant access to a computer without the necessity of
resening time or mthout invoMng travel.
(ii) Being a costly precision instrument the use of a computer is expensive.

Because of tlrese factors the carrying out of simple calculations at random is

generally uneconomic. Nevertlieless, it is useful to examine all three uses outlined
above.

(a) Solution of an Arithmetical Expression

amount of time is often spent in working out
In structural design, an appreciable
by a of simple calculations tire loads to be carried by tire different components
series
of a structure and in selecting suitable sizes for tlrese. For example, the follov.ing
t\q)e of calculation is frequently met with in beam design:

Beam 21. SpanS.Om.

Loading
Dead load from floor = S x 4 x 3.75 kN/m' = 120 kN
Live load from floor =8x4 x 5.0 kN/m* = 160 kN
Wall load = S x 3.5 x 4.5 kN/m* = 1 26kN
Weiglrt of beam, etc. =8 x5.0 kN/m = 40 kN

Total = 446 kN

B.M. at
rv/
: = 446 X
10"’ Nx8x 10^ mm = 446 X 10 Nmm
o

Z requuedj m Grade
-T- - /" j-
4 j>
1
steel —
= 446x10®
16 ^ Ayinin*
— = 2.
Nmm / x 10 mm 3
= 2 /OO cm^
Use 533 X 210 X 122 kg UB
These calculations are usuall}' carried out by a slide rule or desk calculator but
there is no difficult}^ in programnring a computer to perform them both quickly and

accuratelj^ The oirly problem, apart from tire two points already made, is in
presenting the necessary' data. By the time that tiris Iras been recorded for input into
the computer the answer can frequently have been found with sufircient accuracy
for aU practical purposes.
With the development of desk-top computers it has become possible to carr\’ out
this tjqre of calculation b\' machine much more economically. Reference will be
made to such, machines later in the chapter.
One furtlrer observation can be made regarding this lyps of calculation, namely
that should there be a number of governing factors controlling the selection of the
size of the beam — such as limiting deptir, deflection, etc. — tire computer is able to
assess these factors and make the final selection.
 COMPUTER PROGRAMMES 925

of Mathematical
Arguments
(b) Solution
often necessary to calculate a series of values for a particular
it is
In engineering,
notion- this
occurs frequently in the design of steel structures. For instance, the
f
loads which can safely be
carried by a rivet or weld group form an excellent
eccentric

^^^^ovided that the problem can

be expressed as a logical mathematical function,

the computer can

be instructed to work out a whole series of values very swiftly,
directives can also be made to print out the results in tabular
and by the correct
issued direct to the user.
form so that they can be

(c) Solution of Simultaneous Equations

Many problems such as the analysis of rigid frame structures require
structural

the solution of numerous simultaneous equations for an accurate answer. Though

the evaluating of these can
be done by hand, the more complex the problem, the
more laborious this becomes.
Because of this time-consuming labour, approximate methods of analysis such as
moment distribution were developed, though with many problems even these prove
to be both lengthy and tedious.

Now by the use of matrix algebra the solution of simultaneous equations becomes
simply a successive series of arithmetical operations — eminently suitable for a digital
computer - and hence accurate analysis becomes as easy to apply as the approximate
methods.

Computer Programmes

been made to the necessity of computer programming. Too

Reference has already
much consideration cannot be given to this aspect of the subject since the machine
can only perform those operations which it is instructed to do and cannot itself
correct errors orotherwise develop routines without a programme.
Numerous programmes suitable for use on one or other computer have already
been written on various aspects of structural engineering both for analysis and for
design. These programmes are owned or administered by organisations wliich can
be divided into a number of groups, viz.:

(a) and other Public Bodies.

Universities, Colleges
(b) Computer Services.
(c) Private Companies.
(d) Government sponsored bodies such as the National Computing Centre,
Genesys Centre, etc.

and each of these function

in a different manner.

(a) Programmes owned by University Departments, etc.

These generally comprise
programmes written in the course of studies carried out
y research students and members of the staff. These cover a wide range of subjects
interest for the designer. They are, however, usually made
ui
parties without charge other than for computer time,
it can be noted that the original programme for the analysis of
rigid f
written as a subject of research though this has been developed since
hv tv,
many people in slightly different
ways.
926 USE OF COMPUTERS IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN
(b) Computer Services
Most of the larger manufacturers of computers maintain some form of computer
service as a means of encouraging the use of their products. These services are
usually organised from some central establishment where suitable equipment is
available for both the preparation of the input tapes or cards, the computer itself
and finally the print-out of the results.
These computer services maintain a library of standard programmes either
written for them or prepared by their own staff and since the actual work in running
these is done by non-technical operatives a very detailed specification as to the
manner of presenting the data and interpreting the answers is usually available for
each.
Full details of the available programmes and other facilities can be obtained on
application to the makers concerned.

(c) Private Programmes

A number of private companies and consulting engineers who have found the use
of computers advantageous have had personnel trained to produce computer
programmes to suit their needs. These are not usually made available to others
though the engineers concerned are frequently prepared to discuss them with other
interested parties.
The most efficient use of the computer is achieved by the preparation of
programmes designed to suit particular problems.

(d) Government sponsored organisations

The National Computing Centre was established to serve as a central organisation
for the dissimilation of informationon both computers and programmes whilst the
Genesys Centre is concerned with the development of a general system of
programmes for various applications of computers to civil and structural engineering.
More details of these two centres are given later in this chapter.

Computers for Structural Design

As already mentioned, not all computers are considered suitable for technical
calculations,some being mainly for commercial application. However, there are
several machines which can be used with advantage for this purpose.
The cost of using computers is frequently based on an hourly rate for the time
which the machine itself is engaged on a problem. This rate can vary from £1 0.00
per hour for the smaller machines to as much as £250.00 per hour for the larger,
and the fee generally includes for ancillary work away from the machine which
usually takes far longer. It does not, however, include for the cost of preparing
programmes.
Apart from the Universities and Colleges, a number of private companies and
national bodies who own computers are willing to rent time on their machines and
hence there should be facilities available within easy reach of most design offices.

Preparation of Programme
The preparation of a computer programme for a particular item of structural
analysis involves three main stages;
 PREPARATION OF PROGRAMME 927

fa)
Engineering the problem.
to a logical mathematical exposition.
(h) Reducing it

instructions.
(c) Translating this to macliine

From tliis it would appear that the ideal team would consist of an Engineer, a
Matliematician and a Programmer. This is not the case, however, since the numerical
strength of the
team multiplies the possibility of errors and also makes it more
difficult to trace these.

It
been proved that the ideal way to produce a programme is for the
has already
engineer liimself to
perform all three of the operations, and since he must already
a knowledge of
mathematics it then only becomes necessary for him to learn
have
programming.
The most economic way in wliich to programme problems is in machine code.
This necessitates a
knowledge of the particular computer wliich is to be used since
the machine code
varies with different makes and sizes of machine and therefore

has limited use unless it is

known for certain that such a macliine will always be
available.

Again, to learn a machine code requires far more study of a computer than most
engineers have the time for, and as a result, simplified programme languages have

been devised which can be more quickly assimilated and applied.

These simplified languages were originally written for particular machines and
were not interchangeable. This again presents problems if different machines are
available and so in many instances the manufacturers have themselves produced

special programmes which enable their machines to translate other people’s

simplified coding and act upon it.

Simplified codes are frequently referred to as Autocode and there are Autocode
languages for many different makes of machine. These vary in many respects and so
it becomes desirable to adopt a particular Autocode which is suitable to the machine

most likely to be available.

One of the larger firms producing computers has produced a language which
they call ‘Fortran’ (or Formulae Translation) and again this is written so that with
minor variations it can be used for any of their machines provided the necessary
translation is first fed into the computer.
It is appreciated that considerable advantage can ensue from the adoption of a
universal simplified language and attempts to achieve this have been made, this
particular language being known as ‘Algol’, unfortunately with little success to date.

In order fully to understand the special

codings referred to, it is necessary to
study these insome detail. Fortunately courses are run at frequent intervals by the
computer services, and others, which occupy very little time and sufficient
knowledge can be acquired to write
a simple programme without errors.
Earlier it was stated that the preparation of a computer programme required
three stages and so far only the last stage has been considered. The first and second
staps, however, do not generally require any knowledge of the computer but mainly
a c ear
understanding of the engineering of the problem and the ability to reduce
s into a logical sequence of mathematical steps.

Existing Computer Programmes

As previously stated,
programmes exist and are available for use on a variety of
aspectsof structural
engineering, including:
928 USE OF COMPUTERS IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN
(a) Analysis of rigid plane frames.
(b) Influence lines for continuous bridges.
(c) Suspension cables.
(d) Floor grillages,
etc., etc.

Of these, the programme for the analysis of rigid frames is probably the most
widely known and most of the computer services offer it in one form or another.
This programme is based on the slope-deflection method of analysis, since the
facilityof solving simultaneous equations by means of matrices and using a
computer has removed the time-consuming drudgery from the use of this old-
established method.
In order to understand and accept the accuracy of the computer programme it is

useful to examine briefly its derivation.

Analysis of Rigid Frames by Computer

Figure 2 shows an inclined member 1.2 subjected to three unit displacements:

(a) Unit axial displacement;

(b) Unit transverse displacement;
(c) Unit rotation;

and the forces and moments necessary to maintain the member in its displaced
condition.
It will be appreciated that a proper sign convention must be adopted at the outset.
This is indicated on the diagram and is:

Horizontal displacement to the right positive.

Vertical displacement upwards positive.
Counterclockwise rotation positive.

The same sign convention is also used for forces and moments.
The member 1.2 is inclined at an angle a to the horizontal and, by geometry, the
displacement shown can be resolved into the axes X and Y using the properties of
the angle. This is illustrated and it can be seen that the unit displacement of end 1

in both the X and Y axes due to the axial and lateral displacement given can be
written.

Unit displacement X = cos a x axial displacement

— a X lateral displacement.
sin
Unit displacement T= a x axial displacement
sin
+ cos a X lateral displacement.

The reason for the introduction of the negative sign can be followed by referring
to the figures including the modified slope-deflection diagrams. Hence the adjusted
displacements are:

(al) Unit displacement A,

(bl) Unit displacement Y,
(cl) Unit rotation 0,
 929

(t.)
(7)
I’:.)

SLOPE - DEFLECT/ON DIAGRAMS.

''h

Fig. 2
 ——

930 USE OF COMPUTERS IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN

together with the forces and moments which produce these. The diagram (cl) is, of
course, a repeat of the original rotation diagram since rotation alone does not cause
any translation of ends 1 and 2.

In the diagrams the forces and moments are shown as products of the properties
of the member, i.e.;

E = Young’s modulus of elasticity,

A = Area of cross-section,
/ = Moment of inertia of section in plane of bending,
L= Length of member,

and from this it can be seen that the theory can apply to a structure built up of any
shape of member, and is not limited to any particular structural shapes or indeed to
any particular material. It is essential, however, to use members of constant section
between joints and the theory given does not apply to sections having a variable
moment of inertia.
The following symbols are used:

Fx = Force in X direction.
Fy = Force in Y direction.
Af = Bending moment.
X = Displacement in direction. X
y = Displacement in Y direction.
6 = Angular rotation.

In order to distinguish between ends 1 and 2 these are indicated as suffixes. For
each member, six equations can be written, three for end 1 and three for end 2.
These equations contain six unknowns, i.e. the displacement in the and Y axis and X
the rotations at each end.
The equations are as follows:

Slope-deflection Equations for Members 1.2

For end 1.

_ /EA , \2EI . „ \ /EA \2EI\, .

Fxi= I cos- ,
sin- a IjTi-f-
,
1
l(sin a cos a)yi

-I- 1 — sin « 101 -1- 1 —27^°^ *

U~
+ , /
(
-—
EA\2EI\,
+-^ I (sin
.
^
a cos a)y 2 -l- . (
(
—6EI sinajOj
\„ .

_
F>i=
(EA
1
\2EI\,
jj- l(sin a cos
. .
,
(EA
1 — sin®
. , \2EI ,
\
cos® a jyi

+ I cos a 101 -f I
—27^ “ cos a.)x 2

EA 12EI (6EI
^(
+ —
27®*'^' “““27' cos
1
. , , \
“)>'2+
,

I
cos a 102

( 6EI .
\
, (6EI \
1
“77 sin «.\Xi+ [77COsajyi+j ,

1
( L )

_^(6EI ^( 6El (2E1\„

+ (TJS'o “ j^2+ ( “77 cos a jy^+ (77)^2
.
\ \ ,
 A

ANALYSIS OF RIGID FRAMES BY COMPUTER 931

For end 2.

/ EA
cos^ a-
L"
sm'"
\
a jxi+ , (
I —EA27 +^T“
\2EI\, ,
. .
“ cos a)/i

(^'sin«)9.+
(
—
EA , ^12£:/
cos- a-1 —sin * a j:c2
2^
(j^cos al/aH- ajflj

Fj,= (-^+^||^)(sin a cos a)xi+

^
- ^ sin= cc-^^ cos" a jji

+
/
I
—6£/
^cos a 101+
^(EA (

-^
—nEI\
jj- j (sin a cos a.)xz

+ (—
(EA .

sin-
„ 12£/
a+-^cos-,
\ ^(
a jjs-f-
„
( —6EI U
jtCOS ajOz

w { — sin ccjxi+
M.= jj
/
\ 6EI . ,
(6EI
I cos a \ ji+
j
^(lEI\f.
I
— j
0i

/6£/ \ 1
'
6EI \ ,
(4£/\
+ .
-Tjcos ajy.+ l
L
1 )

Certain constants can be identified from these equations and labelled Kl,
etc.:

Constants for Stiffness Matrices

EA 12£/ 6 £/
-j- cos-
,
a+-2^ sin- a=
.

j -j~ sin
.

a= A^

(EA \1E[\, „ 6£/

jT'jvSin acos a) = A2
l-2j-
— . ,
L"-
cos a=:As

— sin- °^+~^ cos- a= As

2El
= £s

These constants are related to the properties of the members of the frame and
the slope of these members relative to the horizontal. Hence for a given frame they
can be calculated without regard to the externally applied loading, and the six
equations for the member 1.2 rewritten in a simpler form, thus:

Modified Equations

Fxi - Ai(xi — xf) + A2(yi — yf) — 1

+ 62)
Fyi = Ki(xi - xf) + AaO'i - T2) + As(0 + 62) ,

Ml = K^{x 2 - Xi) + AsO'i - 72) + Ke{ 2 d + 62) 1

Fx 2 = Ai(x 2 - xi) + K2{y 2 - Ti) - K^id + 62 ) 1

Fyi = A2(x 2 - Xi) + A 3(;'2 - 7 i) - Ks{d 1+62)

M2 = A4(x 2 - Xi) + AsOi - ;V2) + Ke{ 0 1+262)

rom the member details provided

by the designer, the constants Kl, etc., are
cu ated by the
computer and stored for use later as required. These constants
orm t e stiffness
matrices of the members and are used for the distribution of the
apphed loads and
moments.
932 USE OF COMPUTERS IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN
It is now necessary to consider the joints in the frame and the conditions under
which these will remain in equilibrium.
Figure 3 shows a joint 1 in part of a rigid frame.
The three members meeting at this joint are:

1.2
1.3
1.4

and for each member, equations can be obtained as already shown for Fx, Fy and
M. Since, however, the remote ends of the members will form other joints in the

2 .

/Assumed dire-ciion of me.m6e.rs

: 4 . Je/nt /.

Fig. 3

frame, it is 1 and 2
necessary to give an indication as to the interpretation of ends
in the stiffness matrices. An
arrow is, therefore, given on each member as shown.
Hence for the member between:

joints 1 and 2, end 1 occurs at joint 1 and end 2 at joint 2.

joints 1 and 3, end 1 occurs at joint 3 and end 2 at joint 1.

joints 1 and 4, end 1 occurs at joint 1 and end 2 at joint 4.

The equations for allmembers meeting at joint 1 must be assembled using the
right stiffness matrices having regard to the directions of the members, and these
must be equated to the external loads and moments. Then the equations are solved
by means of matrix algebra to give first the displacements of all joints in the frame
and secondly the distribution of the forces and moments.
The information given by the computer from this programme consists of:

(a) Displacements and rotations of all joints;

(b) Shears, thrusts and moments on all members;
 DESK-TOP COMPUTERS 933

to provide a complete picture of the behaviour of the

frame
and this is sufficient

under the given loading.

Desk-Top Computers

There are a number of desk-top computers now

available, which can bring the
within easy reach of the designer. They are generally
merits of simple computing
such, but in addition
advanced electric calculating machines and can be used as
include memory registers which can retain either instructions or numerical data to be
when required by means of a simple programme.
called into use
The extent of the memory store and thereby the scope when used as a computer,
depends on the price of the macliine, but a number costing around £3,000 have a
sufficient capacity to deal with many routine design problems in structural
engineering.
The programming technique for this kind of computer is relatively simple and can
be quickly mastered by the designer. The suppliers frequently organise courses to
which personnel can be sent to obtain programming instruction. Usually the
arrangement of these courses is an ‘after-sales’ service provided free of charge by the
suppliers.

Typical items met in structural steelwork design which can be programmed on

desk-top computers are;—

(a) Properties of structural shapes.

(b) Bending moment, shear force and deflection calculations.
(c) Safe loads on varying spans.
(d) Calculations for rolling loads
etc,, etc.

Since programmes can normally be recorded on magnetic tape, cards or in some

other manner, the use of these computers for routine calculations where there are a
limited number of cases becomes a viable proposition, since it is only necessary to
feed in the correct programme — a second or so — and the machine is ready.

National Computing Centre

The N.C.C. was established by the Government to promote the more effective
use ofcomputers in every field of national or commercial activity.
This is covered by the terms of reference of the Centre which include the
following;—

(a) By the provision of services, assistance, advice, and information to users or

manufacturers of computers.
(b) For the dissemination of information about computers, their use,
programming and operation.
(c) To acquire computer programmes and specifications of computer programmes
and to provide information when required to potential users.

Membership of the N.C.C. is available to computer

manufacturers and to any
company or organisation requiring
access to the available information. Full details

m Registered Office, Quay House, Quay Street, Manchester

934 USE OF COMPUTERS IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Genesys Centre
The Genesys Centre was established by the Ministry of the Environment
following exhaustive investigations into the viability of developing a library of
reliable tested programmes for all aspects of Civil and Structural Engineering.
The system consists of a master programme called the Genesys system which
selects sub-systems for particular requirements on receiving commands from the user
together with his numerical data.
The Genesys sub-systems already in an advanced stage of preparation or being
planned include the following:—

(a) Frame Analysis — a general analysis sub-system.

(b) Reinforced Concrete Buildings — a complete design and detailing package.
(c) Bridge Design — calculations for bridges, designed as a series of continuous
beams.
(d) Slab Bridges — element analysis of bridge structures.
finite
(e) Highways — a complete design of highways.
(f) Steel Buildings — a design and detail package for structural steel buildings.

All the Genesys programmes are written in a language known as Gentran which
isa variation of Fortran IV and it is intended that users can write their own
particular variations in the same language so that they can be coupled to the
Genesys system.
Membership of the Genesys Centre can be secured for a nominal charge and
apart from being kept informed of developments, etc., the member is entitled to use
the Genesys system at a cheaper rate than the non-member.
As and when the various sub-systems have been thoroughly tested and approved
it is intended that they will be released to computer bureaux throughout the country

so that access to the system should be readily available to all designers.

Full details of the Genesys system can be obtained from Genesys Centre,
University of Loughborough, England.

Computer Services and Programmes

A comprehensive list of computer programmes, services, etc., is maintained by
the Institution of Structural Engineers, 11 Upper Belgrave Street, London, S.W.l,
and copies of many of the programmes themselves are held in the Institution
of these can be obtained from the Secretary.
library. Full details
 39. FIRE RESISTING CONSTRUCTION

List of Contents

(1) Introduction.
A
brief history of fire protection and development of relevant Building
(2)
Regulations, Standards and Constructional By-laws.

(3) Review of current legislation.

(4) Some methods of fire protection.
(5) Possible future developments.
(6) Bibliography.

(1) Introduction

In Great Britain certain structural elements of permanent buildings are

required

by Building Regulations and By-laws to possess fire resistance dependent upon

purpose or occupancy group, height, capacity and floor area of building and its

separation from others.

In general, the beams and columns supporting and walls of multi-storey
floors
buildings require fire protection. In the case of single storey buildings the roof
framing and supporting structure may be left unprotected, but irrespective of the
number of storeys however, where the external wall is near a boundary, it may be
required to possess fire resistance from both sides so that it acts as a barrier to a
fire within, thus reducing the hazard to neighbouring property. According to The

Building Regulations 1972 and the Building Standards (Scotland) (Consolidation)

Regulations 1971, such a wall requires fire resistance from both sides if it is on or
within 1 metre of the boundary. A similar concept is embodied in the London
Building (Constructional) By-laws 1972.
The requirements of fire resistance are set out in;—

(a) The Building Regulations 1972 (1)*

(b) The Building Standards (Scotland) (Consolidation) Regulations 1971 (2).
(c) The London Building (Constructional) By-laws 1972 (3).
(d) The Greater London Council’s Code of Practice for buildings requiring
approval under Section 20 of the London Building Acts (Amendment) Act
1939 (for certain large buildings in the Inner London area) (4).

All of these regulations and By-laws contain requirements for the adequate fire
resistance of different elements of structure. In addition, those relating to
Scotland and other regulations applicable in Inner London,
contain provisions for
means of escape. In Scotland and for ‘Section 20’ buildings
in the Inner London
area, the regulations also
provide for assistance to the Fire Service. All these
measures contribute to the protection of the
contents although this is mainly an
insurance requirement.
To provide the necessary fire resistance in any
structural element two basic
factors must be established:-
*The references are listed in Section 6 of this Chapter.

935
936 fire resisting CONSTRUCTION
1. The fire resistance period required.
2. The efficacy of the fire protection.

The purpose or occupancy groups in the regulations are intended to group

buildings according to their hazard and fire load of building and contents. For
example, an office may have an average fire load of only 20 kg/m^ (this is the
equivalent weight of timber per unit floor area with the same calorific value as the
contents) requiring less than hour fire resistance depending on height, whereas a
1

warehouse may have a fire load of 250 kg/m^ requiring a fire resistance of 4 hours
to resist collapse. Here, fire resistance is expressed as the period for which the
structural element resists collapse and, where appropriate, resists the passage of
flame and excessive heat transfer to the unexposed face when the element is
subjected to the standard fire test conditions specified in B.S. 476(5). Under The
Building Regulations 1972, the grades of fire resistance adopted are 1 1 14, 2 and ,

4 hours; in The Building Standards (Scotland) (Consolidation) Regulations 1971,

3 hours is also quoted, whereas periods of up to 6 hours are included in the ‘Section
20’ Code of Practice applicable to Inner London.
It is recommended that before the type and amount of structural fire protection

is specified, the Local Authority responsible for the enforcement of the regulations
is consulted. This will ensure a correct interpretation insofar as the fire grading
period and the admissability of the method of fire protection proposed.

(2) A Brief History of Fire Protection and Development of Relevant

Building Regulations and By-laws

Rome and show

Earliest records indicate that a fire fighting service existed in
300 B.C. bands of slaves were employed as fire fighters in that city. It is also
that in
known that the Romans had fire fighters known as ‘vigiles’ in Chester during their
occupation but with the withdrawal of the Roman troops they passed out of
history.As the people of Britain gradually became urbanised and began living in
permanent settlements fire became a serious risk and a law was passed and first
enforced at Oxford in 872 A.D. that at the ringing of an evening bell all house fires
were to be extinguished; and this was continued by William following the invasion
of 1066.
From then onward there are records of fires in many ecclesiastical buildings but
apparently little effort was made to fight them, for often they were believed to be
an Act of God.
During the 12th Century there were severe fires at Winchester, Worcester, Bath,
Lincoln, Chichester, Rochester, Peterborough, York, Nottingham, Glastonbury and
Carlisle.
It was in the reign of Richard I in 1189 that the Mayor of London, Henry
Fitz-Alwyn, issued his ‘assize’ or requirement stipulating that houses in London
were to be constructed of stone and that they were to be covered with slate or
burnt tile; thus dangerous thatch was banned. It was therefore at this time that
building regulations concerning fire came into existence. These requirements also
provided for right of light, thickness of party walls and construction of cess pits and
were enforced by the sherriffs. Crude means of fire fighting were also provided such
as barrels of water and large iron crooks with wooden handles — some of these latter
implements still survive.
 937
fflSTORY OF FIRE PROTECTION
if records are correct, caused the
In a disaster occurred in London which,
1212
greatest death toU in any British fire
-
three thousand fatalities. Then 1 666 the m
of the city was destroyed. In this
Great Fire of London occurred when four fifths
conflagration 13,200 houses, 84 churches, 44
Livery companies and most of the
six deaths by fire were recorded
Public Buildings were burnt out. Strangely, only
that flourished thereafter.
but many died of disease and exposure in the shanty towns
Fortunately the City Council set about rebuilding with vigour
and it was this fire
that engendered the Metropolitan Building Acts in 1 667
Padding-
These Acts lasted for over 100 years and were extended to St. Pancras,
ton, Westminster, Marylebone and Chelsea. They provided for
the employment of

Statutory Surveyors until 1844 when District Surveyors were appointed who are
still They now enforce mainly the London Building Acts and Con-
effective.
structional By-laws within the area of the City of London and the twelve Inner
London Boroughs, these being the City of Westminster, and the Boroughs of
Camden, Islington, Hackney, Tower Hamlets, Greenwich, Lewisham, Southwark,
Lambeth, Wandsworth, Hammersmith and the Royal Borough of Kensington
and Chelsea.
In 1845 the first Public Health Act was passed largely to assist in fighting the

squalor in Liverpool and eventually these ideals spread to the whole country.
Housing was the main target and apart from the risk of fire it sought to put right
poor sanitation, rising damp, of structure and lack of ventilation and
instability
light. In general, however, these Acts were less stringent than those applying to the
Metropolitan area.
Until 1909, however, the regulationswere applicable only to load bearing
masonry 1796 an iron framed mill was built in
structures; nevertheless in
Shrewsbury; in 1899 a steel framed building was erected in West Hartlepool
followed by the Ritz Hotel and Selfridges in London, both steel framed, built in
1904 and 1906 respectively. The London Building Act issued in 1909 dealt with
framed buildings and prescribed details of fire protection for structural members,
from this time regulations have been issued under subsequent London Building
Acts.
As Scotland is concerned the evolution of fire requirements has been a
far as
process of some complexity. Until 1892 building control was exercised by the Dean
of Guild Courts in burghs on an arbitrary basis but in the Burgh Police
Act of that
year a detailed set of building rules was laid down for these Courts
to apply. The
Public Health Act of 1897 subsequently conferred powers
on the County Councils
to make By-laws to regulate building in the
landward areas. No standards were
however, set within that Act.
After the First World War various bodies proposed standardisation and model
^-laws were drafted. During this time the larger Local Authorities were
promoting
their private legislation which in turn
meant that building requirements were
scattered through many By-laws, rules and statutes,
local and general.
of Building Legislation in Scotland,
with C. W. Graham
culminated in the Building
rScotla^d?
building regulations. In
963 i
Standards (Scotland) Regulations were
issued which have now
been
Standards (Scotland) (Consolidation)
ReguSsI^
These cover, as far as fire is concerned, both the Structural Fire
Precautions
 938 FIRE RESISTING CONSTRUCTION
(Part D) and Means of Escape from Fire and Assistance to Fire Service (Part E)
together with their relating Schedules 5 and 6, the first half of Schedule 9, and
Part D in Schedule 10.
from Government control, the Fire Offices’ Committee (F.O.C.) formed
Distinct
in 1868, was originally sponsored by Fire Insurance Concerns, who were active in
fire fighting and prevention as an extension of their underwriting work. This

committee issued fire regulations for buildings as early as 1896 and in 1908 opened
a testing laboratory in Manchester, in 1935 their testing was transferred to a new
site at Boreham Wood which has now become the Fire Research Station.

In 1897 another body known as the British Fire Protection Committee

(B.F.P.C.) was formed following a severe fire in Cripplegate in 1897, the B.F.P.C.
established their own testing station and issued test reports and other recom-
mendations known as Red Books. With the death of their Chairman in 1920 the
activities of this committee regressed although some of their publications were
later issued by the former Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
(D.S.I.R.).
The growing importance of loss from fire led to the convening of a Royal
Commission in 1921, which reported in 1923, recommending the formation of a
Central Advisory Board to deal with all the aspects of fire hazard.
At the instigation of the Royal Institute of British Architects (R.I.B.A.), the
British Engineering Standards Association (now the B.S.I.) formed a committee
whose work resulted in the issue of B.S. 476 in 1932 entitled ‘British Standard
Definitions for Fire Resistance, Incombustibility and Non-Inflammability of
Building Materials and Structures’. This was issued to standardise the material in the
B.F.P.C. Red Books and the standard testing procedure. British Standard 476 was
re-issued in 1953 as ‘Fire Tests on Building Materials and Structures’ with
subsequent revisions, and is now issued in seven parts. Although Part 2 has been
withdrawn, other parts are in the course of preparation.
In 1 937 the model By-laws issued by the Ministry of Health contained fire
resistance requirements for adoption by Local Authorities, these and the 1938 L.C.C.
By-laws both made reference to the 1932 B.S. 476.
A joint committee on fire grading was formed in 1938 with representatives from
both the D.S.I.R. and F.O.C. thus forming the body known as the Joint Fire
,

Research Organisation (J.F.R.O.). The work of this committee was interrupted by

the outbreak of war, and their report was finally published in 1946 as Post War
Building Study No. 20 with the title ‘Fire Grading of Buildings - Part 1, General
Principles and Structural Precautions’.
This comprehensive report contained fire grading periods for buildings based
upon various classifications of occupancy and size. Information on the necessary
thicknesses of different protective claddings for structural steelwork to withstand
fire periods from to 6 hours were also given in this publication. This information,
amended maximum fire rating of 4 hours, is now to be found in the
to provide a
various tables attached to the current Regulations and By-laws. The exception is a
six hour requirement by the G.L.C. for basements with abnormal fire load or with
access difficulties.More recent events include the metrication of the regulations and
revisions to take account of research and up-to-date knowledge insofar as it affects
the metricated figures.
As these regulations are subject to constant amendment, care should be taken
that a design allows for the latest provisions.
 939
REVIEW OF CURRENT LEGISLATION

(3) Review of Current Legislation

aspects of the
The of documents which cover the fire protection
principal sets
which are of concern to the steel designer
Building Regulations in Great Britain and
are as follows:—
the G.L.C. Inner
The Building Regulations 1972 (England and Wales except
(i)
- deal only
London Area previously noted) - Part E, Structural Fire Precautions

with structural precautions necessary for personal safety

and do not include for
safeguarding property. Unfortunately, until recently the enabling powers have not
permitted means of escape to be included* (as they are in both the Scottish
Regulations and the London Building Acts), but there are a number of
regulations

which, whilst not directly relating to means of escape, set standards of fire
resistance for elements of structure and provision of protective shafts
which include
all enclosed staircases and surface linings. The principal aim
is to limit the spread of
firewithin buildings and from one to another. The risk depends largely on the use
to which the building is put and the ability of the structural elements to adequately
withstand the effects of fire.
The whole of the fire regulations are grouped together under Part E for ease of
reference. Because of the concepts embodied in the Regulations which are distinct
from those previously contained model By-laws the Minister has retained the
in the
right to grant relaxation or dispensation, and by this means is able to gain experience
in the working of these particular regulations and ascertain whether any modifications
are required. An example of this is the position regarding multi-storey steel framed
car parks which may now be constructed without any fire protection within certain
parameters, which are set out in Circular 17/68(6) issued by the Ministry of Housing
and Local Government (now the Department of the Environment).

Part E of the Regulations commences with Notes on interpretation which are

reproduced heref as follows:

Interpretation of Part E
El.— (1) In this Part and in Schedules 8 and 9—
“basement storey” means a storey which is below the ground storey; or, if there
is no ground storey, means a storey the floor of which
is situated at such a level or
levels that some point on
perimeter is more than 1 .2 m below the level of the
its

finished surface of the ground adjoining the building in the vicinity of that point;
“compartment” means any part of a building which is separated from all other
parts by one or more compartment walls or compartment
floors or by both such
walls and floors; and for the purposes of this Part,
if any part of the top storey of a
building within a compartment, the compartment shall also include
is
any roof
space above such part of the top storey;
“compartment wall” and “compartment floor” mean respectively
a wall and a
floor which complies with regulation E9 and which is
provided as such for the

^Section 11 of the Fire Precautions Act

1971 gives the Secretary of State for the Environment
provision of means of escape in case of fire,
IS proceedmg on the
fs and work
preparation of the Regulations.

TaSm’S.'”" “ tadiaaled by . double rule on the right-

940 FIRE RESISTING CONSTRUCTION
purposes of regulation E4 or to divide a building into compartments for any purpose
in connection Vi'ith E5 or E7;
regulations
“door” includes any shutter, cover or other form of protection to an opening
in any wall or floor of a building, or in the structure surrounding a protected shaft,
whether the door is constructed of one or more leaves;
“element ot structure” means—

(fl) any member forming part of the structural frame of a building or any
otherbeam or column (not being a member forming part of a roof
structure only);
(b) a floor, including a compartment floor, other than the lowest floor of a
building;
(c) an external wall;
(d) a separating wall;
(e) a compartment wall;

(/) structure enclosing a protected shaft;

(^) a load-bearing wall or load-bearing part of a wall; and
(h) a gallery;

“externally non-combustible” means externally faced with, or otherwise externally

consisting of, non-combustible material;
meaning ascribed to that expression in regulation E6(l);
“fire resistance” has the
“fire stop” means a barrier or seal which would prevent or retard the passage of
smoke or flame within a cavity or around a pipe or duct where it passes through a
wall or floor or at a junction between elements of structure; and “fire-stopped”
shall be construed accordingly;
‘“ground storey” means a storey the floor of which is situated at such a level or
levels that any given point on its perimeter is at or about, or not more than 1.2 m
below, the level of the finished surface of the ground adjoining the building in the
vicinity of that point; or, if there are two or more such storeys, means the higher or
highest of these;”.
“height of a building” has the meaning ascribed to it in regulation E3;
“open carport” means a carport of not more than one storey which is open on
two or more of its sides; and for the purpose of this definition a side which includes
or consists of a door shall not for that reason be regarded as an open side;
“permitted limit of unprotected areas” means the maximum aggregate area of
unprotected areas in any side or external wall of a building or compartment, which
complies with the requirements of Schedule 9 for such building or compartment;
“protected shaft” means a stairway, lift, escalator, chute, duct or other shaft
which enables persons, things or air to pass between different compartments, and
which complies with the requirements of regulation ElO;
“the relevant boundary”, in relation to any side of a building or compartment
(including any external wall or part of an external wall), means (unless otherwise
specified) that side, unless there is adjacent to that side land belonging to such
building or compartment (such land being deemed to include any abutting portion
of any or river up to the centre line thereof) in which case the relevant
street, canal
boundary means that part of the boundary of such land which is either parallel to,
or at an angle of not more than 80 degrees with, that wall or side;
“separating wall” means a wall or a part of a wall which is common to two
adjoining buildings;
 941
REVIEW OF CURRENT LEGISLATION
wall or side of a building, means-
“unprotected area”, in relation to an external
fa) a window, door or other opening;
(b) any part of the external wall
which has fire resistance less than that
specified by tliis Part for that wall; and
material more than
(c) any part of the external wall which has combustible
for cladding
1 thick attached or applied to its external face, whether
mm
or any other purpose.
designation
this Part to a roof or part of a roof of a specified
(2) Any reference in
shall be construed as meaning a roof or part
of a roof so constructed as to be
respect of that designation
capable of satisfying the relevant test criteria specified in
of roof in B.S. 476: Part 3: 1958:
Provided that any roof or part of a roof shall be deemed to be of such a
designation if-
(a) conforms with one of the specifications set out against the designation
it

in Schedule 1 0; or
(b) a similar part made to the same specification as that roof is proved to
satisfy the relevant test criteria.

(3) Any reference in this Part to a building shall, in any case where two or more
houses adjoin, be construed as a reference to one of those houses.
(4) If any part of a building other than a single storey building—
(a) consists of a ground storey only;
iff) has a roof to which there is only such access as may be necessary for the
purposes of maintenance or repair; and
(c) is completely separated from all other parts of the building by a compart-
ment wall or compartment walls in the same continuous vertical plane, that
part may be treated, for the purposes of this Part, as a part of a single storey
building.

The Regulations permit the single storey portion with one or more basement
storeys of a multi-storey building to be considered separately as a ground
storey thus not being subject to E5(l) or E5(2)(a)(i), (ii) and (iii) (see E5(2)(b),
(c) and (c)(i)), provided it is completely compartmented from the remainder of

the building.
has been argued that the single storey portion might constitute a fire risk to
It

the upper storey of the multi-storey building by way of fire spread through the roof,
if the fire resistance of the roof or the openings in the wall above
were not controlled;
but this problem will be no greater than at present permitted for buildings or
compartments of varying heights in other circumstances.

Further notes on definitions are as follows:—

Basement Storey” and “Ground Storey” are included in order
that the fire
resistance requirement of E5 may be appropriately applied.
“Compartment walls” and “Compartment floors” are those
elements used to
divide a building into compartments and include certain walls and floors referred
to
in regulation E4(2) and E4(3). Any compartment
extending to the upper storey of
a building also includes theroof space immediately above.
Elements of structure” are the parts of a building
which are subject to the fire
resisting requirements of regulation
E5. It will be noted that the roof and
staircase
we not structural elements unless they are
structural members without which the
building would be in danger of
collapse.
942 FIRE RESISTING CONSTRUCTION
“Relevant boundary.” This term is not to be confused with that of a boundary of
a site as defined in Part A, but is the relevant portion of a boundary in relation to
any side of a building (or compartment) and could be the external wall of the
building. Any boundary which is at an angle of more than 80° to the side of the
building is excluded, and where the building or site abuts on a street or watercourse,
the relevant boundary can be considered as the centre line thereof.
“Separating wall” describes a wall or part of a wall which is common to two
adjoining buildings. Thisis therefore broadly speaking what used to be called a

party wall under the By-laws, but this term had legal connections with ownership,
etc., other than just those of fire resistance. Because houses, whether in pairs or
terraces are considered as separate buildings, the walls dividing them are separating
walls.
If two adjoining buildings are erected at one and the same time, the wall between
might be considered as a separating wall, particularly if the buildings are in separate
ownerships; but from the regulation point of view, the complex could be considered
as one building in which case presumably the wall would then be a compartment
wall (assuming the building to be of an overall size requiring compartmentation). If,
however, the buildings were erected at separate times each with its own [external]
wall abutting one another, these walls too, may then be considered as a separating
wall for the purpose of the regulations.
“Unprotected area.” This can be either a door, a window, or other opening, or a
wall which does not have the degree of fire resistance as specified in E5 for that wall, or
a wall which has the degree of fire resistance required but is clad externally with com-
bustible material more than 1 mmthick and in this case only 50 per cent of the
area is taken into account. The expression is used in regulation E7(i) and Schedule 9
and the percentage of unprotected area in any side of a building will determine the
distance to the relevant boundary.

There follows Regulation E2 which is reproduced as follows:-

Designation of purpose groups

E2. For the purposes of this Part every building or compartment shall be regarded
according to its use or intended use as falling within one of the purpose groups set

out in the Table to this regulation and, where a building is divided into compartments
used or intended to be used for different purposes, the purpose group of each
compartment shall be determined separately:
Provided that where the whole or part of a building or compartment (as the case
may be) is used or intended to be used for more than one purpose, only the main
purpose of use of that building or compartment shall be taken into account in
determining into which purpose group it falls.

The Scottish regulations are given an even more detailed split and may give
guidance in cases of doubt. Personal hazard is taken into consideration in all groups
and its degree of importance is relevant to the fire load and varies from group to
group.
Purpose group II takes into account the types of accommodation which have a
sleeping risk attached to youth or infirmity. Groups I to III comprise all habitable
accommodation.
 .

REVIEW OF CURRENT LEGISLATION 943

TABLE TO REGULATION E2
(Designation of purpose groups)

Purpose Descriptive Purposes for which building or compartment

group title is intended to be used

(1) (2) (3)

I Small residential ... Private dwellinghouse (not including a flat or maisonette)*

II Institutional Hospital,home, school or other similar establishment used as

livingaccommodation for, or for treatment, care or main-
tenance of, persons suffering from disabilities due to
or old age or other physical or mental disability or
illness
under the age of 5 years, where such persons sleep in the
premises.

III ... Other residential ... Accommodation for residential purposes other than any
premises comprised in groups I and II.

IV ... Office Office, or premises used for office purposes, meaning

thereby the purpose of administration, clerical work
(including writing, book-keeping, sorting papers, filing,
typing, duplicating, machine-calculating, drawing and the
editorial preparation of matter for publication), handling
money and telephone and telegraph operating; or as
premises occupied with an office for the purposes of the
activities there carried on.

V Shop Shop, or shop premises, meaning thereby premises not being

a shop but used for the carrying on there of retail trade or
business (including the sale to members of the public of
food or drink for immediate consumption, retail sales by
auction, the business of lending books or periodicals for
the purpose of gain, and the business of a barber or hair-
dresser), and premises to which members of the public are
invited to resort for the purpose of delivering there goods
for repair or other treatment or of themselves carrying
out repairs to, or other treatment of, goods.

VI ... Factory Factory within the meaning ascribed to that word by

section 175 of the Factories Act 1961 (a) (but not in-
cluding slaughterhouses and other premises referred to in
paragraphs (d) and (e) of subsection (1) of that section).

VII ... Other place of Place,whether public or private, used for the attendance of
assembly persons for or in connection with their social, recreational,
educational, business or other activities, and not com-
prised within groups I to VI.

VIII ...
Storage and Place for storage, deposit or parking of goods and materials
general (including vehicles), and any other premises not
comprised
in groups I to VIE*

(a) 1961 c. 34.

*Note: By regulation E20 certain small garages and open carports are treated as
purpose group I. being of
944 FIRE RESISTING CONSTRUCTION
When a building is divided into separate compartments each used for a different
purpose, the purpose group of each must be considered separately, but where a
building or compartment is intended to be used for more than one purpose, it is the
main purpose group only that can be considered. An uncompartmented building or
a compartment may only belong to one group and any subsidiary uses are therefore
discounted.
The amendment insertion of the footnote to the Table draws attention to the
classification of certain small garages and carports as purpose group I buildings.
(See E20.)

Regulation E3 sets forth the rules for measuring height, area and cubic capacity
of a building or compartment as follows:—

Rules for measurement

E3. In this Part—
(a) the height of a building, or (where relevant) of part of a building as described
in regulation E5(3)(h), means the height of such building or part, measured
from the mean of the ground adjoining the outside of the external walls
level
of the building to the level of half the vertical height of the roof of the
building or part, or to the top of the walls or of the parapet (if any),
whichever is the higher;
(b) the area of—
(i) any storey of a building or compartment be taken to be the total
shall
area in that storey bounded by the finished inner surfaces of the
enclosing walls or, on any side where there is no enclosing wall, by the
outermost edge of the floor on that side;
(ii) any room or garage shall be taken to be the total area of its floor bounded
by the inner finished surfaces of the walls forming the room or garage;
(iii) any part of a roof shall be taken to be the actual visible area of such

part measured on a plane parallel to the pitch of the roof;

(c) the cubic capacity of a building or compartment shall be ascertained by
measuring the volume of space contained within—
(i) the finished inner surfaces of the enclosing walls or, on any side where
there is no enclosing wall, a plane extending vertically above the outer-
most edge of the floor on that side; and
(ii) the upper surface of its lowest floor; and
(iii) in the case of a building or a compartment which extends to a roof, the

under surface of the roof or, in the case of any other compartment, the
under surface of the ceiling of the highest storey within that compart-
ment;
including the space occupied by any other walls, or any shafts, ducts, or
structure within the space to be so measured.

Further Regulations of consequence to the steel designer are reproduced' here as

follows:—

Provision of compartment walls and compartment floors

E4.— (1) Any building of a purpose group specified in column (1) of the Table to
this regulation and which has—
 REVIEW OF CURRENT LEGISLATION 945

to a
{a) any storey the floor area of which exceeds that specified as relevant
building of that purpose group and height in column (3) of the Table;
or
so relevant in column (4) of
(b) a cubic capacity which exceeds that specified as
the Table,
or compart-
shall be so divided into compartments by means of compartment walls
ment floors or both that—
(1) no such compartment has any storey the floor area of which exceeds the area
specified as relevant to the building in column (3) of the Table; and
(ii) no such compartment has a
cubic capacity which exceeds that specified as
so relevant in column (4) of the Table:

Provided that any building of purpose group V is fitted throughout with an

if

automatic sprinkler system which complies with the relevant recommendations of

CP 402.201:1952, this paragraph shall have effect in relation to that building as if
tire limits of dimensions specified in columns (3) and (4) of
the Table to this
regulation were doubled.

(2) In any building which exceeds 28 m

in height, any floor which separates one
storey from another storey, other than a floor which is—

(a) within a maisonette; or

(b) above the ground storey but at a height not exceeding 9 m above the
adjoining ground,
shall be constructed as a compartment floor.

(3)The following walls and floors shall be constructed as compartment walls or

compartment floors-
(c) any floor in a building of purpose group II;

(b) any wall or floor separating a flat or maisonette from any other part of the
same building;
(c) any wall or floor separating part of a building from any other part of the
same building which is used or intended to be used mainly for a purpose
falling within a different purpose group in the Table to regulation E2; and
(d) any floor immediately over a basement storey if such storey—
(i) forms part of a building of purpose group I which has three or more
storeys or a building or compartment of purpose group III or V; and
(ii) has an area exceeding 100 m^.

With reference to regulation E4(l) it is of interest that the spaces which are
separated either horizontally or vertically are called “compartments”,
and the walls
and floors which separate them are termed “compartment walls” or “compartment
floors ’. All buildings,
with certain exceptions which exceed a given overall height,
^ea or cubic capacity, are required to be “compartmented” so as to
reduce the
building to these maximum sized units which will be better able to contain a fire
and so stop the spread throughout the
building. The exceptions to this requirement
tor compartmentation are
single storey buildings (other than in purpose groups II
and III) and buildings other
than single storey in groups I, IV and VII. The Table
ormmgpart of this regulation sets forth the maximum
sizes of such compartments
lor the various
purpose groups. However, it may be desirable to compartment any
ui ing in order to reduce the
period of fire resistance required.
946 FIRE RESISTING CONSTRUCTION
TABLE TO REGULATION E4
(Dimensions of buildings and compartments)

Limits of dimensions
Purpose group Height of bunding
Hoor area of Cubic capadt}’ of
storey in build- building or com-
!

i
ing or compart- partment (in m^
!
ment (in m^)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Part Buildings other than single storey buildings

(1) (2) (3) (4)

II (Institutional) Any height 2 000 No limit

III (Other residential) Not exceeding 28 m 3 000 8 500
Exceeding 28 m 2 000 5 500
V (Shop) .Any height 2 000 7 000
\T (Factory) Not exceeding 28 m No limit 28 000
Exeeding 28 m 2 000 5 500
\TII (Storase and seneral) Not exceeding 28 m No limit 21 000
95 99
Exceeding 28 m 1 000 No limit

Part 2—Single storey buildings

II (Institutional) -Any height

1

;
3 000 No limit
III (Other residential) Any height 3 000 No limit
j

Sprinklers or drenchers are not considered when arriving at the maximum sizes
of compartments (other than those now permitted for Shops). According to the
BRAC report, this has not been allowed because it was not possible to specify aU
devices for the control of fire. However, sprinklers have proved most effective in
containing a fire and it is hoped that further consideration will be given to this
provision. Some effective means would need to be found to ensure adequate water
supply and even more important periodical maintenance inspection, this latter
responsibility would presumably be undertaken by the Insurance (Company or local
fire authority. If a sprinkler sj'stem is installed in accordance vith CP 402.201

(1952), it ought to be feasible to increase the overall size of the compartments,

especially in groups V, VI and VIII, which form the Shops, Factories and Storage
groups and are likely to be large buildings.
Wliere sprinklers are installed throughout in accordance with the Code of
Practice, the permitted floor area and cubic capacity for shops basing a 2 hour
standard of fire resistance in accordance with Table A Part 1 to regulation E5, may
be doubled.
The be afforded to sprinklers is difficult to adduce, but doubling
credit that can
the size of the compartment is considered reasonable.
Factories and Storage buildings are still omitted presumably largely because the
 REVIEW OF CURRENT LEGISLATION 947

can vary so considerably and each case must still be dealt with by Ministry
fire risk
particular circumstances.
relaxation according to the

In a high building of over 28 m, any floor over 9 m must be a compartment

floor unless it is the intermediate floor of a maisonette.

an Institutional building (group II) must be formed as compart-

All floors in
ment floors and each flat or maisonette must have
compartment floors and com-
other part of the same
partment walls to separate them from another, or from any
building.

When separated from another part of the same building and

part of a building is

each part is used for a different purpose, any wall or floor

between each part must
be a compartment floor or a compartment wall, but there is no mandatory
requirement to provide such a wall or floor. When a compartment wall or floor are
provided they should comply with the requirements of the purpose group having
the greater fire risk. Similarly, where there is no wall, the greater fire resistance
requirements will apply to the whole building.
The floor over a basement storey which exceeds 100 m^ in area must be a
compartment floor if the basement forms part of a building or compartment
which used for either residential or shop purposes.
is

It is noted that no account appears to be taken of the actual fire load within a
compartment. This does seem to indicate that when a building is used for another
purpose within the same group, there is no additional requirement, although the
fire load within the same fire group could vary considerably particularly within
Factories and Storage buildings where some processes or goods to be stored have a
very low fire risk whilst others have a much greater fire risk. The requirements may,
therefore, be onerous in some respects but not onerous enough in others.

Fire resistance

E5.-(l) Subject to any express provision to the contrary, every element of

structure shall be so constructed as to have fire resistance for not less than the
relevant period specifed in Table A to this regulation, having regard to the
purpose group of the building of which it forms part and the dimensions specified
in that Table.

(2) id) In addition to any relevant requirement under paragraph (1)—

(i) any external wall shall have fire resistance of not less than half an hour;
(ii) any separating wall shall have fire resistance of not less than 1 hour.
(iii) any compartment wall or compartment floor which separates a part of
a building falling within purpose group II or III from any other part
of
the same building falling within a different purpose group from
purpose
group II or III shall have fire resistance of not less than 1 hour.
{b) Nothing in paragraph
(1) or in sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph shall apply
to any part of an external wall which is non-loadbearing
and may, in accordance
with regulation E7, be an
unprotected area.
(c) In the case of a single storey building or
a building consisting of a ground
storey and one or more basement storeys, nothing in paragraph
(1) or in sub-
paragraph {a) of this paragraph
shall apply to any element of structure which forms
part of the ground
storey and consists of-
(i) a structural
frame or a beam or column; Provided that any beam or
column (whether or not it forms part of a structural frame)
which is
948 FIRE RESISTING CONSTRUCTION
within or forms part of a wall, and any column which gives support to a
wall or gallery, shall have fire resistance of not less than the minimum
period, if any, required by these regulations for that wall or that gallery;
(ii) an internal load-bearing wall or a load-bearing part of a wall, unless that
wall or part is, or forms part of, a compartment wall or a separating wall,
or forms part of the structure enclosing a protected shaft or supports a
gallery; or
(iii) part of an external wall which does not support a gallery and which may,
in accordance with regulation E7, be an unprotected area.

(3) (a) In this regulation and in Table A thereto (subject to the provisions of
sub-paragraph (b) of this paragraph and any other express provision to the contrary)
any reference to a building of which an element of structure forms part means the
building or (if a building is divided into compartments) any compartment of the
building of which the element forms part.
(b) In this regulation and in Table A thereto, any reference to height means the
height of a building, not of any compartment in the building, but if any part of the
building is completely separated throughout its height both above and below ground
from all other parts by a compartment wall or compartment walls in the same
continuous vertical plane, any reference to height in relation to that part means the
height solely of that part.
(c) If any element of structure forms part of more than one building or com-
partment and the requirements of fire resistance specified in Table A in respect of
one building or compartment differ from those specified in respect of any other
building or compartment of which the element forms part, such element shall be
so constructed as to comply with the greater or greatest of the requirements specified.
(4) Any element of structure shall have fire resistance of not less than the
minimum period required by these regulations for any element which it carries.
(5) Any compartment wall separating a flat or maisonette from any other part of
the same building shall not be required to have fire resistance exceeding 1 hour unless—

(i) the wall is a load-bearing wall or a wall forming part of a protected shaft;
or
(ii) the part of the building from which the wall separates the flat or
maisonette is of a different purpose group and the minimum period of
fire resistance required by the provisions of this regulation for any
element of structure in that part is \\ hours or more.

(6) In the application of this regulation to floors, no account shall be taken of

any fire resistance attributable to any suspended ceiling other than a suspended
ceding constructed as described in Table B.

TABLE A TO REGULATION E5
(Minimum periods of fire resistance)
In this Table-.

“cubic capacity” means the cubic capacity of the building or, if the building is divided into
compartments, the compartment of which the element of structure forms part;
“floor area” means the floor area of each storey in the building or, if the building is divided
into compartments, of each storey in the compartment of which the element of structure
forms part;
“height” has the meaning assigned to that expression by regulation E5(3)(&).

Part 1—Buildings other than single storey buildings (see next page)
 REVIEW OF CURRENT LEGISLATION 949

Part l-Buildings olher than single storey buildings

Minimum period
of fire resistance
(in hours) for
Maximum dimensions
elements of struc-
ture(*) forming
part of-

Purpose Height Floor Cubic ground base-

group (in m) area capacity storey ment
(inmU (in m^) or upper storey
storey

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

I (Small residential)
House having not more than three
storeys No limit No limit No limit Vz 1(a) X

House having four storeys .. .. No limit 250 No limit Hb) 1

House having any number of

storeys No limit No limit No limit 1 iy2

II (Institutional) 28 2 000 No limit 1 u

over 28 2 000 No limit iy2 2

III (Other residential)

Building or part(t) having not
more than two storeys No limit 500 No limit Vz 1 X

Building or part(t) having three

storeys No limit 250 No limit m 1
•

Building having any number of

storeys 28 3 000 8 500 1 iy2

Building having any number of

storeys No limit 2 000 5 500 IVz 2

IV (Office) 7.5 250 No hmit 0 1(C) X

7.5 500 No limit Vz 1
15 No limit 3 500 Hb) 1
28 5 000 14 000 1 iy2
No limit No limit No limit IVz 2

V (Shop) 7.5 150 No limit 0 1(c) X

7.5 500 No limit 1
"2 1
15 No limit 3 500 1(h) 1
28 1 000 7 000 1 2
No limit 2 000 7 000 2 4 y
VI (Factory)
7.5 250 No limit 0 1(c) X
7.5 No limit 1 700 1
2 1
15 No limit 1(h) 1
28 No limit 1 2
28 No limit 2 4
over 28 2 000 2 4
 !

950 FIRE RESISTING CONSTRUCTION

Part 1 —Buildings other than single storey buildings (contd.)

Minimum period
of fire resistance
Maximum dimensions
(in hours) for
elements of struc-
ture(*) forming
part of—
1

Purpose Height Floor Cubic ground base- j

group (in m) area capacit}' storey ment

(in m^) (inm^) or upper storey :

storey
j

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

VII (Assembly) 7.5 No limit 0 1(c) X

7.5 No limit 1
2
1

15 No limit 3 500 1(h) 1 :

28 14 000 1 u
No limit No limit No limit
j
U 2 I

\'1II (Storage and general) .. .. 7.5 150 No limit 0 1(c) X

\
7.5 300 No limit !
1 1

15 No limit 1700 i
1(h) 1 1

15 No limit 3 500 1 2
28 No limit 7 000 2 4
28 No limit 21 000 4 4
over 28 1 000 No limit 4 4

Notes to Part 1

For the purpose of regulation E5(l), the period of fire resistance to be taken as being relevant
to an element of structxue is column (5) or (6), whichever is appropriate,
the period included in
in the line of entries which dimensions with all of which there is conformity or, if there
specifies
are two or more such lines, in the topmost of those lines.
(*) A floor which is immediate!}' over a basement storey shall be deemed to be an element of
structure forming part of a basement storey.
(t) The expression “part” means a part which is separated as described in regulation E5(3)(b).
id) The period is half an hour for elements forming part of a basement storey which has an
area not exceeding 50 m^.
ib) This period is reduced to half an hour in respect of a floor which is not a compartment
floor, except as to the beams which support the floor or any part of the floor which
contributes to the structural support of the building as a whole.
(c) No fire resistance is required if the elements form part of a basement storey which has an
area not exceeding 50 m^.
x The items thus marked are applicable only to buildings, not to compartments, except in
relation to purpose group III; see also regulations E7(2){ff) proviso (i) and E8(7)(iz).
y If the building is fitted throughout with an automatic sprinkler system which complies w'ith
the relet'ant recommendations of CP 402.201: 1952, any maximum limits specified in
columns (3) and (4) shall be doubled.

TABLE A TO REGULATION Y.5 -continued

(Minimum periods of fire resistance)

Part 2—Single storey buildings (see next page)

 )

951
REVIEW OF CURRENT LEGISLATION
Part 2—Single storey buildings

Minimum period of
fire resistance
Purpose group Maximum floor area _
(in hours) for
(in m* elements of structure *

(2) (3)
(1)

No limit z
I (Small residential)
2
3 000 z
(Institutional) 2
11

1
3 000 z
(Other residential) 2
III

1
z
IV (Office) 3 000 !
2 !

1
No limit

1
000
2 z
V(Shop) J
3 000 1

No limit 2

1
VI (Factory) 2 000 *5 z

3 000 1

No limit 2

1
*

VII (Assembly) 3 000 2

z
No limit 1

1
VIII (Storage and 500 2
z
general) 1 000
1
3 000 2
No limit 4 1

1
i

Notes to Part 2
For the purpose of regulation E5(l), the period of fire resistance to be taken as being
relevant toan element of structure is the period included in column (3) in the line of entries
which specifies the floor area with which there is conformity or, if there are two or more such
lines, in the topmost of those lines.

z See regulations E7(2)(ff} proviso (i) and E8(7)(a).

* Note: Structural steel frames are generally immune from this requirement. See regulation
E5(2)(c).

Further to regulation E5 it should be noted that every element of structure must

be so constmcted as to have the periods of fire resistance set forth in the Table which
forms part of this regulation, bearing in mind the particular size and purpose group
of the building or compartment.
If a building is compartmentated, it is the size and purpose group of each com-
partment and not that of the building generally,
which will decide the fire resistance
required. The of the building or compartment affects the severity of the
overall size
ire, hence the
fire resistance is increased for the elements as the size of the
rtructure increases. It
should be noted that if an element of structure is part of more
u^one building or compartment for which different fire resistances are required,
the higher fire
resistance will apply for that element.
952 FIRE RESISTING CONSTRUCTION
TABLE B TO REGULATION E5
(Suspended ceilings)

Height of Type of floor Required fire Description of

building resistance of floor suspended ceiling
(1) (2) (3) 1
(4)

Less than 15 m Non-compartment 1 hour or less ... Surface of ceiling exposed within
the cavity not lower than
Class 1 (as to surface spread
Compartment ... Less than 1 hour of flame).

Compartment ... 1 hour Surface of ceiling exposed within

the cavity not lower than
Class 0 (as to surface spread
!
of flame); supports and
fixings for the ceiling
non-combustible.

15 m or more Any 1 hour or less ... Surface of ceiling exposed within

the cavity not lower than
Class 0 (as to surface spread
of flame) and jointless;
supports and fixings for the
ceiling non-combustible.

Any , Any More than 1 hour Ceiling of non-combustible con-

struction and jointless;
supports and fixings for the
ceiling non-combustible.
1

Note: References to classes are to classes as specified in regulation E14.

Regulation E5(2)(c) has the effect of removing the requirement for fire resistance
for structural frames, columns, beams and walls which perform no other function
than that of supporting the roof of a single storey building. This is particularly
significantand not necessarily apparent if Part 2 of Table A is studied without
reference to the text.
Compartment walls or compartment floors constructed in compliance with
regulation E4(3)(c) and separating accommodation falling witliin purpose groups II

or III from that in another purpose group, should have a minimum fire resistance of
one hour. The risk of fire spreading unnoticed is highest at niglrt, and where there is

a sleeping risk over a non-sleeping risk is particularly pertinent, as any outbreak of

lower compartment
fire in a may well become established before being discovered,
hence the requirement for a liigher minimum standard of fire resistance in this
situation.
The height referred to in Table A is that of the building and not of any compart-
ment within that building, unless a compartment wall completely splits the building
vertically from top to bottom in which case the heights of each section are
considered. The floor area is presumed to be that of each storey of a building or
compartment, whilst the cubic capacity is that of the building or compartment.
Although no compartment walls are required in single storey buildings, used for
one purpose only (unless to reduce the requirement for fire resistance), E4(3)(c)
 review of current legislation 953
purpose
requires a compartment wall to separate the parts of a building of different
fire resistance is taken).
groups (unless the higlier „
^ In addition to the requirements laid down in must.
these Tables any external wall
,

fire resistance of
not less than half an hour (unless it is non-load-bearing and
have a
accordance with regulation E7, be considered as an
unprotected area), and
may, in
not less than one hour.
any separating wall
another element must have at least the fire
Any element of structure carrying
resistance of the element it carries.
Compartment walls surrounding flats or maisonettes need not have a fire
resistance exceeding one hour except in the special circumstances described in
Regulation E5.
No account can be taken of any suspended ceiling when considering the tire
resistance of a compartment floor, unless it be
of a type referred to in Table B.
Jointed ceilings have apparently been omitted on the grounds that panels are often

removed or adapted for services and therefore the fire resistance would seriously
be
impaired thereby.

Tests of fire resistance

E6.-(l) For the purposes of regulation E5, requirements as to fire resistance
shall be construed as meaning that an element of structure shall be capable of

resisting under the conditions of test

the action of fire for the specified period
appropriate to such element in accordance with B.S. 476: Part 1: 1953, subject to
such modifications or applications of such conditions of test as are prescribed in
this regulation.

(2) Any compartment floor shall, if the underside of such floor is exposed to
test by fire resistance for not less than the minimum period required by
fire, have
of regulation E5 for elements of structure forming part of the
the provisions

compartment immediately below such floor.

(3) Any structure (other than an external wall) enclosing a protected shaft shall,
if each side of the wall is separately exposed to test by fire, have fire resistance for
not less than the minimum period required by the provisions of regulation E5.

(4) Any compartment wall or separating wall shall, if each side of the wall is
separately exposed to test by fire, have fire resistance for not less than the minimum
period required by regulation E5.

(5) Any part of an external wall which constitutes, or is situated less than 1 m
from any point on, the relevant boundary shall, if each side
of the wall is separately
exposed to test by fire, have fire resistance for not less
than the minimum period
required by regulation E5.

(6) Any part of an external wall which is situated 1 m

or more from the relevant
boundary and which is required by the provisions of these regulations to have fire
resistance, shall, if the inside of the wall exposed to
test by fire, have fire
is
resistance for not less than the minimum
period required by regulation E5:
royided that, for the purposes of
this paragraph, the wall shall be capable of
satisfying the
requirements of Clause 1 Ic of Section 3 of B.S. 476: Part 1 1953 as :

to insulation
for not less than 15 minutes.

(7) In
any building of purpose group 1 which has
two storeys the floor of the
pper storey shall, if
the underside of such floor is exposed to test by fire in
954 FIRE RESISTING CONSTRUCTION
accordance with B.S. 476: Part I: 1953, be capable of satisfying the requirements

of that test as to freedom from collapse for a period of not less than half an hour
and as to insulation and resistance to passage of flame for not less than 1 5 minutes.

(8) Any element of structure shall be deemed to have the requisite fire resistance
if-
(a) it is constinicted in accordance with one of the specifications given in

Schedule 8, and the notional period offire resistance given in that Schedule
as being appropriate to that type of construction and other relevant factors
is not less than the requisite fire resistance: or

(b) a similar part made to the same specification as that element is proved to
have the requisite fire resistance under the conditions of test prescribed in
the foregoing paragraphs of this regulation.

Elements of structure must be capable of withstanding or resisting the action of

fire for a specified period under certain conditions of test. The tests are in accordance
with B.S. 476: Part 1: 1953 and the element is deemed to have the requisite fire
resistance if a similar part when tested satisfies these test requirements as to: —

(i) Collapse: The element must not collapse at any stage of the test.
(ii) Passage of flame: The element must not develop cracks through which
flame or hot gases can pass.
(iii) Insulation: The element must have sufficient resistance to the passage of
heat that the temperature of the unexposed face does not rise by more
than a prescribed amount.
B.S. 476 allows for separating elements to be tested from one side only or either
side separately depending on the functions of the element and this regulation sets
out these requirements.
A compartment floor when tested on the underside must have the requisite
minimum fire resistance for the structural elements in the compartment below the
floor.
A compartment wall, separating wall, protecting structure (enclosing a protected
shaft), or an external wall situated on or within 1 m of the relevant boundary must
stand up to tests on each side, whilst an external wall situated 1 m or more from
the relevant boundary is tested on the inside only. Generally the fire resistance is that
period of time in hours and minutes for which the element is capable of withstanding
collapse, the passage of flame and the passage of heat (insulation). However, in two
cases, external walls 1 m
or more from the boundary and the upper floors of two
storey houses, the passage of heat requirement is reduced to 15 minutes, and in the
latter case the passage of flame requirement is also only 1 5 minutes. In the second
case this relaxation is known as a “modified half hour requirement” and is noted as
such in Schedule 8, Part VII.
Schedule 8 indicates the type of specifications which are deemed-to-satisfy the
requirements of E6(7), these are not exhaustive and are only given for guidance.
Other specifications may be applied providing they can be proved by tests to compl;
with the fire resistance requirements of E6(7).

External walls
E7.— (1) Subject to the provisions of regulations El 8 and E19 concerning small
garages and open carports, any side of a building shall comply with any relevant
requirements relating to the permitted limits of unprotected areas specified in
 REVIEW OF CURRENT LEGISLATION 955

the building is so situated that such side might in accordance with

Schedule 9 unless
entirely of any unprotected area.
Schedule 9 consist

Any which constitutes, or is situated within a distance of

external wall
(2) (a)
1 m from any point on, the relevant boundary or is a wall of a building
which exceeds 15 m in height shall-
(i) be constructed wholly of non-combustible materials apart from any
external cladding which complies with paragraph (3) of this
regulation or any internal lining which complies with regulation E 1 5 and ;

(ii) be so constructed as to attain any fire resistance required by this Part

without assistance from any combustible material permitted by this
sub-paragraph;

Provided that the requirements of this sub-paragraph shall not

apply to-

•
(i) an external wall of a building which is within the limits of size indicated

by the letter “x” of

in Part Table
1 A to regulation E5 or of a building
which is not divided into compartments and is within the limits of size
indicated by the letter “z” in Part 2 of the table if, in either case, that
building does not exceed 15 m
in heiglit;

(ii) an external wall of a building or part of purpose group III which consists
of flats or maisonettes if that building has not more than three storeys
or that part is separated as described in regulation E5(3)(b) and has not
more than three storeys;
(iii) an external wall of a part of a building if that wall is situated 1 m or
more from the relevant boundary and that part is separated as described
in regulation E5(3)(6) and does not exceed 15 m in height.
Qj) Any beam or column forming part of, and any structure carrying, an external
wallwhich is required to be constructed of non-combustible materials shall
comply with the provisions of sub-paragraph (a) as to non-combustibility.

(3) (fl) Any cladding on any external wall, if sudr cladding is situated less than
1 m from any point on the relevant boundary, shall have a surface complying with
the requirements for Class 0 specified in regulation El 5(l)(e); and

(b) Any cladding on any external wall situated 1 m or more from the relevant
boundary shall, if the building is more than 15 m in height, have a surface comply-
ing with the requirements specified for Class 0 in regulation E15(l)(e), except that
any part of such cladding below a height of 15 m
from the ground may consist of
timber of not less than 9 mm
finished tliickness or of a material having a surface
which, when tested in accordance
with B.S. 476: Part 6: 1968, has an index of
performance (I) not exceeding 20.
(4) For the purposes of this regulation—
(n) any part of a roof shall be deemed to be part of an external
wall or side of a
building if it is pitched at an angle of
70 degrees or more to the horizontal
and adjoins a space within the
building to which persons have access not
.
to tho purposes of maintenance or repair;
( j any reference to Schedule
9 shall be construed as referring to the provisions
of Part I of that Schedule,
together with (at the option of the person
intending to erect the
building) either the provisions of Part II or those of
956 FIRE RESISTING CONSTRUCTION
Part III or, if the building is one to which Part IV applies, those of that
Part or of Part II or III.

(5) If-
(a) any building is to be erected on land occupied with any other building, or

two or more detached buildings are to be erected on land in common

occupation; and
(b) either of those buildings is of purpose group I or III (other than a detached
building which consists only of a garage or of an open carport or of both and
complies with regulation El 8 or E19 as the case may be),
in the application of the provisions of this regulation to any external wall of any
building to be so erected which faces an external wall of such other building—
(i) the relevant boundary shall be a notional boundary passing between those
buildings and such boundary must be capable of being situated in such a
position as to enable the external walls of those buildings to comply with
the requirements of this regulation; and
(ii) if such other building is an existing building, it shall be deemed to be a

building to be erected on the site which it occupies, being of the same

purpose group and having the same unprotected areas and fire resistance
as the existing building.
As has aheady been stated an external wall on or within 1 m of the boundary
must be fire resistant from both sides, whilst one situated 1 m or more from the
boundary is tested from the inside only.
Regulation E7 does not control the space separation between buildings on the same
site and in the same ownership (unless one of them is a residential building).
Admittedly such a control might be unduly onerous on an industrial site but it is
felt that some “modified” control might be available to restrict the erection of
buildings so close together that they form a fire hazard one to another. It would
also assist in fire fighting if adequate access were available on all sides of each
building.
There are certain small unprotected areas listed in Schedule 9, Part 1 of which no
account need be taken and this means that a wall on the boundary may include
these certain small openings, otherwise it needs to be imperforate and to have the
required fire resistance. In addition to the requirement of fire resistance the
regulations require external walls to be non-combustible if they are on or within
1 m of the boundary, or form part of a building more than 15 high. In Table A, m
Part and Part 2 to regulation E5 exceptions to the rule are noted for small
1

buildings falling within the lines marked “x” or “z” respectively, but it should be
noted that buildings falling within purpose group II of Part I are not included. Similarly,
parts of a building which do not exceed 15 m in heiglit, providing they are com-
pletely separated from the main building, which may exceed 15m high by a com-
partment wall, and they are 1 m or more from the boundary, need not comply with
the requirement for non-combustibility. Where external walls are required to be
non-combustible they may have combustible inner linings, providing these comply
with El 5 regarding surface spread of flame, or external cladding so long as this
complies with E7(3)(b).
In applying this regulation, any beams, columns or other structure associated
with an external wall must comply with the same requirements as to fire resistance
and non-combustibility as the external wall.
Any part of a steeply pitched roof such as a Mansard and which contains
 REVIEW OF CURRENT LEGISLATION 957

access, is considered as an external wall if

ccommodation to which persons have
pitched at an angle
of 70° or more to the horizontal.
^
Where no boundaries exist
between buildings and either of them is a residential
building (groups I
and III) (other than small garages), a notional boundary is
assumed which is plotted in such a position that the external walls of both
buildings will comply with the regulations, but if one is an existing building, the
notional boundary is placed
so that the existing building complies, before
rule also applies to estates which are developed
considering the new building. This
local authorities and
the ownership of the land and buildings remains under their
by
jurisdiction.

The Regulations also contain other sections

which are not perhaps so relevant to
the steel designer. They are as follows;

E8 Separating walls
E9 Special requirements as to compartment walls and compartment
floors
ElO Protected shafts
El 1 doors
Fire-resisting

El 2 Exceptions permitting use of certain doors in lift shafts

El 3 Stairways
El 4 Fire-stopping
El 5 Restriction of spread of flame over surfaces of walls and
ceilings

El 6 Exceptions permitting ceilings to consist of plastics materials

El 7 Roofs
El 8 Small garages
El 9 Small open carports
E20 Purpose group of small garages and open carports

With reference to the Deemed to Satisfy clauses; Schedule 8 — Part V, Tables A

and B provide specifications for thickness of protection for fire resistance for
structural steel.

It is interesting to note that the specifications provide for the protection of steel
of minimum weights. This gives an opening for further research whereby the
thickness of material required would vary with the section size. Some of the
specifications shown are obsolete and the tables are incomplete because some new
materials and methods are not included.
However, regulation E6(8)(h) permits the use of material other than that
indicated in Schedule 8 provided proved to have the requisite fire resistance
it is
under conditions of the prescribed test. Pending a complete revision of the Deemed
to Satisfy tables this
allows the use of recently developed materials and methods or
revised specifications.

Administration and enforcement of the preceding regulations is the responsibility

of Local Authorities
in England and Wales.

(ii) The Building Standards (Scotland) — these

(Consolidation) Regulations 1971
regu ations originally
introduced in 1964 brought a new approach to fire protec-
lon and replaced
a series of statutes and local By-laws wliich had
tended to make a
lona interpretation
somewhat complex. They are most exhaustive in detail
958

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 959

FIRE

kilogrammes^

OF

PERIODS
30

than

less

NOTIONAL

no/

8 mcrrc

SCHEDULE

-C
960 FIRE RESISTING CONSTRUCTION
content and represent a serious attempt by legislators to deal with the problems
involved, employing the result of recent research and development. A notable
feature of the regulations is the provision for means of escape and assistance to the fire

service which and combines all requirements concerning exits, stairways,

establishes
enclosures, Ughting of exits, fire mains and fire lifts.

(iii) The London Building (Constructional) By-laws 1972 contain fire resisting

requirements in Part XI which is sub-headed ‘Fire resistance of elements of

construction and separations between buildings’.
The purpose of this part of these By-laws is to minimise the risk of the spread of
fire between adjoining buildings by a stable and durable form of construction to
prevent the untimely collapse of buildings in the event of fire and to minimise the

risk of the spread of fire between specified parts of buildings.

Besides the above, details are provided in these By-laws for the construction of
party walls, parapets and party floors. Clause 1 1 .05 summarises the parameters of
requirements and Table 1 1 is the classification showing
fire resistance fire resistance
periods, both these being reproduced below, as follows:—

1 1 .05 (1) Each element of construction in a building, part of a

building or division other than in a single-storey building or a
Fire resistance division of a single-storey building not exceeding 7079.2 m^ in
period cubical extent or 7.500 m in height, except separations between
different tenancies and differing users, shall be capable of
resisting the action of fire for a period not less than that
specified in Table 1 1 according to the use and size of the
building or part of a building.

(2) In a building of Class Nos. Ill or IV the elements of

construction of the part used for office purposes, or for
dwelling purposes or other purposes within the meaning of
Class No. II (as the case may be), shall be capable of resisting
the action of fire for the same period as that required if the
whole building were used for purposes in Class No. II.

(3) Where, any building, the level of the surface of any floor
in
is more than 12.800 m above the level of the footway
immediately in front of the centre of the face of the building,
or if there is no footway, above the level of the ground before
excavation, the elements of construction of that building shall
be capable of resisting the action of fire for a period of not
less than one hour, and shall be of non-combustible
construction.

(4) Where, in the same building or part of a building, a

different period of resistance to the action of fire is required by
this By-law according to whether regard is had to the cubical
extent, or to the level of the surface of any floor of the building
or part or division of the building, the longer period shall be
taken.

(5) Each element of construction of any basement storey

(which for the purpose of this paragraph of this By-law
 TABLE 11 961
CLASSIFICATION TABLE SHOWING FIRE-RESISTANCE PERIODS (IN HOURS)

Cubical extent of building, or division. or part of a building in m®

Exceeding Exceeding Exceeding

Use of building, or Not 710 m® 1420 m® 2130 m®
Exceeding
division, or part of a Exceeding Not \Not Not
Class No. 3550 m®
building 710m® exceeding exceeding exceeding
1420 m® 2130 m® 3550 m®

1 1 1
1 2*
I As a warehouse or for T 2 2
trade or manufacture-
the budding or division
so used

II For offices and/or for NU Nil

1
2 2
1
1

dwelling purposes, or for

a purpose not included
in this table, except as a
public building-the
building or part so used

III Partly for offices or for 2

1 I
1 1 2*
other purposes under
Class 11, except for
dwelling purposes and
partly as a warehouse
1

or for trade or
manufacture- the part
used as a warehouse or
for trade or 1

1
manufacture
/

,v Partly for dwelling 1

1 1 2 2*
2
purposes and partly as
a warehouse or for
trade or manufacture-
the part used as a
warehouse or for trade
or manufacture

V For housing high- 2 2 2 2 2*

voltage power type
electrical transformers
and/or high-voltage
power type switch-
gear or for a purpose
involving a similar
risk— the building or
part so used

Not 142 m®
exceeding to
142 m® 1420 m®
VI For housing or 1
2 1 1 2 2*
displaying a petrol
\

driven vehicle-the
part so used

Limit of cubical extent of buHding or division if used

as a warehouse or
— for purposes of trade or manufacture-7
079.20 m®
962 FIRE RESISTING CONSTRUCTION
shallbe deemed to include the floor over the basement
storey), except in any building in Classes Nos. Ill and IV not
exceeding 1420 m^ in extent, shall be capable of resisting
the action of fire for a period of not less than twice that
required for the elements of construction of the building or
part or division, of the building in which that basement storey
is situated:

Provided that in no such case need that period exceed two hours.

Floors within (6) Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions of this By-law,

separate dwellings where, in any building or part of a building, separate dwellings
are to be formed, within any such dwelling comprising not
more than two storeys the floors between those storeys need
not be capable of resisting the action of fire for a period
longer than half-an-hour.

Landings and stairs (7) Where in any building or part of a building the elements
of construction are required to be capable of resisting the action
of fire for a period longer than one hour, except where stairs
or landings form the separation between different tenancies or
different uses, any stairs (including landings and supports) need
not be constructed to resist the action of fire for a period
longer than one hour:

Provided that in any case where a staircase (including its

landings and supports) is constructed of non-combustible
material, it shall be deemed to comply with the provisions of
this part of these By-laws if the whole of that staircase
(including its landings and supports) is enclosed by partitions

or walls capable of resisting the action of fire for a period not

less than that prescribed hy this part of these By-laws for the
building or part of the building within which it is situated.

(8) Where a building, or part of a building, is provided with

only one staircase, and the stairs, landings and the supports
thereof are required by the provisions of this part of the By-laws
to be capable of resisting the action of fire, those landings,
stairs and supports shall be constructed of non-combustible
material:

Provided that this paragraph of this By-law shall not apply to

the stairs, landings and the supports thereof within the
building or part of the building used as a separate dwelling.

The By-laws also provide for separation between tenancies and different users,
openings and doors, borrowed openings in floors, insulation of pipes and
liglits,

ventilating ducts, joints in separations and supports. By-laws 1 1 .12 and 1 1 .13 relate
to existing buildings and fire resistance of materials respectively. Schedules VI and
VII to the By-laws set out in detail various methods of providing the required
standard of fire resistance and they are shortly to be metrically rounded and brought
up to date in accordance with the latest advice from the Fire Research Station.
Public Buildings are not included in the Classification table as these must be
 REVIEW OF CURRENT LEGISLATION 963

constructed in such a manner as may be approved by the District Surveyor.

various specifications “Deemed to
Schedule IV Table D of the By-laws sets out
Satisfy the By-laws by
providing the required Standard of fire resistance.

In the Inner London area

there are also a number of Acts (some of which apply
country as a whole), Regulations and Codes of Practice that relate to
fire
to die
which to the steel designer. The Acts and Regulations are those
may be relevant
concerned with office, shop, railway and factory premises
and with places of public
entertainment and steel rolling shutters. There are also Codes of
Practice concerning

means of escape and for buildings requiring approval under Section 20

of the
London Building Acts (Amendment) Act 1939 namely

(a) all buildings with a storey or part of a storey at a greater height than
(i) 30.480 m or
(ii) 24.384 m if the area of the building exceeds 929.030 m^
(b) a warehouse building or a building used for trade or manufacture exceed-
ing 7 079.210 m^
It is Part V (clause 5.08) of this code which contains the six hour fire rating require-

ment, and there are many other detailed requirements concerning multi-storey car
parks and other special fire risks, partitions, wall and ceiling linings, the siting of
buildings and the maximum size of compartments, etc.

It is important to remember that in the G.L.C. Inner London area previously

defined the enforcement of legislation is undertaken by the District Surveyors and
it is from them that advice should be obtained in the first instance regarding specific

projects.

(4) Some Methods of Fire Protection

Fire protective claddings for structural steelwork can be classified broadly under
two headings, which are:—

(a) methods executed by general contractors as builders work within a main

building contract, or
(b) methods executed by nominated or specified sub-contractors.

Generally the traditional forms of solid encasements which are slow, heavy and
laborious are carriedout by the general contractors, whereas the lightweight casing
or pre-formed methods, besides the sprayed and painted systems, are applied by
approved applicators being somewhat more specialised operations and thus
becoming nominated or specified.
The thickness of traditional claddings specified in By-laws have, over the years,
been progressively reduced as tests to B.S. 476 indicate that the required protection
can be obtained with lesser thicknesses.

'^e use of soUd concrete casing to steel beams and stanchions usually involved
in-situ concrete work poured
into specially constructed formwork and is normally
programmed by the general contractor to coincide with the pouring of
in-situ
concrete floors; By-laws and regulations specify the amount of wire fabric necessary
to maintain the
concrete cladding in position without spalling if exposed to fire, but
irrespective of mandatory
requirements it is obviously good practice to provide some
light steel mesh
wrapping and B.S. 4483 1969(7) includes meshes D49 at 0.770 kg/m^
964 FIRE RESISTING CONSTRUCTION
and D31 at 0.492 kg/m^. Additional reinforcement is required if structural assistance

is being considered.
The concurrent use of concrete casings as fire protection and assisting in carrying
load has received more attention following the revision of B.S. 449(8) in 1959, in
that in the revised standard, designs are permitted to include the effect of the load-
carrying capacity of the concrete casing as distinct from merely taking advantage
only of the stiffening effect as was previously allowed.
A series of tests carried out jointly at the Fire Research and Building Research
Stations have indicated that cased stanchions, when furnace tested with the design
load which takes the strength of the concrete into account, have fire resistance
periods of 3.33 hours and 4.20 hours respectively; a lightweight concrete casing with
expanded clay aggregate has even greater periods.
From these tests it was also apparent that the load factors for cased stanchions at
normal temperatures were very high, irrespective of the type of concrete used.
The use of brickwork for fire protection is now infrequent although still desirable
in some situations.
Lightweight concrete blocks prove to be a very satisfactory and economical
method of fire protection when used in the right circumstances, this is particularly
so when blockwork being used as an inner skin on an external cavity wall in
is

situations where columns occur on the perimeter of the building. It is then

steel
only necessary to extend the blockwork around the column to provide for fire
protection and the cost is only for blockwork to the sides of the column.
Low density asbestos insulating board can provide a very satisfactory means of fire
protection, and the manufacturers of this material will supply specifications and
fixing details to comply with the various fire ratings.
Within the scope of work executed by sub-contractors there are now available
both gravel concrete and lightweight concrete pre-cast units for encasing steelwork.
The use of these represent a significant saving of time on site as no formwork is
required but because of the many joints, they may need plastering on any contract
where this finish is desirable, and in some cases to upgrade the fire rating where
required to be over two hours.
Using pre-cast lightweight concrete interlocking blocks as beam casings, it is
possible to support the edges of floors within the web. This can provide the advantage
of saving overall height in a building as well as reducing the cost of fire protecting
the sides of the beams. It is also possible to pre-cast insulating concrete to steelwork
and erect the members complete with casing except for the ends where site
connections are to be formed. The advantages mentioned for pre-cast casing will
also obtain in this case, but the erection of the members will obviously be affected
by their increased weight. Also the programming of steel delivery to allow time for
casting and hardening of the casing is entailed. In precasting insulating concrete
around steel sections it is usual to provide a casing of sheet steel — this can provide
a variety of shapes and finishes, for example, galvanised or p.v.c.
It is significant that the tabulated data on conventional periods of fire resistance
for various structural elements specified in the Schedules of the Building Regulations
differ between concrete casing used structurally and that used merely to obtain fire
protection.
The methods of cladding has
limitations involved in the use of the traditional
resulted in the developmentand adoption of some lightweight techniques. Most of
these methods are executed as sub-contracts and can be classified as in-situ, generally
 965
methods of fire protection

Fig. 1. Precast lightweight concrete interlocking blocks fixed to beam.

preformed, which are normally of square or

following tlie profile of the steel, or
rectangular section. Amongst the former are the Intumescent materials (paint and
mastic).
The Paint has restricted application because it provides only a \ hour rating and is
only suitable for internal use and in environments which are not chemically corrosive
or of high humidity. It provides a decorative finish, within a thickness of 2.54 mm,
takes up no floor area and does not increase the dead load, and these advantages can
offset the high cost. The finish is similar to a gloss paint but with a reduced sheen

and a slightly dimpled or ‘orange peel’ surface.

The Intumescent mastic currently available provides for fire ratings of up to two
hours, but because of the fairly high cost of executing this work, its use is mostly
confined to the plant and process industries. It is particularly suitable for external
use and can be executed whilst plant is operational.
Perhaps the most economical in-situ method is sprayed asbestos. This material has
long been recognised for its fire resistance properties and these characteristics are
exploited in spraying whereby the controlled moisturised stream of asbestos fibre
forms a homogeneous coating over the steel surface to be protected. Thus it can be
applied to any structure regardless of shape or size. In addition there are surface
treatments available which prove visually more acceptable than the normal pressed
finish, but in any case this method is not recommended if robustness is a prime

requirement. In specifying this method of fire protection consideration should be

taken of the Asbestos Regulations 1969(9) which require operatives to wear
protective clothing and provides for cleanliness of plant and equipment, storage,
distributionand prohibits the employment of young persons.
Further in-situ sprayed methods include specially prepared vermiculite
and
cement, also cement and sand with the inclusion of foaming agents.
Other methods of fire protecting steel are the dry preformed systems entailing
966 FIRE RESISTING CONSTRUCTION

Sproytd on prottction to

totlow soct/on ptofUt,

Fig. 2

the use of boards, blocks, slabs or pads of material. Special fixing clips, blocks,
battens or other framing are some of the means employed to apply the dry materials,
and it is possible to rnount certain types directly on to the steel surface using a
special adhesive.
The majority of boarding uses vermiculite aggregate bound with plaster or other
binder, or alternatively ordinary plaster board can be used with a gypsum finish or
gypsum and vermiculite (Carlite) being governed by the thickness the fire rating
requires. Likewise expanded metal lathing can be wrapped around the steel to form
a key for Carlite plaster. This is particularly useful where a complex steel framing
is to be protected.

Alignment rod (or channel)

2" channel

Mild steel stirrup

£xpametBB252 lath

Ekpametanglebead
ref no 550

Vermiculite gypsum
piaster

Fig. 3. Expamet lath and plaster encasement to a column.

Suspended ceilings which are frequently used in conjunction with structural

steel frames offer several attractive features which include the ability to
accommodate service engineering equipment whilst providing an aesthetically
 '

967
METHODS OF FIRE PROTECTION
an architectural feature. The
required, can be profiled as
acceotable soffit which, if
ending mam y
choice of suspended ceilings is
governed by Building Regulations; dy
resistance of floor there are requrre-
oSS hd^Tof building, fype of floor and fire
ments for:—

(fl) surface spread of flame of the unexposed surface of the ceiling;

'(b) non-combustible supports and fixings;

(c) jointless as opposed to panel type ceilings.

more than 15 m high or if the fire rating is more than one hour then
If a building is
must be jointless. In Inner the suspended ceiling is
London whenever
the ceiling
steel work (such a ceiling
accepted as giving fire resisting protection to structural
not being accepted as protection to columns) the ceiling must
be jointless and
imperforate, and the ceiling void must be used for no purpose
other than for
other than gas pipes. In the Scottish
electric wiring in steel conduit and metal pipes
Regulations, Schedule 5 details the design and construction of
suspended ceilings
contributing to fire resistance.
Several types of suspended ceiling can also provide many other desirable
characteristics, such as sound absorption and insulation.
The fire protective elements are manufactured from materials which are good
insulators and which do not deteriorate upon exposure to high temperatures. Some
of the more common materials used are the vermiculite, perlite, asbestos, gypsum
plaster and foamed slag. Most of these are used singly or combined with others to
form proprietary materials.
Where traditional cladding is used this must normally be constructed as part of
the structural building work and often becomes the sole work in progress for a long
period during the contract. When modern protection is used, however, the fixing
takes place during the finishing operations on the building. The effect of this is to
allow the main contractor greater flexibility in planning and also, as the fire
protection is no longer likely to be affected by adverse weather conditions, will
invariably result in a reduced contract period which, with consequent reductions in
the contractor’s preliminaries, reduces overall building costs. The use of pre-cast
flooring and roofing is frequently associated with modern fire protection of the
structural steelwork and this also tends to reduce site erection time to a minimum;
when pre-cast floors are used they can be seated directly on the top flanges of
supporting beams which niust then be protected on the remaining three sides or a
suspended ceiling provided', or fixed by means of the pre-cast blocks previously
described. A means of reducing headroom is for the floor units to
be carried on
shelf angles set so that the top flange of the steel beam
is usually at least 25 mm
below the top of the structural floor.
The outstanding feature of most forms of modern fire protection
is extreme
hghtness in weight - many being less than 25 kg/m^
for 50 mm
thick cover. This
factor means that the cladding weight can
be reduced by as much as 1 per cent of
the total load, the effect of this is to reduce
0
steel section sizes and ease foundation
problems, especially in areas when settlement
due to dead load is a design criterion.
Again, these factors reduce building
costs.
The final advantage offered by lightweight
fire protection is the ease with
which
"''“S'" of building layout or service alterations. In some
^ necessary to
n may be
instances it
modify the degree of protection offered and
this
too can readily be accommodated
by the flexibUity available.
968 FIRE RESISTING CONSTRUCTION
In order to make the most of the above advantages it is usually necessary to
detail structural steelwork with reference to the form of protection envisaged — the
small thickness of protection required precludes the use of cleats, splice plates or
bolt heads which, as they cannot be accommodated within the cladding, would
result in unsightly connections; for this reason it may in some cases be desirable to
use welded end plate connections for beam to column joints. If seating cleats are.^
required for the purpose of erection these may be simply bolted on and subsequently
removed. Similarly, stanchion splices should be located and detailed with care to
achieve the desired clean lines; for universal sections of the same serial size this may
be achieved by the use of internal splice plates.
The question of paint protection for structural steelwork to be encased with
lightweight material must be decided upon taking all factors into consideration;
obviously all loose mill scale which in itself can be a source of corrosion, must be
removed prior to cladding but in buildings where no aggressive features are present
it is unlikely that the steelwork will deteriorate if left unpainted. For some forms of

cladding which are applied to the steel surface, however, a special pre-treatment is
often applied and the presence of a conventional paint film may even be
disadvantageous in such circumstances.
Thickness of different types of modern protection are contained in the schedules
to the Building Regulations and Constructional By-laws quoted earlier in this
chapter. General constructional details of many proprietary types of cladding are
given in a booklet (10) published by the British Constructional Steelwork Associa-
tion, a new edition of which is being prepared by ‘CONSTRADO’*

(5) Possible Future Developments

There seems to be no doubt that in the future there will be a continued emphasis
on fire protection as far as building is concerned. With capital intensive plant, for
example, computer installations, destruction by fire or damage by water could
become critical and designers will more and more recognise that fire protection
should not be dealt with in isolation from the rest of the building, but must be
considered and co-ordinated from the time the design is first conceived. This will
ensure that the maximum economy and integration will be provided initially, not
only in regard to the requirements of the various Building Regulations but also for
fire prevention and fire fighting. It is also anticipated that the Regulations will be

based exclusively on scientific research, and therefore greater flexibility will be

allowed and further relaxations permitted when research indicates that the present
requirements are too stringent.
It may be optimistic to consider that some completely new fire resisting material

is going to be developed that is comparable or lower in cost to materials already in

use, but there certainly will be new methods of application of existing material.
Research will pursue the development of admixes for adhesion, aeration or foaming
which will enable in-situ mixes to be applied more quickly and cheaply. Also, the
expected rationahsation of structural sections due to metrication should reduce the
number of sizes of sections rolled thus making pre-formed boarded methods more
viable. Again, there may be a move away from some of the heavier methods such as
concrete to the lightweight pre-formed or in-situ systems.
* Constructional Steel Research & Development Organisation. Albany House, Petty France,
London, S.W.l.
 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 969

the use of water-filled

A further development now actively being pursued is

basis of columns only but now

hollow section steel structures; this started on the
includes the complete structural frame. Some testing
has been carried out both here
to warrant further
and overseas and the results are sufficiently encouraging
of buildings using
development of this system. In the meantime there are a number
this system erected outside the U.K. The
problems of freezing and of corrosion
seem to have been overcome by suitable additives to the water.
Intumescent material will also be the subject of further development.
With paint
the aim must be at least for a one hour rating with an ultimate aim
of two hours
to moisture.
coupled with a complete range of colours and also a higher resistance
anticipated the
For external use and for ratings exceeding two hours, it is

Intumescent mastic should become more popular dependent upon the ability to
provide an acceptable finish at a more reasonable cost than at present.
With the use of weathering steel, a new design concept has arisen whereby
structural elements of the external walling are placed outside the facade and the
exposed frame becomes an architectural feature. This presents an entirely new
steel

fire situation, where conventional fire protection is not acceptable for aesthetic

reasons. However, where elements are not subject to severe radiation or flame
impingement, as with most applications, there is no need for fire protection.
Further research is necessary before legislation can be framed to provide for these
conditions and at present each design is examined by the Joint Fire Research

Organisation and recommendations formulated.

Given time, design rules will be produced which will enable the designer to
compute the position of the exposed columns to eliminate the need for fire
protection. The important parameters are the sizes of the steel sections and their
distances from the fa 9 ade, details of window openings and the proposed occupancy
or fire load.
In a situation where
not possible to eliminate fire protection completely,
it is

suitable heat shields can be provided. These may consist of a sheet steel fabrication
fixed to the fire exposed face of the column or beam at fire risk with provision for
an insulating void and overlap.
Again, research has shown (11) that it is safe, for certain values of fire load and
ventilation opening, to employ unprotected steelwork internally in offices and
similar buildings. Present legislation prohibits this, however.

of a fire - that
All these findings stem from the ability to calculate severity
is, its maximum
temperature and duration - from a knowledge of the nature,
amount and arrangement of the fuel, and also the size and shape of
the room and
window(s) and thermal insulation of walls and ceiling.
Knowing the severity of the
real fire it is possible to correlate this with a certain period of the standard fire
test. (12)
The B.S. 476 fire resistance test applies to isolated elements, usually tested
in a
simply supported state. To examine the fire behaviour of full size assemblies
of
beams and columns, a new experimental station
has been built for the European
Convention for Structural Steelwork at
Maiziers-Les-Metz, in France, TWs enables
““Mnuity md structural restraint to be examined
under the ISO f°“
undefthrisn f
time temperature curve (this is virtually identical to
me test results that of B S 4761
now becoming available, will provide much needed
'

information on
S com^Z't parts.
‘ha‘ of
 970 FIRE RESISTING CONSTRUCTION
The administration of the Building Regulations 1972, the G.L.C. Constructional
By-laws and the Building Standards (Scotland) (Consolidation) Regulations 1971
could be improved by uniformity so that one set would apply nationally.
The history and reasons for the differing regulations has already been traced but
itshould now be recognised that rationalisation is necessary.
This could be achieved when Local Government is reorganised into larger
administrative areas and could take the form of a set of National Regulations. The
use of these should show considerable saving in design costs and simphfy
enforcement.

(6) Bibliography

(1) The Building Regulations 1972. H.M.S.O.

(2) The Building Standards (Scotland) (Consolidation) Regulations 1971. H.M.S.O.
(3) London Building (Constructional) By-laws 1972. Greater London Council.
(4) Code of Practice for buildings of excess height and/or additional cubical extent
requiring approval under Section 20 of the London Building Acts (Amendment) Act
1939. Greater London Council.
(5) B.S. 476 Part 1:1953 with Amendment No. 1, 26th January 1970. British Standards
Institution.
(6) Joint Circular from the Ministry of Housing and Local Government and Welsh Office
(17/68 and 11/68 respectively) The Buildiitg Regulations 1965 Multi-Storey Car
Parks’. H.M.S.O.
(7) B.S. 4483: 1969 Steel fabric for the reinforcement of concrete (metric units). British
Standards Institution.
(8) B.S. 449: 1959 The use of Structural Steel in Building. British Standards Institution.
(9) The Asbestos Regulations 1969. H.M.S.O.
(10) Modern Fire Protection for Structural Steelwork FP3. British Constructional Steelwork
Association Ltd.
(11) The temperature attained by steel in building fires. Fire Research Technical paper
No. 15 1966. H.M.S.O.
(12) Behaviour of Structural Steel in Fire. JFRO Symposium No. 2. H.M.S.O.

Other References

(a) W. H. CUTMORE, Shaw’s Commentary on The Building Regulations. Shaw & Sons Ltd.
The publishers gratefully acknowledge permission to reproduce sections of parts of
the commentary.
(b) London Building Acts 1930-39. Greater London Council.
(c) Explanatory Memorandum to the Building Standards (Scotland) Regulations 1971 -
Parts D and E. H.M.S.O.
(d) Report of the Committee on Building Legislation in Scotland. Cmnd. 269. H.M.S.O.
(e) Report of the Departmental Committee on the Fire Service. Cmnd. 7371 H.M.S.O.
(f) Glossary of terms associated with fire B.S. 4422 Part 1. British Standards Institution.
(g) Notes on some methods of fire protection of Structural Steelwork currently in use.
British Steel Corporation.
(h) CARPENTER, JOHN and WHITTINGTON, RICHARD (compiled by). Liber Albus,
by H. T. RUey. Richard Griffin and Company.
translated
(i) G. V. BLACKSTONE,^! History of the British Fire Service. Routledge and Kegan Paul.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 971

(j) Building with Steel issue No. 3 May 1970. Fire Protection.
The Spread of Fire in Buildings.
Structural Steel and Fire.
The Economics of Fire Protection.
Car Parks and Fire.
Fire and Steel Components.
British Steel Corporation.
(k) Multi-storey Car Parks - Relaxations of the Building Regulations 1965 to permit the use
of E^osed Steel Framework. The British Constructional Steelwork Association Ltd.
(l) Conference on ‘Steel in Architecture’ November 1969, organised by and papers
published by the British Constructional Steelwork Association Ltd.

P
 40. MISCELLANEOUS TABLES

CONVERSION TABLES
MOMENTS OF INERTTA
Inches'* Units to Centimetres'* Units

irt/
'

0 -1 -2 •3 4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9

cm/ cm/ cm/ cm/ cm/ cm/ cm/ cm/

cm/ cm/ 70-759 74-922 79-084
41-62314256 45-785 49-948 54-110 58-272 62-435 66-597
1 112-382 116-545 120-707
83-24628 87-409 91-571 95-733 99-895 104-058 108-220
2 1

149-843 154-006 158-168 162-330

124-86942 129-032 133-194 137-356 141-519 145-681
3 187-304 191-466 195-629 199-791 203-953
166-49257 170-655 174-817 178-979 183-142
4 233-089 237-252 241-414 245-576
208-1 f571 212-278 216-440 220-603 224-765 228-927
5 278-875 283-037 287-200
249-73886 253-901 258-063 262-226 266-388 270-550 274-713
6 320-498 324-660 328-883
291-36200 295-524 299-687 303-849 308-011 312-173 316-336
7 366-284 370-446
332-98514 337-147 341-310 345-472 349-634 353-797 357-959 362-121
8 412-069
374-60829 378-771 382-933 387-095 391-257 395-420 399-582 403-744 407-907
9
10 416-23143

cm.*

1
2
0

0-02402510
0-04805019
B in.^
0-02643
0-05045
Centimetres'* Units to Inches'* Units

-2

in/
0-02883
0-05285
-3

in/
0-03123
0-05526
-4

in/
0-03363
0-05766
-5

in.**
0-03604
0-06006
-6

in/
0-03844
0-06246
-7

in/
0-04084
0-06487
-8

in/
0-04324
0-06727
-9

in/
004565
0-06967
3 0-07207529 0-07448 - 0-07688 0-07928 0-08168 0-08409 0-08649 0-08889 0-09129 0-09370
4 0-09610038 0-09850 0-10091 0-10331 0-10571 0-10811 0-11052 0-11292 0-11532 0-11772
5 0-12012548 0-12253 0-12493 0-12733 0-12974 0-13214 0-13454 0-13694 0-13935 0-14175
6 0-14415058 0-14655 0-14895 0-15136 0-15376 0-15616 0-15856 0-16097 0-16337 0-16577
7 0-16817567 0-17058 0-17298 0-17538 0-17779 0-18019 0-18259 0-18499 0-18740 0-18980
8 0-19220077 0-19460 0-19701 0-19941 0-20181 0-20421 0-20662 0-20902 0-21142 0-21382
9 0-21622586 0-21863 0-22103 0-22343 0-22584 0-22824 0-23064 0-23304 0-23545 0-23785
10 0-24025096

MODULI OF SECTION

1
2
0

cm/
16-387064
32-77413
-1

cm/
18-026
34-413
Inches^ Units to CENnMETREs^ Units

-2

cm/
19-664
36-051
•3

cm/
21-303
37-690
1

cm/
22-942
39-329
-5

cm/
24-580
40-967
-6

cm/
26-219
42-606
Bcm/
27-858
44-245
-8

cm/
29-497
45-884
i

1
.9

cm/
31-135
47-522
3 49-16119 50-800 52-438 54-077 55-716 57-355 58-993 60-632 62-271 63-909
4 65-54826 67-187 68-826 70-464 72-103 73-742 75-380 77-019 78-658 80-297
5 81-93532 83-574 85-213 86-851 88-490 90-129 91-767 93-406 95-045 96-684
6 98-32238 I
99-961 101-600 103-238 104-877 106-516 109-793 111-432 113-071
7 114-70945 116-348 117-987 119-625 121-624 122-903 126-180 127-819 129-458
8 131-09651 132-735 134-374 136-012 137-651 139-290 142-567 144-206 145-845
9 147-48358 149-122 150-761 152-400 154-038 155-677 157-316 158-954 160-593 162-232
10 163-87064
j

1 1
1

cm/

1
2
0

in/
0-061024
0-122047
•1

in/
0-06713
0-12815
Centimetres^ Units to Inches^ Units

-2

in/
0-07323
0-13425
-3

in/
0-07933
0-14035
-4

in/
008543
0-14646
•5

in/
0-09154
-6

in/
0-09764
— in/
0-10374
-8

in/
0-10984
•9

in/
0-11594
0-15256 0-15866 0-16476 0-17087 0-17697
3 0-183071 0-18917 0-19527 0-20138 0-20748 0-21358 0-21968 0-22579 0-23189 0-23799
4 0-244095 0-25020 0-25630 0-26240 0-26850 0-27461 0-28071 0-28681 0-29291 0-29902
5 0-305119 0-31122 0-31732 0-32342 0-32953 0-33563 0-34173 0-34783 0-35394 0-36004
6 0-366142 0-37224 0-37835 0-38445 0-39055 0-39665 0-40276 0-40886 0-41496 0-42106
7 0-427166 0-43327 0-43937 0-44547 0-45158 0-45768 0-46378 0-46988 0-47599
8 0-488190 0-49429 0-50040 0-48209
0-50650 0-51260 0-51870 0-52480 0-53091 0-53701
9 0-549213 0-55532 0-56142 0-56752 0-57362
0-54311
10 0-57973 0-58583 0-59193 0-59803 0-60414
0-610237

Based on 1 inch =25’4 mihimeties

973
974 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
CONVERSION TABLES
Extract from B.S. 350 : 1944

WEIGHTS PER UNIT LENGTH

POUNDS PER FOOT TO KILOGRAMS PER METRE
Based on 1 inch = 25-4 millimetres 1 poimd = 0-45359243 kilograms
;

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ESEl
kg./m. kg./m. kg./m. kg./m. kg./m. kg./m. kg./m. kg./m. kg./m. kg./m.
— — 1-4882 2-9763 4-4645 5-9527 7-4408 10-417 13-393

10 14-882 16-370 17-858 19-346 20-834 23-811 25-299 26-787 28-275

20 29-763 31-251 32-740 34-228 35-716 37-204 38-692 40-180 41-669 43-157
30 44-645 46-133 47-621 49-109 50-598 52-086 53-574 56-550 58-038
40 59-527 61-015 62-503 63-991 65-479 66-967 68-456 69-944 71-432 72-920

50 74-408 75-896 77-385 78-873 80-361 81-849 83-337 84-825 86-314 87-802

60 89-290 90-778 92-266 93-754 95-242 96-731 98-219 99-707 101-195 102-683
70 104-171 105-660 107-148 108-636 110-124 111-612 113-100 114-589 116-077 117-565
80 119 053 120-541 122-029 123-518 125-006 126-494 127-982 129-470 130-958 132-447
90 133-935 135-423 136-911 138-399 139-887 141-376 142-864 144-352 145-840 147-328
100 148-816

KILOGRAMS PER METRE TO POUNDS PER FOOT

Based on 1 inch = 25-4 millimetres 1 pound = 0-45359243 kilograms

B B B
;

Kg. 0 3 5 6
2 8 9
per m.

Ib./ft. Ib./ft. Ib./ft. ib./ft. Ib./ft. Ib./ft. Ib./ft. Ib./ft. Ib./ft. Ib./ft.
— — 0-67197 1-3439 2-0159 2-6^79 3-3598 4-0318 4-7038 5-3758 6-0477
10 6-7197 7-3917 8-0636 8-7356 9-4076 10-0795 10-7515 11-4235 12-0954 12-7674
20 13-4394 14-1113 14-7833 15-4553 16-1273 .16-7992 17-4712 18-1432 18-8151 19-4871
30 20-1591 20-8310 21-5030 22-1750 22-8469 23-5189 24-1909 24-8629 26-2068
40 26-8788 27-5507 28-2227 28-8947 29-5666 30-2386 30-9106 31-5825 32-9265
50 33-5984 34-2704 34-9424 35-6144 36-2863 36-9583 57-6303 38-3022 38-9742 39-6462
60
70
80
Em
40-3181 40-9901
47-7098
53-758 54-429
41-6621
48-3818
55-101
42-3340
49-0537
55-773
43-0060
49-7257
56-445
43-6780
50-398
57-117
44-3500
51-070
57-789
45-0219
51-742
58-461
45-6939
52-414
59-133
46-3659
53-086
59-805
90 60-477 61-149 61-821 62-493 63-165 63-837 64-509 65-181 65-853 66-525
100 67-197 67-869 68-541 69-213 69-885 70-557 71-229 71-901 72-573 73-245
110 73-917 74-589 75-261 75-932 76-604 77-276 77-948 78-620 79-292 79-964
120 80-636 81-308 81-980 82-652 83-324 83-996 84-668 85-340 86-012 86-684
130 87-356 88-028 88-700 89-372 90-044 90-716 91-388 92-060 92-732 93-404
140 94-076 94-748 95-420 96-092 96-764 97-436 98-107 98-779 99-451 100-123
 975
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
CONVERSION TABLES
Extract from B.S. 350: 1944

WEIGHTS
POUNDS TO KJLOGBAMS
Based on 1 pound = 0-45359243 kilograms

lb.
nn
kg. kg.
2

kg.
3

kg.
4

kg.

0-45359 0-90718 1-36078 1-81437 2-26796

5

kg.
6

kg.
7

kg.
8

kg.
2-72155 3-17515 3-62874 4-08233
9

kg.

5-8967 6-8039 7-2575 7-7111 8-1647 8-6183

in 4-53592 4-98952 5-4431
5ft 9-0718 9-5254 9-9790 10-4326 10-8862 11-3398 11-7934 12-2470 12-7006 13-1542
io 13-6078 14-0614 14-5150 14-9686 15-4221 15-8757 16-3293 16-7829 17-2365 17-6901
18-1437 18-5973 19-0509 19-9581 20-4117 20-8653 21-3188 21-7724 22*2260
40
26-7620
50 22-6796 23-1332 23-5868 24-0404 24-4940 24-9476 25-4012 25-8548 26-3084
9.7.5165 27-6691 28-1227 28-5763 29-4835 29-9371 30-3907 30-8445 51-2979
60
70 32-2051 32-6587 33-1122 34-0194 34-4730 34-9266 35-3802 5b -833s
.^e-9.874 36-7410 37-1946 37-6482 38-1018 38-5554 39-0089 39-4625 39-9161
40-3697
80
90 41-2769 41-7305 42-1841 43-0913 43-5449 43-9985 44-4521 44-9057
45-3592 45-8128 46-2664 47-1736 47-6272 48-0808 48-5344 48-9880 49-4416
100
49-8952 50-349 50-802 51-256 51-710 52-163 52-617 53-070 53-524 53-977
10
20 54-431 54-885 55-338 55-792 56-245 56-699 57-153 57-606 58-060 58-513
30 58-967 59-421 59-874 61-235 61-689 62-142 62-596 63-049
40 63-503 63-957 64-410 64-864 65-317 65-771 66-224 66-678 67-132 67-585

50 68-492 68-946 69-853 70-760 71-214 71-668 72-121

60 72-575 73-028 73-482 73-936 74-389 74-843 75-296 75-750 76-204 76-657
70 77-111 77-564 78-018 78-471 78-925 79-379 79-832 80-286 80-739 *81-193
80 81-647 82-100 82-554 83-461 83-915 84-368 84-822 85-275 85-729
90 86-183 86-636 87-090 87-543 87-997 88-451 88-904 89-358 89-811 90-265
200 91-172 91-626 92-079 92-533 92-986 93-440 93-894 94-347 94-801
10 95-254 95-708 96-162 96-615 97-069 97-976 98-430 98-883 99-337
20 99-790 100-244 100-698 101-151 101-605 102-058 102-512 102-965 103-419 103-873
30 104-780 105-233 105-687 106-141 106-594 107-048 107-501 107-955 108-409
40 108-862 109-316 109-769 110-223 110-677 111-130 111-584 112-037 112-491 112-945
50 113-398 113-852 114-305 114-759 115-212 115-666 116-120 116-573 117-027 117-480
60 117-934 118-388 118-841 119-295 119-748 120-202 120-656 121-109 121-563 122-016
70 122-924 123-377 123-831 124-284 124-738 125-192 125-645 126-099 126-552
80 127-459 127-913 128-367 128-820 129-274 129-727 130-181 130-635 131-088
90 131-995 132-449 132-903 133-356 133-810 134-263 134-717 135-171 135-624
300 136-078 136-531 136-985 137-439 137-892 138-346 138-799 139-253 139-706 140-160
10 140-614 141-067 141-521 141-974 142-428 142-882 143-335 143-789 144-242 144-696
20 145-150 145-603 146-057 146-510 146-964 147-418 147-871 148-525 148-778 149-232
30 149-686 150-139 150-593 151-046 151-500 151-953 152-407 152-861 153-314 153-768
40 154-221 154-675 155-129 155-582 156-036 156-489 156-943 157-397 157-850 158-304
50 158-757 159-211 159-665 160-118 160-572 161-025 161-479 161-932 162-386 162-840
60 163-293 163-747 164-200 164-654 165-108 165-561 166-015 166-468 166-922 167-376
70 167-829 168-283 168-736 169-190 169-644 170-097 170-551 171-004 171-458 171-912
SO 172-365 172-819 173-272 173-726 174-179 174-633 175-087 175-540 175-994 176-447
90 176-901 177-355 177-808 178-262 178-715 179-169 179-623 180-076 180-530 180-983
181-891 182-344 182-798 183-251 183-705 184-159 184-612 185-066 185-519
185-973 186-426 186-880 187-334 187-787 188-241 188-694 189-148 189-602 190-055
zu 190-509 190-962 191-416 191-870 192-523 192-777 193-230 193-684 194-138 194-591
30 195-045 195-498 195-952 196-406 196-859 197-313 197-766 198-220 198-673 199-127
40 199-581 200-034 200-488 200-941 201-395 201-849 202-302 202-756 203-209 203-663
50 204-117 204-570 205-024 205-477 205-931 206-385 206-838 207-292
207-745 208-199
60 208-653 209-106 209-560 210-013 210-467 210-920 211-374
211-828 212-281 212-735
213-642 214-096 214-549 215-003 215-456 215-910 216-364 216-817
217-724 218-178 218-632 219-085 219-539 219-992 217-27i
220-446 220-900 221-353 221-807
yu 222-714 223-167 223-621 224-075 224-528 224-982 225-435
225-889 226-343
976 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
CONVERSION TABLES
Extract from B.S. 350 : 1944

WEIGHTS
POUNDS TO KILOGRAMS (continued)

Based on pound = 0'45359243 kilograms

DB B B
1

Ib. 2 3 5 6 8 9

kg. kg. kg. kg. kg. kg. kg. kg. kg.

-^500 226-796 227-703 229-064 229-518 229-971 230-425 230-879
10 231-332 231-786 232-239 233-147 233-600 234-054 234-507 234-961 235-414
20
30
235-868
240-404
236-322
240-858
236-775 mem
241-311 241-765 242-218
238-136
242-672
238-590
243-126
239-043
243-579
239-497
244-033
239-950
244-486
40 244-940 245-394 245-847 246-301 246-754 247-208 247-661 248-115 248-569 249-022
50 249-476 249-929 250-383 250-837 251-290 251-744 252-197 252-651 253-105 253-558
60 254-012 254-465 254-919 255-373 256-280 256-733 257-187 257-640 258-094
70 258-548 259-001 259-455 259-908 260-816 261-269 261-723 262-176 262-630
80 263-084 263-537 263-991 264-444 264-898 265-352 265-805 266-259 266-712 267-166
90 267-620 268-073 268-527 268-980 269-434 269-887 270-341 270-795 271-248 271-702
600 272-155 272-609 273-063 273-516 273-970 274-423 274-877 275-331 275-784 276-238
10 276-691 277-145 277-599 278-052 278-506 278-959 279-413 279-867 280-320 280-774
20 281-227 281-681 282-134 282-588 283-042 283-495 283-949 284-402 284-856 285-310
30 285-763 286-217 286-670 287-124 287-578 288-031 288-485 288-938 289-392 289-846
40 290-299 290-753 291-206 291-660 292-567 293-021 293-474 293-928 294-381
50 294-835 295-289 295-742 296-196 296-649 297-103 297-557 298-010 298-464 298-917
60 299-371 299-825 300-278 300-732 301-185 301-639 302-093 302-546 303-000 303-453
70 303-907 304-361 304-814 305-268 306-175 306-628 307-082 307-536 307-989
80 308-443 308-896 309-350 309-804 310-711 311-164 311-618 312-072 312-525
90 312-979 313-432 313-886 314-340 315-247 315-700 316-154 316-608 317-061
700 317-515 317-968 318-422 318-875 319-329 319-783 320-236 320-690 321-143 321-597
10 322-051 322-504 322-958 323-411 323-865 324-319 324-772 325-226 325-679 326-133
20 326-587 327-040 327-494 327-947 328-401 328-855 329-308 329-762 330-215 330-669
30 331-122 331-576 332-030 322-483 332-937 333-390 333-844 334-298 334-751 335-205
40 335-658 336-566 337-019 337-473 337-926 338-380 338-834 339-287 339-741
50 340-194 340-648 341-101 341-555 342-462 342-916 343-369 343-823 344-277
60 344-730 345-184 345-637 346-091 346-545 346-998 347-452 347-905 348-359 348-813
70 349-266 349-720 350-173 350-627 351-081 351-534 351-988 352-441 352-895 353-349
80 353-802 354-256 354-709 355-163 355-616 356-070 356-524 356-977 357-431 357-884
90 358-338 358-792 359-245 359-699 360-152 360-606 361-060 361-513 361-967 362-420
800 362-874 363-328 363-781 364-235 364-688 365-142 365-595 366-049 366-503 366-956
10 367-410 367-863 368-317 368-771 369-224 369-6-78370-131 370-585 371-039 371-492
20 371-946 372-399 372-853 373-307 373-760 374-214 374-667 375-121 375-575 376-028
30 276-482 376-935 377-389 377-842 378-296 378-750 379-203 379-657 380-110 380-564
40 381-018 381-471 381-925 382-378 382-832 383-286 383-739 384-193 384-646 385-100
50 385-554 386-007 386-461 386-914 387-368 387-822 388-275 388-729 389-182 389-636
60 390-089 390-543 390-997 391-450 392-357 392-811 393-265 393-718 394-172
70 394-625 395-079 395-533 395-986 396-440 396-893 397-347 397-801 398-254 398-708
80 399-161 399-615 400-069 400-522 401-429 401-883 402-336 402-790 403-244
90 403-697 404-151 404-604 405-512 405-965 406-419 406-872 407-326 407-780
900 408-233 408-687 409-140 409-594 410-501 410-955 411-408 411-862 412-316
10 412-769 413-223 413-676 414-130 414-583 415-037 415-491 415-944 416-398 416-851
20 417-305 417-759 418-212 418-666 419-119 419-573 420-027 420-481 420-934 421-387
30 421-841 422-295 422-748 424-109 424-563 425-016 425-470 425-923
40 426-377 426-830 427-284 428-191 428-645 429-098 429-552 430-006 430-459
50 430-913 431-366 431-820 432-274 432-727 433-181 433-634 434-088 434-542 434-995
60 435-449 435-902 436-356 436-810 437-263 437-717 438-170 438-624 439-077 439-531
70 439-985 440-438 440-892 441-345 441-799 442-253 442-706 443-160 443-613 444-067
80 444-521 '444-974 445-428 445-881 446-335 446-789 447-242 447-696 448-149 448-603
90 449-057 449-510 449-964 450-417 450-871 451-324 451-778 452-232 452-685 453-139
1000 453-592
 977
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
CONVERSION TABLES
Extract from B.S. 350 : 1944

KILOGRAMS TO POUNDS
Based on 1 pound = 0-45359243 kilograms

I -
1

lb.
2

lb.

2-20462 4-40924 6-6139

Ib.
n lb.

8-8185
5

lb.
6

lb. lb.

11-0231 13-2277 15-4324 17-6370 19-8416

8

lb.
9

lb.

24-2508 26-4555 28-6601 30-8647 33-0693 35-2740 37-4786 39-6832 41-8878

22-0462
88So
46-2971 48-5017 50-706 52-911 55-116 57-320 59-525 61-729 64-934
44-0924
68-343 70-548 72-753 74-957 77-162 79-366 81-571 83-776 85-980
66-139
90-390 92-594 94-799 97-003 99-208 101-413 103-617 105-822 108-026
88-185
8 110-231 112-436 114-640 116-845 121-254 123-459 125-663 127-868 130-073
132-277 134-482 136-687 138-891 143-300 145-505 147-710 149-914 152-llS
154-324 156-528 158-733 160-937 167-551 169-756 171-961 174-165
SS^S
176-370 178-574 180-779 182-984 187-393 189-598 191-802 194-007 196-211
198-416 200-621 202-825 211-644 213-848 216-053 218-258

I 220-462 222-667 224-871

244-713 246-918
231-485 233-690 235-895 238-099 240-304
253-532 255-736 257-941 260-145 262-350
242-508
88S5 264-555 266-759 268-964 275-578 277-782 279-987 282-192 284-396
286-601 288-806 291-010 293-215 299-829 302-033 304-238 306-442
308-647 310-852 313-056 321-875 324-079 326-284 328-489
8 330-693 332-898 335-103 337-307 341-716 343-921 346-126 348-330 350-555
352-740 354-944 357-149 359-353 365-967 368-172 370-377 372-581
374-786 376-990 379-195 381-400 385-809 388-014 390-218 392-423 394-627
SSS8 396-832 399-037 401-241 403-446 410-060 412-264 414-469 416-674
418-878 421-083 423-288 425-492 427-697 432-106 434-311 436-515 438-720
i 440-924 443-129 445-334 447-538 449-745 451-948 454-152 456-357 458-561 460-766
462-971 465-175 467-380 469-585 473-994 476-198 478-403 480-608 482-812
485-017 487-222 489-426 491-631 493-835 496-040 498-245 500-45 502-65 504-86
507-06 509-27 511-47 515-88 518-09 520-29 522-50 524-70 526-90
529-11 531-31 533-52 535-72 537-93 542-34 544-54 546-75 548-95
8 551-16 553-36 555-56 557-77 559-97 562-18 564-38 566-59 568-79 571-00
573-20 575-41 577-61 579-82 582-02 584-22 , 586-43 588-63 590-84 593-04
595-25 597-45 599-66 604-07 606-27 608-48 610-68 612-89 615-09
SS3S
617-29 619-50 621-70 623-91 626-11 628-32 630-52 632-73 634-93 637-14
639-34 641-55 643-75 645-95 648-16 652-57 654-77 656-98 659-18
i 661-39 663-59 665-80 670-21 672-41 674-61 676-82 679-02 681-23
683-43 685-64 687-84 692-25 696-66 698-87 701-07 703-27
65gss
705-48 709-89 712-09 714-30 716-50 718-71 720-91 723-12 725-32
727-53 729-73 731-93 734-14 736-34 738-55 740-75 742-96 745-16 747-37
749-57 751-78 753-98 756-19 758-39 760-59 762-80 765-00 767-21 769-41
2 771-62 773-82 776-03 778-23 780-44 782-64 784-85 787-05 789-25 791-46
793-66 795-87 798-07 800-28 802-48 804-69 806-89 809-10 811-30 813-51
815-71 817-91 820-12 822-32 824-53 826-73 828-94 831-14 833-35 835-55
SS^S
837-76 839-96 842-17 844-37 846-57 848-78 850-98 853-19 855-39 857-60
859-80 862-01 864-21 866-42 868-62 870-83 873-03 875-24 877-44
i 881-85 886-26 888-46 890-67 892-87 895-08 897-28 899-49
879-64
901-69
903-90 906-10 908-30 910-51 912-71 914-92 917-12 919-33 921-53 923-74
925-94 928-15 930-35 932-56 934-76 936-96 939-17 941-37 943-58 945-78
947-99 950-19 952-40 954-60 956-81 959-01 961-22 963-42 965-62 967-83
970-03 972-24 974-44 976-65 978-85 981-06 983-26 985-47 987-67 989-88
S 992-08 994-28 996-49 998-69 1000-90 1005-10 1005-31 1007-51 1009-72 1011-92
1014-13 1016-33 1018-54 1020-74 1022-94 1025-15 1027-35 1029-56 1031-76 1033-97
1040-58 1042-79 1044-99 1049-40 1051-60 1053-81
SS^S llTTI n T 1056-Oi
1062-63 1064-83 1067-04 1069-24 1071-45 1073-65 1075-86 1078-06
1084-67 1086-88 1089-08 1091-29 1093-49 1095-70 1097-90
“sS 1100-11
978 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
CONVERSION TABLES
Extract from B.S. 350 : 1944

KILOGRAMS TO POUNDS (continued)

Based on 1 pound = 0-45359243 kilograms

lb.

1122-15
1144-20
1166-25
1188-29
1210-34
1232-38
1254-43
1276-48
1298-52
1320-57
1342-62
1364-66
1386-71
1408-75
1430-80
1452-85
1474-89
1496-94
1518-98
1541-03
 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 979

CONVERSION TABLES
Extract from B.S. 350 : 1944

FEET AND INCHES TO METRES

Based on 1 inch = 25-4 millimetres

Uncontracted values
Differences
Inches for
Feet sixteenths
0 1 2 3 4 5 of an inch

m. m. m. m. m. m. m.
0 — 0-0254 0-0508 0-0762 0-1016 0-1270

1 0-3048 0-3302 0-3556 0-3810 0-4064 0-4318

2 0-6096 0-6350 0-6604 0-6858 0-7112 0-7366 1 0-0016
3 0-9144 0-9398 0-9652 0-9906 1-0160 1-0414
4 1-2192 1-2446 1-2700 1-2954 1-3208 1-3462

5 1-5240 1-5494 1-5748 1-6002 1-6256 1-6510 2 0-0032

6 1-8288 1-8542 1-8796 1-9050 1-9304 1-9558

7 2-1336 2-1590 2-1844 2-2098 2-2352 2-2606
8 2-4384 2-4638 2-4892 2-5146 2-5400 2-5654 3 0-0048
9 2-7432 2-7686 2-7940 2-8194 2-8448 2-8702
10 3-0480 3-0734 3-0988 3-1242 3-1496 3-1750

11 3-3528 3-3782 3-4036 3-4290 3-4544 3-4798 4 0-0064

12 3-6576 3-6830 3-7084 3-7338 3-7592 3-7846
13 3-9624 3-9878 4-0132 4-0386 4-0640 4-0894
14 4-2672 4-2926 4-3180 4-3434 4-3688 4-3942 5 0-0079
15 4-5720 4-5974 4-6228 4-6482 4-6736 4-6990
16 4-8768 4-9022 4-9276 4-9530 4-9784 5-0038
17 5-1816 5-2070 5-2324 5-2578 5-2832 5-3086 6 0-0095
18 5-4864 5-5118 5-5372 5-5626 5-5880 5-6134
19 5-7912 5-8166 5-8420 5-8674 5-8928 5-9182
20 6-0960 6-1214 6-1468 6-1722 6-1976 6-2230 7 0-0111
21 6-4008 6-4262 6-4516 6-4770 6-5024 6-5278
22 6-7056 6-7310 6-7564 6-7818 6-8072 6-8326
23 7-0104 7-0358 7-0612 7-0866 7-1120 7-1374 8 0-0127
24 7-3152 7-3406 7-3660 7-3914 7-4168 7-4422
25 7-6200 7-6454 7-6708 7-6962 7-7216 7-7470
26 7-9248 7-9502 7-9756 8-0010 8-0264 8-0518 9 0-0143
27 8-2296 8-2550 8-2804 8-3058 8-3312 8-3566
28 8-5344 8-5598 8-5852 8-6106 8-6360 8-6614
29 8-8392 8-8646 8-8900 8-9154 8-9408 8-9662 10 0-0159
30 9-1440 9-1694 9-1948 9-2202 9-2456 9-2710
31 9-4488 9-4742 9-4996 9-5250. 9-5504 9-5758
32 9-7536 9-7790 9-8044 9-8298 9-8552 9-8806 11 0-0175
33 10-0584 10-0838 10-1092 10-1346 10-1600 10-1854
34 10-3632 10-3886 10-4140 10-4394 10-4648 10-4902
35 10-6680 10-6934 10-7188 10-7442 10-7696 10-7950 12 0-0190
36 10-9728 10-9982 11-0236 11-0490 11-0744 11-0998
37 11-2776 11-3030 11-3284 11-3538 11-3792 11-4046
38 11-5824 11-6078 11-6332 11-6586 11-6840 11-7094 13 0-0206
39 11-8872 11-9126 11-9380 11-9634 11-9888 12-0142
40 12-1920 12-2174 12-2428 12-2682 12-2936 12-3190
41 12-4968 12-5222 12-5476 12-5730 12-5984 12-6238 14 0-0222
42 12-8016 12-8270 12-8524 12-8778 12-9032 12-9286
43 15-1064 13-1318 13-1572 13-1826 13-2080 13-2334
44 13-4112 13-4366 13-4620 13-4874 13-5128 13-5382 15 0-0238
45 13-7160 13-7414 13-7668 13-7922 13-8176 13-8430
46 14-0208 14-0462 14-0716 14-0970 14-1224 14-1478
47 14*3266 14-3510 14-3764 14-4018 14-4272 14-4526
4o 14-6304 14-6558 14-6812 14-7066 14-7320 14-7574
4y 14-9352 14-9606 14-9860 15-0114 15-0368 15-0622
 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
CONVERSION TABLES
Extract from B.S. 350: 1944

FEET AND INCHES TO METRES

Based on 1 inch = 25-4 millim etres
Uncontracted values

Differences
1

Inches
for
Feet sixteenths
6 7 8 9 10 11 of an inch
m. m. m. m. m. m. m.
0 0-1524 0-1778 0-2032 0-2286 0-2540 0-2794
1 0-4572 0-4826 0-5080 0-5334 0-5588 0-5842
2 0-7620 0-7874 0-8128 0-8382 0-8636 0-8890 1 0-0016
3 1-0668 1-0922 1-1176 1-1430 1-1684 1-1938
4 1-3716 1-3970 1-4224 1-4478 1-4732 1-4986
5 1-6764 1-7018 2-7272 1-7526 1-7780 1-8034 2 0-0032
6 1-9812 2-0066 2-0320 2-0574 2-0828 2-1082
7 2-2860 2-3114 2-3368 2-3622 8-3876 2-4130
8 2-5908 2-6162 2-6416 2-6670 2-6924 2-7178 3 0-0048
9 2-8956 2-9210 2-9464 2-9718 2-9972 3-0226 i

10 3-2004 3-2258 3-2512 3-2766 3-3020 3-3274

11 3-5052 3-5306 j
3-5560 3-5814 3-6068 3-6322 4 0-0064
12 3-8100 3-8354 1 3-8608 3-8862 3-9116 3-9370
13 4-1148 4:1402 4-1656 4-1910 4-2164 4-2418 !

14 4-4196 4-4450 4-4704 4-4958 4-5212 4-5466 5 0-0079

15 4-7244 4-7498 4-7752 4-8006 4-8260 4-8314
16 5-0292 5-0546 5-0800 5-1054 5-1308 5-1562
17 5-3340 5-3594 5-3848 5-4102 5-4356 5-4610 6 0-0095
18 5-6388 5-6642 5-6896 5-7150 5-7404 5-7658
19 .
5-9436 5-9690 5-9944 6-0198 6-0452 6-0706
20 6-2484 6-2738 6-2992 6-3246 6-3500 6-3754 7 0-0111
21 6-5532 6-5786 6-6040 6-6294 6-6548 6-6802
22 6-8580 6-8834 6-9088 6-9342 6-9596 6-9850
23 7-1628 7-1882 7-2136 7-2390 7-2644 7-2898 8 0-0127
24 7-4676 7-4930 7-5184 7-5438 7-5692 7-5946
25 7-7724 7-7978 7-8232 7-8486 7-8740 7-8994
26 8-0772 8-1026 8-1280 8-1534 8-1788 8-2042 9 0-0143
27 8-3820 8-4074 8-4328 8-4582 8-4836 8-5090
28 8-6868 8-7122 8-7376 8-7630 8-7884 8-8138
29 8-9916 9-0170 9-0424 9-0678 9-0932 9-1186 10 0-0159
30 9-2964 9-3218 9-3472 9-3726 9-3980 9-4234
31 9-6012 9-6266 9-6520 9-6774 9-7028 9-7282
32 9-9060 9-9314 9-9568 9-9822 10-0076 10-0330 11 0-0175
33 10-2108 10-2362 10-2616 10-2870 10-3124 10-3378
34 10-5156 10-5410 10-5664 10-5918 10-6172 10-6426
35 10-8204 10-8458 10-8712 10-8966 10-9220 10-9474 12 0-0190
36 11-1252 11-1506 11-1760 11-2014 11-2268 11-2522
37 11-4300 11-4554 11-4808 11-5062 11-5316 11-5570
38 11-7348 11-7602 11-7856 11-8110 11-8364 11-8618 1
13 0-0206
39 12-0396 12-0650 12-0904 12-1158 12-1412 12-1666
40 , 12-3444 12-3698 12-3952 12-4206 12-4460 12-4714
41 12-6492 12-6746 12-7000 12-7254 12-7508 12-7762 1 14 0-0222
42 12-9540 12-9794 13-0048 13-0302 13-0556 13-0810 '

43 13-2588 13-2842 13-3096 13-3350 13-3604 13-3858

44 13-5636 13-5890 13-6144 13-6398 13-6652 13-6906 15 0-0238
45 13-8684 1-3-8938 13-9192 13-9446 13-9700 13-9954
46 14-1732 14-1986 14-2240 14-2494 14-2748 14-3002
47 14-4780 14-5034 14-5288 14-5542 14-5796 14-6050
48 14-7828 14-8082 14-8336 14-8590 14-8844 14-9098
49 15-0876 15-1130 15-1384 15-1638 15-1892 15-2146
 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 981

CONVERSION TABLES
Extract from B.S. 350 : 1944

FEET AND INCHES TO METRES

Based on 1 inch = 25*4 millimetres
Uncontracted values

Differences
Inches for
Feet sixteenths
0 1 2 3 4 5 of an inch

m. m. m. m. m. m. m.
15-2400 15-2654 15-2908 15-3162 15-3416 15-3670
50
15-5448 15-5702 15-5956 15-6210 15-6464 15-6718
51
15-8496 15-8750 15-9004 15-9258 15-9512 15-9766 1 0-0016
52
53 16-1544 16-1798 16-2052 16-2306 16-2560 16-2814
54 16-4592 16-4846 16-5100 16-5354 16-5608 16-5862
16-7640 16-7894 16-8148 16-8402 16-8656 16-8910 2 0-0032
55
56 17-0688 17-0942 17-1196 17-1450 17-1704 17-1958
57 17-3736 17-3990 17-4244 17-4498 17-4752 17-5006
58 17-6784 17-7038 17-7292 17-7546 17-7800 17-8054 3 0-0048
59 17-9832 18-0086 18-0340 18-0594 18-0848 .18-1102
60 18-2880 18-3134 18-3388 18-3642 18-3896 18-4150
61 18-5928 18-6182 18-6436 18-6690 18-6944 18-7198 4 0-0064
62 18-8976 18-9230 18-9484 18-9738 18-9992 19-0246
63 19-2024 19-2278 19-2532 19-2786 19-3040 19-3294
64 19-5072 19-5326 19-5580 19-5834 19-6088 19-6342 5 0-0079
65 19-8120 19-8374 19-8628 19-8882 19-9136 19-9390
66 20-1168 20-1422 20-1676 20-1930 20-2184 20-2438
67 20-4216 20-4470 20-4724 20-4978 20-5232 20-5486 6 0-0095
68 20-7264 20-7518 20-7772 20-8026 20-8280 20-8534
69 21-0312 21-0566 21-0820 21-1074 21-1328 21-1582
70 21-3360 21-3614 21-3868 21-4122 21-4376 21-4630 7 0-0111
71 21-6408 21-6662 21-6916 21-7170 21-7424 21-7678
72 21-9456 21-9710 21-9964 22-0218 22-0472 22-0726
73 22-2504 22-2758 22-3012 22-3266 22-3520 22-3774 8 0-0127
74 22-5552 22-5806 22-6060 22-6314 22-6568 22-6822
75 22-8600 22-8854 22-9108 22-9362 22-9616 22-9870
76 23-1648 23-1902 23-2156 23-2410 23-2664 25-2918 9 0-0143
77 23-4696 23-4950 23-5204 23-5458 23-5712 23-5966
78 23-7744 23-7998 23-8252 23-8506 23-8760 23-9014
79 24-0792 24-1046 24-1300 24-1554 24-1808 24-2062 10 0-0159
80 24-3840 24-4094 24-4348 24-4602 24-4856 24-5110
81 I
24-6888 24-7142 24-7396 24-7650 24-7904 24-8158
82 24-9936 25-0190 25-0444 25-0698 25-0952 25-1206 11 0-0175
83 25-2984 25-3238 25-3492 25-3746 25-4000 25-4254
84 25-6032 25-6286 25-6540 25-6794 25-7048 25-7302
85 25-9080 25-9334 25-9588 25-9842 26-0096 26-0350 12 0-0190
86 26-2128 26-2382 26-2636 26-2890 26-3144 26-3398
87 26-5176 26-5430 26-5684 26-5938 26-6192 26-6446
88 26-8224 26-8478 26-8732 26-8986 26-9240 26-9494 13 0-0206
89 27-1272 27-1526 27-1780 27-2034 27-2288 27-2542
90 27-4320 27-4574 27-4828 27-5082 27-5336 27-5590
91 27-7368 27-7622 27-7876 27-8130 27-8384 27-8638 0-0222
14
92 28-0416 28-0670 28-0924 28-1178 28-1432 28-1686
93 28-3464 28-3718 28-3972 28-4226 28-4480 28-4734
94 28-6512 28-6766 28-7020 28-7274 28-7528 28-7782 15 0-0238
95 28-9560 28-9814 29-0068 29-0322 29-0576 29-0830
96 29-2608 29-2862 29-3116 29-3370 29-3624 29-3878
97 29-btj56 29-5910 29-6164 29-6418 29-6672 29-6926
98 29-8704 29-8958 29-9212 29-9466 29-9720 29-9974
99 30-1752 30-2006 30-2260 30-2514 30-2768 30-3022
100 30-4800
 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
CONVERSION TABLES
Extract from B.S. 350 : 1944

FEET AND INCHES TO METRES

Based on I inch = 25-4 millimetres
Uncontracted values

Differences
15-
16- for
•
sixteenths
6 7 8 9 10 16- of an inch
17-
m. m. m. m. m. m.
15-3924 15-4178 15-4432 15-4686 15-4940 15-5194
17-
18-
15-6972 15-7226 15-7480 15-7734 15-7988 8242
16-0020 16-0274 16-0528 16-0782 16-1036 18-
1290 1 0-0016
16-3068 16-3322 16-3576 16-3830 16-4084 16-4338
19-
16-6116 16-6370 16-6624 16-6878 16-7132 7386
19-
16-9164 16-9418 16-9672 16-9926 17-0180 20- 0434 2 0-0032
17-2212 17-2466 17-2720 17-2974 17-3228 17-3482
17-5260 17-5514 17-5768 17-6022 17-6276 20-
17-6530
21-
17-8304 17-8562 17-8816 17-9070 17-9324 9578 3 0-0048
18-1356 18-1610 18-1864 18-2118 18-2372 2626
18-4404 18-4658 18-4912 18-5166 18-5420 21-
18-5674
22-
18-7452 18-7706 18-7960 18-8214 18-8468 8722 4 0-0064
19-0500 19-0754 19-1008 19-1262 19-1516 22- 1770
19-3548 19-3802 19-4056 19-4310 19-4564 23-
19-4818
19-6596 19-6850 19-7104 19-7358 19-7612 7866 5 0-0079
23-
19-9644 19-9898 20-0152 20-0406 20-0660 24- 0914
20-2692 20-2946 "20-3200 20-3454 20-3708 20-3962
20-5740 20-6502 20-6756
24- 7010
20-5994 20-6248 6 0-0095
20-8788 20-9042 20-9296 20-9550 20-9804 25- 0058
21-1836 21-2090 21-2344 21-2598 21-2852 21-3106
21-4884 21-5138 21-5392 21-5646 21-5900 21-6154 7 0-0111
21-7932 21-8186 21-8440 21-8694 21-8948 9202
22-0980 22-1234 22-1488 22-1742 22-1996 2250
22-4028 22-4282 22-4536 22-4790 22-5044 22-5298 8 0-0127
22-7076 22-7330 22-7584 22-7838 22-8092 8346
23-0124 23-0378 23-0632 23-0886 23-1140 1394
23-3172 23-3426 23-3680 23-3934 23-4188 23-4442 9 0-0143
23-6220 23-6474 23-6728 23-6982 23-7236 28- 7490
23-9268 23-9522 23-9776 24-0030 24-0284 29- 0538
24-2316 24-2570 24-2824 24-3078 24-3332 24-3586 10 0-0159
29-
24-5364 24-5618 24-5872 24-6126 24-6380 24-6634
30-
24-8412 24-8666 24-8920 24-9174 24-9428 9682
25-1460 25-1714 25-1968 25-2222 2730 11 0-0175
25-4508 25-4762 25-5016 25-5270 25-5778
25-7556 25-7810 25-8064 25-8318 25-8826
26-0604 26-0858 26-1112 26-1366 26-1620 12 0-0190
26-3652 26-3906 26-4160 26-4414 26-4668
26-6700 26-6954 26-7208 26-7462 26-7716
26-9748 27-0002 27-0256 27-0510 27-0764 13 0-0206
27-2796 27-3050 27-3304 27-3558 27-3812
27-5844 27-6098 27-6352 27-6606 27-6860
27-8892 27-9146 27-9400 27-9654 27-9908 28-0162 14 0-0222
28-1940 28-2194 28-2448 28-2702 28-2956 28-3210
28-4988 28-5242 28-5496 28-5750 28-6004 28-6258
28-8036 28-8290 28-8544 28-8798 28-9052 9306 15 0-0238
29-1084 29-1338 29-1592 29-1846 29-2100 2354
29-4132 29-4386 29-4640 29-4894 29-5148 29-5402
29-7180 29-7434 29-7688 29-7942 29-8196 8450
30-0228 30-0482 30-0736 30-0990 30-1244 1498
30-3276 30-3530 30-3784 30-4038 30-4292 30-4546
 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 983

CONVERSION TABLES
Extract from B.S. 350: 1944

METRES TO FEET
Based on 1 inch = 25-4 millimetres

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
m.

ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft.

ft. ft.

_ 3-28084 6-5617 9-8425 13-1234 16-4042 19-6850 22-9659 26-2467 29-5276

32-8084 36-0892 39-3701 42-6509 45-9317 49-2126 52-493 55-774 59-055 62-336
10
65-617 68-898 72-178 75-459 78-740 82-021 85-302 88-583 91-863 95-144
20
98-425 101-706 104-987 108-268 111-549 114-829 118-110 121-391 124-672 127-953
30
40 131-234 134-514 137-795 141-076 144-357 147-638 150-919 154-199 157-480 160-761

50 164-042 167-323 170-604 173-884 177-165 180-446 183-727 187-008 190-289 193-570
60 196-850 20Q-131 203-412 206-693 209-974 213-255 216-535 219-816 223-097 226-378
70 229-659 232-940 236-220 239-501 242-782 246-063 249-344 252-625 255-905 259-186
$0 262-467 265-748 269-029 272-310 275-590 278-871 282-152 285-433 288-714 291-995
90 295-276 298-556 301-837 305-118 308-399 311-680 314-961 318-241 321-522 324-803

100 328-084 331-365 334-646 337-926 341-207 344-488 347-759 351-050 354-331 357-611
10 360-892 364-173 367-454 370-735 374-016 377-296 380-577 383-858 387-139 390-420
20 393-701 396-982 400-262 403-543 406-824 410-105 413-386 416-667 419-947 423-228
30 426-509 429-790 433-071 436-352 439-632 442-913 446-194 449-475 452-756 456-037
40 459-517 462-598 465-879 469-160 472-441 475-722 479-002 482-283 485-564 488-845
50 492-126 495-407 498-688 501-97 505-25 508-53 511-81 515-09 518-37 521-65
60 524-93 528-22 531-50 534-78 538-06 541-34 544-62 547-90 551-18 554-46
70 557-74 561-02 564-30 567-59 570-87 574-15 577-43 580-71 583-99 587-27
80 590-55 593-83 597-11 600-39 603-67 606-96 610-24 613-52 616-80 620-08
90 623-36 626-64 629-92 633-20 636-48 639-76 643-04 646-33 649-61 652-89
200 656-17 659-45 662-73 666-01 669-29 672-57 675-85 679-13 682-41 685-70
10 688-98 692-26 695-54 698-82 702-10 705-38 708-66 711-94 715-22 718-50
20 721-78 725-07 728-35 731-63 734-91 738-19 741-47 744-75 748-03 751-31
30 754-59 757-87 761-15 764-44 767-72 771-00 774-28 777-56 780-84 784-12
40 787-40 790-68 793-96 797-24 800-52 803-81 807-09 810-37 813-65 816-93
50 820-21 823-49 826-77 830-05 833-33 836-61 839-89 843-18 846-46 849-74
60 853-02 856-30 859-58 862-86 866-14 869-42 872-70 875-98 879-26 882-55
70 885-83 889-11 892-39 895-67 898-95 902-23 905-51 908-79 912-07 915-35
80 918-63 921-92 925-20 928-48 931-76 935-04 938-32 941-60 944-88 948-16
90 951-44 954-72 958-00 961-29 964-57 967-85 971-13 974-41 977-69 980-97
300 984-25 987-53 990-81 994-09 997-38 1000-66 1003-94 1007-22 1010-50 1013-78
10 1017-06 1020-34 1023-62 1026-90 1030-18 1033-46 1036-75 1040-03 1043-31 1046-59
20 1049-87 1053-15 1056-43 1059-71 1062-99 1066-27 1069-55 1072-83 1076-12 1079-40
30 1082-68 1085-96 1089-24 1092-52 1095-80 1099-08 1102-36 1105-64 1108-92 1112-20
40 1115-49 1118-77 1122-05 1125-33 1128-61 1131-89 1135-17 1138-45 1141-73 1145-01
50 1148-29 1151-57 1154-86 1158-14 1161-42 1164-70 1167-98 1171-26 1174-54 1177-82
60 1181-10 1184-38 1187-66 1190-94 1194-23 1197-51 1200-79 1204-07 1207-35 1210-63
70 1213-91 1217-19 1220-47 1223-75 1227-03 1230-31 1233-60 1236-88 1240-16 1243-44
80 1246-72 1250-00 1253-28 1256-56 1259-8'1 1263-12 1266-40 1269-68 1272-97 1276-25
90 1279-53 1282-81 1286-09 1289-37 1292-65 1295-93 1299-21 1302-49 1305-77 1309-05
400 1312-34 1315-62 1318-90 1322-18 1325-46 1328-74 1332-02 1335-30 1338-58 1341-86
10 1345-14 1348-42 1351-71 1354-99 1358-27 1361-55 1364-83 1368-11 1371-39 1374-67
20 1377-95 1381-23 1384-51 1387-79 1391-08 1394-36 1397-64 1400-92 1407-48
1404-20
30 1410-76 1414-04 1417-32 1420-60 1423-85 1427-16 1430-45 1433-73 1437-01 1440-29
40 1443-57 1446-85 1450-13 1453-41 1456-69 1459-97 1463-25 1466-54 1473-10
1469-82
50 1476-38 1479-66 1482-94 1486-22 1489-50 1492-78 1496-06 1499-34 1502-62 1505-91
60 1509-19 1512-47 1515-75 1519-03 1522-31 1525-59 1528-87 1532-15 1535-43 1538-71
70 1541-99 1545-28
oO J^48-56 1551-84 1555-12 1558-40 1561-68 1564-96 1568-24 1571-52
1574-80 1578-08 1581-36 1584-65 1587-93 1591-21 1594-49 1597-77 1604-33
1601-05
VO 1607-61 1610-89 1614-17 1617-45 1620-73 1624-02 1627-30 1630-58 1633-86 1637-14
984 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
CXJNVERSION TABLES
Extract from B,S. 350 ; 1944

METRES TO FEET
Based on 1 inch = 25-4 millimetres

m. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft.

500 1640-42 1643-70 1646-98 1650-26 1653-54 1656-82 1660-10 1663-39 1666-67 1669-95
10 1673-23 1676-51 1679-79 1683-07 1686-35 1689-63 1692-91 1696-19 1699-48 1702-76
20 1706-04 1709-32 1712-60 1715-88 1719-16 1722-44 1725-72 1729-00 1732-28 1735-56
30 1738-84 1742-13 1745-41 1748-69 1751-97 1755-25 1758-53 1761-81 1765-09 1768-37
40 1771-65 1774-93 1778-22 1781-50 1784-78 1788-06 1791-34 1794-62 1797-90 1801-18
50 1804-46 1807-74 1811-02 1814-30 1817-59 1820-87 1824-15 1827-43 1830-71 1833-99
60 1837-27 1840-55 1843-83 1847-11 1850-39 1853-67 1856-96 1860-24 1863-52 1866-80
70 1870-08 1873-36 1876-64 1879-92 1883-20 1886-48 1889-76 1893-04 1896-33 1899-61
80 1902-89 1906-17 1909-45 1912-73 1916-01 1919-29 1922-57 1925-85 1929-13 1932-41
90 1935-70 1938-98 1942-26 1945-54 1948-82 1952-10 1955-38 1958-66 1961-94 1965-22
600 1968-50 1971-78 1975-07 1978-35 1981-63 1984-91 1988-19 1991-47 1994-75 1998-03
10 2001-31 2004-59 2007-87 2011-15 2014-44 2017-72 2021-00 2024-28 2027-56 2030-84
20 2034-12 2037-40 2040-68 2043-96 2047-24 2050-52 2053-81 2057-09 2060-37 2063-65
30 2066-93 2070-21 2073-49 2076-77 2080-05 2083-33 2086-61 2089-90 2093-18 2096-46
40 2099-74 2103-02 2106-30 2109-58 2112-86 2116-14 2119-42 2122-70 2125-98 2129-27
50 2132-55 2135-83 2139-11 2142-39 2145-67 2148-95 2152-23 2155-51 2158-79 2162-07
60 2165-35 2168-63 2171-92 2175-20 2178-48 2185-04 2188-32 2191-60 2194-88
70 2198-16 2201-44 2204-72 2208-01 2217-85 2221-13 2224-41 2227-69
80 2230-97 2234-25 2237-53 2240-81 2250-66 2253-94 2257-22 2260-50
90 2263-78 2267-06 2270-34 2273-62 2283-46 2286-75 2290-03 2293-31
700 2296-59 2299-87 2303-15 2306-43 2316-27 2319-55 2322-83 2326-12
10 2329-40 2332-68 2335-96 2339-24 2349-08 2352-36 2355-64 2358-92
20 2362-20 2365-49 2368-77 2372-05 2381-89 2385-17 2388-45 2391-73
30 2395-01 2398-29 2401-57 2404-86 2414-70 2417-98 2421-26 2424-54
40 2427-82 2431-10 2434-38 2437-66 2440-94 2444-23 2447-51 2454-07 2457-35
50 2460-63 2463-91 2470-47 2473-75 2480-31 2486-88 2490-16
60 2493-44 2500-00 2503-28 2506-56 2509-84 2513-12 2519-69 2522-97
70 2526-25 2532-81 2536-09 2542-65 2545-93 2552-49 2555-77
2559-06 2562-34 2565-62 2568-90 2575-46 2585-30 2588-58
90 2591-86 2595-14 2598-43 2601-71 2608-27 2618-11 2621-39
800 2624-67 2627-95 2631-23 2634-51 2637-80 2641-08 2644-36 2647-64 2650-92 2654-20
10 2657-48 2660-76 2664-04 2667-32 2673-88 2677-17 2680-45 2683-73 2687-01
20 2690-29 2693-57 2696-85 mSBB 2706-69 2709-97 2713-25 2716-54 2719-82
30 2723-10 2726-38 2729-66 2732-94 2736-22 2739-50 2742-78 2746-06 2749-34 2752-62
40 2755-91 2759-19 2762-47 2765-75 2772-31 2775-59 2778-87 2785-43
50 2788-71 2791-99 2795-28 2798-56 2801-84 2805-12 2808-40 2811-68 2814-96 2818-24
60 2821-52 2824-80 2828-08 2831-36 2834-65 2837-93 2841-21 2844-49 2847-77 2851-05
70 2854-33 2857-61 2860-89 2864-17 2867-45 2870-73 2874-02 2877-30 2880-58 2883-86
80 2887-14 2890-42 2893-70 2896-98 2900-26 2903-54 2906-82 2910-10 2913-39 2916-67
90 2919-95 2923-23 2926-51 2929-79 2933-07 2936-35 2939-63 2942-91 2946-19 2949-48
900 2952-76 2956-04 2959-32 2962-60 2965-88 2969-16 2972-44 2975-72 2982-28
10 2985-56 2988-85 2992-13 2.995-412998-69 3001-97 3005-25 3008-53 3015-09
20 3018-37 3021-65 3024-93 3028-22 3031-50 3034-78 3038-06 3041-34 3047-90
30 3051-1-8 3054-46 5057-74 3061-02 3064-30 3067-59 3070-87 3074-15 3080-71
40 3083-99 3087-27 3090-55 3093-83 3097-11 3100-39 3103-67 3106-96 3113-52
50 3116-80 3120-08 5123-36 3126-64 3129-92 3133-20 3136-48 3139-76 3143-04 3146-33
60 3149-61 3152-89 3156-17 3159-45 3162-73 3166-01 3169-29 3172-57 3179-13
70 3182-41 3185-70 3188-98 3192-26 3195-54 3198-82 3202-10 3205-38 3208-66 3211-94
80 3215-22 3218-50 3221-78 3225-07 3228-35 3231-63 3238-19 3241-47 3244-75
90 3251-31 3254-59 3267-87 3271-00 3277-56
1000
 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 985

CONVERSION TABLES
Extract from B.S. 350 : 1944

SQUARE FEET TO SQUARE METRES

Based on 1 inch = 25-4 millimetres

Sq. 1 2 , 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0
ft. 1
1

!
1
1

m.’ m.’ m.* ni.» m.* m.^ i

m.“ m.’ m.*
-
0-09290 0-18581 0-27871 0-37161 0-46452 0-55742 0-65032 0-74322 0-83613

in 0-92903 1-02193 1-11484 1-20774 1-30064 1-39355 1-48645 1-57935 1-67225 1-76516
1-85806 1-95096 2-04387 2-13677 2-22967 2-32258 2-41548 2-50838 2-60129 2-69419
20
2-78709 2-87999 2-97290 3-06580 3-15870 3-25161 3-34451 3-43741 3-53032 3-62322
30
40^ 3-71612 3-80902 3-90193 3-99483 4-08773 4-18064 4-27354 4-36644 4-45935 4-55225
;
[ [

4-64515 4-73806 4-83096 4-92386 5-0168 5-1097 5-2026 5-2955 5-3884 5-4813
SO
5-5742 5-6671 5-7600 5-8529 5-9458 6-0387 6-1316 6-2245 6-3174 6-4103
60
70 6-5032 6-5961 [
6-6890 6-7819 6-8748 6-9677 7-0606 7-1535 7-2464 7-3393
80 7-4322 7-5251 7-6180 7-7110 7-8039 7-8968 7-9897 8-0826 8-1755 8-2684
90 8-3613 8-4542 8-5471 8-6400 8-7329 8-8258 8-9187 9-0116 9-1045 9-1974

too 9-2903 9-3832 9-4761 9-5690 9-6619 9-7548 9-8477 9-9406 10-0335 10-1264

10 10-2193 10-3122 10-4051 10-4980 10-5909 10-6838 10-7768 10-8697 10-9626 11-0555
20 11-1484 11-2413 11-3342 11-4271 11-5200 11-6129 11-7058 11-7987 11-8916 !
11-9845
30 12-0774 12-1703 12-2632 12-3561 12-4490 12-5419 12-6348 12-7277 12-8206 12-9135
40 13-0064 13-0993 13-1922 13-2851 13-3780 13-4709 13-5638 13-6567 13-7496 13-8426
50 13-9355 14-0284 14-1213 14-2142 14-3071 14-4000 14-4929 14-5858 14-6787 14-7716 1

60 14-8645 14-9574 15-0503 15-1432 15-2361 15-3290 15-4219 15-5148 15-6077 15-7006
70 15-7935 15-8864 15-9793 16-0722 16-1651 16-2580 16-3509 16-4438 16-5367 16-6296
80 16-7225 16-8155 16-9084 17-0013 17-0942 17-1871 17-2800 17-3729 17-4658 17-5587
90 17-6516 17-7445 17-8374 17-9303 18-0232 18-1161 18-2090 18-3019 18-3948 18-4877
200 18-5806 18-6735 18-7664 18-8593 18-9522 19-0451 19-1380 19-2309 19-3238 19-4167
10 19-5096 19-6025 19-6954 19-7883 19-8813 19-9742 20-0671 20-1600 20-2529 20-3458
20 20-4387 20-5316 20-6245 20-7174 20-8103 20-9032 20-9961 21-0890 21-1819 21-2748
30 21-3677- 21-4606 21-5535 21-6464 21-7393 21-8322 21-9251 22-0180 22-1109 22-2038
40 22-2967 22-3896 22-4825 22-5754 22-6685 22-7612 22-8541 22-9471 23-0400 23-1329
50 23-2258 23-3187 23-4116 23-5045 23-5974 23-6903 23-7832 23-8761 23-9690 24-0619
60 24-1548 24-2477 24-3406 24-4335 24-5264 24-6193 24-7122 24-8051 24-8980 24-9909
70 25-0838 25-1767 25-2696 25-3625 25-4554 25-5483 25-6412 25-7341 25-8270 25-9199
80 26-0129 26-1058 26-1987 26-2916 26-3845 26-4774 26-5703 26-6632 26-7561 26-8490
90 26-9419 27-0348 27-1277 27-2206 27-3135 27-4064 27-4993 27-5922 27-6851 27-7780
300 27-8709 27-9638 28-0567 28-1496 28-2425 28-3354 28-4283 28-5212 28-6141 28-7070
10 28-7999 28-8928 28-9857 29-0787 29-1716 29-2645 29-3574 29-4503 •29-543229-6361
20 29-7290 29-8219 29-9148 30-0077 30-1006 30-1935 30-2864 30-3793 30-4722 30-5651
30 30-6580' 30-7509 30-8438 30-9367 31-0296 31-1225 31-2154 31-3083 31-4012 31-4941
40 31-5870 31-6799 31-7728 31-8657 31-9586 32-0515 32-1445 32-2374 32-3303 32-4232
50 32-5161 32-6090 32-7019 32-7948 32-8877 32-9806 33-0735 33-1664 33-2593 33-3522
60 33-4451 33-5380 33-6309 33-7238 33-8167 33-9096 34-0025 34-0954 34-1883 34-2812
70 34-3741 34-4670 34-5599 34-6528 34-7457 34-8386 34-9315 35-0244 35-1173 35-2103
80 35-3032 35-3961 35-4890 35-5819 35-6748 35-7677 35-8606 35-9535 36-0464 36-1393
90 36-2322 36-3251 36-4180 36-5109 36-6038 36-6967 36-7896 36-8825 36-9754 37-0683
400 37-1612 37-2541 37-3470 37-4399 37-5328 37-6257 37-7186 37-8115 37-9044 37-9973
10 38-0902 38-1831 38-2761 38-3690 38-46191 38-5548 38-6477 38-7406
38-8335 38-9264
20 39-0193 39-1122 39-2051 39-2980 39-3909 39-4838 39-5767 39-6696
39-7625 39-8554
30 39-9483 40-0412 40:1341 40-2270 40-3199 40-4128 40-5057 40-5986
40-6915 40-7844
40 40-8773 40-9702 41-0631 41-1560 41-2489 41-5419 41-4348 41-5277
41-6206 41-7135
50 41-8064 41-8993 41-9922 42-0851 42-1780 42-2709 42-3638 42-4567 42-5496 42-6425
60 42-7354 42-8283 42-9212 43-0141 43-1070 43-1999 43-2928 43-3857 43-4786 43-5715
/O 43-6644 43-7573 43-8502 43-9431 44-0360 44-1289 44-2218 44-3148 44-4077 44-5006
oU 44-5935 44-6864 44-7793 44-8722 44-9651 45-0580 45-1509 45-2438 45-3367 45-4296
45-5225 45-6154 45-7083 45-8012 45-8941 45-9870 46-0799 46-1728 46-2657 46-3586
986 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
CONVERSION TABLES
Extract from B.S. 350 : 1944

SQUARE FEET TO SQUARE METRES (continued)

Based on 1 inch = 25-4 millimetres

Sq. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ft.

m.* m.* m.* m,* m.* m.* m .* m.* m.* m.*

500 46-4515 46-5444 46-6373 46-7302 46-8231 46-9160 47-0089 47-1018 47-1947 47-2876
10 47-3806 47-4735 47-5664 47-6533 47-7522 47-8451 47-9380 48-0309 48-1238 48-2167
20 48-3096 48-4025 48-4954 48-5883 48-6812 48-7741 48-8670 48-9599 49-0528 49-1457
30 49-2386 49-3315 49-4244 49-5173 49-6102 49-7031 49-7960 49-8889 49-9818 50-075
40 50168 50-261 50-353 50-446 50-539 50-632 50-725 50-818 50-911 51-004
50 51-097 51-190 51-282 51-375 51-468 51-561 51-654 51-747 51-840 51-933
60 52-026 52-119 1^-212 52-304 52-397 52-490 52-583 52-676 52-769 52-862
70 52-955 53-048 53-141 53-233 53-326 53-419 53-512 53-605 53-698 53-791
80 53-884 53-977 54-070 54-162 54-255 54-348 54-441 54-534 54-627 54-720
90 54-813 54-906 54-999 55-092 55-184 55-277 55-370 55-463 55-556 55-649
600 55-742 55-835 55-928 56-021 56-113 56-206 56-299 56-392 56-485 56-578
10 56-671 56-764 56-857 56-950 57-042 57-135 57-228 57-321 57-414 57-507
20 57-600 57-693 57-786 57-879 57-971 58-064 58-157 58-250 58-343 58-436
30 58-529 58-622 58-715 58-808 58-901 58-993 59-086 59-179 59-272 59-365
40 59-458 59-551 59-644 59-737 59-830 59-922 60-015 60-108 60-201 60-294
50 60-387 60,-480 60-573 60-666 60-759 60-851 60-944 61-037 61-130 61-223
60 61-316 61-409 61-502 61-595 61-688 61-781 61-873 61-966 62-059 62-152
70 62-245 62-338 62-431 62-524 62-617 62-710 62-802 62-895 62-988 63-081
80 63-174 63-267 63-360 63-453 63-546 63-639 63-731 63-824 63-917 64-010
90 64-103 64-196 64-289 64-382 64-475 64-568 64-661 64-753 64-846 64-939
700 65-032 65-125 65-218 65-311 65-404 65-497 65-590 65-682 65-775 65-868
10 65-961 66-054 66-147 66-240 66-333 66-426 66-519 66-611 66-704 66-797
20 66-890 66-983 67-076 67-169 67-262 67-355 67-448 67-541 67-633 67-726
30 67-819 67-912 68-005 68-098 68-191 68-284 68-377 68-470 68-562 68-655
40 68-748 68-841 68-934 69-027 69-120 69-213 69-306 69-399 69-491 69-584
50 69-677 69-770 69-863 69-956 70-049 70-142 70-235 70-328 70-421 70-513
60 70-606 70-699 70-792 70-885 70-978 71-071 71-164 71-257 71-350 71-442
70 71-535 71-628 71-721 71-814 71-907 72-000 72-093 72-186 72-279 72-371
80 72-464 72-557 72-650 72-743 72-836 72-929 73-022 73-115 73-208 73-300
90 73-393 73-486 73-579 73-672 73-765 73-858 73-951 74-044 74-137 74-230
800 74-322 74-415 74-508 74-601 74-694 74-787 74-880 74-973 75-066 75-159
10 75-251 75-344 75-437 75-530 75-623 75-716 75-809 75-902 75-995 76-088
91-
20 76-180 76-273 76-366 76-459 76-552 76-645 76-738 76-831 76-924 77-017
92-
30 77-110 77-202 77-295 77-388 77-481 77-574 77-667 77-760 77-853 77-946
40 78-039 78-131 78-224 78-317 78-410 78-503 78-596 78-689 78-782 78-875
50 78-968 79-060 79-153 79-246 79-339 79-432 79-525 79-618 79-711 79-804
60 79-897 79-990 80-082 80-175 80-268 80-361 80-454 80-547 80-640 80-733
70 80-826 80-919 81-011 81-104 81-197 81-290 81-383 81-476 81-569 81-662
80 81-755 81-848 81-940 82-033 82-126 82-219 82-312 82-405 82-498 82-591
90 82-684 82-777 82-870 82-962 83-055 83-148 83-241 83-334 83-427 83-520
900 83-613 83-706 83-799 83-891 83-984 84-077 84-170 84-263 84-356 84-449
10 84-542 84-635 84-728 84-820 84-913 85-006 85-099 85-192 85-285 85-378
20 85-471 85-564 85-657 85-750 85-842 85-935 86-028 86-121 86-214 86-307
30 86-400 86-493 86-586 86-679 86-771 86-854 86-957 87-050 87-143 87-236
40 87-329 87-422 87-515 87-608 87-700 87-793 87-886 87-979 88-072 88-165
50 88-258 88-351 88-444 88-537 88-630 88-722 88-815 88-908 89-001 89-094
60 89-187 89-280 89-373 89-466 89-559 89-651 89-744 89-837 89-930 90-023
70 90-116 90-209 90-302 90-395 90-488 90-580 90-673 90-766 90-859 90-952
80 91-045 91-138 91-231 91-324 91-417 91-509 91-602 91-695 91-788 91-881
90 974 92-067 92-160 92-253 92-346 92-439 92-531 92-624 92-717 92-810
1000 903
 -

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 987

CONVERSION TABLES
Extract from B.S. 350: 1944

SQUARE METRES TO SQUARE FEET

Based on 1 inch = 25*4 millimetres

m’.
aB
sq. ft. sq. ft.
2

sq. ft. sq.

3

ft.
4

sq. ft.
5

sq. ft.
6

sq.
64-583
ft.
7

sq.
75-347
ft.
8

sq.
86-111
ft.
9

sq.
96-875
ft.

,
— 10-7639 21-5278 52-2917 43-0556 55-820
in 107-659 118-403 129-167 139-931 150-695 161-459 172-223 182-986 193-750 204-514
215-278 226-042 236-806 247-570 258-334 269-098 279-862 290-626 301-389 312'153
20
322-917 333-681 544-445 355-209 565-973 376-737 387-501 598-265 409-029 419-792
30
430-556 441-320 452-084 462-848 473-612 484-376 495-140 505-90 516-67 527-43
40
538-20 548-96 559-72 570-49 581-25 602-78 613-54 624-31 635-07
50
60 645-85 656-60 667-36 678-13 688-89 699-65 710-42 721-18 731-95 742-71
753-47 764-24 775-00 785-77 796-55 818-06 828-82 839-58 850-35
70
80 861-11 871-88 882-64 893-40 904-17 914-93 925-70 936-46 947-22 957-99
90 968-75 979-52 990-28 1001-04 1011-81 1022-57 1033-34 1044-10 1054-86 1065-63

100 1076-39 1087-15 1097-92 1108-68 1119-45 1130-21 1140-97 1151-74 1162-50 1173-27
10 1184-05 1194-79 1205-56 1216-52 1227-09 1237-85 1248-61 1259-38 1270-14 1280-91
20 1291-67 1302-43 1315-20 1323-96 1334-72 1345-49 1356-25 1367-02 1377-78 1388-54
30 1399-31 1410-07 1420-84 1431-60 1442-36 1453-13 1463-89 1474-66 1485-42 1496-18
40 1506-95 1517-71 1528-48 1539-24 1550-00 1560-77 1571-53 1582-29 1593-06 1603-82
SO 1614-59 1625-35 2636-12 1646-88 1657-64 1668-41 1679-17 1689-93 1700-70 1711-46
60 1722-23 1732-99 1745-75 1754-52 1765-28 1776-04 1786-81 1797-57 1808-34 1819-10
70 1829-86 1840-63 1851-39 1862-16 1872-92 1883-68 1894-45 1905-21 1915-98 1926-74
80 1937-50 1948-27 1959-03 1969-80 1980-56 1991-32 2002-09 2012-85 2023-61 2034-38
90 2045-14 2055-91 2066-67 2077-43 2088-20 2098-96 2109-73 2120-49 2131-25 2142-02
200 2152-78 2165-55 2174-51 2185-07 2195-84 2206-60 2217-37 2228-13 2238-89 2249-66
10 2260-42 2271-18 2281-95 2292-71 2303-48 2514-24 2325-00 2335-77 2346-53 2557-30
20 2568-06 2378-82 2589-59 2400-55 2411-12 2421-88 2432-64 2443-41 2454-17 2464-94
30 2475-70 2486-46 2497-23 2507-99 2518-75 2529-52 2540-28 2551-05 2561-81 2572-57
40 2583-54 2594-10 2604-87 2615-65 2626-39 2637-16 2647-92 2658-69 2669-45 2680-21
50 2690-98 2701-74 2712-51 2723-27 2754-03 2744-80 2755-56 2766-32 2777-09 2787-85
60 2798-62 2809-38 2820-14 2830-91 2841-67 2852-44 2863-20 2873-96 2884-73 2895-49
70 2906-26 2917-02 [^27-78 2938-55 2949-31 2960-07 2970-84 2981-60 2992-37 3003-13
80 5013-89 3024-66 3035-42 3046-19 3056-95 3067-71 5078-48 3089-24 5100-01 3110-77
90 3121-53 3132-50 3143-06 3153-85 3164-59 5175-55 3186-12 3196-88 3207-64 3218-41
300 3229-17 5239-94 5250-70 3261-46 5272-23 3282-99 3293-76 3304-52 3315-28 3326-05
10 3556-81 3347-58 3358-34 3369-10 3379-87 3590-63 3401-40 3412-16 3422-92 3433-69
20 3444-45 5455-21 3465-98 3476-74 3487-51 3498-27 3509-03 3519-80 3530-56 3541-33
30 5552-09 3562-85 3573-62 3584-38 3595-15 3605-91 3616-67 3627-44 3638-20 3648-97
40 5659-75 3670-49 3681-26 3692-02 3702-78 3713-55 3724-51 3735-08 3745-84 3756-60
50 3767-57 3778-13 3788-90 3799-66 3810-42 5821-19 5831-95 5842-72 3853-48
3864-24
60 3875-01 3885-77 3896-53 3907-30 3918-06 3928-83 3939-59 3950-35 3961-12
3971-88
70 398ii*tj5 3993-41 4004-17 4014-94 4025-70 4056-47 4047-23 4057-99 4068-76 4079-52
80 4090-29 4101-05 4111-81 4122-58 4135-54 4144-10 4154-87 4165-63 4176-40
4187-16
90 4197-92 4208-69 4219-45 4230-22 4240-98 4251-74 4262-51 4273-27 4284-04
4294-80
400 4305-56 4516-33 4327-09 4337-86 4348-62 4359-38 4370-15 4380-91 4391-67 4402-44
10 4415-20 4423-97 4434-73 4445-49 4456-26 4467-02 4477-79 4488-55 4499-51 4510-08
4520-84 4531-51 4542-37 4555-13 4563-90 4574-66 4585-43 4596-19 4606-95 4617-72
^o2S’48 4639-24 4650-01 4660-77 4671-54 4682-30 4693-06 4703-83 4714-59 4725-36
4736-12 4746-88 4757-65 4768-41 4779-18 4789-94 4800-70 4811-47 4822-23 4833-00
50 4845-76 4854-52 4865-29 4876-05
4886-81 4897-58 4908-34 4919-11 4929-87 4940-63
60 4951-y 4962-16 4972-93 4983-69 4994-45 5005-2 5016-0 5026-7 5037-5
in 5059*0 5048-3
5069-8 5080-6 5091-3 5102-1 5112-9 5123-6 5134-4 5145-1
sn oiob* 1
5155-9
5177-4 5188-2 5199-0 5231-3 5242-0 5252-8
90 04 ( ^*5 5263-6
5285-1 5295-8 5306-6 5317-4 5328-1 5338-9 5349-7 5360-4 5371-2
988 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
CONVERSION TABLES
Extract from B.S. 350 : 1944

SQUARE METRES TO SQUARE FEET (continued)

Based on 1 inch = 25-4 millimetres

m*. 0 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9

sq. ft. sq. ft. sq. ft. sq. ft. sq. ft. sq. ft. sq. ft. sq. ft. sq. ft. sq. ft.

500 5382-0 5392-7 5403-5 5414-2 5425-0 5435-8 5446-5 5457-3 5468-1 5478-8
10 5489-6 5500-4 5511-1 5521-9 5532-6 5543-4 5554-2 5564-9 5575-7 5586-5
20 5597-2 5608-0 5618-8 5629-5 5640-3 5651-1 5661-8 5672-6 5683-3 5694-1
30 5704-9 5715-6 5726-4 5737-2 5747-9 5758-7 5769-5 5780-2 5791-0 5801-7
40 5812-5 5823-3 5834-0 5844-8 5855-6 5866-'3 5877-1 5887-9 5898-6 5909-4
50 5920-1 5930-9 5941-7 5952-4 5963-2 5974-0 5984-7 5995-5 6006-3 6017-0
60 6027-8 6038-6 6049-3 6060.-1 6070-8 6081-6 6092-4 6103-1 6113-9 6124-7
70 6135-4 6146-2 6157-0 6167-7 6178-5 6189-2 6200-0 6210-8 6221-5 6232-3
80 6243-1 6253-8 6264-6 6275-4 6286-1 6296-9 6307-7 6318-4 6329-2 6339-9
90 6350-7 6361-5 6372-2 6383-0 6393-8 6404-5 6415-3 6426-1 6436-8 6447-6
600 6458-3 6469-1 6479-9 6490-6 6501-4 6512-2 6522-9 6533-7 6544-5 6555-2
10 6566-0 6576-7 6587-5 6598-3 6609-0 6619-8 6630-6 6641-3 6652-1 6662-9
20 6673-6 6684-4 6695-2 6705-9 6716-7 6727-4 6738-2 6749-0 6759-7 6770-5
30 6781-3 6792-0 6802-8 6813-6 6824-3 6835-1 6845-8 6856-6 6867-4 6878-1
40 6888-9 6899-7 6910-4 6921-2 6932-0 6942-7 6953-5 6964-2 6975-0 6985-8
50 6996-5 7007-3 7018-1 7028-8 7039-6 7050-4 7061-1 7071-9 7082-7 7093-4
60 7104-2 7.114-9 7125-7 7136-5 7147-2 7158-0 7168-8 7179-5 7190-3 7201-1
70 7211-8 7222-6 7233-3 7244-1 7254-9 7265-6 7276-4 7287-2 7297-9 7308-7
80 7319-5 7330-2 7341-0 7351-7 7362-5 7373-3 7384-0 7394-8 7405-6 7416-3
90 7427-1 7437-9 7448-6 7459-4 7470-2 7480-9 7491-7 7502-4 7513-2 7524-0
700 7534-7 7545-5 7556-3 7567-0 7577-8 7588-6 7599-3 7610-1 7620-8 7631-6
10 7642-4 7653-1 7663-9 7674-7 7685-4 7696-2 7707-0 7717-7 7728-5 7739-3
20 7750-0 7760-8 7771-5 7782-3 7793-1 7803-8 7814-6 7825-4 7836-1 7846-9
30 7857-7 7868-4 7879-2 7889-9 7900-7 7911-5 7922-2 7933-0 7943-8 7954-5
40 7965-3 7976-1 7986-8 7997-6 8008-3 8019-1 8029-9 8040-6 8051-4 8062-2
50 8072-9 8083-7 8094-5 8105-2 8116-0 8126-8 8137-5 8148-3 8159-0 8169-8
60 8180-6 8191-3 8202-1 8212-9 8223-6 8234-4 8245-2 8255-9 8266-7 8277-4
70 8288-2 8299-0 8309-7 8320-5 8331-3 8342-0 8352-8 8363-6 8374-3 8385-1
80 8395-8 8406-6 8417-4 8428-1 8438-9 8449-7 8460-4 8471-2 8482-0 8492-7
90 8503-5 8514-3 8525-0 8535-8 8546-5 8557-3 8568-1 8578-8 8589-6 8600-4
800 8611-1 8621-9 8632-7 8643-4 8654-2 8664-9 8675-7 8686-5 8697-2 8708-0
10 8718-8 8729-5 8740-3 8751-1 8761-8 8772-6 8783-3 8794-1 8804-9 8815-6
20 8826-4 8837-2 8847-9 8858-7 8869-5 8880-2 8891-0 8901-8 8912-5 8923-3
30 8934-0 8944-8 8955-6 8966-3 8977-1 8987-9 8998-6 9009-4 9020-2 9030-9
40 9041-7 9052-4 9063-2 9074-0 9084-7 9095-5 9106-3 9117-0 9127-8 9138-6
50 9149-3 9160-1 9170-9 9181-6 9192-4 9203-1 9213-9 9224-7 9235-4 9246-2
60 9257-0 9267-7 9278-5 9289-3 9300-0 9310-8 9321-5 9332-3 9343-1 9353-8
70 9364-6 9375-4 9386-1 9396-9 9407-7 9418-4 9429-2 9439-9 9450-7 9461-5
80 9472-2 9483-0 9493-8 9504-5 9515-3 9526-1 9536-8 9547-6 9558-4 9569-1
90 9579-9 9590-6 9601-4 9612-2 9622-9 9633-7 9644-5 9655-2 9666-0 9676-8
900 .9687-5 9698-3 9709-0 9719-8 9730-6 9741-3 9752-1 9762-9 9773-6 9784-4
10 9795-2 9805-9 9816-7 9827-4 9838-2 9849-0 9859-7 9870-5 9881-3 9892-0
20 9902-8 9913-6 9924-3 9935-1 9945-9 9956-6 9967-4 9978-1 9988-9 9999-7
30 10010-4 10021-2 10032-0 10042-7 10053-5 10064-3 10075-0 10085-8 10096-5 10107-3
40 10118-1 10128-8 10139-6 10150-4 10161-1 10171-9 10182-7 10193-4 10204-2 10214-9
50 10225-7 10236-5 10247-2 10258-0 10268-8 10279-5 10290-3 10301-1 10311-8 10322-6
60 10333-4 10344-1 10354-9 10376-4 10387-2 10397-9 10408-7 10419-5 10430-2
70 10441-0 10451-8 10462-5 10484-0 10494-8 10505-6 10516-3 10527-1 10537-9
80 10548-6 10559-4 10570-2 10591-7 10602-5 10613-2 10624-0 10634-7 10645-5
90 10656-3 10667-0 10677-8 10688-6 10699-3 10710-1 10720-9 10731-6 10742-4 10753-1
1000 10763-9
 1

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 989

PRESSURE, STRESS

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rH 00 rH tn CD 00 03 CO iH cn ro 00
00
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b rb tb iH cb rH i> CM CQ rb b
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ro fO ro ro r^
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o CD CM CO
rH CO 99 tn CD
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CD !5 00
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s CO in CD
5S
ro
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N I> to cb
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CO ?— rH f-H
m
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00 <D rH
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CM
CM
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CM ro tn CO op
ro ro ro ro r^
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o 03 to o- o to D- rH to 5?
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to CO rH to
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o

Supplement No. 1 (1967) to

B.S. 350 : Part 2 : 1962
 ' ? »

990 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES

PRESSURE, STRESS

o o o CO OO O O Cl PO — O O TO CD
Cv OOO
Q CO
fO CO 03
03 C
C3 O — toO to
O
O »
^ Cl 0-
TO CO
03 to
f-D
PC CO 03
D- 03 f-D
Ti-
t^-^tOOTj-
tO yH to O TT
O?
PC CD 03 SO
CD PC £^ 03 SO
o ^0 to O) ^o C- 03 CO fO O TO O SO CD O -* t- 03 CO fb CD Cl to O
T->
O^ O C* Cl O 03 « to O CD O PC TT o O^2
rJ >0
^
'T- tT ^ to to lO to to to SO o O Cl
CO O SO SO
to
^
OC O O lOoo OO
0* 03 -5“ Cl r- —» so fCO
T-“ CD O-^lOO-C-
^ O PC £0 03
OO O^O
f-D

sc
OO
*c-o lO t- cc
CD CC 0»
to to ^ o^
o Cl
pp r> ^ o
CO f-D 03 O- —^ to
to Cl PCEP-03SO—-
o O fO O O lbA o ^ t> cb o pb o ^ o tb sb 3^ ^ cb PC o
O CJ ^ O O O to O CO o — PC TT so D—
ss^ss
fO ^ ^ ^ TT
03 fO
^ ^ to to to to to to to o
'
soo O Cl
so so

<

t* 03 OO ^ Cl ?o o» »-» o O ^ CO O-
so O TO Cl
’f-D — O
» to CO PC £
O toO
OOO « lO o f-D CO 03 O- i-<
o^o ^
CD
O O t to TO Cl PC CO
O
*
f-D
?0 03 O to fC CD 03 O Ip PC CD 03 to
o o:
C5 ^ 03
?o cb Cl lb
CD
tb
Oo
03 ?-D
tb ^ fb
to O CO Cl —t
^ ^o
cb Cl
03 TT to O- Cl
tb
O 03
sb ^O
PC to
£>
^ ^^ T--
*-0
tC- ^
to to to to to to to o OO O CO so £- D^ O' O- O-

fO O- “f
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oo
ao
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Cl C
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f-D *
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so O ^ Cl
f-D £ to
PC CD 03 0“
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to
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O —^ O OfC
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 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 991

Pressure, stress:

UK tons-force per square inch to meganewtons per square metre

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i-i in
in
m p
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cp
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992 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES

Pressure, stress:
UK tons-force per square inch to meganewtons per square metre
t- 03 P
cvi
CV3
to i-t If)
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square

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03
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cb P O tb iH
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in vp 00 ov
f*»»
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0\ 0\ 0\ 0\ 0\
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 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 993

PRESSURE, STRESS
0- 1- 1- 2- 3- 3- 4- 5- 5- 6- 7- 8- 9-
10- 11- 12- 13- 14- 14- 15- 16-

0- 1- 1- 2- 3- 3- 4- 5- 5- 6- 6- 7- 8- 8- 9-
70513 35262 00011
9426 5901 2376 5325 1800 8275 4750 1225
58274 52521 17270
23023 87772 82019 46768 11517 76266 41015
10-2951 12-8850
7-05764 9-64760

inch 10- 11- 12- 13- 14- 14- 15- 16-

1 '

square
0- 1- 1- 2- 3- 3- 4- 4- 5- 6- 6- 7- 8- 8- 9-

8778 4103 0577

5253 1728 4678 1153 7628
51799 16548 81297 46046 10795 75544 40293 05042 69791 34540 99289 64038 28787 93536 58285
10- 11- 12- 13- 14- 14- 15-
per 00 10-2303 12-8203

0- 1- 1- 2- 3- 4- 4- 5- 6- 6- 7- 8- 8- 9-
1
tons-forco
10- 11- 12- 13- 14- 15-
0505
8131 4606 1081 4030 6980 3455
45324 10073 1-
0- 74822 2-
39571 04320
3-
69069 4-
33818 4-
98567 5-
63316 28065 6-
92814 7- 22312 8-
57563 8- 87061 9- 51810
12-7556 15-9930
10-1656
m.

UK

to
0.0254

=
B 0- 1- 2- 3- 4- 4- 5- 6- ,
6- 7- 8- 8- 9- 9-
10- 11- 11- 12- 1 j 13- 14- 15-

92092 7483 3958 0433 9858 6333 2808

38849 03598 68347 33096 62594 27343 56841 21590 86339 51088 15837 80586 45335
in V© 10-1008 12-6908
13-3383
15-9283

1
2-97845

millimetre)

0- 1- 2- 3- 4- 4- 5- 6- 6- 7- 7- 8- 10- 11- 12- 13- 14- 15-

9-
N;
65

square

0 0-
97123 1-
61872 2-
26621 3- 20868 4-
56119 4- 85617 5-
50366 6- 44613 7- 8- 9-
79864 7- 38860
09362 74111 9- 6836 3311
10- 11- 11- 12-
9786 6261 9210 5685 2160
9.806
in 13- 14- 15-
c 0-32374 2-91370 6-15115 10-0361 13-2735 15-8635

per =
1 ii 1 i '
0- 1- 2- 3- 4- 5- 6- 7- 7- 8- 9-
kgf
& 9- -

1 Vi
u
10- 11- 11- 12- 13- 14- 15-
(newtons

o 90649 55398 20147 49645 14394 79143 43892 08641 73389 38138 02887 67636 32385 97134
6188
11-2663
9138 5613 2088 5038 1513

CL 0-25900 2-84896 13/8563 15-7988

B
kgf;
O 0- 1- 1- 2- 3- 4- 5- 6- 7- 7- 8- 9- 9-
37 a
o 10- 11- 11- 12- 13- 14- 14- 15-
metre

592
n
o
•*>< 84174 48923 13672 43170 07919 72668 37417 02166 66915 31664 96413 61162 90660
5541 2016 8491 4966 7915 4390 0865
tn 0-19425 2-78421 9-25911 13-1440 15-7340

square
0.453
u:
10- 11- 11- 12- 12- 13- 14- 14- 15-
D
per

Ibf=

1 N 77699 42448 07197 36695 01444 66193 30942 60440 25189 89938 54687 19436 84185
4893 1368 7843 4318 7268 3743 0218
0-12950 2-71946 5-95691 13-0793 15-6693

Meganewfons
Ib;

2240 1
=
94969 4246 0721 3671
71224 35973 00722 59718 24467 53965
7196 6620 3095 9570 6045
18714 83463 48212 12961 77710
0-06475
2-65471 3-30220 5-89216
13-0145

Stress:

Pressure,
UKton

1 B i
Basis:
o 0-00000
64749 29498 94247 58996
3-23745
88494 53243 17992
5-82741
47490
12239 76988 41757 06486 71253
3598 0073 6548 3023 9498 5973 2448 8923 5398

•i

o©ooo o o o 00
oo O ooo
in VO ov oO W^
^ FH to TF,
o
me ooe
VO t~ 00 Sh
^ F^ FN FK
fF<
ooeoe
I
 !

994 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES

PRESSURE, STRESS

o
o
lf> O m CD
IQ 03 CD n-
O)
CM CD
rj-
CD
r--
CD CD
CM CD r--
00 ro CO ro 00 ro
CM CD CM
00
05
ro op ro
h- PM m
LO
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o in O (D
LD ro CD LO
CD ro 00 ro
CM 00 in rH CO
CO CM C-- CM
rH 'CJ* 0 rH
!>
LD
ro
vp 0
00 0
(b
iH
D«- cn 00 Ci
rH rH rH
6 O rH rH CM
CM CM CM CM CM
ro ro m
in
CM CM CM CM CM
CD t*- t> CQ <D
CM CM CM CM CM
CD
CM
0
ro ro ro
CM
ro

W
m
o oi
in
CM CM
O- m
CM r- CM LD
CM CD
M" CD ro
in CM
ro
rH LD rH CD
O
CO CM
m
CM
CO
rH
0
t>
LD rH LD rH
in CM
rH CD rH LD CO
0m 0
m m 0 in 0
CM 0 o- in
in 0 m CD
D- ro O CD
CM Gi mCM 00 m rH 00 rH 0£> ro 0 LD ro 05 m CM
cb n- CO CO di
•— rH rH rH fH
Ci orH rH CM
rH CM CM CM CM
ro ro in
CM CM CM CM
in
CM
cb c- r- CQ CD
CM CM CM CM CM
CD 0 0
CM ro ro ro
CM

t.

o o to
lO
mO LO
rn O
CD M" 05
n- in CM
05
h-
05
in CM
(D ro
s
h- in
§
CO 10
in
ro CO ro
0 h- 8
m. K> <n ro
(O Oi a in CM CO
CM n-
mrH
CM lD
00
LD rH in
rH t- o0
c-
in
ro
0
0CD
CD
CM 05 m ro n*N ro CO
CM 06 rHm
0.0254
ib
i—i
o- 00 CD
rH rH p-H rH
CD orH
rH CM CM
rH CM
ca CM
ro in in
CM CM CM CM CM
cb r*
CM CM CM
OQ cp
CM CM
CD 00 CM
CM ro ro ro ro

=
(M n- 03 CM r- CM CM rH CD rH CD rH CD rH LD
00 in 0 in 0 in
inch

in LO m
mO
00 LO
LO
ro
LD
oom
00 ro
in <5
O cn LO
LO 05
ro
CD
00 in
rrS ro ro
00 in ro 0
c- CM '0
in
1 n-
lO 03 00 LO rH 00 M" rH
i> O (D ro CD CD CM CD
Cf5
in CM 00
CM
in iH 00 iH
square
(b o- o- 00
rH rH rH rH
&i
rH
G> O rH
rH CM CM
CM
CM CM
rb ro LO
CM CM CM CM CM
cb CD
CM CM
h- cp cb
CM 03 CM
cb
CM
00 CM
ro ro ro ro
N;
65
per

o LO rp
m O
CO rH
M" CD
00 in ro
CD
O 00 CD
in ro
05
O CD
03 in
ro
ro
CO ro CO ro
0 CO m
ro
00 ro cn ro
cn
0 0 0 in
0
00 in ro
in O
9.806
ort
•g LO M" CD 05 ro 00 Op CM r- CM h- LD in
ifl lO rH 00 rH ro LDO ro CD LO CM CD in CM CD in 00 0
rH !>•
tons-force = (b o-
iH rH fH
00 <D
rH (H
CD orH
rH CM CM CM
CM
CM
CM in
CM CM CM CM CM
cb
CM
LD p- CO cb
CM CM w
CM
CD0 0 CM
CM ro ro ro
ro
a
kgf cs

1 & (M r- OI O- CM O CM h- CM l> LO rH LO rH LO rH LD rH CO 0 in 0 in 0
U K) 00 LO ro rH 00 LD ro rH Op LD rH CO ro rH 00 ro rH m Lb
UK
O 2?
ocn K>
O Op ro n- CM CM rH CO rH
m m0 in 0 CD CD ro m
ro 0 LD ro CD
•St

to
kgf;
a rO
05
ro 05 LD CM
Oo rH CM
CD
CM
in CM
ro
CO
in
rH 00 td-
CD CO
rH c-
CD 0 0
<b o- P- 00 CD CQ cn
37 rH rH rH rH rH rH CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM ro ro ro ro
metre

592

c in 2? in
cn LO M"
o in
rH
CD H- 05
00 LD ro
CD
00 LD
05
ro rH
CD
CO CD
CO ro m ro 00
ro rH rrt LO ro
ro m
mro
LO
cn ro
ro
square
0.453
o 03 P- CM
O
LO ro O LD rH LD
LO CM 05 CM mO in
CD
O in
in rH
05
c-
CD
0
rr*n ro CO
c- ro 0
X6
ro CM
ro 05 LD
CM
CM CD
o O- 00
rH rH rH rH
CO
rH
CD OO rH CM
rH CM CM CM CM
CM ro
CM CM
in
CM CM
cb LO CO cb CD CD 0 ro ro
per
= D CM CM CM CM CM 03 CM CM ro

Ibf

1 O CM P- CM
rH (O <Ji
CM CM
rH CD LD
CM LD rH LD rH CD
rH 05 LD rH
CD
CD CD
CD
CD
in
LO
0in in
Ct5 LD
0
^0
fp in
LO CM mO
in
CM 00
CD
rH
CD ro OO ro CO
O o ro
CM
0 CM
LD ro 05 LD
LO <0 in
CM 05 in CM GO
0
Meganewtons
lb;
Lb LO 00 cb
rH rH rH rH rH
OQ
CD iH
rH CM CM CM
CM
CM
CM ro in
CM CM CM CM CM
LD CO r-
CM CM CM
h- CO
CM CM
CD CD 0
CM CM ro ro ro
2240

= O in
03 <7) r-
O in O H- <5
CD LD
CD
rH CD
CD
LO
CD
rH
CD
05 CD
ro 00 10
05 cO
00 ro 00 ro cn ro 00
05 ro iH
lO
oa CO m O) M-
rH 00 ?y ro 00
rH c-- O ro CM
D- ro
CM
O LO iH
LD ro
CO
05 CD CM
m 05
0 in
in
0 05
CM 00 M- rH
05
Stress:
UKton
(b LO t-;
rH rH rH
00 cb
rH rH
CD O o rH
rH CM CM
CM
CM CM
CM ro
CM CM CM
in
CM CM
in CD r-
CM CM CM
cb
CO CM
CD CD cS
CM CM ro ro ro
1
Pressure,
03 CM
CM
r- CM
CD C-
CM l> CM t*-
CM CD C*
rH
CM
LO rH CO iH
05 CM
LO
05
CD
CM CD
LO 0m0 in
CM CD h-
0
Basis:
00 OU
rH CO M-
m CM l>
rH
CM L'* rH LD rH
M- CD ro O LD
LD
CD m ^*N in
ro 05 CD CM
CD
CO m05
rH 00
00 ro cn ro
rH
CM
0
LO LO
rH rH rH
CO cb
rH rH
O <D iH CM
rH CM CM CM CM
CM
CM
ro ro in
CM CM CM CM
in CD
CM CM CM
r- cb
CM CM
CD CD 0
CM CM ro ro ro

OQOOO oo ooo o
mo ooo ooooo o oooo
m^ m
o O
v©
m 00tn
On
t*) ^^^^^ ’
V) VO
^ ^ 00^ ov
^
 t

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 995

Pressure, stress:
Meganewtons per square metre to UK tons-force per square inch
t W 03 O- 03 0- 03 to (—1 to to f— to f-J to iH m O
_ to O to o
CQ t;:
^ 03 03 t- o- 03 03 C- O- 03 03 t-'d-Q3g>0-
t-
^
N^^
03 gj c— s;
m o m o> 'T 00 lO 00
rHOp^rHO-
to C- 03 O- 03
O O to i-H to r-l ip Q tn 03o
q> tp N ip <x> o- t- to to to 03 to Cp 03 to op
^ in 'O' 35-
32- 33- 34- 34- ib 36-
to 37- cb 00
o- 38-
to to to hO lO
03 40-
39-
to O-
OQ
iH 03
^
41-
'S- o-
42- to 44- 45-
oi to 43-
tf "d-
in
O" ^ in to
45- c- 47-
46- 47-
'd' ’d"
[> 48-
^ § 'd'
lo ^o fo fo ro

7774 4249 0724 3674 0149 3099 6048 8998 5473 1948 8423 4898 1373 7848 4322
8925 5400 1875 8350 4824
32- 33- 34- 34- 35- 36- 37- 38- 39- 40-
40-6624
41- 41-9573
42- 43-
45-2523
43- 44- 45- 45- 46- 47- 47- 48-
36-1299 38-7199
00

32- 33- 34- 34- 35- 36- 37- 37- 38- 39- 40- 41- 42- 43- 43- 44- 45- 45- 46- 47- 47- 48-
1227. 1876 8351 0725 3675
7702 4177 7127 3602 0077 9501 5976 2451 5401 4826 1300 7775 4250 7200
8277 4752
36-0652 38-6551 39-3026 41-8926

32- 33- 33- 34- 35- 35- 36- 37- 37- 38- 39- 40- 41- 42- 43- 43- 44- 45- 45- 46- 46- 47- 48-

7630 4105 0580 7055 3529 6479 2954 9429 5904 8854 5329 1804 4753 1228 7703 4178 0653 7128 3603 0078 6553 3027

ve 36-0004 39-2379 41-8278

32- 33- 33- 34- 35- 35- 36- 37- 37- 38- 39- 40- 41- 42- 43- 44- 45- 46- 46- 47- 48-

6982 3457 9932 6407 2882 9357 5832 2307 8782 5256 8206 4681 1156 4106 0581 7056 3531 0005 6480 2955 9430 5905 2380
inch
32- 33- 33- 34- 35- 35- 36- 37- 37- 38- 39-1731
39- 40- 40- 41-
41-7631 42- 43- 44- 45- 46- 46- 47- 48-

square

32- 33- 33- 34- 35- 35- 36- 37- 37- 38- 38- 39- 40- 40- 41- 42- 43- 44- 45- 46- 46- 47- 48-
6335 2810 9285 5760 2235 8709 5184 1659 8134 4609 7559 4034 0509 9933 6408 2883 5833 2308 8783 5258 1732
per
39-1084 41-6983 42-3458 44-9358

32- 33- 33- 34- 35- 35- 36- 36- 37- 38- 38- 39- 40- 40- 41- 42- 43- 44- 45- 46- 46- 47-
tons-force

5687 2162 8637 5112 1587 8062 4537 1012 7487 3962 6911 3386 9861 6336 9286 5761 2236 5185 1660 8135 4610 1085
39-0436 42-2811 44-8711

32- 33- 33- 34- 35- 36- 36- 37- 38- 38- 39- 40- 40- 41-
UK 42- 43- 44- 45- 46- 47-

5040 1515 7990 4465 0940 7414 3889 0364 6839 3314 9789 6264 2739 9214 5689 8638 5113
N 42-2163
1588

44-8063
4538 1013 7488 3963 0438

4392 0867 7342 3817 0292 6767 3242 9717 6192 2667 9141 5616 2091 8566 5041 7991 4466 0941 3890 0365 6840 3315
42-1516 44-7416 47-9790

3745 0220 6695 3170 6119 2594 9069 5544 2019 8494 4969 1444 7919 4394 7343 3818 0293 9718 6193 2668
34-9645
42-0868 44-6768 45-3243 47-9143

o
o oo oo ooo o o oo^oo
>o «n
03 fO 'T
>-t
m «n in *n mm in m S VO OI to 1-*
VO VO VC P p ^
996 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES

Pressure, stress:
Meganewtons per square metre to UK tons-force per square inch
in o to o ^
^ 05 ^05 r^' 05 ^
O 05 ^ 05 ^0
to ^ rH 05
Cp ro 03 ro cp ro 03 ro cp CM
«d-O ro 00 ^
03 O)
ro
iH I> ^ O D-
rH 05 to rr rH
Cp03C^03C-
?0 Oto hO 05
rH to rH t^ O
to CM 05 CM ir>
to
in
00
rH 05 to
rH mm ^
o
05
ri-
':^r^05iO';J-
O ^ ro O
05 00 ro Op
to
dv c> o iH iM
^ ^ m to to 03 ro
m to to
m^
m^m ih to to c- 00
to to to to in
CO 05
to in to in
OQm
rH CM CM ro
to to to to tn
^^ 1

^-03^03 0-
^
Oi o- 03 O)
03 O- 03
^03
t> rH
05
to rH to rH to
^ w 05 rr
to O ^ 05 ^
rH to rH to
CM 05 CM ^O mo in
05 t- rj*
o tn
CM 05
O
00
O-
o o C- C9 to
^0 to
rH to rH
ro 05 to
in Q
03 05 to CM CO ^ rH
05 ro 00 ro CO
£r* ^O ro
CM t>- CM
O to ro
rH
05 to

^^6 mOQ ^
i

d) d> rH f-H 03C3^O^r^ ih to to c* cb CO 05 rH CM CM rb rb

m m to in m lO to to m lo to to in to to in to to to to to to

om
m Qm^
03 o
rf 05 05^ 05 05 ^ CO
Tj* ro CO ro CO ro corocoroc-
Q^
03 05 t* >tf 03 05 !>•CM 05 t-^CM05C- CM 05
o to ro m
rH to
ooto
i-H to
03
05 ^ ^
05
00 in rH 00
m m
^ rH CO
"ii*
rn cr
D» ^ O
C3 C- CM to rH
to O to ro
to rH
C35 to
in in
CM 05 tn
05 d> O O iH
m^^ mQO ^ 1

03 03 rn to <b to cp CO 05 rH rH CM ro hO
Tj*^ m to to to to to lo to to in lO in in in to to to to to to to

03
o 03 O- 03
c- m 03 o
03 C- 03 to
O rH to rH
o to rH to m
rH to
O m rH o in o tn o
C- in CM o
in 05 ^ O) ^
to 03
OOfOOOCOCr-
in CMc- to
to M
CM C- CM
CM
to
in CM
o
rH
t>
tn Q
O ^ 05 05
05 m 03 CO in rH 00 ^ rH O- ^ O K5 O
C* to in CM
ro 05 05 tn rH 00 ^
00 05 O O rH 03 03 rn ^ ^ rH CM ro rp ^
1

^ ^ m to m m to in m to in to tb
to in in
cb
to to mm Q
CO rH
05 05
in to
tn to in to to to

.S tooOo^in 05 ^ 05 ^ 05 ^ 05 CO ro CO ro CO ro CO ro 00 03

u
to ^0
oocoooc^o-
m C3Q 03 O
W to 03
O" rH to rH
Q
S o m 05
^o
Td-

in o in
C-mCMQC-
05^ ^ 05 00
m csj o
0- in
ro 00 ro C- CM
•ft CO S to rH 00 ^ rH O- ^ O 0- ro O to lO 05 tn CM 00 in rH CO 'd- rH o^
s
O'
m
^ m 0.0
m 10 rW
lo
03 03 ro ^
to m to to to
in to to cr
m to to to to 00 0> 05
mm rH
in in to
Q rH CM rp ro
to to to to to
^
I

M
a r- N O- 03 0- eoc~(Mi>f-c rH lO
to rH to rH to rH to O yj o LO o in
CO m ho o
U SSS3S
^
00 ^ '•H t>
iQ ^ 2 <»
inomog-
O ro O lO ^ o CO
in ro
05
CM 05 to
in
ro CO
05
CM 00
ro
m
OCO in ro
ro 00 CM
rH 00
CM
rH^
O
t- CD iH LO
t-l
t- g- o c~ m

^o O rH O rH CM rp ro ^
1

op 05 03 03 rO^’«;t- in in to
C' 00 05 05 rH
in to to to in to m to m m lo
in in tn min to to to to to to tn
c
2-
o m o m 05 05 ^
05 ^ 05
o ^ 05 ^ CO
00 in m o o ro
ro CO ro CO comcorot^
^•d to ro rH 00
to ro Q
^00 in to
mm cp in ro00 in ro Q
00 in
Q^
3 in
^O ^
Q to 05
to
ro
05 00
05 tD 03 05
00 ^0 C- CM CM
CM CO m rH CO
to rH to rH
^ rH ^ in
O O
C-
in
ro
05
O
to CM

^OO m m m o rH
1

00 05 rH 03 ro inintot>c*-
'd- m rH
toto to to to to to m m m to m CO 05 05
in to
to
rH CM ro ro
to to to to to

03
rH ^ CS
OO
O- C3
to rn rH
03 t- 03 to
00 to fO rH 00
rH
to
to rH cO rH
ro rH CO to
to rH to
ro rH CO
rH
to ro
m o in
rH CO
o in o
to ro rH
M 05
to
ro
^0
00 ro 00
05 to 03
CM C-* 03 O- rH
05 in CM 00 to
to
rH CO
O
rH to
rH
in oO in 05
to
Tj- 05
ro 05 ^ Op
to CM
ro CO ro
O) m CM
^O O 1
Cp
^ 05 05
m rH
to
rH CM lO ro
to m to to lo
inmtor-c-
tn to m m m
CO 05 C75
in in tn
Q
in to
rH CM
to to
CM ro Vf
to to to

in o
inom
to ’tf rH 05 to
05 05 Tf 05
ro rH 00 ^
ro
Tt 05 '•d- 05
rH CO to ro rH
^ cp ro
S to
CO
ro
ro
rH
CO
00
ro CO ro Cp
to ro rH 00
CM
to
03 0- 03 to rH
to 03 05 m C3
to rH lO
00 mrH 00
O
to O^ O 05 *5t 05
rH C- ro lO
P5 CO
ro 05
rp
to
CO
CM
CM
05
CM t- rH
tn CM 00 in
to
rH
^^o ^ 1

00 05 05
ri-
rH
to in
rH CM ro lO
to mto lo to
in in to c* c*
mmmm in
CO 00
tn tn
05
m CD
to
Q
in
r-f CM CM ro
to to to to to

C-<MC:-<MC- 03 O- 03 O- CM to rH to rH to
^ rH to rH to rH mo in o in

O
r-<

mO
to
Oi «0 •g- i-l
to lO
(M 00 lo t-H
o 05 to
05
O-
^^
O^
05
rH 05
00
to
^ 05 to
ro cp ro
i-H

O to ro 05 CM
to
^ rH
CM
CM C75
05 to
to rH to
m CM CO
^ r-H05 to ^ rH
rH tn Q in o
in rH 00 ^ rH
§
00 01 O)
g
g-
rH
g- lo in
O rHCMromtf
to in lo to in
to to to to
to to to LO to
CO 00
m tn mOQ
05
to in
r-HCM CM ro ^
to to to to to to

c«

S
mo
o ooo o
O o ooo o
m ooo o e
O oo oo p ooo o o
^M ^^ ^
ov ^
9\ ^
'c r- 00 o\ rN CS fO VO 00 o\
z f*- 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ^ JH ^ fO ^ ^ 00 5^
On ^ s
S
 997
miscellaneous tables
998 RADIUS OF GYRATION
 999
of sections
geometrical properti es

-;;;^^nPm^PF<QPERTIES OF
FLANESEO]^
Section
of^inertia Moduli
Mi
Section iSc^troid
-
V
^ ^xx
=P>09S 0 ^
§ T^" . •x=f
= 00 S47 C^ Zyy^OIOIId^
I
o s=04/42d —
e=r or R
2 = -T
dtptnding on
tht ax/s and
va/ttt of n

Iy» sO- 109 8 bast = 0-2Se7r \

cfOwn=^OI907r^
SEM/-CIRCLE
-X A-I5708r2 tx=0-424r
lyy^O 3927 r^ 0 JP27rJ

Zxx
bast = Ixx/*x
crown = TXX
'

^ o"“ Cjr
SEGMENT

_
2,yY- — E

_
dxX^o-^T - Zxx
_ 3601.29 4r<
„«r.=X^/.x
^YY’^(j^~dn.oj erown=

Minimum Vaiuts
IXX=2YY=^' 0S49r‘* , _ Zyy
- ,
2xx
i

tx’‘0'424r \

_ 06r 2tb- 0-l963r4 _q

ty
Zui/=0 07/4r* Zixj=0l009r3
ry =0 707r
^ o.03B4^ Zyy = 0 064r3

^ ^ Minimum Vaiuts
^xx = Zyy
tx=0’777r Txx=2yy=00076r^
ty=t-098r =0 0097r^
A=0-2i46r2 tu=0‘707r XuU = O OI2r4 Z(jy = O OI7r^

t^=0'39/r
2Yy = 0‘003lr4 Zyy = 0 0079r^
1000 RADIUS OF GYRATION

GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF PLANE SECTIONS

Section
Moments Section
of inertia Moduli

XXX =07aS4ba^

Xyy = 078S4ob^

Zxx ~ bOMt
Xxx = 02S87ba^
= OI098ba^
Zxx -cror/)
lyy = 0-39Z7ab^ =0't907ba^
~
^bott = 0-39Z7ba^

Zxx ~ bast
Xxx = OOS49ba^ =0-1293 ba^

Xi„o.-0-/963ba^ Zyy ~ bast

‘ '
=0-l293ab^
-
X^ f.
= 0-/963ob-^ Zyy ~
= 0-0933 ab^
Zxx~bast
,
= 0-0338ba^
Xxx ^ 0-0076bo^ Zxx ~ eptx
= 0-0097bo^
Zyy “ bast
Xyy= 0-0076ab^ = 0-0338ab^
~ Zyy
= 0-0097ab^
Zxx ~ bast
= 0-2286ba^
Xxx= 0-0914 ba 4 ZxX-^’’^'*'*
. =0-lS24bo2
Xyy= 0-2666ab^
Xbast = O- 304830^

Zxx ~ bast
^XX~ 004S7ba^ = 0-1143 bo^
0 0396ab^ ^^0~076ba2
o-/s?4ba^
.= 0-1333 a b^
= 0-0633ab.2
Zxx ~ bast
0-0/76ba^ = 0-0S87ba^
OOlZSab =00232302
= 0-181 ba^
0-/8/bo^
=0
,

03ab^
= 0-2ob 2 Zyy — aptx
= 0-Ot67ob2
^UU - ^VV
X(jlj=Xyy=000S24s
C„=.^^ ^
=0.02620^
s - o- 11190'* aptx
= 0-006ao3
 STEEL PILING
FRODINGHAM SHEET PILING
dimensions AND PROPERTIES

1. Profile of Nos. 1A. IB, 1BXN, 2N, 3N & 4N sections

Z Profile of No. 5 section

Weight
Section
Section
Size in mm per modulus
per
No.
A B C D lin m sq m cm^/m
of wall of wall
in kg
in kg

lA 400 146 6.9 6.9 35.64 89.1 563

IB 400 133 9.5 9.5 42.13 105.3 562
IBXN 476 143 12.7 12.7 62.1 130.4 688
2N 483 235 9.7 8.4 54.21 112.3 1 150
3N 483 283 11.7 8.9 66.15 137.1 1 688
4N 483 330 14.0 10.4 82.45 170.8 2 414
5 425 311 17.0 11.9 100.76 236.9 3 168
1002 STEEL PILING

Axis
m
crrP
per

Section Modulus about

Minimum

Neutral

ft
tOOtOVOiOOOO
On—ic^mioOfovo
per
ins^
— ^ ^ cs

per
Area m Oo-^CjfvSCoNCt^'O
Wall
kg sq
Weight
Unit

of per CO'^J-OOCMTfOOOO
PILING
per
ft O VO Tt ,-H CM O rf O
lb sq r^ONCO^ONM^i-HON
«oiovovovor**oooo
Pile per
SHEET
one
m
of lin
PROPERTIES
kg
Combined

Weight per ft BiSSi^3ESSS3

lin
MODULUS lb

AND
mm 'S 'S On
t
HIGH CMCMt^vOCSCOCOC^
in loiointovovovor^
,nsion

cjoodcjooo
DIMENSIONS

Dime ’-n»^'OVO'^0\On^
mm N ^ ‘o
fN* N
CNjCsCNjCNjCNCv^rs^fV^
d
FRODINGHAM r^cOf^V^OrfOvO
in COooONOOOONi-<<N
dodd^d—Ji-H
Size 4
^CStTVOCNOO'^
foot
Ono—
—
i»-Hm«or-ON
—4 —4 1-H

xxxxxxxx
t

Beam Standard
per

On OO 1-H —4
CM CS CM
y-^ ^
Universal

British
andJb
xxxxxxxx
Tj-r-r-oovovovo
in cMcMcMfomcncnco

Section
No. XXXXXXXX
O— iCMfOTj-iOVOt***
r-H —4 — H —4
 STEEL PILING
frodingham double box piles
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

1. Profile of Nos. 1 A, IB, 1BXN, 2N, 3N & 4N sections

2. Profile of No. 5 section

Dimensions Cross Section Moment of Section Radius of

Section in mm sq cm Inertia Modulus Gyration

B
L
XX XX about XX
.

No. about about

Steel Whole
B cm** cm^ cm
only Pile

lA 800 292 182 1258 16275 1115 9.4

IB 800 267 215 1174 15565 1165 8.5
IBXN 953 286 317 1523 25515 1785 9.0
2N 965 470 277 2406 64305 2735 15.2
3N 965 565 338 2884 268.6 113415 4015 18.3
4N 965 660 421 3387 333.7 191660 5805 21.3
5 850 622 514 2903 407.0 208430 6700 20.1
1004 STEEL PILING
FBODING HAM PLATED BOX PILES
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Moment Minimum
Size of Cross Section Radius of
Dimensions *Weight of Inertia Section
Standard sq cm Gyration
Section in mm Plate
about Modulus
about
No. kg per Neutral about

B B Steel Whole Neutral

B
mm only Hie
lin m Axis Neutral
Axis cm
cm^ Axis cm^

lA 156 100 508 y. 10 139 677 109.2 5200 520 6.1

IB 144 93 559 X 11 170 652 132.9 5035 540 5.5
IBXN 953 157 102 711 X 14 259 858 203.9 8490 830 5.7
2N 965 248 164 660 X 13 222 1290 174.2 21060 •
1280 9.7
3N 965 297 195 660 X 14 263 1548 206.3 36375 1870 11.8
4N 965 346 223 660 X 16 315 1813 247.1 59475 2705 13.7
5 850 330 202 533x19 359 1555 281.2 61805 3055 13.1

* Weights quoted are for piles with full length plate.

 1005
STEEL PILING
frodingham box
propertie
dimensions and

Section No. 8
Section No. 6
Section No. 4

Moment Radius
Cross- Overall of of Section modulus
Weight Outside
area of perimeter inertia
— gyration maximum minimum
Section including sectional
(axis UU) (axis W)
No. welds area section mm any axis any axis
cm^
kg/m sq cm sq cm cm'* mm cm^

146 2183 2025

1460 1390 45620
4 167.6 213.7 3802 3670
1715 101345 185
233.4 297.9 2560 6342
6 237650 245 7063
398 3970 2273
8 313

FRODINGHAM STRAIGHT WEB PILING

DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Minimum Minimum
Weight
ultimate section
Section modulus of
strength
No. Single pile Per unit area
of interlock single pile
kg/m kg/sq m tonnes/m cm^

SWl 55.32 134.0 285 27.9

SWIA 63.77 154.5 285 27.9
 STEEL PILING

LARSSEN SHEET PILING

1b
3/20, o
CN
1A,
1U,2,2B
4/20
CO <
o
38, o
3, 4B,
ca
c Section

10A/10B-20

.2
Sections
CD
1GB,
2N, 4A, o
irT
0
)
in
 <

STEEL PILING 1007

o oO CM VO VO VO CM 00 VO VO VO
CO VO
o> o^
CO *o
CO
VO O VO r*' CO VO VO 4200 5000
00 VO
CO
o
o
Section
Modulus

cm^m
cn 00 c CO VO VO CO CM CM ON
CM CM CM CM CM
VO
rj*

KO CO *o a\ VO ON 00
os VO VO CO VO VO 00 VO 4166 6054 2250
Inertia
4998 2729 3184 8494
VO 00 oo 23910 28554 45160 4 45924 50777 92298 VO ON
CO rf VO as co ON
Combined Moment

cm''/m CO oO r-H
of

1 1 1
1
wall
84 68 90 cs CM VO VO *o
m*
per Kg
106 <N 117
CM «o «o
f-H
137 00
r“ CM
o 162
UI 238 290 312 330 138 131 CO
of

WEIGHT
11 1 111 1
VD VO CO oo o VO CO o
per
linear
metre

Kg
vn
36.2 42.4
cd
46.7
cd
62.0 62.1 69.6
84.5
CM vd d
o 122.0 131.0 138.7
62.2 66.4

2
CO CO r- 00 00

i 11 1 11 11 1 !
<
" p s VO <o 00 00
00
<
o 114
CO VO 149 156
Os 198 175 236
256 207
CM
303 370 ON
CO
421
176 VO 171

C
>
J
<^ c
U o
00
PROPERTIES 1 i1 1 1 1 1
11 1 1 1[ 1 1 1 1 1 : 1
L 1J 1 1 1 ! _ 1

Web r
f of mm
302 305 302 302 270 248 248 248
VO
CO CO
o 219 257 321 321 257 248 251 251 130 273 130/
273
CM ro
AND
Flat

1 11 1 1 1 111 1 1 1 11 1 1 1
DIMENSIONS
t mm
(nominal) 5.8 1 5.8 1 8.9 8.9 8.4
d 10.9
dd 11.9 14.0 14.0 14.0 12.7 12.7 12,7/
12.7

1 1 1 11 11 1 11T
1
P rs VO o VO q
lUUI ZJ CO o\ d cd d rd
11.7 15.7 15.5 14.3 15.7
VZZ CM vd
28.6 12.7 12.7 12.7/
12.7

CM CM

1111111111111
CO
h mm 130 r*' 130 130 200 270 270 247 298 343 381 343 381 381 343 440 440 440
c-
CO
o
1 1 11 1 1 1 i
11111 111111

400 400 400 400 400 400

o
o 400 508 400 420 508 420 420 420 420.
i 400 508 450 508 450/
508

111 111 ^ 1

Section

ca o o
< m o 2 cs CQ :2: PQ
CM
< CQ
CM <
o
lOA-lOB/20

cs CM CO CO CO to VO »—
lOB/20
1008 STEEL PILING
 4

1009
SHEET PILING
larssen sheet piling YY
dimensions and properties 840 891 086
c*^
00 o Tt* 00
VO 3037 3104 1844

FOR BOX PILING About

o 1177
fS 3 fO 1380 2089 1645 2078 2366 2900 2252 2912

Modulus

1 J11 11 11
cm"

XX
Section
00 cs VO 4

420 565 457 533 850 982 VO CO cs Os 980

o CO <0 a\
1—4
2217 2270 2661 2832 2973 4215 4631 5019

About

1 I11
YY cn
VO
18142
VO 30218 35833 64316 67209 51471 VO 70356 71958 49906

g
23620 25777 26156 29761 56807 47500

Inertia as On r-
About
rH VO

of 1 1 11
cm'*

XX 00
Os
O
m
1-H
ON »o
T— CN
00
cn
0\
Moment 3492
6048 3775 4400
cs 26152 38789 VO 56828 60474 58501 00 10547

About
O VO as
47529
105731
VO VO
CN

cs o <s cs VO *o 00 00 o
oe
Approx. Perimeter 112 CS cs CO VO VO VO 155 208 208 208 132
^-4 ^4 1-s

of t-4 VO VO CO CO r-4 CN VO

Least
Gyr. cm
^ 6.36 7.59 6.40 6.40 9.07
10.57
VO q r4
13.77
VO VO CN
VO VO
14.51
CN 7.87

Rad. »— *-4 1—4

_

OS 00 ON rH cn CN VO VO CN N-
^4 VO 00
o 00 cn VO VO cn ON
Whole
597 llA 619
oo 923
Piles
Area 1794
VO CO •o 00 00 C"
r*4 F-H ^-4 ^-4 r-H

cm^
Sectional

98 91 92 108 124 119 CN 158 158

Steel
only
^4 m 189 215 210 222 255 311 335 354 170

metre
00
q o
Weight

Kg
71.3 72.3

00
97.6
9M
97.6

<N
124.1 139.1 148.0 168.9 165.0 173.6 o
o 243.6 262.0
VLLZ
CN
cn
per CN 1—4

‘ i 1 1
^4 cs
d mm CO
8.6
13.5 11.7 15.7 15.5 14.3 15.7
rzz VZZ
25.4
28.6
12.7

1 1
•o
H mm 167 214 165 165 240 314 314 289
343^
390 429 394 427 427 394 502 502 502 —4
cs
1 1
VO
a urux 432 432 432 432 438 436 cn 438 438 544 436 467 543
543
4671
464 464 464

1 r 1 5:

c5
Section
< P3
1GB
2B 3B 3/20
4A 4B
cr
..H cs 3 P V£»
Ph Pu, Pw Pw 0
BP mm BP
M BP BP BP BP BP
p BP5
PLi
PQ

1
 s
(

1010 STEEL PILING

RENDHEX FOUNDATION COLUMNS c5 C5 O
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES 3 c5 V1 Tt

c
c
°
43 K
N
fv1
r<1
^ vo’
ON
o c O' o V CO
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c c ) > vo
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I
vo
CO
c
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c
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.o X c VC vd
CO oc VC vo
< CO
CN

e
o
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3 00 CO ON
O N r* NO
c
o
43 N 00
< «-H ir^

c« '4^
3 o VO CN
o >-
.

VCO CN
o 43 >H a r—
Uw
o <
g o
o p~
CN
O
VC3
vo’ ON
ci < T-H

VO fO
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o
s
0
S3
O N . ,

1 ^N VO
o
cd
< Tj-

o VO CNJ CO
CN
O > r**
o
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<
VO CO
»— On
C "co o' CN
o 3 • 00 CN

^X
B o VO
o 0 ON o O
s VO

o u
x’ 2
M cs 00
Cu 6
s
ac *•— 'M
< o
*o VO fO
cd
o s
ii c
n P r**' CO*
2 3 VO CN vo
< 2u p ^
^ *8
00 rj*
CN
2 ^ ^
en O
O — ^
.X o
VO CN *o
(N N; fN
^ X a c vd
CO
c/3 O cn o
CN CO

O o •«j- CO
".2 c
•S,
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lo
CO
d
^ 44 o
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o 00 CO
00
cs VO*

CO o
o
c
P3
o CO
B r*^ •!t CO*
eu rs o
N CO o
CO
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d d d
c
u p^ 2:> 2:
1
Pi ^ 1
 properties of BRITISH STANDARD SECTIONS
dimensions and
f-B- *1

UNIVERSAL BEAMS
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Depth Width Depth

Mass Thickness Area
Serial of of Root between
per of
Size Section Section Web Flange Radius Fillets
metre Section
D B t T r d

mm kg mm mm mm mm mm mm cm^

914x419 388 920.5 420.5 21.5 36.6 24.1 791.5 493.9

343 911.4 418.5 19.4 32.0 24.1 791.5 436.9
914x305 289 926.6 307.8 19.6 32.0 19.1 819.2 368.5
253 918.5 305.5 17.3 27.9 19.1 819.2 322.5
224 910.3 304.1 15.9 23.9 19.1 819.2 284.9
201 903.0 303.4 15.2 20.2 19.1 819.2 256.1
838 X 292 226 850.9 293.8 16.1 26.8 17.8 756.4 288.4
194 840.7 292.4 14.7 21.7 17.8 756.4 246.9
176 834.9 291.6 14.0 18.8 17.8 756.4 223.8
762 X 267 197 769.6 268.0 15.6 25.4 16.5 681.2 250.5
173 762.0 266.7 14.3 21.6 16.5 681.2 220.2
147 753.9 265.3 12.9 17.5 16.5 681.2 187.8

686 X 2B4 170 692.9 255.8 14.5 23.7 15.2 610.6 216.3
152 687.6 254.5 13.2 21.0 15.2 610.6 193.6
140 683.5 253.7 12.4 19.0 15.2 610.6 178.4
125 677.9 253.0 11.7 16.2 15.2 610.6 159.4
610x305 238 633.0 311.5 18.6 31.4 16.5 531.6 303.5
179 617.5 307.0 14.1 23.6 16.5 531.6 227.7
149 609.6 304.8 11.9 19.7 16.5 531.6 189.9

610x229 140 617.0 230.1 13.1 22.1 12.7 543.1 178.2

125 611.9 229.0 11.9 19.6 12.7 543.1 159.4
113 607.3 228.2 11.2 17.3 12.7 543.1 144.3
101 602.2 227.6 10.6 14.8 12.7 543.1 129.0

610X178 91 602.5 178.4 10.6 15.0 12.7 547.1 115.9

82 598.2 177.8 10.1 12.8 12.7 547.1 104.4

533 x 330 212 545.1 333.6 16.7 27.8 16.5 450.1 269.6
189 539.5 331.7 14.9 25.0 16.5 450.1 241.2
167 533.4 330.2 13.4 22.0 16.5 450.1 212.7

533 X 210 122 544.6 211.9 12.8 21.3 12.7 472.7 155.6
109 539.5 210.7 11.6 18.8 12.7 472.7 138.4
101 536.7 210.1 10.9 17.4 12.7 472.7 129.1
92 533.1 209.3 10.2 15.6 12.7 472.7 117.6
82 528.3 208.7 9.6 13.2 12.7 472.7 104.3

533 X 165 73 528.8 165.6 9.3 13.5 12.7 476.5 93.0

66 524.8 165.1 8.8 11.5 12.7 476.5 83.6

457 X 191 98 467.4 192.8 11.4 19.6 10.2 404.4 125.2

89 463.6 192.0 10.6 17.7 10.2 404.4 113.8
82 460.2 191.3 9.9 16.0 10.2 404.4 104.4
74 457.2 190.5 9.1 14.5 10.2 404.4 94.9
67 453.6 189.9 8.5 12.7 10.2 404.4 85.4

Note: These tables are based on Universal Beams with tapered flanges.
Universal Beams with parallel flanges have properties at least equal to the values given.
Both Taper and Parallel Flange Beams comply with the requirements of the British Standard
4: Part 1:1971 and are interchangeable.

1012
 X 1

1013
properties of steel sections y

UNIVERSAL BEAMS
dimensions and properties

Moment of Inertia

Serial Axis X—
Size
Gross Net

cm' cm' cm
mm cm*
2021 25.2
38.1 9.27 15586 28.5
639177 42481 13691 1733
717325 37.8 9.11
gi4 x419 623866 555835 36251 29.0
10874 961.3
37.0 6.34 32.9
469903 14793 9490 819.2
914x305 503781 12512 36.8 6.23 38.1
406504 8241 685.6
435796 10425 36.3 6.05 44.7
350209 7192 569.1
375111 35.6 5.81
324715 303783 8632 725.9 31.8
34.3 6.08 7971
315153 10661 573.6 38.7
339130 33.6 5.83 6633
278833 259625 8384 5879 487.6 44.4
33.1 5.64
228867 71 1
245412 574.6 30.3
30.9 5.54 6223
239464 2211381 7699 5374 478.1 35.3
6376 30.5 5.38 43.1
204747 189341 5.16 4471 377.1
156213 5002 30.0
168535 29.2
5.36 4902 486.8
156106 6225 28.0 423.7 32.7
169843 27.8 5.28 4364
137965 5391 377.5 36.0
150015 27.6 5.18 3979
135972 125156 4789 3472 315.5 41.8
3992 27.2 5.00
117700 108580 20.2
7.02 6549 961.3
192203 14973 26.1 688.6 26.2
610 X 305 207252 25.8 6.81 4901
151312 140269 10571 4079 555.9 30.9
8471 25.6 6.68
124341 115233
3620 369.6 27.9
4253 25.0 4.88 31.2
610 X 229 111673 101699 4.80 3217 321.1
89675 3676 24.8 279.1 35.1
98408 24.6 4.70 2874
87260 79645 3184 2509 233.6 40.7
2658 24.2 4.54
75549 69132
2124 160.0 40.2
1427 23.5 3.51
63970 57238 1865 135.3 46.7
610x178 1203 23.1 3.39
55779 50076
5199 963.2 19.6
16064 22.9 7.72
141682 121777 4657 849.6 21.6
533 X 330 14093 22.8 7.64
125618 107882 7.53 4091 730.3 24.2
93647 12057 22.6
109109
2794 302.8 25.6
3208 4.54
533 X 210 76078 68719 4.46 2469 261.5 28.7
66610 60218 2755 2293 239.2 30.8
2512 4.41
61530 55671 2072 211.3 34.2
2212 4.34
55225 50040 1793 175.0 40.0
1826 4.18
47363 43062
1528 124.1 39.2
3.32
1

35752 1027 20.8

533 X 165 40414 3.21 1337 104.5 45.6
35083 31144 863 20.5
229.9 23.8
2216 19.1 4.21
457 X 191 45653 4.15 204.2 26.2
40956 1960 19.0 28.8
4.09 182.6
37039 1746 18.8
4.04 162.4 31.5
33324 1547 18.7
139.9 35.7
1328 18.5 3.95
29337

Note: One hole deducted from each flange under 300

is
mm
wide (serial
and over (serial size), in calculating the
Net Moment of Inert a
from each flange 300 mm
about x-x.
1014 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS
r "B- “I

UNIVERSAL BEAMS
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Depth Width Depth

Thickness Area
Serial of of Root between
of
Size Section Section Web Flange Radius Fillets
Section
D B t T r d

mm kg '

mm mm mm mm mm mm cm^

457x152 82 465.1 153.5 10.7 18.9 10.2 404.4 104.4

74 461.3 152.7 9.9 17.0 10.2 404.4 94.9
67 457.2 151.9 9.1 15.0 10.2 404.4 85.3
60 454.7 152.9 8.0 13.3 10.2 407.7 75.9
52 449.8 152.4 7.6 10.9 10.2 407.7 66.5
406 X 178 74 412.8 179.7 9.7 16.0 10.2 357.4 94.9
67 409.4 178.8 8.8 14.3 10.2 357.4 85.4
60 406.4 177.8 7:8 12.8 10.2 357.4 76.1
54 402.6 177.6 7.6 10.9 10.2 357.4 68.3
406x152 74 416.3 153.7 10.1 18.1 10.2 357.4 94.8
67 412.2 152.9 9.3 16.0 10.2 357.4 85.3
60 407.9 152.2 8.6 13.9 10.2 357.4 75.8
406 X 140 46 402.3 142.4 6.9 11.2 10.2 357.4 58.9
39 397.3 141.8 6.3 3.6 10.2 357.4 49.3

381 x152 67 388.6 1 54.3 9.7 16.3 10.2 333.2 85.4

60 384.8 153.4 8.7 14.4 10.2 333.2 75.9
52 381.0 152.4 7.8 12.4 10.2 333.2 66.4
356 X 171 67 364.0 173.2 9.1 15.7 10.2 309.1 85.3
57 358.6 172.1 8.0 13.0 10.2 309.1 72.1
51 355.6 171.5 7.3 11.5 10.2 309.1 64.5
45 352.0 171.0 6.9 9.7 10.2 309.1 56.9

356 X 127 39 352.8 126.0 6.5 10.7 10.2 309.1 49.3

33 348.5 125.4 5.9 8.5 10.2 309.1 41.7
305x165 54 310.9 166.8 7.7 13.7 8.9 262.6 68.3
46 307.1 165.7 6.7 11.8 8.9 262.6 58.8
40 303.8 165.1 6.1 10.2 8.9 262.6 51.4

305 X 127 48 310.4 125.2 8.9 14.0 8.9 262.6 60.8

42 306.6 124.3 8.0 12.1 8.9 262.6 53.1
37 303.8 123.5 7.2 10.7 8.9 262.6 47.4

305 X 102 33 312.7 102.4 6.6 10.8 7.6 275.3 41.8

28 308.9 101.9 6.1 8.9 7.6 275.3 36.3
25 304.8 101.6 5.8 6.8 7.6 275.3 31.4

254 X 146 43 259.6 147.3 7.3 12.7 7.6 216.2 55.0

37 256.0 146.4 6.4 10.9 7.6 216.2 47.4
31 251.5 1
146.1 6.1 8.6 7.6 216.2 39.9

254 X 102 28 260.4 102.1 6.4 10.0 7.6 224.5 36.2

25 257.0 101.9 6.1 8.4 7.6 224.5 32.1
22 254.0 101.6 5.8 6.8 7.6 224.5 28.4

203 X 133 30 206.8 133.8 6.3 9.6 7.6 169.9 38.0

25 203.2 133.4 5.8 7.8 7.6 169.9 32.3

Note; These tables are based on Universal Beams with tapered flanges.
Universal Beams with parallel flanges have properties at least equal to the values given.
Both Taper and Parallel Flange Beams comply with the requirements of the British Standard
4: Part 1:1971 and are interchangeable.
 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS 1015

UNIVERSAL BEAMS
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Moment of Inertia Radius of Gyration Elastic Modulus

Ratio
Axis X— Axis Axis Axis Axis
D
Gross Net X— y-y X— y-y T
cm'' cm^ cm cm cm’ cm’

457x152 36160 32058 18.6 3.24 1555 142.5 24.6

32380 28731 18.5 3.18 1404 126.1 27.1
28522 25342 18.3 3.12 1248 109.1 30.5
25464 22613 18.3 3.23 1120 104.0 34.2
21345 19034 17.9 3.11 949.0 84.61 41.3
406x178 27279 23981 17.0 3.91 1322 161.2 25.8
24279 21357 16.9 3.85 1186 141.9 28.6
21520 18928 16.8 3.82 1059 124.7 31.8
18576 16389 16.5 3.67 922.8 103.8 36.9
406x152 26938 2381 16.9 3.32 1294 136.2 23.0
23798 21069 16.7 3.26 1155 1 18.8 25.8
20619 18283 16.5 3.18 1011 100.9 29.3
406 X 140 15603 13699 16.3 2.92 775.6 70.26 35.9
12408 10963 15.9 2.75 624.7 52.61 46.2

381 X 152 21276 18817 15.8 3.33 1095 122.7 23.8

18632 16489 15.7 3.27 968.4 106.2 26.7
16046 14226 15.5 3.21 842.3 89.96 30.7
356 X 1 71 19483 17002 15.1 3.87 1071 147.6 23.2
16038 14018 14.9 3.77 894.3 119.2 27.6
14118 12349 14.8 3.71 794.0 103.3 30.9
12052 10578 14.6 3.58 684.7 85.39 36.3
356x127 10054 8688 14.3 2.60 570.0 52.87 33.0
8167 7099 14.0 2.48 468.7 40.99 41.0
305x165 11686 10119 13.1 3.80 751.8 118.5 22.7
9924 8596 13.0 3.74 646.4 99.54 26.0
8500 7368 12.9 3.67 559.6 83.71 29.8
305 X 127 9485 8137 12.5 2.68 611.1 69.94 22.2
8124 6978 12.4 2.63 530.0 58.99 25.3
7143 6142 12.3 2.58 470.3 51.1 28.4
305 X 102 6482 5792 12.5 2.13 414.6 37.00 29.0
5415 4855 12.2 2.05 350.7 30.01 34.7
4381 3959 11.8 1.92 287.5 22.85 44.8
254 X 146 6546 5683 10.9 3.39 504.3 85.97 20.4
5544 4814 10.8 3.34 433.1 72.1 23.5
4427 3859 10.5 3.19 352.1 55.53 29.2
254 X 102 4004 3565 10.5 2.19 307.6 34.13 26.0
3404 3041 10.3 2.1 264.9
2863 28.23 30.6
2572 10.0 -?02 225.4 22.84 37.4
203 X 133 2880 2469 871 3.05 278.5 52.85 21.5
2348 2020 8.53 2.94 231.1 41.92 26.1

flange under 300 mm wide (serial size) and two holes

calculating the Net Moment of Inertia
abo^t
1016 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS
y
I

UNIVERSAL BEAMS
PLASTIC MODULI-MAJOR AXIS
I

Plastic
Mass Reduced Values of Plastic Modulus under Axial Load
Serial
Modulus
per
Size
Axis
metre Lower Values of n Change Higher Values of n
X—
formula

mm kg cm^ cm’ atn = cm’

914x419 388 17628 17628-28366n» 0.368 1453(1-n)( 14.65+n)

343 15445 1 5445 -24603n’ 0.375 1176(1-(i)( 15.93+n)

914x305 289 12566 12566-1 73 18n* 0.459 1088(1-n)( 14.70+n)

253 10930 10930-1 5026n^ 0.463 845.2(1-n)( 16.52+n)
224 9505 9505-12764n^ 0.481 661.2(1-n)( 18.61+n)
201 8345 8345-10787(1^ 0.512 526.6(1-(i)(20.96+n)
838 X 292 226 9144 9144-12919(1* 0.443 731.9(1-fl)( 15.77+n)
194 7635 7635-10363(1* 0.473 548.4(1-n)( 17.92+n)
176 6795 6795- 8947(1* 0.497 453.5(1-n)( 19.60+n)

762 X 267 197 7156 7156-10057(1* 0.446 600.8(1-n)( 15.05+n)

173 6186 6186- 8478(1* 0.465 473.6(1-n)( 16.71+n)
147 5163 5163- 6836(1* 0.492 342.9(1-(i)( 19.65+n)
686 X 254 170 5616 5616- 8069n* 0.432 455.6(1-n)( 15.45+n)
152 4989 4989- 7100n* 0.440 360.1(1-n)( 17.48+n)
140 4552 4552- 6417(1* 0.446 334.8(1-n)( 17.21+n)
125 3987 3987- 5430n* 0.471 270.0(1-fi)( 19.01+n)

610x305 238 7447 7447-12384n* 0.349 745.2(1-n)( 11.89+n)

179 5512 5512- 9190n* 0.352 433.3(1m)( 15.22+(i)
149 4562 4562- 7573(1* 0.357 299.7(1-n)( 18.31+(i)

610 X 229 140 4141 4141 - 6063(1* 0.420 350.6(1-n)( 14.68+n)

125 3672 3672- 5338n* 0.426 290 6(1-n)( 15.78+n)
113 3283 3283- 4648n* 0.444 225.3(1-n)( 18.45+n)
101 2877 2877- 3927(1* 0.471 176.8(1-n)( 20.97+n)

610 X 178 91 2484 2484- 3166n* 0.520 205.1(1-(i)( 16.02+n)

82 2194 2194- 2699n* 0.556 138.3(1-n)(21.58+n)

533 X 330 212 5849 5849-10877n* 0.302 556.1(1-(i)( 12.21+n)

189 5212 5212- 9760n* 0.301 449.2(1-n)( 13.48+n)
167 4560 4560- 8440n* 0.308 347.3(1-n)( 15.33+n)

533x210 122 3198 3198- 4731(1* 0.413 280.1(1-n)( 14.13+n)

109 2820 2820- 4131(1* 0.421 222.4(1-n)( 15.79+n)
101 2616 2616- 3825n* 0.422 205.7(1-nK 15.85+n)
92 2362 2362- 3390n* 0.436 160.0(1-n)( 18.59+n)
82 2051 2051 - 2832n* 0.463 122.8(1-n)( 21.43+n)

533 X 165 73 1776 1776- 2327(1* 0.498 143.7(1-n)( 16.12+n)

66 1562 1562- 1984(1* 0.524 118.6(1-nH 17.49+n)

457 X 191 98 2229 2229- 3436(1* 0.389 208.9(1-n)( 13.00+n)

89 2012 2012- 3055(1* 0.399 166.7(1-n)( 14.83+n)
82 1830 1830- 2754n* 0.405 144.7(1-n)( 15.61+n)
74 1654 1654- 2474n* 0.410 119.1(1-n)( 17.21+n)
67 1469 1469- 2143(1* 0.426 95.25(1-n)( 19.32+n)

Let p = mean axial stress

Ys = yield stress
then n = p/Ys
 --
-

1017
sections
properties of steel y
t

UNIVERSAL BEAMS
AXIS
PLASTIC MODULl-MINOR Y

Modulus under Axial Load

Plastic Reduced Values of Plastic
Modulus
Axis Change Higher Values of n
Lower Values of n formula

7744(1-n){ 0.267+n)
0.401
3206 -662.5n^ 0.405 6823il-n)( 0.253+n)
914x419 2756-523.7n^
4978(1-n){l0.087+n)
1552-366.3n* 0.493
1552 4320(1-n)(l0.079+n)
914x305 -283.0n* 0.493
1322 1 322 3895(1-n)(i0.042 +n)
1112-222.9n* 0.508
1112 0.536 3667(1-nK n-0.019)
932.2 932.2 -181.6n*
0.475 3588(1-n)( 0.1 15+n)
1166 1166 -244.4n* 3182{1-n)( 0.056+n)
0.501
838 X 292 929.4 929.4 -181.2n^ 2982(1-n){ 0.008+n)
0.522
796.6 796.6 -1 50.0n^
2863(1-nK 0.1 10+n)
-203.9n* 0.479
924.8 924.8
0.495 2566(1-n)( 0.072+n)
:

762 X 267 773.4 773.4 -159.1n^ 2260(1-n)( 0.01 8+n)

-1 7.0n^ 0.518 ;

615.2 615.2 1
0.464 2302(1-n)( 0.139+n)
780.8 -1 68.9n^ 2065(1-n)( 0.124+n)
780.8 0.469
686 X 254 680.5 680.5 -136.3n* 1901{1-n)( 0.108+n)
-1 6.4n* 0.475
608.2 608.2 1
0.498 1753(1-n){ 0.058+n)
512.5 512.5 -93.7 In*
0.388 3454(1-n)(0.306+n)
1 522 -363.9n* 2522{1-n){0.299+n)
610x305 1092-209.8n* 0.382
0.382 2076(1-n)(0.290+n)
884.1
217.5--147.8n*
0.454 1677(1-n)( 0.163+n)
591.0 591.0 -128.7n* 1495(1-n)( 0.150+n)
610x229 514.2 -103.8n*
0.457
514.2 0.471 1385(1-n)( 0.116+n)
448.7 448.7 -85.72n* 1281(1-n)( 0.064+n)
378.6 -69.1 2n* 0.495
378.6
1051(1-n)( n-0.044)
256.2 256.2 -55.70n* 1014(1-n)( n-0.105)
610 X 178 45.56n*
217.5
0.338 3034(1-n)(0.399+n)
1518-333.2n*
533 X 330 0.333 2678(1-n)( 0.401 +n)
1340-269.6n* 2352(1-n){0.389+n)
1156-212.0n* 0.336

0.448 1334(1-n)( 0.179+n)

484.0 484.0 -111.2n* 1187(1-n)( 0.164+n)
533x210 41 8.5 88.81 n* 0.452
418.5 1099{1-n)( 0.158+n)
383.4 -77.69n* 0.453
383.4 1015(1-n)(0.134+n)
339.6 -64.87n* 0.462
339.6 930.8{1-n)(0.081+n)
283.5 51. 47n* 0.486
283.5
0.529 744.4(1-nl( 0.001 -4-n)
197.3 -40.93n*
533x165 166.9-33.27n* 0.553 701.1(1-n)i n-0.053)

0.426 938.9(1-n)( 0.225+n)

457 X 191 365.8 365.8 -83.80n*
0.432 861.2(1-n)( 0.207+n)
325.4 325.4 -69.86n*
0.436 789.9(1-n)(0.193+n)
291.5 291.5 59.25n*
0.439 716.5{1-n)( 0.183+n)
259.6 259.6 -49.24n*
224.7 -40.1 5n* 0.452 654.21 1-n)( 0.1 52±n)
224.7
 X

1018 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

UNIVERSAL BEAMS
-I- PLASTIC MODULI-MAJOR AXIS

Plastic
Mass 1
Reduced Values of Plastic Modulus under Axial Load
Serial
Modulus
...
per
Axis
Size Change
metre Lower Values of n Higher Values of n
X—
formula

mm kg cm^ cm^ at n = cm’

457x152 82 1797 1797-25450^ 0.438 174.5(1-n)( 12.91+n)

74 1620 1620-22740= 0.446 146.3(1-n)( 13.96+n)
67 1439 1439-20000= 0.453 128.0(1-n)( 14.24+n)
60 1284 1284-18020= 0.449 99.17(1-n)( 16.41+n)
52 1094 1094 -14550= 0.490 67.64(1-n)( 21.11+n)
406 X 178 74 1502 1502-23190= 0.390 122.5(1-n)( 14.98+n)
67 1343 1343-20720= 0.392 102.0(1-n)( 16.13+n)
60 1195 1195-18560= 0.389 82.74(1 -n)( 17.69+n)
54 1046 1046-15360= 0.423 66.91(1-n)( 19.55+n)
406 X 152 74 1486 1486-22260= 0.403 151.0(1-n)( 12.07+n)
67 1323 1323-19580= 0.412 125.0(1-n)( 13.07+n)
60 1158 1158-16720= 0.429 99.66(1-n)( 14.52+n)
406 X 140 46 886.3 886.3 -12550= 0.444 63.01(1-n)( 17.79+n)
39 718.7 718.7-964.80= 0.482 47.94(1-n)( 19.43+n)
381 X 152 67 1254 1254-18800= 0.404 1 17‘.3(1-n){ 13.15 + n)

60 1106 1106-16560= 0.406 98.55(1-n)( 13.82+n)

52 959.0 959.0-14130= 0.418 71.08(1-n)( 16.80+n)

356x171 67 1210 1210-20000= 0.355 104.4(1-n)( 13.88+n)

57 1007 1007 -16240= 0.370 73.11(1-n)( 16.68+n)
51 892.9 892.9-14240= 0.376 61.31(1-n)( 17.70+n)
45 771.7 771.7-11720= 0.404 45.34(1-n)( 21.08+n)

355 X 127 39 651.8 651.8-935.00= 0.434 51.70(1-nH 15.82+n)

33 537.9 537.9-738.30= 0.465 37.78(1-n)( 18.25+n)

305 X 165 54 843.4 843.4-15150= 0.318 72.92(l-n)( 13.56+n)

46 721.3 721.3 -1292n= 0.321 54.56(1-n)( 15.56+n)
40 623.1 623.1 -1084o= 0.335 40.91(1-n)( 18.10+n)
1

305 X 127 48 704.9 704.9 -1037o= 0.413 73.97(1-n)( 11.75+n)

42 609.2 609.2-881.40= 0.426 54.65(1-n)( 13.90+n)
37 539.3 539.3 -780.0n= 0.427 47.17(1-n)( 14.26+n)

305 X 102 33 479.6 479.6 -660.3o= 0.459 43.31(1-n)( 14.07+n)

28 406.9 406.9 -539.5o= 0.489 32.50(1-n)( 16.24+n)
25 337.5 337.5^24.10= 0.532 28.77(1 -n)( 15.62+n)

254 X 146 43 567.4 567.4 -10380= 0.309 53.24(1 -n)( 12.42+n)

37 484.5 484.5 -877.7o= 0.315 38.90(l-n)( 14.60+n)
31 394.8 394.8-653.90= 0.357 27.99(1-n)( 16.94+n)

254 X 102 28 353.1 353.1 -511.20= 0.427 30.32(1 -n)( 14.53+n)

25 305.3 305.3 -423.60= 0.455 25.38(1-n)( 15.28+n)
22 261.5 261.5-347.70= 0.485 22.53(1-n)( 15.01+n)

203 X 133 30 312.6 312.6-571.60= 0.310 27.53(1-n)( 13.26+n)

25 259.1 259.1 -448.7o= 0.334 20.90(1-n)( 14.69 + n)

Let p = mean axial stress

Ys = yield stress
then n = p/Ys
 X

PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS 1019

UNIVERSAL BEAMS
PLASTIC MODULI-MINOR AXIS

Plastic
Reduced Values of Plastic Modulus under Axial Load
Modulus
Serial
Axis
Size Change Higher Values of n
X— Lower Values of n
formula

cm’ cm’ atn = cm’

mm kg

457 X 152 82 229.2 229.2 -58.56n2 0.477 682 0 1 -0)1 0.128+n)

. (

74 203.0 203.0 -48.80n^ 0.481 621.8(1-n)( 0.113+n)

67 176.1 176.1 -39.81 0.488 558.9(1-nK 0.094+n)
60 162.9 162.9-31.70n^ 0.479 515,3(1-n)(0.101+n)
52 133.2 1 33.2 -24.58n^ 0.514 484.6(1-n)(0.024+n)

406 X 178 74 256.6 256.6 -54.50n^ 0.422 659.7{1-o)( 0.226+n)

67 226.2 226.2 -44.53n^ 0.422 588.1 (1-n)(0,220+n)
60 198.8 198.8-35.62n^ 0.417 515.0(1-n)( 0.224+n)
54 167.2 1 67.2 -28.99n^ 0.448 482.2(1 -n)( 0.158+n)

406x152 74 217.5 217.5-54.02n2 0.443 581.7(1-n)( 0.196+n)

67 190.1 190.1 -44.18n2 0.449 525.1 (1-n)( 0.1 77+n)
60 162.1 162.1 -35.25n2 0.463 474.41 1-n)( 0.144+n)
406 X 140 46 1 13.1 113.1 -21.53n2 0.472 349.3(1-n)(0.115+n)
39 85.84 85.84 -15.30n2 0.508 306.3(1 -o)( 0.036+n)
381 x152 67 196.1 196.1 -46.94n2 0.441 524.8(1-n)( 0.196+n)
60 169.8 169.8-37.45n2 0.441 460.9(1-n){ 0.190+n)
52 144.1 144.1 -28.93n2 0.448 406.2(1-n){ 0.169+n)
356x171 67 233.7 233.7 -50.0 1n2 0.388 540.7(1-n)( 0.295+n)
57 189.5 189.5-36.22n2 0.398 459.2(1-n)(0.267+nj
51 164.8 1 64.8 -29.24n2 0.403 408.9(1-n)( 0.253+n)
45 137.4 137.4 -22.97n2 0.427 371.6(1-n)(0.199+n)
356 x 127 39 85.07 85.07 -17.23n2 0.465 254.3(1-n)( 0.133+n)
33 66.63 66,63 -12.50n2 0.493 222.7(1-n)(0.070+n)
305x165 54 186.9 186.9 -37.52n2 0.351 391.6(1-n)( 0.366+n)
46 157.4 157.4 -28.1 8n2 0.350 333.7(1-n)(0.360+n)
40 133.0 133.0 -21. 77n2 0.360 293.7(1-n)( 0.333+n)

305x127 48 1 12.4 112.4-29.73n2 0.455 307.7(1-n)(0.179+n)

42 94.91 94.91 -23.00n2 0.462 271.3(1-n)( 0.155+n)
37 82.33 82.33 -18.49n2 0.462 238.7(1-n)(0.149+n)
305 X 102 33 59.10 59.10-13.94n2 0.494 190.6(1-n)(0.084+n)
28 48.18 48.18-10.65n2 0.519 173.1(1-n)( 0.025+nj
25 37.24 37.24 -8.070n2 0.564 161.2{1-n){n-0.071)
254 X 146 43 135,4 135.4 -29.1 8n2 0.344 276.3(1-n)( 0.384+n)
3 / 1 13.9 113.9-21.94n2 0.346 236.6(1-n)( 0.373+n)
31 88.78 88.78 -15.86n2 0.384 208.1{1-n)(0.290+n)
254 X 102 28 54.09 54.09 -12.56n2 0.461 155.4(1-n)( 0.153+n)
25 45.07 45.07 -10.05n2 0.488 143.4(1-n)( 0.093+n)
22 36.80 36.80 -7.939n2 0.519 132.6(1-n)( 0.025+n)
203 X 133 30 83.70 83.70-1 7.41 n2 0.343 171.1(1-n)( 0.383+n)
.
25 67.04 67.04-1 2.8 1n2 0.365 147.4(1-n)( 0.333+n)
 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

UNIVERSAL BEAMS
5.™ IN TORSION
TORSIONAL PROI’I RTll S
Mass per
Section
mnr metre K Ac
k?
cnf' cm cm''

914 x4l9 388 1824.84 343.349 82977969.09

343 1263.23 379.242 70077928.62

914x305 289 281.659 29597383.67

253 655.09 313.328 24806649.98
224 441.56 346.760 20479437.96
201 308.19 376.123 16817076.68

838 X 292 226 538.06 295.333 18101756.75

194 322.87 336.009 14060468.96
176 234.16 362.062 11840034.67

762 X 267 197 422.90 255.645 10660517.46

173 280.56 284.155 8737947.04
147 169.83 321.735 6780657.77

686 X 254 170 320.85 237.321 6970209.91

152 230.37 259.591 5987762.07
J40 177.95 277.545 5287275.59
125 123.25 303.183 4369875.19

610 X 305 238 825.37 206.290 13547840.00

179 360.85 258.763 9319524.14
149 214.07 298.758 7369985.92

610x229 140 227.64 206.988 376 1808 ..39

125 162,48 226.812 322.3986.55
113 118.35 246.387 2771 142.89
101 81.86 269.494 2293186.99

610 X 178 91 69.03 215.035 1231174.80

82 49.01 233.464 1030334.51

533 x 330 212 610.36 213.646 10745833.67

189 445.84 232.867 9325.315.88
167 308.89 257.247 7884382.71

533 x210 122 187.57 174.202 2195536.46

109 132.00 191.498 1867098.75
101 106.99 202.590 1693775.00
92 80.42 218.496 1480846.03
82 54.44 240.150 1210953.10

533 X 165 73 45.51 197.092 681922.44

66 31.95 214.775 568409.55

457 X 191 98 126.47 150.915 1 1 1 1052.77

89 95.00 163.071 974377.60
82 72.88 175.063 861570.06
74 54.95 189.121 758099.81
67 39.36 206.226 645744.47
 1

1021
sections
properties of steel

IN TORSION
universal BEAMS

STATICAL MOML.NTS
proi>i:rtii:s
torsional
Of
I'W
cm’ cm'
cm''
cm’

3270.374 8813.983
35728.52
929.214 7722.583
30800.90 2852.625
919.941

2091.961 6282.918
16949.82
688.322 5464.924
14512.23 1821.822
680.106 4752.599
12232.12 1554.062
673.906 4172.407
10254.13 1313.461
669.537

1556.062 4571.861
605.203
11909.85
1257.843 3817.339
598.612 9501.54
1087.989 3397.636
595.026 8154.41

1210.820 3578.209
498.619 8485.35
1026.729 3093.218
493.668 7106.42
832.385 2581.419
488.340 5676.05

969.569 2808.048
427.942 6477.95
858.518 2494.566
424.035 5666.25
774.483 2275.800
421.561 5074.04
659.749 1993.639
418.612 4284.55

1396.071 3723.290
468.504 11445.10
1041.384 2755.831
455.834 8265.16
864.502 2281.182
449.515 6742.71

723.376 2070.365
342.242 4361.48
638.694 1836.093
339.051 3805.88
563.079 1641.414
336.618 3326.96
479.728 1438.491
334.274 2811.83

379.631 1242.159
261.991 1753.90
1477.72 323.451 1096.774
260.208

1151 .428 2924.521

431.343 10004.03
8853.93 1031.422 2606.217
426.694
7657.19 901.917 2279.892
422.185

3132.58 563.247 1599.172

277.169
2715.40 494.706 1409.879
274.270
272.709 2491.74 457.282 1307.824
270.790 2213.31 409.933 1180.857
268.742 1851.86 346.177 1025.569

213.351 1193.61 280.61 887.976

211.868 1001.76 238.297 780.858

215.882 2035.50 401.251 1114.577

214.001 1813.07 361.038 1005.887
212.475 1626.17 326.453 915.202
210.846 1453.82 294.747 827.091
209.328 1262.04 258.024 734.282
1022 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS
S U)l

s ^ S^n

UNIVERSAL BEAMS IN TORSION

^ ^wu s„„

s ?l.l TORSIONAL PROPLRTILS

Mass per
SeLtion
metre A' a
mm Av
k
tm'' cm cm‘

457 X 152 82 92 64 123 404 544173 70

74 69 24 133 354 474949 85
67 49 56 145 608 405281 57
60 33 63 172 705 386898 65
52 21 26 194 604 310544 72

406 X 178 74 66 15 149 454 569932 83

67 42 56 162 597 495229 08
60 35 14 177 948 429248 64
54 24 22 194 543 353623 87

406 X 152 74 79 39 116 407 414950 92

67 57 39 126 905 3565 19 53
60 39 47 139 946 298166 73

406 X 140 46 20 12 157 002 19131464

39 1) 26 180 072 140807 32

381 X 152 67 60 33 118 757 328208 42

60 42 56 130 443 279303 38
52 28 65 145 131 232769 67

356 X 171 67 58 36 131 235 387680 48

57 35 07 150 495 306371 06
51 25 10 164 534 262102 26
45 1681 181 606 213903 88

356 X 127 39 15 53 127 568 97458 79

33 9 13 145 206 74255 82

305 X 165 54 36 49 124 504 218180 70

46 23 73 140 155 179785 88
40 15 80 156 317 148949 13

305 X 127 48 32 66 87 377 96178 12

42 21 87 97 051 79469 68
37 15 63 106 035 67802 26

305 X 102 33 1231 95 336 43147 21

28 7 74 107313 34386 42
25 4 72 118 962 25768 12

254 X 146 43 25 44 99 165 96483 83

37 16 49 1 626
1 1 79252 39
31 9 38 128 536 59774 41

254 X 102 28 9 79 85 033 27298 16

25 6 56 93 750 22232 1

22 4 38 102 373 17717 88

203 X 1 33 30 10 86 90 570 34361 98

25 6 58 102 547 26675 94
 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS 1023

UNIVERSAL BEAMS IN TORSION

torsional I’ROPI-.RTlIiS STATICAL MOMUNTS

II'hO Qf Qw
cm^ cm’ cm’
cm^

1241.14 305.103 898.634

171. 183
169.578 1099.89 273.604 809.988
167.988 954.66 240.290 719.504
168.659 857.83 217.382 642.162
167.235 694.29 177.870 547.193

178.216 1276.79 272.609 750.760

176.622 1128.94 243.763 671.695
174.943 997.46 218.162 597.311
173.920 839.46 184.592 523.049

153.047 1062.19 261.802 743,158

151.486 928.28 231.584 661.730
149.960 791.44 199.802 579.236

139.221 553.78 151.679 443.153

137.749 421.66 1 17.290 359.343

143.644 900.79 222.255 627.203

142.039 781.55 195.619 552.969
140.419 665.86 169.245 479.521

150.832 1025.35 227.508 605.181

148.711 833.76 187.960 503.748
147.487 727.38 165.624 446.473
146.356 608.73 139.806 385.855

107.760 362.07 112.175 325.915

106.562 284.20 89.566 268.973

123.888 708.38 164.058 421.716

122.344 598.72 140.660 360.663
121.193 508.23 120.614 311.550

92.787 406.53 122.700 352.459

91.499 343.72 105.609 304.624
90.525 298.99 93.210 269.634

77.259 212.92 79.541 239.787

76.390 172.43 65.368 203.429
75.684 131.35 50.442 168.727

90.913 425.16 10.931

1 283.694
89.683 358.39 94.893 242.234
88 .bb 279.57
1
74.597 197.378

63.905 163.25 61.378 176.559

63.326 134.75 51.153 152.655
62.781 108.95 41.831 130.775

65.952 211.82 61.318 156.296

65.134 169.87 49.701 129.553
1024 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

UNIVERSAL COLUMNS
Parallel Flanges

DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Depth Width Thickness Depth

Mass Rcxjt Area
Serial of of between
per Radius of
Size Section Section Web Flange Fillets
metre r Section
D B t T d
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm mm cm^

356 X 406 634 474.7 424.1 47.6 77.0 15.2 290.1 808.1
551 455.7 418.5 42.0 67.5 15.2 290.1 701.8
467 436.6 412.4 35.9 58.0 15.2 290.1 595.5
393 419.1 407.0 30.6 49.2 15.2 290.1 500.9
340 406.4 403.0 26.5 42.9 15.2 290.1 432.7
287 393.7 399.0 22.6 36.5 15.2 290.1 366.0
235 381.0 395.0 18.5 30.2 15.2 290.1 299.8

Column
Core 477 427.0 424.4. 48.0 53.2 15.2 290.1 607.2

356 X 368 202 374.7 374.4 16.8 27.0 15.2 290.1 257.9
177 368.3 372.1 14.5 23.8 15.2 290.1 225.7
153 362.0 370.2 12.6 20.7 15.2 290.1 195.2
•
129 355.6 368.3 10.7 17.5 15.2 290.1 164.9

305 X 305 283 365.3 321.8 26.9 44.1 15.2 360.4

240 352.6 317.9 23.0 37.7 15.2 305.6
198 339.9 314.1 19.2 31.4 15.2 246.6 252.3
158 327.2 310.6 15.7 25.0 15.2 246.6 201.2
137 320.5 308.7 13.8 21.7 15.2 246.6 174.6
118 314.5 306.8 11.9 18.7 15.2 246.6 149.8
97 307.8 304.8 9.9 15.4 15.2 246.6 123.3

254 x 254 167 289.1 264.5 19.2 31.7 12.7 200.2 212.4
132 276.4 261.0 15.6 25.1 12.7 200.2 167.7
107 266.7 258.3 13.0 20.5 12.7 200.2 136.6
89 260.4 255.9 10.5 17.3 12.7 200.2 114.0
73 254.0 254.0 8.6 14.2 12.7 200.2 92.9

203 X 203 86 222.3 208.8 13.0 20.5 10.2 160.8 110.1

71 215.9 206.2 10.3 17.3 10.2 160.8 91.1
60 209.6 205.2 9.3 14.2 10.2 160.8 75.8
52 206.2 203.9 8.0 12.5 10.2 160.8 66.4
46 203.2 203.2 7.3 11.0 10.2 160.8 58.8

n
152x152 37 161.8 154.4 8.1 11.5 7.6 123.4 47.4
30 157.5 152.9 6.6 9.4 123.4 38.2
23 152.4 152.4 6.1 6.8 123.4 29.8
 X

1025
properties of steel sections d .

UNIVERSAL COLUMNS
Parallel Flanges

DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES >y

Radius of Gyration Elastic Modulus

Moment of Inertia Ratio
Axis Axis Axis
Axis X—

RH
356 X 406
Gross

cm*

275140 243076
Net

cm*
y-y
cm*

98211
BSi
cm

18.5
a
y-y
cm
mSM
cm’

11592
9964
y-y
cm’

4632
3951
T

6.2
6.8
227023 200312 82665 18.0
183118
146765
161331
129159
67905
55410
17.5
17.1
Ell 10.5
8388
7004
3293
2723
7.5
8.5

122474 107667 46816 16.8 10.4 6027 2324 9.5

S9994 87843 38714 16.5 10.3 5080 1940 10.8

79110 69424 31008 16.2 10.2 4153 1570 12.6

Column
Cora 172391 152936 68057 16.8 10.6 8075 3207 8.0

356 X 368 66307 57806 23632 16.0 9.57 3540 1262 13.9
57153 49798 20470 15.9 9.52 3104 1100 15.5
48525 42250 17470 15.8 9.46 2681 943.8 17.5
40246 35040 14555 15.6 9.39 2264 790.4 20.3

305 X 305 78777 72827 24545 14.8 8.25 4314 1525 8.3
64177 59295 20239 14.5 8.14 3641 1273 9.4
50832 46935 16230 14.2 8.02 2991 1034 10.8
38740 35766 12524 13.9 7.89 2368 806.3 13.1
32838 30314 10672 13.7 7.82 2049 691.4 14.8
27601 25472 9006 13.6 7.75 1755 587.0 16.8
22202 20488 7268 13.4 7.68 1442 476,9 20.0

254 X 254 29914 27171 9796 11.9 6.79 2070 740.6 9.1
22416 20350 7444 11.6 6.66 1622 570.4 11.0
17510 15890 5901 .
11.3 6.57 1313 456.9 13.0
14307 12976 4849 11.2 6.52 1099 378.9 15.1
11360 10297 3873 11.1 6.46 894.5 305.0 17.9

203 X 203 9462 8374 3119 9.27 5.32 851.5 298.7 10.8
7647 6758 2536 9.16 5.28 708.4 246.0 12.5
6088 5383 2041 8.96 5.19 581.1 199.0 14.8
5263 4653 1770 8.90 5.16 510.4 173.6 16.5
4564 4035 1539 8.81 5.11 449.2 151.5 18.5

152x152 2218 1932 709 6.84 3.87 274.2 91.78 14.1

1742 1515 558 6.75 3.82 221.2 73.06 16.8
1263 1104 403 6.51 3.68 165.7 52.95 22.4

Note: One hole is deducted from each flange under 300 mm

wide (serial size) and two holes
from each flange 300 mmand over (serial size), in calculating the Net Moment of Inertia
about x-x.
 X

1 026 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

:

I
UNIVERSAL COLUMNS
Parallel Flanges
'

_y

;
PLASTIC MODULI- MAJOR AXIS
I

Plastic Reduced Values of Plastic Modulus under Axial Load

Serial Modulus
Size Axis Change Higher Values of n
Lower Values of n
X— formula
at n =
mm kg cm’ cm’ cm’

356 X 406 634 14247 14247-342950^ 0.189 3850(1-n)( 3.981+n)

551 12078 12078 -293 190^ 0.192 2946(1-n){ 4.428+n)
467 10009 1 0009 -246940^ 0.193 2151(1-n)( 5.042+n)
393 8229 8229 -204950^ 0.196 1542(1-n)( 5.806+n)
340 6994 6994-176590= 0.196 1 164(1-n)( 6.553+n)

287 5818 5818-148160= 0.198 840.4(l-nU 7.573+n)

235 4689 4689 -121470= 0.197 571.6(1-n)( 8.99 1+n)

Column
Core 477 9700 9700-19203n= 0.253 2174(1-n){4.963+n)

356 X 368 202 3976 3976- 98990= 0.209 444.6(1-nU9.869+n)

177 3457 3457- 87850= 0.206 342.5(1-n)( 11.14+n)
153 2964 2964- 75610= 0.207 257.9(1-n)( 12.70+n)
129 2482 2482- 63550= 0.208 184.4(1-n)( 14.91 +n)

305 X 305 283 5101 5101 -120710= 0.206 1012(1-n)( 5.506+n)

240 4245 4245-101540= 0.208 736.3(1-n)( 6.319+n)
198 3436 3436- 82900= 0.210 507.9(1-n)( 7.443+n)
158 2680 2680- 64480= 0.215 329.0(1-n)(9.006+n)
137 2298 2298- 55230= 0.218 248.7(1-n)( 10.25+n)
118 1953 1953- 47140= 0.219 185.5(1-n)( 1 1.70+n)
97 1589 1589- 38370= 0.222 125.5(1-n){ 14.12+n)

254 X 254 167 2417 2417- 58730= 0.203 427.0(1-n)( 6.189+n)

132 1861 1861 - 45070= 0.210 270.9(1-n)( 7.554+n)
107 1485 1485- 35910= 0.214 180.4(1-n)( 9.103+n)
89 1228 1228- 3092n= 0.207 128.7(1-n)( 10.53+n)
73 988.5 988.5- 25070= 0.208 86.22(1-nH 12.68+n)

203 X 203 86 978,8 978.8- 23300= 0.214 145.1(1-n)( 7.432+n)

71 802,4 802.4- 20130= 0.204 100.7(1-n)( 8.763+n)
60 652.0 652.0- 15460= 0.222 70.26(1 -n)( 10.3 1+n)
52 568.1 568.1 - 13800= 0.218 54.26(1-n)( 1 1.63+n)
46 497.4 497.4- 11860= 0.224 43.12(l-n)( 12.86+n)

152x152 37 310.1 310.1 - 693.20= 0.236 36.73(1-n)( 9.438+n)

30 247.1 247.1 - 554.00= 0.239 23.72(1-n){ 1 1.70+n)
23 184.3 184.3-363.50= 0.283 14.67(1-n)( 14.47 + n)

Let p = mean axial stress

Ys = yield stress
then n = p/Ys
 1027
PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS X

UNIVERSAL COLUMNS
Parallel Flanges

PLASTIC MODULI-MINOR AXIS

Plastic Reduced Values of Plastic Modulus under Axial Load

Mass
Modulus
per Change
Axis Lower Values of n Higher Values of n

llpl metre X— formula

=
SBHI kg

634
cm’

7114 7114-3439n^
cm’
atn

0.280 1
cm’

05201 1-n)( 0.624+n)

356 X 406
6058 6058 -27020* 0.273 9046(1-n)( 0.618+n)
551
467 5038 5038 -203 In* 0.263 7571(1-0)1 0.615+n)
393 4157 4157 -1496n* 0.256 6303(1-0)1 0.610+n)
340 3541 3541 -1152n* 0.249 5387(1-0)1 0.609+n)
287 2952 2952 -850.5n* 0.243 4519(1-0)1 0.605+n)
235 2384 2384 -589.8n* 0.235 3656(1-0)1 0.606+n)

Column
Core 477 4979 4979-2159n* 0.338 8585(1-0)10.495+0)

356 X 368 202 1917 1917-143.80* 0.244 3022(1-0)1 0.584+n)

177 1668 1 668 -345.9n* 0.237 2615(1-0)1 0.589+n)
153 1430 1430-263.20* 0.234 2249(1-0)10.587+0)
129 1196 1196-191.20* 0.231 1889(1-0)10.585+0)

305 X 305 283 2337 2337 -888.9n* 0.273 3626(1-0)1 0.588+n)

240 1947 1947 -662.4n* 0.265 3042(1-0)1 0.585+n)
198 1576 1 576 -468.3n* 0.259 2485(1-0)1 0.580+n)
158 1228 1 228 -309.4n* 0.255 1965(1-0)1 0.570+n)
137 1052 1052-237.80* 0.253 1697(1-0)1 0.564+n)
118 891.7 89 1.7 -178.40* 0.250 1446(1-0)10.562+0)
97 723.5 723.5 -123.4n* 0.247 1182(1-0)10.557+0)

254 X 254 167 1132 1 1 32 -390.0n* 0.261 1749(1-0)1 0.594+n)

132 869.9 869.9 -254.4n* 0.257 1370(1-0)1 0.581+O)
107 695.5 695.5 -175.0n* 0.254 1110(1-0)10.573+0)
89 575.4 575.4 -124.7n* 0.240 904.9(1-0)1 0.586+n)
73 462.4 462.4 -84.89n* 0.235 730.3(1-0)1 0.584+n)

203 X 203 86 455.9 455.9 -136.3n* 0.263 724.0(1-0)1 0.574+n)

71 374.2 374.2 -96.02n* 0.244 582.9(1-0)10.592+0)
60 302.8 302.8 -68.60n* 0.257 492.8(1-0)1 0.558+n)
52 263.7 263.7 -53.53n* 0.248 425.5(1-0)1 0.566+n)
46 230.0 230.0 -42.590* 0.252 377.7(1-0)1 0.553+n)

152x152 37 140.1 140.1 -34.70n* 0.277 236.1(1-0)1 0.528+n)

30 111.2 1 1 1 -23.22n*
.2 0.272 189.2(1-0)10.523+0)
23 80.87 80.87 -14.55n* 0.312 154.7(1-0)1 0.434+n)

Note: For explanation of tables, see notes commencing page 102.

 1

1028 properties of steel sections

s„, UNIVERSAL BEAMS IN TORSION

^101

TORSIONAL I’ROl’I'RTir^
Mass per
Section
metre K a Ac
mill
kc
L-m" cm cm*

356 X 406 634 13746.48 85.578 38831514.04

551 9239.92 93.471 31137966.72
467 5816.77 104.153 24338169.39
393 3550.91 117.630 18951254.00
340 2337.66 130.972 15466825.17
287 1443.71 148.906 12347224.89
235 812.33 174.501 9541082.03

427 X 424 477 5698.47 104.003 23774743.22

356 X 368 202 560.38 I8I.755 7140335.89

177 382.88 202.780 6072642.56
153 250.65 229.394 5087384.79
129 153.26 265.280 4160228.85

305 X 305 283 20.14.82 89.800 6329087.34

240 1273.25 101.047 5014483.34
198 734.05 116.769 .3860520.55
158 378.73 139.865 2857654.20
137 250.25 157.098 2382222.04
118 160.40 178.419 1969499.60
97 91.07 210.338 1554128.65

254 X 254 167 624.65 82.050 1622036.20

132 314.12 98.471 1174836.13
107 173.44 115.607 894102.38
89 103.76 133.735 715787.95
73 57.32 158.716 556900.23

203 X 203 86 138.06 77.199 317.358.98

71 81.47 89.184 249947.71
60 46.59 104.122 194808.06
52 31.98 116.022 166068.97
46 22 24 128.715 142121.64

152 X 152 37 19.46 72.996 40003.92

30 10.49 87.01 30620.85
23 4.87 106.713 21373.32
 1029
PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS
UNIVERSAL COLUMNS IN TORSION

TORSIONAI. I’KOl’I'-RTIliS STATICAL MOM I NTS

Qj Cu.
U'„o

cm cm’ cm’
cnr

34432.51 2890.992 7123.fi08

421.602
406.081 28681.44 2474.000 6039.074
390.346 23335.42 2074.084 5004.652
376.380 18853.23 172 .243 1 41 14.480
15818.59 1474.592 .3497.167
366.225
356.312 12982.95 1235.5.30 2909.05 1

346.413 10321.64 1004.058 2344.562

396.646 22374.65 1877.978 4849.93.3

325.397 8223.40 847.060 1988.249

320.456 7102.59 741.609 1728.701
315.877 6037.05 637.961 1481.817
311.328 5 009. .36 536.1 15 1240.853

258.386 9166.47 1050.752 2550.492

250.178 7504.24 882.7.34 2122.609
242.194 5970.12 720.662 I7I8.I90
234.618 4563.23 564.535 13.39.755
230.63 3870.38 485.698 1 149.195
226.870 .3253.33 414.353 976.260
222.851 2613,82 338.608 794.566

170.201 .3568.15 504.219 1208.721

163.936 2684.23 390.592 930.306
158.980 2107.08 313.722 742.620
1.55.463 1725.45 262.399 614.109
152.290 1370.61 212.312 494.269

105.321 1128.52 204.701 489. .386

102.339 915.10 1 70.6,39 401.216
100.207 728.43 1.37.564 326.015
98.745 630.26 120.755 284.053
97.6.39 545.51 105.476 248.707

.58.015 258.29 64.222 155.042

56.598 202.72 51.616 123.547
55.461 144.38 37.222 92.142
 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

i
95°C
-
H”]" JOISTS
D -t d
Equil '2 I
!

rt
i_ J=i=iS=y DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Depth Width Thickness Depth

Mass Area
Nominal of of between
per Web Flange of
Section Section Fillets
Size metre Section
D B t T d

mm kg mm mm mm mm mm cm^

203 X 102 25.33 203.2 101.6 5.8 10.4 161.0 32.3

178 X 102 21.54 177.8 101.6 5.3 9.0 138.2 27.4

152 X S9 17.09 152.4 88.9 4.9 8.3 117.9 21.8

127 X 76 13.36 127.0 76.2 4.5 7.6 94.2 17.0

102 X 64 9.65 101.6 63.5 4.1 6.6 73.2 12.3

76 X 51 6.67 76.2 50.8 3.8 5.6 50.3 8.49

r- —
JOISTS
i
PLASTIC MODULI-MAJOR AXIS
i ii
Plastic Reduced Values of Plastic Modulus under Axial Load
Mass
Nominal per
Modulus
Size metre Axis Lower Values of n Change Higher Values of n
X— formula
at n =
mm kg cm’ cm’ cm’

203 X 102 25.33 256.3 256.3 -448.7n^ 0.324 27.23(1-nK 11.04+n)

178x102 21.54 193.0 193.0-355.2n* 0.305 19.78(1-n)( 11.33+n)

152 X 89 17.09 131.0 13 1.0 -241. 7n’ 0.302 14.08(1-nH 10.78+n)

127 X 76 13.36 85.23 85.23 -161.0n^ 0.292 10.02(1-n)( 9.786+n)

102 X 64 9.65 48.98 48.98 -92.1 In' 0.292 6.148(1-nH 9.155+n)

76 X 51 6.67 25.07 25.07 -47.43n' 0.284 3.752(1-n)( 7.624+n)

Let p = mean axial stress

Ys = yield stress
then n = p/Ys
 sections
properties of steel

JOISTS
dimensions and properties

Elastic Modulus
Radius of Gyration
Moment of Inertia
Axis Axis
Axis X--X Axis
Nominal
Size y-y x-x y y
Gross Net
cm cm
cm
mm cm*
32.02
162.6 8.43 2.25
2294 2023
203 X 102
27.41
139.2 7.44 2.25
1519 1340
178 X 102 1

115.6 19.34
85.98 6.36 1.99
881.1 762.1
152 X 89
1.72
13.17
399.8 50.18 5.29
127 X 76 475.9
1.43 7.97
181.9 25.30 4.21
102 X 64 217.6

1.14 4.37
68.85 11.11 3.12
76 X 51 82.58

calculating the Net Moment of Inertia

Note: One hole is deducted from each fiange in
about X— X.

Y
I

JOISTS
PLASTIC MODULI-MINOR AXIS

Load
i
Plastic Reduced Values of Plastic Modulus under Axial
Modulus
Nominal
Axis Change Higher Values ofn
Size Lower Values of n
metre formula
atn =
kg cm’ cm’

51.79 51.79 -12.81n^ 0.365 109.6(1-n)( 0.355+n)

203 X 102 25.33

21.54 44.48 44.48 -10.59n* 0.343 89:21 (1-n)(0.395+n)

178 X 102

31.29 31.29 -7 .772n^ 0.343 62.26(1 -n)( 0.400+n)

152 X 89 17.09

127 X 76 13.36 21.29 21.29 -5.704n" 0.336 41.04(1-n)(0.422+n)

102 X 64 9.65 12.91 12.91 -3.71 7n* 0.339 24.75(1-n)(0.424+n)

76 X 51 6.67 7.14 7.142 -2.366n* 0.341 13.36(1-n){0.439+n)

1032 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

W„

JOISTS
IN TORSION

TORSIONAL fROI’LRllLS
1

Mjss per
Section
meire K a
•-F
cm cni"

203 X 102 25.33 10.649 60.672 151 19.765

178 X 102 21.54 7..381 59.009 9913.856
152 X 89 17.09 4.818 49.023 4466.378
127 X 76 13.36 3.275 37.629 1 788.625

102 X 64 9.65 1.825 28.479 570.85’3

76 X 51 6.67 1.011 18.831 138.292
 1033
sections
properties of steel

JOISTS IN TORSION

STATIC AL MOMLNTS
torsional PROI’LRTILS
(?«•
Qf
cm’
cm’
cm'
cnr
128.129
48.988
128.929 96.510
48.981 37.716
98.450 65.479
42.864 25.586
58.776 42.616
32.036 16.750
32.909 24.488
22.747 9.606
15.810 12.533
15.081
6.417 4.884
8.961
 1034 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS
(-BH
I HH—
CHANNELS
D H ht d
Eoail I
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES
d ±

Depth Width Thickness Radius Depth Area

Mass
Nominal of of [jetween Ratio
per Web Flange Root Toe of
Section Section Fillets D
metre
Size D B t T ri d Section

mm in kg mm mm mm mm mm mm mm cm-

432 X 102 65.54 431.8 101.6 12.2 16.8 15.2 4.8 362.5 25.7 83.49
381 X 102 55.10 381.0 101.6 10.4 16.3 15.2 4.8 312.4 23.4 70.19

CO o U1 X 102 46.18 304.8 101.6 10.2 14.8 15.2 4.8 239.3 20.6 58.83
305 X 89 41.69 304.8 88.9 10.2 13.7 13.7 3.2 245.4 22.2 53.11
254 X 89 35.74 254.0 88.9 9.1 13.6 13,7 3.2 194.8 18.7 45.52
254 X 76 28.29 254.0 76.2 8.1 10.9 12.2 3.2 203.7 23.3 36.03

229 X 89 32.76 228.6 88.9 8,6 13.3 13.7 3.2 169.9 17.2 41.73
229 X 76 26.06 228.6 76,2 7.6 11.2 12.2 3.2 178.1 20.4 33.20
203 X 89 29.78 203.2 88.9 8,1 12.9 13.7 3.2 145.3 15.8 37.94
203 X 76 23.82 203,2 76.2 7.1 11.2 12.2 3.2 152.4 18.1 30.34

178 X 89 26.81 177.8 88.9 7.6 12.3 13.7 3.2 120.9 14.5 34.15
178 X 76 20.84 177.8 76.2 6.6 10.3 12.2 3.2 128.8 17.3 26,54
152 X 89 23.84 152.4 88,9 7.1 11.6 13.7 3.2 97.0 13.1 30.36
152 X 76 17.88 152.4 76.2 9.0 12.2 2.4 105.9 16.9 22.77

127 X
102 X
64
51
14.90
10.42
127.0
101.6
63.5
50.8
1
6.1
9.2
7.6
10.7
9.1
2.4
2.4
84.1
65.8
13.8
13.4
18.98
13.28
76 X 38 6.70 76.2 38.1 5.1 6.8

1
H 2.4 45.7 1 1.2 8.53
 1035
sections
properties of steel 'Y

p-i I*

CHANNELS
dimensions and properties I

lY

One hole is deducted from each flange in calculating the Net Moment of Inertia about x-x,
 1036 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

EQUAL ANGLES
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

H
Leg Radii Centre of
Area
Nominal

Size
Lengths
AxB
Actual

Thickness Bl Root
Ti
Toe
f:
of
Section
Gravity

Cx Cy

mm mm mm kg mm mm cm^ cm cm

203 X 203 203.2 X 203.2 25.3 76.00 15.2 4.8 96.81 5.99 5.99
23.7 71.51 15.2 4.8 91.09 5.93 5.93
22.1 67,05 15.2 4.8 85.42 5.87 5.87
20.5 62.56 15.2 4.8 79.69 5.81 5.81
18.9 57.95 15.2 4.8 73.82 5.75 5.75
17.3 53.30 15.2 4.8 67.89 5.69 5.69
15.8 48.68 15.2 4.8 62.02 5.63 5.63

152 X 152 152.4x152.4 22.1 49.32 12.2 4.8 62.83 4.60 4.60
20.5 46.03 12.2 4.8 58.63 4.54 4.54
19.0 42.75 12.2 4.8 54.45 4.49 4.49
17.3 39.32 12.2 4.8 50.09 4.42 4.42
15.8 36.07 12.2 4.8 45.95 4.37 4.37
14.2 32.62 12.2 4.8 41.55 4.31 4.31
12.6 29.07 12.2 4.8 37.03 4.24 4.24
11.0 25.60 12.2 4.8 32.61 4.18 4.18
9.4 22.02 12.2 4.8 28.06 4.11 4.11

127 X 127 127.0x127.0 19.0 35.16 10.7 4.8 44.80 3.85 3.85
17.4 32.47 10.7 4.8 41.37 3.79 3.79
15.8 29.66 10.7 4.8 37.78 3.73 3.73
14.2 26.80 10.7 4.8 34.14 3.67 3.67
12.6 23.99 10.7 4.8 30.56 3.61 3.61
11.0 21.14 10.7 4.8 26.93 3.55 3.55
9.5 18.30 10.7 4.8 23.31 3.49 3.49

102x102 101.6 xlOI.6 19.0 27.57 9.1 4.8 35.12 3.22 3.22
17.4 25.48 9.1 4.8 32.45 3.16 3.16
15.8 23.37 9.1 4.8 29.78 3.10 3.10
14.2 21.17 9.1 4.8 26.96 3.04 3.04
12.6 18,91 9.1 4.8 24.09 2.98 2.98
11.0 16.69 9.1 4.8 21.27 2.92 2.92
9.4 14.44 9.1 4.8 18.39 2.86 2.86
7.8 12.06 9.1 4.8 15.37 2.79 2.79

Some of the by raising the

thicknesses given in this table are obtained
rolls (Practice in this respect isnot uniform throughout the industry). In such cases
the legs will be slightly longer and the backs of the toes will be slightly rounded.
 1037
sections
properties of steel

equal angles
dimensions and properties

89° and
Finished sections in which the angle between the legs is not less than
not more than 91° shall be deemed to comply with the requirements of the standard.
Angles may be ordered by width of flanges and thickness, or by width of flanges and
mass per metre, but not by both thickness and mass per metre.
 1

1 038 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

EQUAL ANGLES
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Leg Radii Centre of

.Mass Area
Nomin.il Actual
Lengths Gra\it\
per Root Toe of
Sl/L AxB Thickness metre Ti r Section Cx c>

mm mm mill kg mm mm cm' cm cm

89 X 89 88 9 X 88 9 15 8 20 10 84 4 8 25 61 2 78 2 78
142 1831 84 4 8 23 32 2 72 2 72
12 6 16 38 8 4 4 8 20 87 2 66 2 66
1 1 0 1444 84 4 8 18 40 2 60 2 60
94 12 50 84 4 8 15 92 2 54 2 54
7 9 10 58 84 4 8 13 47 2 48 2 48
63 8 49 8 4 48 10 81 241 2 41

76 X 76 76 2 X 76 2 143 15 50 7 6 48 19 74 241 2 41
12 6 13 85 7 6 48 17 64 2 35 2 35
1 1 0 12 20 7 6 48 15 55 2 29 2 29
94 10 57 7 6 48 13 47 2 23 2 23
7 8 8 93 7 B 48 11 37 2 16 2 16
62 7 16 7 6 48 9 12 2 10 2 10

64 X 64 63 5 X 63 5 12 5 11 31 69 24 1441 2 03 2 03
11 0 10 12 6 9 24 12 89 1 98 1 98
9 4 8 78 69 24 11 18 1 92 1 92
7 9 7 45 6 9 24 9 48 1 86 1 86
62 5 96 69 2 4 7 59 1 80 1 80

57 X 57 57 2 X 57 2 93 7 74 6 6 2 4 9 86 1 76 1 76
7 8 6 55 6 6 24 8 35 1 70 1 70
62 535 66 24 6 82 1 64 1 64
46 401 6 6 24 5 1 1 57 1 57

51 X 51 50 8 X 50 8 9 4 6 85 6 1 2 4 8 72 1 60 1 60
7 8 5 80 6 1 24 7 39 1 54 1 54
4 77 6 1 2 4 6 08 1 49 1 49
3 58 6 1 24 4 56 1 42 1 42

Some of the thicknesses given m this table are obtained by raising the
rolls (Practice m this respect not uniform throughout the industry). In such cases
is

the legs will be slightly longer and the backs of the toes will be shghtly rounded.
 1039
sections
properties of steel
!Y

equal angles
dimensions and properties
iV
 1040 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

EQUAL ANGLES
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Leg Mass Radii Centre of

Area
Nominal Actual
Lengths Gravity
per Root Toe of
Size AxB Thickness metre
fi
Section Cx Cy

mm mm mm mm mm cm* cm cm

45 X 45 44.5 X 44.5 7.9 5.06 5.8 2.4 6.45 1.39 1.39

6.1 4.02 5.8 2.4 5.12 1.32 1.32
4.7 3.13 5.8 2.4 3.99 1.26 1.26

38 X 38 38.1 X 38.1 7.8 4.24 5.3 2.4 5.40 1.23 1.23

6.3 3.50 5.3 2.4 4.46 1.17 1.17
4.7 2.68 5.3 2.4 3.41 1.11 1.11

32 X 32 31.8 X 31.8 6.2 2.83 5.1 2.4 3.61 1.01 1.01

4.6 2.16 5.1 2.4 2.75 0.95 0.95
3.1 1.49 5.1 2.4 1.90 0.88 0.88

25 X 25 25.4 X 25.4 6.4 2.23 4.6 2.4 2.84 0.85 0.85

4.7 1.72 4.6 2.4 2.19 0.79 0.79
3.1 1.19 4.6 2.4 1.52 0.73 0.73

Some of the thicknesses given in this table are obtained by raising the
rolls (Practice in this respect isnot uniform throughout the industry). In such cases
the legs will be slightly longer and the backs of the toes will be slightly rounded.
 1041
PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

equal angles
dimensions and properties

Finished sections in which the angle between the legs is not less than 89° and
not more than 91° shall be deemed to comply with the requirements of the standard.
Angles may be ordered by width of flanges and thickness, or by width of flanges and
mass per metre, but not by both thickness and mass per metre.
 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

UNEQUAL ANGLES
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Leg Mass
Nominal Actual
Lengths per
Size AxB Thickness metre
Cx c>

cm cm

229 X 102 228 6 X 101 6 8 73 2 41

8 67 2 35
8 60 2 29
8 54 2 23
8 47 2 17
8 40 2 10
8 33 2 04

203 X 152 203 2 X 152 4 6 59 4 07

6 53 401
647 3 95
641 3 89
6 35 3 83
6 29 3 77
6 22 3 70

203 X 102 203 2 X 101 6 7 46 241

7 40 2 35
7 33 2 29
7 27 2 23
7 20 2 16

178 X 89 1778x 889 6 49 2 08

6 43 201
6 36 1 95
6 29 1 89
6 22 1 83

152 X 102 152.4 xIOl 6 5 25 2 73

5 19 2 67
5 13 2 61
5 07 2 55
5 00 2 48
4 94 2 42
4 88 2 36

Some of the thicknesses given in this table are obtained by raismg the
rolls (Practice m this respect is not uniform throughout the industry). In such cases
the legs will be slightly longer and the backs of the toes will be slightly rounded.
 V y u X V u
X X

1043
properties of steel sections

UNEQUAL ANGLES ,..1^4“-

dimensions AND PROPERTIES ^'ij

Angle Elastic Modulus

f
Moment of Inertia Radius of Gyration

Axis Axis Axis Axis X—

Axis Axis Axis
Axis Axis
Axis Axis
u— V— X* u-u V— to

X— y—y Max. Min. Axis u— X— y-y

X— y— Max, Min.

cm cm cm cm tan (1 cm’ cm
cm^ cm^ cm'" cm'*

7.26 2.56 7.40 2.11 .207 255 57.8

3606 447 3747 306
2.57 7.42 2.12 .209 239 54.1
3388 423 3523 287 7.28
2.59 7.45 2.13 .211 221 50.3
3154 396 3283 267 7.30
3051 248 7.32 2.60 7.47 2.13 .213 205 46.6
2929 369
2.62 7.50 2.14 .214 187 42.8
2695 342 2808 229 7.35
2556 208 7.37 2.63 7.53 2.15 .216 170 38.9
2451 313
2292 7.39 2.65 7.55 2.16 .218 151 34.8
2197 283 187

783 6.36 4.41 7.02 3.25 .545 218 129

2992 1439 3648
3432 734 6.38 4.43 7.05 3.26 .547 204 121
2811 1355
684 6.40 4.45 7.08 3.27 .548 190 112
2625 1268 3209
2976 633 6.42 4.47 7.10 3.28 .550 175 104
2432 1177
2237 1085 2740 582 6.44 4.49 7.13 3.29 .551 160 95.1

2497 530 6.46 4.51 7.15 3.30 .553 145 86.3

2037 990
2240 476 6.48 4.53 7.18 3.31 .554 129 77.1
1826 890

2277 386 2409 253 6.47 2.66 6.65 2.15 .256 177 49.7
2109 359 2234 234 6.49 2.68 6.68 2.16 .259 163 46.0
1947 333 2064 216 6.51 2.69 6.70 2.17 .260 150 42.4
1773 305 1881 197 6.53 2.71 6.73 2.18 .262 136 38.5
1591 276 1689 177 6.55 2.73 6.75 2.19 .264 121 34.5

1280 217 1355 142 5.67 2.33 5.83 1.89 .257 1 13 31.9
1165 199 1235 129 5.69 2.35 5.86 1.89 .260 103 28.9
1051 181 1115 117 5.71 2.37 5.88 1.90 .262 92.0 26.0
935 162 993 104 5.73 2.38 5.90 1.91 .264 81.4 23.1
810 141 861 90.3 5.75 2.40 5.93 1.92 .265 70.1 20.0

1015 358 1161 212 4.76 2.83 5.09 2.17 .427 102 48.2
945 335 1083 196 4.78 2.84 5.12 2.18 .430 94.1 44.7
871 309 1000 180 4.80 2.86 5.14 2.19 .432 86.1 41.0
794 283 913 164 4.82 2.88 5.17 2.19 .435 78.0 37.2
716 257 825 148 4.84 2.90 5.20 2.20 .437 70.0 33.4
637 229 734 132 4,86 2.92 5.22 2.21 .439 61.8 29.6
555 201 641 115 <4.88 2.93 5.24 2.22 .441 53.6 25.7

Finished sections in which the angle between

the legs is not less than 89° and
not more than 91° shall be deemed to
comply with the requirements of the standard
Angles may be ordered by mdth of flanges
and thickness, or by width of flanges
mass per metre, but not by both thickness " and
and mass per metre
1044 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS
f2

90“
UNEQUAL ANGLES
r 't

:3=i DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Nominal

Size

mm
Leg
Lengths
AxB
mm
Actual

Thickness

mm
BLg
ftool

fl

mm
Radii

Toe

mm
H cm*
Cx

cm
Centre of
Gravity

Cy

cm

152 X 89 152.4 X 88.9 15.7

14.2
12.6
1 1.1
27.99
25.46
22.77
20.12
10.4
10.4
10.4
10.4
H
Bl 4.8
4.8
35.66
32.43
29.00
25.63
5.37
5.31
5.25
5.19
2.22
2.16
2.10
2.04
9.4 17.26 10.4 4.8 21.99 5.12 1.97
7.8 14.44 10.4 '4.8 18.40 5.04 1.91

152 X 76 152.4 X 76.2 15.8 26.52 9.9 4.8 33.78 5.65 1.86
14.2 23.99 9.9 4.8 30.56 5.59 1.80
12.6 21.45 9.9 4.8 27.33 5.52 1.74
11.0 18.92 9.9 4.8 24.10 5.46 1.68

9.5 16.39 9.9 4.8 20.87 5.39 1.62

7.8 13.69 9.9 4.8 17.44 5.32 1.55

127 X 89 127.0 X 88.9 15.8 24.86 9.7 4.8 31.67 4.29 2.40
14.2 22.64 9.7 4.8 28.84 4.24 2.34
12.6 20.26 9.7 4.8 25.81 4.17 2.28
11.1 17.89 9.7 4.8 22.79 4.11 2.22
9.4 15.35 9.7 4.8 19.56 4.04 2.16
7.9 12.94 9.7 4.8 16.48 3.98 2.10

127 X 76 127.0 X 76.2 14.2 21.17 9.1 4.8 26.96 4.47 1.95
12.6 18.91 9.1 4.8 24.09 4.41 1.89
11.0 16.69 9.1 4.8 21.27 4.35 1,83
9.4 14.44 9.1 4.8 18.39 4.28 1.77
7.8 12,06 9.1 4.8 15.37 4.21 1.70

102 X 89 101.6 X 88.9 15.8 21.75 8.9 4.8 27.71 3.27 2.64
14.2 19.67 8.9 4.8 25.06 3.21 2.58
12.6 17.72 8.9 4.8 22.57 3.15 2.52
11.0 15.62 8,9 4.8 19.90 3.09 2.46
9.5 13.55 8.9 4.8 17.27 3.03 2.40
7.8 11,31 8.9 4.8 14.41 2.96 2.33

Some of the thicknesses given in this table are obtained by raising the
rolls (Practice in this respect isnot uniform throughout the industry). In such cases
the legs will be slightly longer and the backs of the toes will be slightly rounded.
 u V X1 u V X

PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS 1045

V

UNEQUAL
^ ANGLES X- - -
^ -

DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES u- " '

Radius of Gyration Angle Elastic viodulus

Moment of Inertia

Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis x~x

Axis Axis Axis Axis
Axis Axis V—
u— V— u— to

y-y Max Min X— y-y Max Min Axis u~u X— y-y

x-x

cm’’ cm'* cm'* cm cm cm cm tan n cm-* cm

cm’'

828 208 907 129 4 82 2 42 5 04 1 90 336 83 9 31 2

759 192 833 118 4 84 2 43 5 07 1 91 338 76 5 28 5

685 174 752 107 4 86 2 45 5 09 1 92 341 68 5 25 6
610 156 671 952 4 88 2 47 5 12 1 93 343 60 7 22 7
528 136 581 82 6 4 90 2 48 5 14 1 94 345 52 1 19 6
445 115 490 69 9 4 92 2 50 5 16 1 95 347 43 7 16 5

786 132 830 87 2 4 82 1 98 4 96 1 61 253 81 9 22 9

717 121 759 79 3 4 84 1 99 4 98 1 61 256 74 3 20 8
647 no 685 71 5 4 87 2 01 5 01 1 62 259 66 6 18 7
575 98 5 610 63 7 4 89 2 02 5 03 1 63 261 58 8 16 6
503 86 7 534 55 7 4 91 2 04 5 06 1 63 263 51 0 144
424 73 6 450 47 2 4 93 2 05 5 08 1 64 265 42 7 12 1

496 198 580 1 14 3 96 2 50 4 28 1 90 470 59 0 30 5

456 183 534 104 3 97 2 52 4 30 1 90 473 53 8 27 9
412 166 484 93 9 3 99 2 54 4 33 1 91 476 48 3 25 1

367 149 432 83 6 4 01 2 55 4 35 1 92 479 42 7 22 3

318 129 375 72 5 4 03 2 57 4 38 1 93 481 36 8 19 2
271 110 319 61 7 4 05 2 59 4 40 1 94 483 31 0 16 2

430 116 475 71 5 4 00 2 07 4 20 63 351 52 3

1 20 4
389 105 429 64 4 4 02 2 09 4 22 63 355 46 9
1 18 3
346 94 2 383 57 3 4 04 2 10 4 25 64 358 41 5
1
16 3
302 82 8 335 50 0 4 06 2 12 4 27 65 360
1 35 9 14 1
255 70 2 283 42 3 4 07 2 14 4 29 66 362
1 30 1 1 1 9

262 186 357 91 5 3 08 2 59 3 59 82

1 743 38 1 29 7
240 170 328 83 0 3 10 2 61 3 62 82
1 746 34 6 27 0
219 156 299 75 0 3 2 63 3 64 82
1 1 748 31 2 24 4
195 139 268 66 6 3 13 2 64 3 67 1 83 750 27 6 21 6
171 122 235 582 3 15 2 66 3 69 1 84 752 24 0 18 8
145 103 199 49 3 17 2 68
1
3 72 1 85 753 20 1 15 8

Finished sections in which the angle between the

legs is act less tl lan 89° aiId
not more than 91° shall be deemed to comply
with the equireme nts of the standarc1 .
Angles may be ordered by width of flanges and
thicknes s, or by \\ idth of fl anges anc
mass per metre, but not by both thickness and mass
per metre.
 1046 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

T1 UNEQUAL ANGLES
nr
i- -

Nominal
B-

Leg
Actual
—
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Mass
Radii

Area
Centre of
Gravity
Lengths per Root Toe of
Size AxB Thickness metre Ti Section Cx Cy

mm mm mm mm mm

m
kg cm' cm cm

102 X 76 . 101 6 X 76 2 8 4 4 8 23 32 3 40 2 14
84 4 8 20 87 3 34 2 08
1444 8 4 4 8 18 40 3 28 2 02
12 50 84 4 8 15 92 3 22 1 96
7 9 10 58 8 4 4 8 13 47 3 16 1 90

102 X 64 101 6 X 63 5 1 1 0 13 40 8 1 4 8 17 07 3 51 1 62
9 5 1 1 61 8 1 4 8 14 79 3 45 1 56
7 8 9 69 8 1 48 12 35 3 38 1 49
63 7 89 8 1 4 8 1005 3 31 1 43

89 X 76 88 9 X 76 2 142 16 83 8 1 4 8 21 44 2 89 2 26
12 7 15 20 8 1 48 19 36 2 84 2 21
1 1 0 13 40 8 1 4 8 17 07 2 77 2 14
9 5 11 61 8 1 4 8 14 79 2 71 2 08
7 8 9 69 8 1 48 12 35 2 65 2 02
63 7 89 8 1 4 8 1005 2 58 1 96

89 X 64 88 9 X 63 5 1 1 0 12 20 7 6 4 8 15 55 2 97 1 71
9 4 1057 7 6 48 13 47 2 91 1 65
7 8 8 93 7 6 48 1 1 37 2 85 1 59
6 2 7 16 7 6 4 8 9 12 2 78 1 53

76 X 64 76 2 X 63 5 1 1 0 11 17 7 4 4 8 14 23 2 46 1 83
9 4 9 68 7 4 4 8 12 33 2 40 1 77
7 9 8 19 74 4 8 10 43 2 34 1 71
62 6 56 7 4 4 8 8 36 2 27 1 64

76 X 51 76 2 X 50 8 1 1 0 10 12 69 2 4 12 89 2 68 1 42
9 4 8 78 69 2 4 1118 2 62 1 36
7 9 7 45 69 2 4 9 48 2 56 1 30
6 2 5 96 6 9 2 4 7 59 2 49 1 24
4 7 4 62 6 9 2 4 5 88 2 43 1 18

Some of the thicknesses given in this table are obtainedby raising the
rolls (Practice in this respect isnot uniform throughout the industry). In such cases
the legs will be slightly longer and the backs of the toes will be slightly rounded.
 u

Angle Elastic Modulus

Radius of Gyration
Moment of Inertia
Axis Axis x-x Axis
Axis Axis
to
Axis u—
cm tan (! I cm’ I
cm’
1

2.32
2.34
I
'

2.35
2.37

Finished sections in which the angle between the legs is not less than 89°
and
not more than 91° shall be deemed to comply with the requirements
of the standard.
Angles may be ordered by width of flanges and thickness, or by
width of flanges and'
mass per metre, but not by both thickness and mass per metre.
 1

1048 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

H UNEQUAL ANGLES
h - 90"
M '

-t* 't
!_
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES
^1 f
k - B”

Nominal

Size

mm
Leg
Lengths
AxB
mm
1 mm kg
Root
ri

mm
Radii

Toe
r:

mm
H
cm-
Cx

cm
Centre of
Gravity

Cy

cm

64 X 51 63.5 X 50.8 9.3

7.8
6.2
4.6
7.74
6.55
5.35
4.01
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
9.86
8.35
6.82
5.1
2.09
2.03
1.97
1.90
1 1.28

64 X 38 63.5 X 38.1 7.8 5 80 6.1 2.4 7.39 2.26 1.00

6.3 4.77 6.1 2.4 6.08 2.20 0.94
4.6 3.58 6.1 2.4 4.56 2.13 0.88

51 X 38 50.8 X 38.1 7.9 5.06 5.8 2.4 6.45 1.73 1.10

6.1 4.02 5.8 2.4 5.12 1.66 1.03
4,7 3.13 5.8 2.4 3.99 1.60 0.98

'
1

Some of the thicknesses given in this table are obtained by raising the
rolls (Practice in this respect is not uniform throughout the industry). In such cases

the legs will be slightly longer and the backs of the toes will be slightly rounded.
 X u u
X X

1049
PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

UNEQUAL ANGLES 'll ! „

DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES u' ?l \

Radius of Gyration Angle Elastic Modulus

Moment of Inertia
X—

—
Axis Axis
Axis Axis Axis Axis
Axis Axis u— to

y_y. X— y-y Max. Axis u— X— y-y

x-x

cm'' cm'* cm'' cm cm cm cm tan (t cm’ cm-’

cm^

37,2
32.1
20.9
18.1
47.0
40.7
11.1
9.50
1.94
1.96
2.18
2.21
19 .613
.618
8.73
7.44
5.78
4.93

26,7 15.1 34.0 7.86 1.98 2.23 1.07 .622 6.10

•
4.06

20.4 1 1.6 26.0 6.01 2.00 1.51 2.26 1.08 .625 4.59 3.06

15.5 7.37 18.8 4.15 1.55 1.07 1.71 .80 .532 4.64 2.72
12.7 6.04 15.4 3.32 1.57 1.09 1.73 .81 .540 3.70 2.17
10.1 4.83 12.3 2.63 1.59 1.10 1.75 .81 .544 2.89 1.70

29.2 7.79 32.1 4.87 1.99 1.03 2.08 .347

.81 7.13 2.77
24.4 6.59 27.0 4.05 2.00 1.04 2.11 .82 .353 5.89 2.30
18.7 5.10 20.7 3.10 2.03 1.06 2.13 .82 .358 4.43 1.74

Finished sections in which the angle between the legs

is not less than 89° and
not more than 91° shall be deemed to comply with
the requirements of the standard.
Angles may be ordered by width of flanges and
thickness, or by width of flanges and
mass per metre, but not by both thickness and mass
per metre.
 1050 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

EQUAL ANGLES B.S. 4848:Part 4: 1972

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GYRATION

OF

RADIUS
1052 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS
UNEQUAL ANGLES B.S. 4848*Part 4.1972
1 l I

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 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS
UNEQUAL ANGLES B.S. 4848 :Part 4: 1972

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1054 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

T-BARS
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Designation Radius
Width Depth Area
Nominal of of Thick- Root Toe of
Mass Section Section ness Section
per
Size metre B A t ri Tz

mm kg mm mm mm mm mm cm^

152 X 152 36 152.4 152.4 15.9 12.2 8.6 45.97

152 X 152 29 152.4 152.4 12.7 12.2 8.6 37.23
152 X 102 30 152.4 101.6 15.9 10.7 7.4 37.94
152 X 102 24 152.4 101.6 12.7 10.7 lA 30.78
152 X 76 22 152.4 76.2 12.7 99 6.9 27.55
152 X 76 16 152.4 76.2 9.5 9.9 6.9 21.02

127 X 102 22 127.0 101.6 12.7 9.9 6.9 27.55

127 X 102 16 127.0 101.6 9.5 9.9 6.9 20.96
127 X 76 19 127.0 76.2 12.7 9.1 6.4 24.32
127 X 76 15 127.0 76.2 9.5 9.1 6.4 18.58

102 X 102 19 101.6 101.6 12.7 9.1 6.4 24.25

102 X 102 15 101.6 101.6 9.5 9.1 6.4 18.51
102 X 76 16 101.6 76.2 12.7 8.4 5.8 21.02
102 X 76 13 101.6 76.2 9.5 8.4 5.8 16.13

76 X 76 11 76.2 76.2 9.5 7.6 5.3 13.67

64x 64 9 63.5 63.5 9.5 6.9 4.8 11.22
64 X 64 6 63.5 63.5 6.4 6.9 4.8 7.74
51 X 51 5 50.8 50.8 6.4 6.1 4.3 6.06
38 X 38 4 38.1 38.1 6.4 5.3 3.8 4.45
properties of steel sections
 1056 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

I .

'*'11^
t

Vrf-W, LONG STALK T-B ARS

1 u DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES
HMi

Designation Width Depth

Thickness Radius Area
of of
Nominal Mass
Section Section Root Toe of
per
Size metre B A ri r2 Section

mm kg mm mm mm mm mm mm mm cm*

127 X 254 35.42 127.0 254.0 18.3 8.9 13.5 6.6 45.35

102 X 203 25.02 101.6 203.2 16.3 8.4 7.9 12.2 7.6 31.93

89 X 178 20.42 88.9 177.8 15.2 7.4 11.2 6.4 26.06

76 X 152

1
16.30 76.2 152.4 14.2 6.9 10.2 6.4 20.90

64 X 127 12.62 63.5 127.0 13.4 6.9 6.4 8.9 5.1 16.13

44x 114 7.44 44.5 114.3 9.5 5.1 5.1 7.6 3.8 9.48

25 X 76 4.65 25.4 76.2 6.4

BD 5.1 3.8 4.64

 1057
sections
properties of steel lY

long stalk T-BARS

iY
dimensions and properties
 1058 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

T •

T
r-1
r?
^ T
STRUCTURAL TEES
A
I

t
Cut from Universal Beams

DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Width Depth Thickness

Mass of of Root Slope Area
Web Flange
Serial per Section Section Radius inside of

Size metre B A t T r Flange Section

mm Itg mm mm mm mm mm per ceni cm-

305 X 457 127 305.5 459.2 17.3 27.9 19.1 5 161.2

305 X 457 112 304.1 455.2 15.9 23.9 19.1 5 142.5
305 X 457 101 303.4 451.5 15.2 20.2 19.1 5 128.0

292 X 419 113 293.8 425.5 16.1 26.8 17.8 5 144.2

292x419 97 292.4 420.4 14.7 21.7 17.8 5 123.4
292 X 419 88 291.6 417.4 14.0 18.8 17.8 5 1 11.9

267x381 99 268.0 384.8 15.6 25.4 16.5 5 125.3

267 X 381 87 266.7 381.0 14.3 21.6 16.5 5 110.1
267 X 381 74 265.3 376.9 12.9 17.5 16.5 5 93.9

254 X 343 85 255.8 346.5 14.5 23.7 15.2 5 108.2

254 X 343 76 254.5 343.8 13.2 21.0 15.2 5 96.8
254 X 343 70 253.7 341.8 12.4 19.0 15.2 5 89.2
254x343 63 253.0 339.0 11.7 16.2 15.2 5 79.7

305x305 119 311.5 316.5 18.6 31.4 16.5 5 151.8

305 X 305 90 307.0 308.7 14.1 23.6 16.5 5 113.8
305 X 305 75 304.8 304.8 11.9 19.7 16.5 5 94.9

229 X 305 70 230.1 308.5 13.1 22.1 12.7 5 89.1

229 X 305 63 229.0 305.9 11.9 19.6 12.7 5 79.7
229 X 305 57 228.2 303.7 11.2 17.3 12.7 5 72.2
229 X 305 51 227.6 301.1 10.6 14.8 12.7 5 64.5

178x305 46 178.4 301.2 10.6 15.0 12.7 0 57.9

178x305 41 177.8 299.1 10.1 12.8 12.7 0 52.2

330 X 267 106 333.6 272.5 16.7 27.8 16.5 5 134.8

330 X 267 95 331.7 269.7 14.9 25.0 16.5 5 120.6
330 X 267 84 330.2 266.7 13.4 22.0 16.5 5 106.3

210 X 267 61 211.9 272.3 12.8 21.3 12.7 5 77.8

210x267 55 210.7 269.7 11.6 18.8 12.7 5 69.2
210 X 267 51 210.1 268.4 10.9 17.4 12.7 5 64.6
210x267 46 209.3 266.6 10.2 15.6 12.7 5 58.8
210x267 41 208.7 264.2 9.6 13.2 12.7 5 52.1

165x267 37 165.6 264.4 9.3 13.5 12.7 0 46.5

165x267 33 165.1 262.4 8.8 11.5 12.7 0 41.8

191 X 229 49 192.8 233.7 11.4 19.6 10.2 5 62.6

191 x229 45 192.0 231.8 10.6 17.7 10.2 5 56.9
191 X 229 41 191.3 230.1 9.9 16.0 10.2 5 52.2
191 X 229 37 190.5 228.6 9.1 14.5 10.2 5 47.4
191 x229 34 189.9 226.8 8.5 12.7 10.2 5 42.7

These tables are based on Structural Tees cut from Universal Beams having the
flange slope shown in the table. Structural Tees cut from Universal Beams with parallel
flanges have properties approximately equal to the values given for tapered flange sections.
A taper of 5% corresponds to a slope of 2 ° 52 '.
 properties of steel sections

STRUCTURAL TEES
Cut from Universal Beams

DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Radius of Gyration Elastic Modulus
Gravity Moment of Inertia Cut from
Centre Axis Universal
Axis x-x
Distance Beam
Cx

mmxmm kg/m

914 X 305 (!' 253

32664 224
29001
914 X 305 t>

26399 914 X 305 t“ 201

24636 838 X 292 6- 226

21354 838 X 292 P- 194
19560 838 X 292 C" 176

17512 762 X 267 (s 197

15477 762 X 267 6- 173
13308 762 X 267 147

12025 686 X 254 & 170

10726 686 X 254 a 152
9926 686 X 254 (? 140
8984 686 X 254 (a 125

12283 610 X 305 238

8939 610 X 305 (a 179
7355 610 X 305 (!' 149

610 X 229 (s 140

610 X 229 t- 125
610 X 229 to 113
610 X 229 to 101

610 X 178 to 91
610 X 178 t' 82

533 X 330 to 212

533 X 330 fe 189
533 X 330 (0 167

533 X 210 (0 122

533 X 210 to 109
533 X 210 to 101
533 x 210(0 92
533 X 210 f 82

533 X 165 (0 73
533 X 1 65 (o
66
535.4 457 X 191 (o
98
490.5 457 X 191 to 89
451.9 457 x 191 (0 82
413.4 457 X 191 to 74
371.5 457 X 191 (!• 67
 1060 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS
1 -H

STRUCTURAL TEES
1

T
r-*i ^
- T

Cut from Universal Beams

Ut
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Width Depth Thickness

of of Root Slope
Web Flange
Serial Section Section Radius inside
Size B A t T r Flange

mm kg mm mm mm mm mm per cent cm’

152 X 229 41 153.5 232.5 10.7 18.9 10.2 5 52.2

152 X 229 37 152.7 230.6 9.9 17.0 10.2 5 47.4
152 X 229 34 151.9 228.6 9.1 15.0 10.2 5 42.7
152 X 229 30 152.9 227.3 8.0 13.3 10.2 0 38.0
152x229 26 152.4 224.9 7.6 10.9 10.2 0 33.2

178x203 37 179.7 206.4 9.7 16.0 10.2 5 47.4

178x203 34 178.8 204.7 8.8 14.3 10.2 5 42.7
178x203 30 177.8 203.2 7.8 12.8 10.2 5 38.0
178 X 203 27 177.6 201.3 7.6 10.9 10.2 5 34.2

152x203 37 153.7 208.2 10.1 18.1 10.2 5 47.4

152x 203 34 152.9 206.1 9.3 16.0 10.2 5 42.7
152x203 30 152.2 204.0 8.6 13.9 10.2 5 37.9

140 X 203 23 142.4 201.2 6.9 11.2 10.2 5 29.4

140 X 203 20 141.8 198.6 6.3 8.6 10.2 5 24.7

152 X 191 34 154.3 194.3 9.7 16.3 10.2 5 42.7

152 X 191 30 153.4 192.4 8.7 14.4 10.2 5 38.0
152 X 191 26 152.4 190.5 7.8 12.4 10.2 5 33.2

171 X 178 34 173.2 182.0 9.1 15.7 10.2 5 42.7

171 X 178 29 172.1 179.3 8.0 13.0 10.2 5 36.0
171 X 178 26 171.5 177.8 7.3 11.5 10.2 5 32.2
171 X 178 23 171.0 176.0 6.9 9.7 10.2 5 28.4

127 X 178 20 126.0 176.4 6.5 10.7 10.2 5 24.7

127 X 178 17 125.4 174.2 5.9 8.5 10.2 5 20.9

165 X 152 27 166.8 155.4 7.7 13.7 8.9 5 34.2

165 X 152 23 165.7 153.5 6.7 11.8 8.9 5 29.4
165 X 152 20 165.1 151.9 6.1 10.2 8.9 5 25.7

127 X 152 24 125.2 155.2 8.9 14.0 8.9 5 30.4

127 X 152 21 124.3 153.3 8.0 12.1 8.9 5 26.6
127 X 152 19 123.5 151.9 7.2 10.7 8.9 5 23.7

102 X 152 17 102.4 156.3 6.6 10.8 7.6 2 20.9

102 X 152 14 101.9 154.4 6.1 8.9 7.6 2 18.1
102 X 152 13 101.6 152.4 5.8 6.8 7.6 2 15.7

146 X 127 22 147.3 129.8 7.3 12.7 7.6 5 27.5

146 X 127 19 146.4 128.0 6.4 10.9 7.6 5 23.7
146 X 127 16 146.1 125.7 6.1 8.6 7.6 5 20.0

102x127 14 102.1 130.2 6.4 10.0 7.6 2 18.1

102 X 127 13 101.9 128.5 6.1 8.4 7.6 2 16.1
102 X 127 1 101.6 127.0 5.8 6.8 7.6 2 14.2

133x102 15 133.8 103.4 6.3 9.6 7.6 5 19.0

133 X 102 13 133.4 101.6 5.8 7.8 7.6 5 16.1

These tables are based on Structural Tees cut from Universal Beams having the
flange slope shown in the table. Structural Tees cut from Universal Beams with parallel
flanges have properties approxima.tely equal to the values given for tapered flange sections.
A taper of 5% corresponds to a slope of 2°52'.
A taper of 2% corresponds to a slope of 1°9'
 X

sections
properties of steel

STRUCTURAL TEES X
.1 '•Xl

Cut from Universal Beams

dimensions and properties

Elastic Modulus
Radius of G yration Cut from 1

Gravity Moment of Inerti^ Universal 1

Avi^ I
Axis Axis X— Beam
Centre Axis 1

Distance .

Cx x-x y y Cx
cm’ cm’ m mxmm ^ kg/m I

cm’
457 X 152 6 82
151.3 71.2
431.8
63.0 457 X 152 (3 74
546.7 394.3 138.4 67
54.6 457 X 152 &
481.3 354.7 126.0 60
52.0 457 X 152 &
414.4 321.4 110.6 52
42.3 457 X 152 (s
397.2 276.3 101.3
322.4 74
80.6 406 X 178 C“

365.2 110.9 67
71.0 406 X 178 fe

331.7 99.9 60
1

62.3 406 X 178 <s

299.2 88.0 54
83.6 51.9 406 X 178
265.6
68.1 406 X 152 fe 74
354.3 116.3 67
I

105.6 59.4 406 X 1 52 & I

320.8 406 X 1 52 6 60 I

285.5 95.7 50.5

35.1 406 X 140 6 46

223.1 75.0 39
66.3 26.3 406 X 140 I

182.8
61.4 381 X 152 6 67
300.8 97.2
53.1 381 X 152 e 60
269.8 86.6 >1 tr r*
381 X 152 & 52

356 X 171 67 I
288.3 57
356 X 171 fe
247.2 51
356 X 171 6
222.9 45
356 X 171 (a I

196.0
356 X 127 39
356 X 127 6 33

305 X 165 6! 54
305 X 1 65 46
305 X 165 (3 40

305 X 127 & 48

305 X 127 te 42
3.86 567.2 305 X 127 d' 37
3.81 503.8
305 X 102 (s 33
4.15 486.5 305 X 102 (S 28
4.23 426.5 305 X 102 (3 25
4.48 375.4
254 X 146 t' 43
2.67 348.8 254 X 146 (9 37
2.58 296.4 254 X 146 (9 31
2.69 262.7
254 X 102 (9 28
3.26 278.7 25
254 X 102 (9

3.36 252.5
254x 102(3 22
3.49 227.1
203 x 133 C“ 30
2.10 152.4
I 203 x 133(3 25
2.13 133.5
1062 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

STRUCTURAL TEES
Cut from Universal Columns

DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

406x178 118 395.0 190.5 18.5 30.2 15.2 0 149.9

368x178 101 374.4 187.3 16.8 27.0 15.2 0 129.0

368x178 89 372.1 184.2 14.5 23.8 15.2 0 112.9
368x178 77 370.2 181.0 1-;.6 20.7 15.2 0 97.6
368x178 65 368.3 177.8 10.7 17.5 15.2 0 82.5

305x152 79 310.6 163.6 15.7 25.0 15.2 0 100.6

305x152 69 308.7 160.3 13.8 21.7 15.2 0 87.3

305x152 59 306.8 157.2 11.9 18.7 15.2 0 74.9

305x152 49 304.8 153.9 9.9 15.4 15.2 0 61.6

254x127 66 261.0 138.2 15.6 25.1 12.7 0 83.9

254x127 54 258.3 133.4 13.0 20.5 12.7 0 68.3

254x127 45 255.9 130.2 10.5 17.3 12.7 0 57.0

254x127 37 254.0 127.0 8.6 14.2 12.7 0 46.4

203x102 43 208.8 111.1 13.0 20.5 10.2 0 55.0

203x102 36 206.2 108.0 10.3 17.3 10.2 0 45.5
203x102 30 205.2 104.8 9.3 14.2 10.2 0 37.9
203x102 26 203.9 103.1 8.0 12.5 10.2 0 33.2
203x102 23 203.2 101.6 7.3 11.0 10.2 0 29.4

152x76 19 '154.4 80.9 8.1 11.5 7.6 0 23.7

152x76 15 152.9 78.7 6.6 9.4 7.6 0 19.1

152x76 12 152.4 76.2 6.1 6.8 7.6 0 14.9

 X X

properties of steel sections

STRUCTURAL TEES
Cut from Universal Columns

DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Elastic Modulus
Gravity Moment of Inertia
Cut from
Centre Axis Universal
Axis Axis X—
Distance
Column
Cx X— y-y

cm'* cm'*
mmxmm i‘ kg/m

15504 4.39 10.2 846.3 184.5 785.1 356xX 406

356 0
is 235
2886

2500 11816 356 X 368 (3 202

2099 10235 356 X 368 177

1765 8735 356 X 368 6 153

1451 7278 356 X 368 (s 129

1529 6262 305 X 305 (s 158

1291 5336 305 X 305 (6 137
1075 4503 305 X 305 <s 118
858.1 3634 305 X 305 fe 97

886.7 3722 325.6 254 X 254 is 132

683.0 2951 277.0 254 X 254 e 107
534.8 2424 238.7 254 X 254 (s 89
418.7 1936 203.7 254 X 254 C“ 73

379.8 1560 203 X 203 (B 86

288.1 1268 203 X 203 (S 71
241.2 1021
203 X 203 6 60
203.1 885.0
203 X 203 6 52
179.6 769.4
203 X 203 <s 46

94.67 354.3
152 X 152 (a 37
72.79 279.2
1 52 X 1 52 & 30
61.11 201.7
152 X 152 23
 1064 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS
r B —
T
1
1

^
,c:=i
-n

r
UNIVERSAL BEARING
1

n
U
'

li
11
PILES
1 1
Parallel Flanges
1 i

DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Depth Width Depth

Mass Thickness Area
per of
Size Section Section Web Flange Radius Fillets
metre Section
D B t T r d

mm kg mm mm mm mm mm mm cm’

356 X 368 174 361.5 378.1 20.4 20.4 15.2 290.1 222.2

152 356.4 375.5 17.9 17.9 15.2 290.1 193.6

133 351.9 373.3 15.6 15.6 15.2 290.1 169.0

109 346.4 370.5 12.9 12.9 15.2 290.1 138.4

305 X 305 110 307.9 310.3 15.4 15.4 15.2 246.6 140.4

79 299.2 306.0 11.1 11.1 15.2 246.6 100.4

254 X 254 85 254.3 259.7 14.3 14.3 12.7 200.2 108.1

63 246.9 256.0 10.6 10.6 12.7 200.2 79.7

203 X 203 54 203.9 207.2 11.3 11.3 10.2 160.8 68.4

 X

sections
properties of steel

UNIVERSAL bearing
PILES
Parallel Flanges

dimensions and properties

Elastic Modulus
Radius of Gy ration 1

Moment of Inertia
Axis Axis
Axis Axis
Axis X— y-y
x-x y-y x-x

cm’ cm’
cm cm

9.11 2829 975.7

18444 15.2
51134 44954
356 X 368
9.03 2464 841.5
15799 15.1
43916 38578
8.96 2150 727.4
33248 13576 15.0
37840
8.87 1762 588.5
26784 10901 14.8
30515

1532 495.6 20.0

7639 13.0 7.40
305 X 305 23580 21855
1096 345.9 27.0
6292 12.8 7.26
16400 15201

4188 10.7 6.22 964.5 322.6

254x254 12264 11192

2971 10.5 6.11 710.9 232.2

8775 8005

203 X 203 4.96 489.2

Note: One hole is deducted from each flange under 300 mm

wide (serial size) and two holes
from each flange 300 mm and over (serial size), in calculating the Net Moment of Inertia
about x-x.
1066 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

CASTELLATED
UNIVERSAL BEAMS
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Serial Size Depth Width Thickness Depth Area of Section

|

of of between
Web Flange
Section Section Fillets
Original Castellated Gross Net
Dc B t T dc

mm
914 X 419
i

1371
mm
x419
mm
388
mm
1377.5
mm
420.5 21.5
mm
36.6
mm mm
1248.5
cm-

592.2
cm'

395.7
343 1368.4 418.5 19.4 32.0 1248.5 525.6 348.3

914 X 305 1371 X 305 289 1383.6 307.8 19.6 32.0 1276.2 458.0 278.9
253 1375.5 305.5 17.3 27.9 1276.2 401.5 243.4
224 1367.3 304.1 15.9 23.9 1276.2 357.6 212.3
201 1360.0 303.4 15.2 20.2 1276.2 325.6 186.6

838 X 292 1257 X 292 226 1269.9 293.8 16.1 26.8 1175.4 355.9 221.0
194 1259.7 292.4 14.7 21.7 1175.4 308.5 185.3
176 1253.9 291.6 14.0 18.8 1 175.4 282.5 165.2

762 X 267 1143 X 267 197 1150.6 268.0 15.6 25.4 1062.2 310.0 191.1
173 1143.0 266.7 14.3 21.6 1062.2 274.7 165.7
147 1134.9 265.3 12.9 17.5 1062.2 237.0 138.7

686 X 254 1029 X 254 170 1035.9 255.8 14.5 23.7 953.6 266.1 166.6
152 1030.6 254.5 13.2 21.0 953.6 238.9 148.3
140 1026.5 253.7 12.4 19.0 953.6 220.9 135.9
i

125 1020.9 253.0 11.7 16.2 953.6 199.5 119.3

610 X 305 915x305 238 938.0 311.5 18.6 31.4 836.6 360.3 246.8
179 922.5 307.0 14.1 23.6 836.6 270.7 184.7
149 914.6 304.8 11.9 19.7 836.6 226.2 153.6
1

610x229 915 X 229 140 922.0 230.1 13.1 22.1 848.1 218.2 138.3
125 916.9 229.0 1 1.9 19.6 848.1 195.7 123.1
113 912.3 228.2 11.2 17.3 848.1 178.5 110.1
101 907.2 227.6 10.6 14.8 848.1 161.4 96.7

610 X 178 915 X 178 91 907.5 178.4 10.6 15.0 852.1 148.2 83.5
82 903.2 177.8 10.1 12.8 852.1 135.2 73.6

533 X 330 800 X 330 212 811.6 333.6 16.7 27.8 716.6 314.1 225.1
189 806.0 331.7 14.9 25.0 716.6 280.9 201.5
167 799.9 330.2 13.4 22.0 716.6 248.4 177.0

533 X 210 800 X 210 122 811.1 211.9 12.8 21.3 739.2 189.8 121.5
109 806.0 210.7 11.6 18.8 739.2 169.4 107.5
101 803.2 210.1 10.9 17.4 739.2 158.2 100.1
92 799.6 209.3 10.2 15.6 739.2 144.8 90.4
82 794.8 208.7 9.6 13.2 739.2 129.9 78.7

5o3 X 1 65 800 X 165 73 795.3 165.6 9.3 13.5 743.0 117.8 68.3
66 791.3 165,1 8.8 1 1.5 743.0 107.0 60.1

457 X 191 686 X 191 98 695.9 192.8 11.4 19.6 632.9 151.2 99.1
89 692.1 192.0 10.6 17.7 632.9 138.0 89.6
82 688.7 191.3 9.9 16.0 632.9 127.1 81.8
1
74 685.7 190.5 9.1 14.5 1
632.9 i
115.7 74.1
67 682.1 189.9 8.5 12.7 632.9 104.8 65.9

The overall depth, Dc, of the castellated section = D + Ds/2

where D = actual depth of original section
and Ds = serial depth of original section
 sections
properties of steel

CASTELLATED
UNIVERSAL BEAMS
dimensions AND PROPERTIES

Design Radius of Gyration is the average between the values for the gross and net section.
These tables are based on Universal Beams with tapered flanges.
 —
1068 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

»
1-B-'
CASTELLATED
-t d.
UNIVERSAL BEAMS
l__l DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Serial Size Mass Depth Width Thickness Depth Area of Section

of of between
per Web Flange
Section Section Fillets
Original Castellated Gross Net
metre Dc B t T dc

mm mm kg mm mm mm mm mm cm- cm-

457 X 1 52 686 X 152 82 693.6 153.5 10.7 18.9 632.9 128.8 79.9
74 689.8 152.7 9.9 17.0 632.9 117.5 72.3
67 685.7 151.9 9.1 15.0 632.9 106.1 64.5
60 683.2 152.9 8.0 13.3 636.2 94.2 57.7
52 678.3 152.4 7.6 10.9 636.2 83.9 49.1

406 X 1 78 609 X 178 74 615.8 179.7 9.7 16.0 560.4 114.6 75.2
67 612.4 178.8 8.8 14.3 560.4 103.3 67.5
60 609.4 177.8 7.8 12.8 560.4 91.9 60.3
54 605.6 177.6 7.6 10.9 560.4 83.8 52.9

406 X 1 52 609 X 152 74 619.3 153.7 10.1 18.1 560.4 115.3 74.3
67 615.2 152.9 9.3 16.0 560.4 104.2 66.5
60 610.9 152.2 8.6 13.9 560.4 93.3 58.4

406 X 140 609 X 140 46

39
605.3
600.3
142.4
141.8 KM 11.2
8.6
560.4
560.4
72.9
62.1
44.9
36.5

381 X 152 572 X 152 67 579.1 154.3 16.3 523.7 103.9 66.9
60 575.3 153.4 8.7 14.4 523.7 92.5 59.4
52 571.5 152.4 7.8 12.4 523.7 81.3 51.5

356 X 171 534 X 171 67 542.0 173.2 9.1 15.7 487.1 101.5 69.1
57 536.6 172.1 8.0 13.0 487.1 86.3 57.8
51 533.6 171.5 7.3 11.5 487.1 77.5 51.5
45 530.0 171.0 6.9 9.7 487.1 69.2 44.6

356 X 127 534 X 127 39 530.8 126.0 6.5 10.7 487.1 60.9 37.7
33 526.5 125.4 5.9 8.5 487.1 52.2 31.2

305 X 1 65 458 X 165 54 463.4 166.8 13.7 415.1 80.1 56.6

46
40
459.6
456.3
165.7
165.1
mSM
6.1
11.8
10.2
415.1
415.1
69.1
60.7
48.6
42.1

305 X 127 458 X 127 48 462.9 125.2 8.9 14.0 415.1 74.3 47.2
42 459.1 124.3 8.0 12.1 415.1 65.3 40.9
37 456.3 123.5 7.2 10.7 415.1 58.4 36.4

305 X 102 458 X 102 33 465.2 102.4 6.6 10.8 427.8 51.8 31.7
28 461.4 101.9 6.1 8.9 427.8 45.6 27.0
25 457.3 101.6 5.8 6.8 427.8 40.2 22.5

254 X 146 381 X 146 43 386.6 147.3 7.3 12.7 343.2 64.3 45.8
37 383.0 146.4 6.4 10.9 343.2 55.5 39.3
31 378.5 146.1 6.1 8.6 343.2 47.7 32.2

254 X 102 381 X 102 28 387.4 102.1 6.4 10.0 351.5 44.3 28.1
25 384.0 101.9 6.1 8.4 351.5 39.9 24.4
22 381.0 101.6 5.8 6.8 351.5 35.8 21.0

203 X 133 305 X 133 30 308.3 133.8 6.3 9.6 271.4 44.4 31.6
25 304.7 133.4 5.8 7.8 271.4 38.2 26.4

The overall depth, Dc, of the castellated section = D + Ds/2

where D = actual depth of original section
and Ds = serial depth of original section.
 X y y

sections
properties of steel
CASTELLATED
UNIVERSAL BEAMS
dimensions and properties

Modulus Pitch of
Elastic
Design Radius Standard
Moment of
(Net) Castella—
of Gy ration
Inertia (Net) tion
Serial
Axis y-y Axis X— X Axis y— 1.08 Ds
X— Axis y— Axis x-x
Size Axis

cm' cm'
mm 493.6
1091 29.51 493.6
686 X 152 83405
961 29.36 493.6
74893
66207 827 29.17 493.6
59154 794 29.20 493.6
49742 644 28.81
438.5
62799 1446 438.5
609 X 178
56053 1268 438.5
49804 1 108 438.5
43142 921
438.5
609 X 152 61953 1045 438.5
rkfxn
54919 438.5
47753
70 438.5 54.0
25.96 2.98 1199
609 X 140 36292 500 53 438.5 69.8
25.53 2.82 966
29003 373
123 411.5 35.5
945 24.87 3.39 1693
572x152 49011 1498 106 411.5 40.0
813 24.75 3.33
43080 1302 90 411.5 46.1
685 24.63 3.28
37194
1653 147 384.5 34.5
44793 1277 23.62 3.92
534 X 171 .1381 119 384.5 41.3
37049 1025 23.42 3.83 1

1226 103 384.5 46.4

32718 885 23.30 3.76
1057 85 384.5 54.6
28024 730 23.06 3.65

883 53 384.5 49.6

23424 333 22.76 2.65
534 X 127 726 41 384.5 61.9
19108 257 22.47 2.54

3.85 1162 118 329.4 33.8

458 X 165 26927 988 20.38
38.9
3.79 999 100 329.4
22959 824 20.29
44.7
20.16 3.71 865 84 329.4
19730 691

2.74 947 70 329.4 33.1

458x127 21926 437 19.77
2.68 821 59 329.4 37.9
18847 366 19.64
42.6
315 19.55 2.63 729 51 329.4
16633
2.18 639 37 329.4 43.1
458 X 102 14857 189 19.73
2.11 540 30 329.4 51.8
12467 153 19.48
116 19.08 1.98 444 23 329.4 67.3
10151

15099 633 16.99 3.43 781 86 274.3 30.4

381 X 146
12844 527 16.90 3.37 671 72 274.3 35.1
10322 405 16.60 3.23 545 55 274.3 44.0

381 x102 9183 174 16.58 2.24 474 34 274.3 38.7

7849 144 16.34 2.16 409 28 274.3 45.7
6637 116 16.09 2.07 348 23 274.3 56.0

305 X 133 6646 353 13.58 3.09 431 53 219.2 32.1

5455 279 13.39 2.98 358 42 219.2 39.1

Design Radius of Gyration is the average between the values for the gross and net section.
 1

1 070 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

CASTELLATED
UNIVERSAL COLUMNS
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES
•t

Serial Size Mass Depth Width Thickness Depth AreaofSecuon

of of between
per Web Flange
Section Section Fillets
Original Castellated Gross Net
metre Dc B t T dc

mm mm ig mm mm mm mm mm cm- cm-

356 X 406 546x406 634 665.2 424.1 47.6 77.0 480.6 892.8 723.3
551 646.2 418.5 42.0 67.5 480.6 776.6 627.1
467 627.1 412.4 35.9 58.0 480.6 659.4 531.6
393 609.6 407.0 30.6 49.2 480.6 555.3 446.4
340 596.9 403.0 26.5 42.9 480.6 479.8 385.5
287 584.2 399.0 22.6 36.5 480.6 406.2 325.8
235 571.5 395.0 18.5 30.2 480.6 332.7 266.9

Column
Core 559 X 424 477 630.0 424.4 48.0 53.2 493.1 704.6 509.8

356 X 368 534 X 368 202 552.7 374.4 16.8 27.0 468.1 287.8 228.0
177 546.3 372.1 14.5 23.8 468.1 251.5 199.9
153 540.0 370.2 12.6 20.7 468.1 217.6 172.8
129 533.6 368.3 10.7 17.5 468.1 184.0 145.9

305 X 305 458 X 305 283 517.8 321.8 26.9 44.1 399.1 401.4 319.4
240 505.1 317.9 23.0 37.7 399.1 340.7 270.6
198 492.4 314.1 19.2 31.4 399.1 281.6 223.1
158 479.7 310.6 15.7 25.0 399.1 225.2 177.3
137 473.0 308.7 13.8 21.7 399.1 195.7 153.6
118 467.0 306.8 11.9 18.7 399.1 167.9 131.6
97 460.3 304.8 9.9 15.4 399.1 138.4 108.2

254 X 254 381 X 254 167 416.1 264.5 19.2 31.7 327.2 236.8 188.0
132 403.4 261.0 15.6 25.1 327.2 187.5 147.9
107 393.7 258.3 13.0 20.5 327.2 153.2 120.1
89 387.4 255.9 10.5 17.3 327.2 127.3 100.6
73 381.0 254.0 8.6 14.2 327.2 103.8 82.0

203 X 203 305 X 203 86 323.8 208.8 13.0 20.5 262.3 123.3 96.9
71 317.4 206.2 10.3 17.3 262.3 101.5 80.6
60 311.1 205.2 9.3 14.2 262.3 85.3 66.4
52 307.7 203.9 8.0 12.5 262.3 74.6 58.3
46 304.7 203.2 7.3 11.0 262.3 66.3 51.4

1 52 X 52 228 X 152 37 237.8 154.4 8.1 1 1.5 199.4 53.6 41.2

30 233.5 152.9 6.6 9.4 199.4 43.3 33.2
23 228.4 152.4 6.1 6.8 199.4 34.4 25.2

The overall depth, Dc, of the castellated section = D + Ds/2

where D = actual depth of original section
and Ds = serial depth of original section, except for the 356 x 406 Series, and
the Column Core Section.
 X y X y X y

1071
properties of steel sections iV

CASTELLATED
UNIVERSAL COLUMNS
X X

DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Design Radius Elastic Modulus Pitch of

Moment of Ratio
j
Standard
Inertia (Net) of Gyration (N etj Castella— Dc
Serial
tion
Axis X— Axis y— Axis X— A.vis y— Axis X— Axis y— 1.08 Ds T
Sire

mm cm'' cm* cm cm cm’ cm’ mm

546 x 406 577088 98051 27.03 11.07 17351 4624 411.5 8.6

483788 82555 26.57 ! 10.90 14973 3945 411.5 9.6

396642 67836 26.13 10.72 12650 3290 411.5 10.8

322847 55368 25.72 10.56 10592 2721 411.5 12.4
272525 46788 25.43 10.45 9131 2322 411.5 13.9
225110 38697 25.13 10.33 7707 1940 411.5 16.0
180239 30999 24.85 10.22 6308 1570 411.5 18.9

559 x424 408431 67869 26.58 10.69 12966 3198 438.5 11.8

534 X 368 151992 23625 24.64 9.62 5500 1262 384.5 20.5
131805 20466 24.52 9.57 4825 1100 384.5 23.0
112595 17467 24.37 9.51 4170 944 384.5 26,1
93964 14554 24.23 9.44 3522 790 384.5 30.5
I

458x305 171956 24520 22.14 8.29 6642 1524 329.4 11.7

1
141928 20224 21.85 8.18 5620 1272 329.4 13.4
i
113936 16221 21.56 1
8.06 4628 1033 329.4 i
15.7
88053 12519 21.24 7.93 3671 806 329.4 19.2
75184 10669 i 21.08 7.86 3179 691 329.4 21.8
63624 9004 20.94 7.80 2725 587 329.4 25.0
51555 7267 20.78 7.72 2240 477 329.4 29.9

381 X 254 66885 9789 18.00 6.83 3215 740 274.3 13.1
50944 7440 17.69 6.70 2526 570 274.3 16.1
40329 5899 17.45 6.61 2049 457 274.3 19.2
33246 4847 17.34 6.56 1716 379 274.3 22.4
26631 3872 17.20 6.49 1398 305 274.3 26.8

305 X 203 21439 3118 14.17 5.35 1324 299 219.2 15.8
17509 2535 14.07 5.30 1103 246 219.2 18.3
14092 2041 13.86 5.22 906 199 219.2 21.9
12253 1770 13.80 5.19 796 174 219.2 24.6
10683 1539 13.71 5.14 701 151 219.2
i

27.7

228 X 152
i

5052 708 10.50 3.89 425 92 164.2 20.7

4003 558 10.41 3.85 343 73
i 1
164.2 24.8
2937 403 10.13 3.71 257 53
i

164.2 33.6
i

i
i

Design Radius of Gyration is the average between the values for the gross and net
section
 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS
I
108D. I

CASTELLATED JOISTS
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Nominal Size Mass Depth Width Thickness Area of Section

of of
per Web Flange
Section Section
Original Castellated
metre Dc B t T
mm mm kg mm mm mm mm
203 X 102 305 X 102 25.33 304.7 101.6 5.8 10.4
178 X 102 267 X 102 21.54 266.8 101.6 5.3 9.0
152 X 89 228 X 89 17.09 228.4 88.9 4.9 8.3
127 X 76 191 X 76 13.36 190.5 76.2 4.5 7.6
102 X 64 153 X 64 9.65 152.6 63.5 4.1 6.6
76 X 51 114 X 51 6.67 114.2 50.8 3.8 5.6

CASTELLATED
ZED BEAMS
L- Bi*
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Size Thickness Depth Area of Section Angle Ratio

Original 1 Castellated Mass between a

Channel Zed Dc
Web
,

per Flange Fillets Gross Net (Net

Section Section
DxB DcxBc metre dc Section) T
mm mm kg mm mm mm cm- cm- tan (t

432 X 102 647.7 X 191.0 65.54 12.2 16.8 578.4 109.85 57.17 0.0908 38.6
381 X 102 571.5x192.8 55.10 10.4 16.3 502.9 89.98 50.36 0.1133 35.1

305 X 102 457.2 X 193.0 46.18 10.2 14.8 391.7 74.43 43.34 0.1483 30.9
305 X 89 457.2 X 167,6 41.69 10.2 13.7 397 R B8 72 37.63 0.1208 33.4
254 X 89 381.0x168.7 35.74 9.1 13.6 321.8 57.02 33.91 0.1603 28.0
254 X 76 381.0x144.3 28.29 8.1 10.9 330.7 46.28 25.71 0.1249 35.0

229 X 89 342.9x169.2 32.76 8.6 13.3 284.2 51.52 31.86 0.1861 25.8
229 X 76 342.9 X 144.8 26.06 7.6 11.2 292.4 41.86 24.49 0.1484 30.6
203 X 89 304.8x169.7 29.78 8.1 12.9 246.9 46.14 29.68 0.2181 23.6
203 X 76 304.8x145.3 23.82 7.1 11.2 254.0 37.54 23.12 0.1772 27.2

178 X 89 266.7x170.2 26.81 7.6 12.3 209.8 40.89 27.38 0.2593 21.7
178x 76 266.7 X 145.8 20.84 6.6 10.3 217.7 32.41 20.67 0.2088 25.9
152x 89 228.6x170.7 23.84 7.1 11.6 173.2 35.77 24.95 0.3151 19.7
1 52 X 76 228.6x146.0 17.88 9.0 182.1 27.69 17.93 0.2459 25.4

127 X 64 190.5 X 120.6 14.90 9.2 147.6 23.08 14.95 0.2542 20.7
102 X 51 152.4 X 95.5 10.42 6.1 7.6 116.6 16.38 10.18 0.2454 20.1
76 X 38 114.3 X 71.1 6.70 5.1 6.8 83.8 10.48 6.60 0.2530 16.8

The overall depth, Dc, of the castellated section = 3D/2

where D = depth of original section.
 properties of steel sections

CASTELLATED JOISTS
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Elastic Modulus Pitch of

Moment of Design Radius
Standard
of Gyration (Net) Castella—
Inertia (Net)
, I I . - I ^ I
tion
Axisx-x Axisy-y Axis x-x Axisy-y Axis x-x Axisy-y i.ogDs
1

352.6 31.98
267.0 27.39
180.8 19.33
117.7 13.16
67.57 7.96
34.38 4.37

CASTELLATED Of
._V X
ZED BEAMS
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES

Elastic Modulus
Moment of Inertia (Net) Design Radius of Gyration Size
(Net)
of
Castel-
Axis Axis Axis Axis
lated
y-y Section

cm' cm' mm
1545 90.96 647.7 X 191.0
1219 89.01 571.5 X 192.8

842.5 79.79 457.2 X 193.0

723.4 56.33 457.2 X 167.6
548.7 56.50 381.0 X 168.7
413.6 32.99 381.0 X 144.3

465.4 55.39 342.9 X 169.2

357.0 33.85 342.9 X 144.8
386.2 53.55 304.8 X 169.7
301.0 34.01 304.8 X 145.3

311.7 50.95 266.7 X 170.2

236.3 31.11 266.7 X 145.8
242.9 47.58 228.6 X 170.7
175.8 26.75 228.6 X 146.0

120.4 19.41 190.5 X 120.6

64.88 10.14 152.4 X 95.5
31.13 5.10 114.3 X 71.1

Design Radius of Gyration is the average between the values for the gross and
net section.
 ,

1074 PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS

B -f
II
IT
I
I

1 r
I

GANTRY GIRDERS
D
COMPOSITION AND DIMENSIONS
i_

Mass Ratio
Size Composed of Extreme
per
D
Top Fibre Distances
DxB Universal Bottom
metre
n,
T
Hz
Beam Flange Flange Top
mm in kg
cm
Channel Plate
cm Flange

954 X 432
939 X 432
914 X 305 (a 289
289
432 X 102
432 X 102 6
6! 66
66 —
350 X 15
—
396.0
354.8
44.96
39.19
50.42
54.69
26.3
25.9
931 X 432
923 X 432
253
224
432 X 102 6!
432 X 102 &
66
66 — 318.7
289.2
37.93
36.67
55.14
55.58
28.1
30.6

878
863
853
X
X
X
432
432
432
838 X 292 (< 226 432 X 102 e 66
226 432 X 102 66
194 432 X 102 C« 66
350
—
—
X 15 333.2
292.0
259.3
40.97
34.46
32.91
46.84
51.85
52.38
27.9
27.4
30.6

782 X 432
774 X 432
772 X 381
762 X 267 (s 197 432 X 102 6) 66
173 432 X 102 e 66
173 381 X 102 d 55
—
—
262.2
238.4
228.0
30.36
29.15
30.29
47.82
48.27
46.95
27.0
29.3
29.1

705 X 432
700 X 432
694 X 381
686 X 254 IS 170 432 X 102 e 66
152 432 X 102 d 66
140 381 X 102 d 55
—
—
—_— 235.4
217.5
195.2
26.52
25.57
25.98
43.99
44.41
43.41
26.1
27.7
29.1

660
645
X 432
X 432
610 X 305 6 238 432 X
238 432 X
102
102
d 66
d 66
350
—
—
X 15 345.0
303.8
30.94
26.28
35.08
38.24
18.4
18.0
630
622
X
X
432
432
179 432 X
149 432 X
102
102
d 66
d 66 — 244.3
214.6
24.10
22.73
38.87
39.45
21.1
23.1

627 X 381
622 X 381
618 X 305
610 X 229 140 381 X 102 d 55
125 381 X 102 d 55
113 305 X 89 d 42
—
—
195.0
180.2
155.0
23.59
22.73
23.53
39.15
39.50
38.22
25.7
27.2
25.8

613 X 381
608 X 305
610 X 178 6 91
82
381 X 102 d 55
305 X 89 d 42 — 146.1
123.7
20.36
21.24
40.93
39.60
34.1
33.3

555 X 381
550 X 305
543 X 305
533 X 210 & 122
109
92
381 X 102 d 55
305 X 89 d 42
305 X 89 la 42
— 1

'
177.3
150.4
134.0
20.27
20.84
19.74
35.23
34.13
34.59
24.3
23.0
25.2

539 X 305
535 X 305
533 X 165 61 73
66
305 X
305 X
89 d 42
89 d 42 — 1 14.7
107.3
18.27
17.51
35.63
35.99
29.6
31.4

478 X 305 457 X 191 6! 98 305 X 89 d 42 139.9 17.77 29.99 20.6

472 X 254 89 254 X 76 d 28 :
!

117.6 18.67 28.50 21.4

465 X 254 74 254 X 76 d 28 1 102.8 17.67 28.86 23.8

473
465
X
X
254
229
457 X 152 6i 82
67
254 X
229 X
76 d 28
76 d 26 — 1 10.2
93.0
18.37
17.56
28.95
28.92
23.5
25.5

423
418
41 1
X
X
X
305
254
254
406 X 178 6' 74 305 X
67 254 X
54 254 X
89 d 42
76 d 28
76 d 28
—
—
1 16.2
95.3
81.9
14.67
15.52
14.35
27.63
26.23
26.72
21.1
22.3
25.3

424 X 254
416 X 229
406 X 1 52 (' 74 254 X
60 229 X
76 d 28
76 d 26 — 102.7
85.6
16.18
15.32
26.26
26.23
21.6
23.8 j

NOTE: The above properties are based on compound girders of welded construction.
 X 1 -
.

1075
properties of steel sections
r y

GANTRY GIRDER
RY GIRDERS ,s Jc“n nn
n— .j
X

nt

PROPERTIES _i — 1

Radiu.s Elastic Modulus Horizontal Size

Moment of Inertia
Area in cm'' of in cm
Gyra-' X—
Axis v-y Axis Axis DxB

i
Axis
in
Com- Axis y-y Top Bottom
. Top a D/
Flange plete y-y Top Flange Flange mm
cm' Section cm Flange
only

504.5 28770
28770
41552
36192
9.08
8.95
17531
16423
15634
11770
1333
1333
0.0045
0.0048 —
0.0033

—
954x432
939x432
452.0
4Qfii)
3684
643676
569695
503131
27637
26597
33911
31823
9.14
9.29
15021
13721
10331
9052
1280
1232
0.0052
0.0057 — 931x432
923x432

424 4
371.9
330.3
578285
450992
384020
26716
26716
25581
37420
32060
29783
9.39
9.28
9.50
14116
13087
11669
12345
8698
7331
1237
1237
1185
0.0056
0.0060
0.0067
—
0.0042

—
878x432
863x432
853x432

327603 25238 29098 9.33 10792 6850 1169 0.0071 782x432

334.0
303.7
290.4
288265
276716
24578
18073
27775
21269
9.56
8.56
9890
9136
5972
5894
1138
949
0.0078
0.0070 — 774x432
772x381

299.8 238272 24504 27624 9.60 8984 5417 1135 0.0085 705x432
277.1
248.6
215264
190409
24088
17283
26789
19683
9.83
8.90
8418
7328
4847
4387
1116
907
0.0090
0.0087 —
——— 700x432
694x381

439.5
387.0
339296
269004
28871
28871
41731
36372
9.74
9.69
10968
10236
9671
7034
1337
1337
0.0070
0.0074 —
0.0053 660x432
645x432
311.2
273.4
206109
175036
26678
25631
31969
29870
10.14
10.45
8550
7702
5303
4436
1236
1187
0.0088
0.0097 — 630x432
622x432

248.4 155702 17015 19147 8.78 6600 3977 893 0.0095 627x381
229.6
197.4
140305
120699
16728
8650
18570
10245
8.99
7.20
6172
5130
3552
3158
878
568
0.0101
0.0094 — 622x381
618x305
186.1
157.5
100423
85203
15604
7660
16321
8264
9.37
7.24
4933
4012
2453
2151
819
503
0.0125
0.01 19 — _ 613x381
608x305
225.8 108741 16493 18101 8.95 5366 3086 866 0.01 15 555x381
191.5
170.7
92516
79333
8435
8165
9815
9272
7.16
7.37
4440
4018
2710
2294
553 0.0107
536' 0.0118 — 550x305
543x305
146.2
136.7
62348
55835
7573
7491
8088
7924
7.44
7.61
3412
3188
1750
1552
497
492
0.0137
0.0146 — 539x305
535x305
178.3 64373 8167 9277 7.21 36^2 2147 536 0.0129 478x305
149.8 54526 4345 5327 5.96 2921 1913 342 0.0111 __ 472x254
130.9 45912 4139 4914 6.13 2599 1591 326 0.0124 465x254
140.4
118.5

148.0
49533
39855

40525
3911
3023
4460
3439
5.64
5.39
2697
2269
1711
1378
308
264
0.0120
0.0130 — 473x254
465x229
7783 8509 7.58 2763 1467 51 0.0164 423x305
121.4 34001 4000 4635 6.18 2191 1296 315 0.0145 ——_ 418x254
104.4 27330 3827 4288 6.41 1904 1023 301 0.0165 _. _ 411x254
130.9 37305 3888 4413 5.81 2305 1421 306 0.0138 424x254
109.0 29253 2993 3378 5.57 1909 1115 262 0.0151 416x229
 BRITISH STANDARDS

Newton House, 101 Pentonville Road,

mhtainable from BSI Sales Department at
London, N1 9ND: Telephone 01-837 8801; Telex 23218)

4 Structural Steel Sections:

Part 1: Hot-rolled sections.
Part 2: Hot-rolled hollow sections.
153 Steel girder bridges:
Parts 1 and 2: 1. Materials and Workmanship.
2. Weighing, shipping and erection.
Part 3A: Loads
Parts 3B and 4: 3B. Stresses.
4. Design and construction.
21 S Dimensions of rivets.
350 Conversion factors and tables:
Part 1. Basis of tables, conversion factors.
Part 2. Detailed conversion tables.
Supplement No. 1. Additional table for S.I. Conversions.
449 The use of structural steel in building:
Part 1. Imperial units.
Part 2. Metric units.
499 Welding terms and symbols:
Part 1. Welding, brazing and thermal cutting glossary.
Symbols for welding.
Part 2.
Part 3. Terminologyof and abbreviations for fusion weld
imperfections as revealed by radiography.
499C Chart of British Standard welding symbols (based on 449: Part 2).
639 Covered electrodes for the manual metal-arc welding of mild steel and
medium tensile steel.
648 Schedule of weights of building materials.
877 Foamed or expanded blast furnace slag lightweight aggregate for concrete.
916 Black bolts, screws and nuts.
938 General requirements for the metal-arc welding of structural steel tubes
toB.S. 1775.
990 Steel windows generally for domestic and similar buildings.
1083 Precision hexagon bolts, screws and nuts (B.S.W. and B.S.F. threads).
1091 Pressed steel gutters, rainwater pipes,
fittings and accessories.
1449 Steel plate, sheet and strip.
1719 Classification, coding and marking
of covered electrodes for metal-arc
welding.
1775 Steel tubes for mechanical,
structural and general engineering purposes.
1787 Steel windows for
industrial buildings.
1856 General requirements
for the metal-arc welding of mild steel.
2503 Steel windows
for agricultural use.
2642 General requirements
for the arc welding of carbon manganese steels.
2994 Cold rolled steel
sections.

1077
1078 BRITISH STANDARDS
3139 High strength friction grip bolts for structural engineering.
3294 The use of high strength friction grip bolts in structural steelwork.
4360 Weldable structural steels.

4395 High strength friction grip bolts and associated nuts and washers for
structural engineering. Metric series.
4449 Hot rolled steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete.
4461 Cold worked steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete.
4482 Hard drawn mild steel wire for the reinforcement of concrete.
4483 Steel fabric for the reinforcement of concrete.
4486 Cold worked high tensile alloy steel bars for prestressed concrete.
CP3 Chapter V. Loading.
CPI 1 1 Structural recommendations for loadbearing walls:
Part 1. Imperial units.
Part 2. Metric units.
CPI 14 Structural use of reinforced concrete in buildings.
CPI 14 Part 2. Structural use of reinforced concrete in buildings. Metric units.
CP2008 Protection of iron and steel structures from corrosion.

It is important that users of British Standards should ascertain that they are in possession
of the latest amendments or editions.
 INDEX
A BEAMS (conf.)
Castellated, 1066—9
abrasives, 801-4
acoustic gauge, the M AIHAK, XI Compound (see Girders)
Continuous
airless blast cleaning, 801
by slope deflection, 277—8
ALBANY FLATS, Bournemouth, 859-61 analysis
927 charts for B.M.and reactions, 57-9
ALGOL language for computers,
aluminium coating, 888 Clapeyron’s theorem of three
angles moments, 51—6
Backmarks in, 710 definition, 5

Properties of deflection of, 97—100

equal,1036—41, 1050—1 influence lines, 176—94
unequal, 1042—9, 1052—3
moment distribution, 227—34
487-96 plastic design, 542-4
Struts, design of,
ANHEUSER, 114 slope deflection analysis, 277-83
spliced at point of contraflexure,
arches or portals
Comparison of types, 432 737-9
Hingeless, formulae for, 305—8, 313—7,
worked examples, 52-6
323-6 Deflection, 15-16
Multiple bay, hinged at feet Fixed, built-in or encastre, 39-49
formulae for, 332-44 charts for loading, moment, shear,
Three-hinged, 132—4,432 deflection, 43-9
Two-hinged, 125-8, 430-2 definition, 39
formulae for, 309-12, 313-7, influence lines, 172, 175-6
327-9, 330-1 principle of reciprocal moments, 42
AREA-MOMENT METHOD, 85-102, shear forces in, 41-2
195-224 supports at different levels, 41-2
Application in two stages, 197-200 supports at same level, 39-41
Closed frames, 223-4 worked examples, 40-2
Industrial building frame, 210-6 Moment of resistance, 1
Portal frames, 200-10 Redundant, in plastic design, 536-40
Reciprocal theorem, 195-7 Simply supported, 17-38
Symmetrical multi-storey frames, 216-22 charts for loading,moment, shear,
Vertical loading, 222 deflection,31-8
AREAS worked examples, 22-6
Sections (see Section Tables) Theory, 1-3
Simpson’s rule, 21 Torsion (see Torsion, Beams in)
ASBESTOS COVERED SHEET, 890 Universal, 1012-23
ASYMMETRICAL PORTAL-FRAMES, T-bars cut from, 1058-61
284-8 Z-polygon, 3-5
AUTOCODE for computers, 927
AXIAL STRESSES BENDING
(see Bending and Axial Stresses) Circular, 1
Principal axes, 8-11
Unsymmetrical, 3
B BENDING AND AXIAL STRESSES,
5-7
BAKER, Sir John, x Circle of inertia, 13
BASES Compression, 5
(see Stanchions)
General expression for stress, 7—8
BATHO, Dr C., xi Neutral axis, location of, 11-15
BEAMS Principal axes, 8—11
(see also Girders)
Unsymmetrical bending
British Standard, properties of,
1012-23 formulae, 3

1079
1080 INDEX
BENDING AND AXIAL STRESSES {cont.) CHEQUERED PLATES, 879-82
worked examples, 2, 9, 11 CIRCLE OF INERTIA, 13-15
Z-polygons, 3-5 CIRCULAR BENDING
BENDING MOMENTS (B.M.) (see Bending)
Definition, 17 CLADDING
Diagrams, 22—38 (see Roofing and Cladding)
Parallel boom girders, 1 23 CLAPEYRON
Relationship with loading and S.F., Theorem of Three Moments)
(see
3-7, 17-20 CLOSED FRAMES, 223-4
BETHLEHEM STEEL CO., 114 COLUMN BASES, 725-31
BITUMEN-ASBESTOS FELTED COLUMN SPLICE, 731
SHEET, 890 COLUMNS
BLAST CLEANING, 800-4 (see Stanchions)
BLUM, 642 COMMON PLANE SECTIONS
BOLTS Areas, position of centroid, moments of
(see Rivets and Bolts; Connections) inertia, section moduli, 998-1000
BOLTS, HOLDING-DOWN, 623-5 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION,
BORNSCHEUER, 114 585-611
BOX PILING Bibliography, 610-1
Dimensions and properties, 1003—5, 1009 C.P.117,586
BRACED VAULT CONSTRUCTION, economy by use of, 586—8
472-7 Multi-storey buildings, 859—61
BRACING Section properties calculation, 596—601
(see Engineering Workshop Design; Shear connectors, 592—5, 601 — 10
Knee-braced Frames; Single- COMPOUND BEAMS
Storey Sheds) Compound)
(see Girders,
BRICK WALLS, 911-6 COMPUTERS, 921-34
BRITISH STANDARDS, 1077-8 Analogue and digital, 921-3
BUCKLING OF WEBS, 645, 648-9 Desk-top computers, 933
BUILT-IN BEAMS Genesys Centre, 934
(see Beams, Fixed, Built-in or Encastre) National Computing Centre, 933
BUILT-UP WEATHERPROOFING, Programmes, 925-6
888-90 existing and available for structural
engineering, 927-8, 934
preparation of, 926-7
C Rigid frame analysis, 928-33
Vierendeel girders, 419-20
CAMPUS, Professor, formula, 777 CONCRETE
CANTILEVERS AND SUSPENDED (see also Reinforced)
SPANS Floors, 871
moment, shear,
Charts for loading, Pre-cast panels, 916—20
deflection, 29—30, 62—6 CONNECTIONS, 701-797
Deflection, 100-2 (see also Joints in Rigid Frame
CANTILEVERS, PROPPED, 67-79 Structures)
Charts for loading, moment, shear, Beam end, 712
deflection, 72—9 Beam 737-9
splices,
Examples of solution Bibliography, 796—7
by assimilation with encastre beams, Column bases, 725—31
70-1 Column splice, 731
by deflection formulae, 69-70 Eccentric loading, 715—22
by Theorem of Three Moments, 67—9 Gusset plate design, 720
Formulae for B.M. and S.F., 72-9 High strength friction grip bolts, 733—9,
Worked examples, 68-71 857
CASS IE, W. Fisher, 114 Multi-storey stanchions, 842—4
CASTELLATED SECTIONS, Plastic design, 579-80
Properties of, 1066-73 Rivet groups, 715—22
Space structures, use in, 446—50 Riveted, 711—5
CENTROID, POSITION OF, 998-1000 Rivets and bolts, tables, 704—10
CHANNELS, BRITISH STANDARD Roof truss, 761-4
Properties of, 1034-5 Splices, 731-2, 737-9, 788
 INDEX 1081

CONNECTIONS (cont.) DEFLECTION OF BEAMS AND

Tension member, 711
GIRDERS '(cont.)
in Vierendeel girders, 415 et
seq. Unsymmetrical sections, 15—6
Welded,739-64 DEFLECTION OF FRAMED
Wind moment, 723-31 STRUCTURES, 135-54
CONTINUOUS BEAMS Due to temperature changes, 137
(see Beams) Formula for deflection, 137
CONVERSION TABLES Graphical method, 142—54
Feet and inches to metres, 979-82 Mathematical method, 135-42
Ft'‘ -m\ 985-6 Principle of work, 135
Kg - pounds, 977-8 Williot and Williot-Mohr diagrams, 142-54

Kg per m - pounds per ft, 974 Worked examples, 138-42

Metres - ft, 983-4 DEFLECTION OF RIGID FRAMES,
M" - ft", 987-8 289-97
MN/m" -tonf/in", 993-6 Area-moment method, 85-92, 289
Moments of inertia, 973 Eaves joints of portal frames, 203—4
Pounds per ft - kg per m, 974 Non-symmetrical frames, 297
Pounds - kg, 975-6 Slope deflection method, 276—88
Tonf/in" - MN/m" 989-92
, DOLPHINS, 641-2
COOPERATIVE INSURANCE SOCIETY DOMES, 477-9
BUILDING, MANCHESTER, 859
CORROSION RESISTANCE E
Steel piles, 642, 643 EAVES BRACING, 522
CORRUGATED CLADDING SHEETS, ENCASTR^; BEAMS
889-96 (see Beams, Fixed, Built-in or Encastre)
CRANES ENGINEERING WORKSHOP DESIGN,
Gantry girders, 497, 506-12 497-529
dimensions and properties, 1074-5 Bases of stanchions, 524-7
CROSS, Professor Hardy, 195 Bracings, 521-4, 529
CURTAILMENT OF FLANGE Foundation bolts, 526
PLATES, 103-6 Gable members, 528-9
CURTAIN WALLING, 915-6 Gantry girder, 497, 506-12, 528
Glazing purlin, 502
D Lacings, 518, 521
Purlins, 501-2
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS AND Roof truss,502-5
GIRDERS Side and gable rails, 512-4
Area-moment method (Mohr’s theorem),
Stanchions
85-91 corner, 528-9
Built-in beams (see Fixed beams, below)
main, 499, 514-21
Cantilevers,
side, 516-8, 519-21
29-30
charts,
Valley beams, 506
Compound girders with curtailed flange Vertical bracing, 523-4
plates, 103-6
Wind loading, 498-501
formulae, 104
EULER, 811
Continuous beams,
Load on columns, 811
worked example, 97-100
Fixed beams, 92-7 F
charts, 43-9 FIRE PROTECTION AND
worked examples, 93 STRUCTURAL CASING, 917-8
Gantry girders
FIRE-RESISTING CONSTRUCTION
worked example, 511-2 935-71
Mathematical (slope-deflection) method Bibliography, 970-1
83-4
Building legislation, current, 939-63
Propped cantilevers, 100-2
history and development, 936-8
charts, 72-9 Building Regulations 1972, Part E, 939-57
worked examples, 68-71
compartments, 944-7
Simple cantilevered beams, 91-2
charts, 31-8
external walls, 954-7
worked example, 83-4
interpretation, 939-42
measurement, 944
 INDEX 1083

I B M. BUILDING, Pittsburgh, USA, 861 JOINTS IN RIGID FRAMES {cont.)

Splice connections, 788

indeterminate structures Stiffeners, 775
M oment distribution, 225-7 Stress function. Airy, 768
INDUSTRIAL BUILDING FRAME, Stresses
210-6
flange, 767, 786
INERTIA .
and greatest shear, 169 -IQ
principal
(see Moments of Inertia; Geometrical
Properties of Sections) shear, 772—3
INFLUENCE LINES, 155-94 tensile, 786
web, 767
Beams
172—6 Valley joints, 787-8
built-in,
continuous, 176-94
Vierendeel, Professor, 780, 793
charts, 180-90
Vierendeel girders, 793-6
notes on charts, 179 formulae, 780—1
simply supported, 155-64 Winkler, 775-7
point loads, 155—9 Worked examples, 770-3, 782-7
uniformly distributed loads, Wright, D. T., 770
159-64 JOISTS
Definition, 155 Dimensions and properties, 1030-3
Framed structures, 164—72 Castellated, 1072-3
lattice girder with K-bracing, 172-4
Pratt or N-truss examples, 166-8
K
JETTIES, 642
KLEINLOGEL, Professor
Extracts from “Rahmenformeln”, 299,
JOINTS IN RIGID FRAMES, 765-97
305-44
Bibliography, 796-7
Bleich, F.,781
KNEE-BRACED FRAMES, 125-32
Avoiding moments on foundations,
Bleich, H. H., 778, 781, 786
Campus, Professor, 777
429-30
Circular sections, 783-5
Flange stresses, 786
Formulae
Bleich, F.,781
Bleich, H. H., 778, 781, 786 LATTICE FRAMES, 762
Campus, 777 LATTICE GIRDERS, 433-40
Magnel, 778 Influence lines, K-braced, 173-4
Olander, 782, 784-5 Ridges of multi-span roofs, 433-5
Osgood, 768-9, 781 Space structures, in, 446-50
tapered beam, 780-1 Stress coefficients, 435-40
Vierendeel, 780-1 LATYMER COURT, xi
Winkler-Resal, 775-7 LOADS
Wright, D.T., 770 Axial, in plastic design, 547-8
Knees Euler, 811
curved flanges, 773, 775-87 Factors, in plastic design, 535-6
haunches, 773
Interpanel, on frames and Vierendeel
pitched roofs, 775
girders, 267-9
Magnel, Professor, 778, 795-6 Repeated, in plastic design, 578-9
Multi-storey buildings, 789-93
Olander, H. C., 782, 784-5
Osgood, W. R., 768-9,781
Portal, 779
Portal frame,
M
783
rectangular, American research
on, MAIHAK ACOUSTIC GAUGE, xi
768-73 MANEY, Professor, 195
frames for, 765-7 MARINE STRUCTURES, 641-3
with pitched roof, 773
MECHANICAL BLAST CLEANING, 801
Resal, 775-7 METAL COATINGS AND SPRAYING,
Ridge joints, 775
804-5
Sections, circular, 783-5 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES, 973-1075
1084 INDEX
MODULUS OF SECTION N
(see Section Modulus)
MOHR NAYLOR, N., 256, 268
Area-moment method, 85, 195 NEUTRAL AXIS, LOCATION OF,
Williot-Mohr diagrams,148—54 11-15
MOMENT DISTRIBUTION, 225-75 NORTH-LIGHT ROOF
Cantilever ends, 232 Design, 452—8
Continuous beams, 227—34 N-TRUSS, 170-2
Fixed-end moments (F.E.Ms) Influence lines examples, 166—8
charts for various conditions, 271—5
Frames
interpanel loading, 268 O
non-prismatic columns, with, 263-6
multi-storey, 255—6 OVERHEAD CRANES
pitched roofs, 244-55 Gantry girders, 497, 506-12
portal, 234-43, 259-61
dimensions and properties, 1074-5
symmetrical, 256—9
unsymmetrical vertical loads, 270 P
Loading, interpanel, 267-8
Naylor’s method, 256-9, 268
PARABOLA
Portal frames, 234—43, 259-61 Properties of, 95
Principles, 225-7 PATENT GLAZING, 903-8
Side loading on symmetrical frames, PERFORATED GALVANISED SHEET,
256-9 888
Side-sway
definition, 234
PERRY-ROBERTSON FORMULA,
811-2
relative movement of joints, 241—2
treatment of, 236, 239, 241
PICKLING, 799-800
PILES, STEEL, 639-43
Sign convention, 225
Aden Oil Harbour, 642
Stiffness factor, definitions, 226, 236,
640-1
Bearing,
255-6
Unsymmetrical vertical loads, 270
minimum spacing of, 640
Corrosion resistance, 642, 643
Vierendeel girders, 267
Kwinana jetty, 642
MOMENTS OF INERTIA Marine structures, 641-3
Circle of inertia, 13-15
Sheet, 639-40
Common plane sections, 998-1000
Universal bearing, dimensions and
Conversion tables, 973
686-7 properties, 1001-10, 1064-5
Flanges,
Plate girders, 681 -99 PITCHED ROOF RIGID FRAMES,
244-55
calculation method, 681
Plastic design, 565-76
Tables
box piling, 1003-5, 1009 PLANE FRAMES
equal angles, 1036—41, 1050—1 (see Forces in)

four equal angles (in plate girders), PLANE SECTIONS

690-1 Geometrical properties, 998—1000
four unequal angles (in plate girders), PLASTIC COATING, 888
692-9 PLASTIC THEORY AND DESIGN,
foundation columns, 1010 531-83
plane sections, 998-1000 Axial load, 547-8
682-5
plate girders, Basis of theory, 533-4
682-5
rectangular plates, Bibliography, 531
unequal angles, 1042—9, 1052—3 Column design, 577-8
unit areas Connections, 579—80
second moment of a pair, 688-9 Continuous beams, 542—4
universal beams, 1012—5 Deflections, 576—7
universal columns, 1024-5 Equilibrium, 538, 540—1, 558, 570
MULLER-BRESLAU, H.F.B., 85 Fixed base rectangular frame, 560-5
MULTI-STOREY RIGID FRAMES, Flange stability, 549—53
255-6,262 Frame analysis, 553-7
Stanchions, 809—46 Full plastic moments, 545-6
Wind moment connection, 726-31 Load factors, 535—6
 ,

1085
INDEX
plastic THEORY AND DESIGN (conL)
RADIUS OF GYRATION {cont.)
Steel sections
Plastic moduli of sections
angles
joists, 1030-1
equal, 1036—41, 1050—1
universal beams, 1016-9
universal columns, 1026-7
unequal, 1042-9, 1052—3
castellated universal beams, 1066-9
Portal frames, 553-7
channels, 1034—5
pitched roof, 565-76
532 pUing, 1001-10, 1064-5
Principles,
Redundant beams, 536-40 T-bars and structural tees, 1054-63
Repeated loading, 578-9 RECIPROCAL THEOREM, 195-7
Shear, 548-9 REINFORCED CONCRETE
Single span, slenderness ratio, 578 Encasement of stanchions, 822—42
Universal beams and columns, tables, Floor slabs in composite construction,
581 588-9
Upper and lower bounds, 540-2 Foundations, 625—38
Virtual work, 557-60 RIGID FRAMES
PLATES (see also Deflection of Rigid Frames;
(see Floor plates) Joints in Rigid Frame Structures;
PLATE GIRDERS Moment Distribution; Plastic Theory;
(see Girders and Moments of Inertia) Semi-Graphical Integration; Slope
POCKET BASES, 636-8 Deflection)
PORTAL ARCH, 132-4 Analysis by computer, 928-33
PORTAL FRAMES Joints, 765—97
Area-moment method of design, 200-10 Kleinlogel formulae explained, 299-301
Asymmetrical, slope-deflection design, arrangement, 302
284-8 checking of calculations, 303-4
Deflection of eaves joints, 203 -4 sign conventions, 302-3
Moment distribution, 234-43, 259-61 Knees
Pitched roof, plastic design, 565-76 for rectangular frames, 765-7
Plastic design analysis, 553-7 for rigid frames with pitched roofs,
Single-bay, 259-61 773-5
Single storey sheds, 433-5 with curved flanges, 775-87
Snow load, 203 Plastic design, 553-7
Symmetrical, slope deflection design, Slopes and deflections, 289—97
283-4 Symmetrical loads conversion coefficients,
Wind loading, 205-10 3
PRAGUE THEATRE RIGID FRAMES: CHARTS
Space structure, 480-1 Single-bay rectangular
PRATT TRUSS fixed base, 345—51
Influence line examples, 166-8 hinged base, 380-3
PRE-PAINTED SHEET, 888 Single-bay ridged (pitch 1 in 5)
PRINCIPAL AXES, 3 fixed base, 352-65
(see also Geometrical Properties of hinged base, 384-90
Sections) Single-bay ridged (pitch 1 in 25)
Bending about, 8-11 fixed base, 366-79
PRODUCT OF INERTIA hinged base, 391-7
(see Geometrical Properties of Sections)
Twin-bay ridged (pitch 1 in 25)
PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS hinged base, 398-411
(see Section Tables)
RIGID FRAMES: KLEINLOGEL
PROPPED CANTILEVERS
(see Cantilevers,
FORMULAE
Propped) Rectangular portal frame
PURE TE^NSION OR COMPRESSION,
hingeless, 305-8
two-hinged, 309-12
Ridged frame with vertical legs
hingeless, 313-7
R two-hinged, 318-22
Skew-cornered frame
RADIUS OF GYRATION hingeless, 323-6
Plane sections, geometrical properties two-hinged, 327-9
of
998-1000 Triangular frame with hinged feet, 330-1
1086 INDEX
RIGID FRAMES: KLEINOGEL SECTION TABLES {cont.)
FORMULAE (cont.) 1064—5
bearing piles,
Twin-ridged frame with hinged feet, columns, 1024-9
332-44 SEMI-GRAPHICAL INTEGRATION, 195
RISSELADA, 642 SHEAR CONNECTORS
RIVETS AND BOLTS Composite construction, in, 592-5
(see also Connections) 601-10
Pitch in plate girders, 665 SHEAR FORCE (S.F.)
Shearing and bearing values, spacing, Definition, 17
702-10 Diagrams, 22—38
Tables, 702-10 Plastic design, 548—9
ROBERTSON, Andrew, x Relationship with loading and B.M.,
ROOF TRUSSES 3-7, 17-20
Engineering workshop, design, 502—5
SHEAR WALLS
Welded connections, 761—4
Stabilising multi-storey frameworks,
ROOFING AND CLADDING, 887-902
809
British Standards and advisory literature,
902
SHEDS, SINGLE-STOREY
(see Single-Storey Sheds)
Corrugated sheets, 889-94
Endlaps, 895
SHEET PILING, 639-40
Dimensions and properties, 1001-2, 1005-9
Fastenings and fittings, 897—9
Galvanised coating, 887, 901 SHELL TOWER, London, 857
Maintenance, 901—2 SIDE LOADING ON SYMMETRICAL
Pitch to ensure weather-tightness, 893—4 FRAMES, 256-9
Protection, 887-90 SIDE-SWAY
Sidelaps, 894-5 (see Moment Distribution)
Strength, 891 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS, 17-38
Supports, spacing of, 892 Charts for B . M . , S F and deflection,
. .

Thermal insulation, 900—1 31-8

Weights, 895 SIMPSON’S RULE
ROOFS, PITCHED Application finding areas and centres
Frame moment distribution, 244—55 of gravity, 21-2
ROUGHNESS OF STEEL SURFACE, Definition, 21
803-4
SINGLE-STOREY, SHEDS, 429-40
Bracing details, 433
S Charts, 437—40
Flat-roofed, 435
SEAGRAM BUILDING, New York, 855
Framing, 429—40
SECTION MODULUS (Z) Gable frames, 431
Conversion tables, 973
Multi-span ridged, 433—5
Geometrical sections, 998-1000
Portal frame construction, 432
Steel sections (see Section Tables)
Single-span, 429-32
SECTION TABLES knee-braced trusses, 430
Angles
stanchions with fixed bases, 429—30
backmarks in, 710
Stress coefficients
equal, 1036-41, 1050-1,
lattice girders, 435-40
unequal, 1042-9, 1052-3
roof trusses, 429-30
Broad-flange beams (see Universal
shallow pitch, 431
Columns)
Castellated sections, 1066-73
SLAB BASES, 617-23
Channels, 1034-5 SLENDERNESS RATIO
Common plane sections, 998—1000 Angle struts, 487
Gantry girders, 1074—5
Columns in plastic design, 578
Joists, 1030-3 Definition, 812
Sheet and box piling, 1001-10, SLOPE
T’s, 1054-7 (see also Deflection of Rigid Frames)
cut from Universal beams, 1058—61 Rigid frames, 289—97
cut from Universal columns, 1062—3 SLOPE-DEFLECTION METHOD OF
Universal ANALYSIS, 276-88
beams, 1012-23 Continuous beams, 277—83
1088 INDEX
U WELDING {com.)
Weld groups
UNIVERSAL BEAMS, COLUMNS, in plane of force, 745—8
BEARING PILES, 1012-29, not in plane of force, 743—4
1064-5 WILLIOT AND WILLIOT-MOHR
T-bars cut from, 1058—63 DIAGRAMS, 144-54, 863
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING, 3 WILSON, Professor, 195
UNSYMMETRICAL SECTIONS WIND MOMENT ON CONNECTIONS,
Deflection, 15-16 723-31
UNSYMMETRICAL VERTICAL WIND ON MULTI-STOREY
LOADS ON RIGID FRAMES,
270
BUILDINGS, 847-67
Albany Flats, Bournemouth, 859-61
V Bibliography, 865—7
Braced frames, 854—8
VAULTS Brickwork, 863
Braced construction, 472-7 Cantilever method of design, 850
VIERENDEEL GIRDERS, 413-28 Casing, solid, stiffening effect, 863
Computer analysis, 419—20 Continuous portal method of design, 850
Moment distribution, 267 Cooperative Insurance Society building,
Statically determinated analysis, 416 Manchester, 861
VIRTUAL WORK, 557-60 CP3, 847
VITREOUS ENAMEL COATING, 888 Curtain walling, 862
Deflection, 863
lateral, 863
w Design wind speed, factors, 847
I.B.M. building, Pittsburgh, 861
WALKWAYS, 909 Methods of design, 852-63
WALLS, 911-20 Mixed or composite construction,
Bricks for single storey buildings, 911 859-61
Cavity walls, 915 Moment connection, 723-31
CP 111: 1970,911 Portal method of design, 850
Curtain walling, 915 Precast concrete floors, 855
Design, 911 Rigid frame design, 853-4
916
Insulation, 854
Rigid, fully, design,

919
Jointing, 915, Seagram building. New York, 855
Model Byelaws (1953), 911 Shell Tower, London, 857

Pier or buttress, definition, 914 Side sway, 862-4

Precast concrete panels, 916 Thyssen Hochhaus, Diisseldorf, 856
Total horizontal force, 847
WARPING, 114-5
WARREN GIRDER, 139-42 WIND ON SINGLE STOREY SHEDS
Influence lines examples, 165 Engineering workshop, 498—501
WEB PLATES Knee-braced frames, 125-32
(see Girders) Multi-storey rigid frame connections,

WELDING, 739-64 726-31

Base for stanchion, 760-1 Portal frames, 205-10
Brackets, 754—7 WINDOWS, STEEL, 903-9
Butt welds, 740, 741-2, 883, 884 Condensation, 906
Compound girder calculations, 645-9 Fixing to steelwork, 904
Connections, 749—54 Glass, varieties of, 909
Electrodes, 740 Lead flashings, 903, 909
Fillet welds, 740, 741-2, 883, 884 Mid-roof and north-light glazing, 905-6
Nomenclature, 883 Minimum slopes, 903—5
Plate girder calculations, 645—60 Patent glazing, 903-8
Practice, 883—6 double, 906
Roof trusses, 761-4 vertical, 906-7
Seating cleats, 757—8 Rainwater, 903
Stresses, 769-70 Ventilation, 908
Symbols, 886 Walkways, 909
Types of weld, 884-5 Weight per m^ 908 ,
 INDEX 1089

WINKLER-RESAL formula, 775-7 z

WORK
Principal of, 135 Z-BEAMS, CASTELLATED, 1072-3
Virtud, 557-60 Z-POLYGONS, 3-5
WORKSHOPS ZINC COATING AND SPRAYING,
(see Engineering Workshop Design) 805-6