MODEM

• Modem is abbreviation for modulator-demodulator.

• Modems are used for data transfer from one computer network to
another computer network through telephone lines.
• The computer network works in digital mode while analog technology
is used for carrying messages across phone lines.
• Modulator converts information from digital mode to analog mode at
the transmitting end and demodulator converts the same from analog
to digital at receiving end.
Types of Modem
• Modems can be several types and they can be categorised in a
number of ways. Categorization is usually based on the following
basic modem features.
1. Directional Capacity : Half duplex and full duplex
2. Transmission medium: Asynchronous modem and synchronous
modem
Half Duplex and Full Duplex Modems
• Half Duplex : A duplex modem permits transmission in one direction
at a time. If a carrier is detected on the line by the modem, it gives an
indication of the incoming carrier to the receiver through a control
signal of its digital interface.
• Full duplex : A full duplex modem allows simultaneous transmission
in both the directions. Therefore there are two carriers on the line
one outgoing and other is incoming.
Asynchronous and Synchronous Modems
1. Asynchronous Modem: Asynchronous modems can handle databytes
with start and stop bits. There is no separate timing signal or clock
between the modem and the DTE the internal timing pulses are
synchronised repeatedly to the leading edge of the start pulse.
2. Synchronous modem : Synchronous modems can handle a
continuous stream of data bits but requires a clock signal. The data
bits are always synchronised to the clock signal. There are separate
clocks for the data bits being transmitted and received. For
synchronous transmission of data bits, the DTE can use its internal
clock and supply the same to the modem.
Modulation Techniques used for Modem
• The basic modulation Techniques used by a modem to convert digital
data to analog signals are,
1. Amplitude Shift Keying(ASK)
2. Frequency Shift Keying(FSK)
3. Phase shift Keying(PSK)
4. Differential PSK
Error Detection and Error
correction
What is an Error?
An error is the change or the mismatching take place
between the data unit sent by transmitter and the data unit
received by the receiver.

Ex: 10101010 sent by sender 10101011 received by

receiver.

Here is an error of 1 bit.

Types of Errors:
1) Single bit error
2) Burst error
Single Bit Error
• The term single means that only 1 bit of a given data unit (such
as a byte, character, or packet) is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0
to 1.
• Single- bit errors are the least likely type of error in serial data
transmission.
Burst Error
• The term burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data
unit have changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.
• A burst error is more likely to occur than a single-bit error.
• The duration of noise is normally longer than the duration
of 1 bit, which means that when noise affects data, it affects
a set of bits.
• The number of bits affected depends on the data rate and
duration of noise.
ERROR DETECTION
Error control refers to mechanisms to detect and correct errors
that occur in the transmission of frames. Error detection uses the
concept of redundancy, which means adding extra bits for
detecting errors at the destination.

There are 4 types of redundancy checks are common in data

communication:
(a) Parity check
(b) Two dimensional parity check
(c) Checksum.
(d) Cyclic Redundancy check (CRC)
Parity Checking
• Parity checking is simplest and the oldest error detection method.
• The simplest code is single parity check code.
• In this method, one extra bit is used as a check bit. It takes ‘k’
information bits and appends a single check bit to form a
codeword(k+1) bits.
• The parity bit is calculated at the transmitter to make sure that the total
number of bits, including the added parity bits, has an even number of
1’s(for even parity) or an odd number of 1’s(for odd parity) depending
upon the parity check agreed by sender and the receiver.

• Eg: Suppose we want to transmit the binary data unit 1100001

Advantages of parity checking
1. It is very low in cost and simple to implement with digital circuitry.
2. It provides a quick check of the correctness of the data.

Disadvantages of parity checking

1. It costs 1 bit for every group of data bits.
2. It can indicate only odd numbers of errors.
Two Dimensional Parity Check
• When a large amount of data is to be transmitted two dimensional
parity checks can be employed.
• A message consisting of n characters with 8 bits per character will
now become n+1 character with 9 bits per character and is
transmitted.
 Two Dimensional Parity Check
• In this approach a block of bits is organized in a table (rows and
columns).
• First we calculate the parity bit for each data unit.
• Then we organize them into table. Shows in fig we have four data
units shown in four rows and eight columns.
• We then calculate the parity bit for each column and create a new
row of 8 bits.
• They are the parity bits for the whole block.
• The first parity bit in the fifth row is calculated based on all first bits;
the second parity bit is calculated based on all second bits, and so on.
• We then attach the 8 parity bits to the original data and sent them to
the receiver.
Checksum
• A Checksum is an error detection technique based on the concept of redundancy.
• In checksum error detection scheme, a checksum is transmitted along with every
block of data bytes.
• A checksum is basically calculated summary of data portion.
• It is divided into two parts:
• Checksum Generator
• Checksum checker
 This algorithm is implemented as:
• Checksum Generator
The Sender follows the given steps:
1. The block unit is divided into k sections, and each of n bits.
2. All the k sections are added together by using one's complement to get the sum.
3. The sum is complemented and it becomes the checksum field.
4. The original data and checksum field are sent across the network.

• Checksum Checker
1. The block unit is divided into k sections and each of n bits.
2. All the k sections are added together by using one's complement algorithm to get the sum.
3. The sum is complemented.
4. If the result of the sum is zero, then the data is accepted otherwise the data is discarded.
Cyclic Redundancy Check(CRC)
Polynomial
• A pattern of 0’s and 1’s can be represented as a polynomial with
coefficients of 0 and 1. The power of each term shows the position of
the bit; the coefficient shows the value of the bit. Below figure shows
a binary pattern and its polynomial representation.
Data word to be sent - 100100
Key - 1101 [ Or generator polynomial x3 + x2 + 1]
Error correction Code
• The techniques that we have discussed so far can only detect errors, but
cannot correct them.
• Error correction can be handled in two ways
1. one is when an error is discovered, the receiver can ask the sender to
transmit the entire data unit. this is known as backward error correction
2. in the second method receiver can use an error correcting cod, which
automatically correct certain errors. this is called forward error correction.
Example: Hamming code
• Error correcting codes are more sophisticated than error detecting codes
and require more redundant bits. The number of bits required to correct
multiple bit or burst error is so high that in most of the cases it is inefficient
to do so. for this reason most error correction is limited to one,two 2 or at
the most three bit errors.
Hamming Code
• Hamming codes are error correction course that are widely used in
reliable communications. The code is named after its inventor R.
Hamming. The code uses yah number off parity bits located at certain
position in the codeword.
• Redundant bits – Redundant bits are extra binary bits that are
generated and added to the information-carrying bits of data transfer
to ensure that no bits were lost during the data transfer.
• Calculating the Hamming Code
1. All the positions in the code word that are powers of 2 (i.e., positions 1,
2, 4, 8….) Are for parity bits P1, P2, P3, P4
2. The rest of the positions (i.e., positions 3, 5, 7, 9….) are for messages bits
M1, M2, M3, and M4.
3. Construct bit location table as shown below.
Bit
D7 D6 D5 P4 D3 D2 D1
Designation
Bit Location 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Binary
Location 111 110 101 100 011 010 001
Number
Assignment of P1:
• The binary location number of Parity bit P1 has a 1 for its right most digit.
• Therefore parity bit P1 checks bit locations 1,3,5,and 7 and assigns value 0 or 1
according to even or odd parity.
Assignment of P2:
• The binary location number of Parity bit P2 has a 1 for its middle bit digit.
• Therefore parity bit P2 checks bit locations 2, 3, 6, and 7 and assigns value 0 or 1
according to even or odd parity. Assignment of P4:
• The binary location number of Parity bit P4 has a 1 for its left most digit.
• Therefore parity bit P4 checks bit locations 4, 5, 6,and 7 and assigns value 0 or 1
according to even or odd parity.
• Correcting Error:
• Once hamming code is constructed for the given information bits, it is
sent to the receiver.
• At the receiver side , each parity bit , along with its corresponding
group of bits is checked for proper parity.
• The correct parity of individual parity check is marked as „0‟ whereas
wrong result is marked as „1‟.
• This word gives bit locations where error has occurred.
• If word has all bits „0‟ then there is no error in the hamming code.
• Ex: REFER CLASS NOTES
 Multiplexing
• Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals across a single data link.
• The lines on the left direct their transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which
combines them into a single stream (many-to-one).
• At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a de-multiplexer (DEMUX), which separates
the stream back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and directs them to
their corresponding lines.
 Multiplexing techniques
There are three basic multiplexing techniques:
• frequency-division multiplexing
• wavelength-division multiplexing
• Time-division multiplexing.
The first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the third, for digital signals.
Multiplexing Techniques

• Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be

applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined
bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted.
• Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate
capability of fiber-optic cable.
• Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several
connections to share the high bandwidth of a link Instead of sharing a portion of
the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
• In analog transmission, signals are commonly multiplexed using
frequency division multiplexing
• In FDM the available bandwidth of a communication channel is shared
among multiple user
• The carrier bandwidth is divided into sub channels of different
frequency width and each sub channel is allocated to the user
• Signals generated by each user are modulated into different carrier
frequencies and are then combined into a single composite signals can
be transported by the link
• Channel are separated strips of unused bandwidth called guard bands
to prevent signals from overlapping
• FDM is extensively used in broadcast radio and cable television.
Advantages of FDM
• Here user can be added to the system by simply adding another pair of
transmitter modulator and receiver demodulators.
• FDM system support full duplex information flow.
• Noise problem for analog communication has lesser effect.
Disadvantages of FDM
• In FDM system the initial cost is high. This may include the cable
between the two ends and the associated connectors for the cable.
• In FDM system, a problem from one user can sometime affect others.
• In FDM system, each user requires a precise carrier frequency
Time Division Multiplexing
• In digital transmission, signals are commonly multiplexed using time-
division multiplexing (TDM).
• In TDM the multiple signals are carried over the same channel in
alternating time slots.
• Each user of channel is allotted a small time interval by dividing the
total time available in the channel. During this time interval the user
can transmit the message.
• In TDM, user send message one after the and use full channel
bandwidth of channel during his time slice.
• The message sent through the physical channel must be separated at
the receiving end. Individual chunks of message sent by each user
should be reassembled into a full message.
Advantages of TDM
• It uses a single link.
• It does not require carrier matching at both end of the links.
• Use of capacity is high.
• There is no need to include identification of the traffic stream on each
packet.
Disadvantages of TDM
• Initial cost is high.
• Technical complexity is more
• TDM can only be used for digital data multiplexing.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
• WDM is a technology that closely resembles FDM, but here several light
signals of different frequencies are combined into one single light signal
at the multiplexer and sent at the same time through the optical fiber.
• One of the applications of WDM is SONET.
SONET/SDH (Synchronous Optical Networking / Synchronous
Digital Hierarchy)
• SONET is a synchronous TDM system controlled by a master clock.
• Synchronous: A single clock is used to handle the timing of transmission
and equipment across the entire network.
• It was intended to provide a specification for taking advantage of high
speed digital transmission capability of optical fiber.
• SONET uses 51.84 Mbps electrical signal known as the synchronous
transport signal level1(STS-1).
• Each STS level (STS-1 to STS-192) supports a certain data rate, specified
in megabits per second.
• The physical links defined to carry each level of STS are called optical
carriers (OCs). o Lower rate STS s can be multiplexed to make them
compatible with higher rate systems.
• Ex: Three STS-1 s can be combined into one STS-3 as shown in fig.