Frequency Synthesis

Patricia Desgreys
ICS905 - FARE
M2 « Integration Circuits & Systems »

IP Paris – TELECOM Paris

COMELEC – LTCI
19, place Marguerite Perey 91120 Palaiseau
http://www.comelec.enst.fr/
Summary

Digital Transceiver RF Front-end

RF oscillators

PLLs

Indirect frequency synthesis

ICS, UE AMS&RF Functions . October 10, 2023 . Page 2

Transceiver chain
Anti-Aliasing Filter

LPF ADC I
Band selection

BPF LNA

Digital Processing
LPF ADC Q

Frequency
90°
Synthesis

DAC Q
æ pö
VBB cos ç w BB t + ÷
è 2ø
PA BPF VLO cos (w LO t )

VBBVLO cos ( (w LO - w BB ) t ) VBB cos (w BB t )

DAC I

Direct conversion transceiver SSB

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 Single-Side Band Transceiver
VLO
carrier VB
(VA + VB ) cos (w BB t )
2
LPF
VA

VLO æ æ pö æ p öö
w LO - w BB w LO + w BB ç VA cos ç w BB t + ÷ + VB cos ç w BB t - ÷ ÷
2 è è 2ø è 2 øø

LPF -90°

Frequency VLO
Synthesis
+90°
2
(VA cos (w BB t ) - VB cos (w BB t ) )

Signal SSB Recovery VLOVA cos (w BB t )

RF frequency synthesis: RF oscillator, PLL

f LO = f 0 + k f ch Chanel selection
Mixer converts signal band around carrier frequency down to DC (baseband)
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 Key functions

Almost all the functions are implemented in digital signals :

Coding/decoding
Modulation/demodulation (amplitude, frequency or phase)
Pulses shaping (raised cosine filtering)

A few analog functions remain unavoidable :

• LNA, Mixers
• Power amplifiers
• Filters
• ADC & DAC

• RF oscillators
• PLLs
• Frequency synthesizers

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Frequency synthesizer

The “black box” view of a frequency synthesizer is a block getting a very

stable reference frequency (usually provided by quartz oscillator) and
delivering a set of frequencies between Fmin and Fmax with a resolution of Df :

Fcw
n
Fmax

Fref Frequency
Fo=Fcw . Fref
Synthesizer Df
Fmin

The frequency range [Fmin, Fmax] and the resolution Df are synthesizer fundamental
specifications which depend on the application.

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Main specifications

Frequency range
Resolution
Accuracy
Settling time
Reference frequency
Spurs
Power consumption
Temperature stability
Phase noise

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Summary

Digital Transceiver RF Font-end

RF oscillators

PLLs

Indirect frequency synthesis

ICS, UE AMS&RF Functions . October 10, 2023 . Page 8

 RF oscillators - Introduction

An oscillator must provide a self-sustaining periodic signal

ve vs
S H
H ( jw )
Vs = Ve
1 - G ( jw ) H ( jw )
G
ì G ( jw0 ) H ( jw0 ) = 1
ï
Positive feedback system Barkhausen criterion í
ïîarg {G ( jw0 ) H ( jw0 )} = 0

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 RF oscillators – Output waveform

M1 M2 Mixer good behavior is favored if the

oscillator Vout waveform of the local oscillator (LO)
exhibits abrupt transitions and if the duty
cycle is equal to 50%
Input stage of an active CMOS mixer

Ideal waveform = Square wave signal

Vout

Large amplitude wave

Switching
range of M1 Differential topology for duty
and M2
cycle of 50%

Approximation of a square wave signal

with a large amplitude sinusoid

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 RF oscillators – Frequency selection

ve vs
S
The system oscillations frequency is
determined by the characteristics of the
selective circuit.

Frequency selective network or resonator

1 C1 C1 + C2
C L w= L w0 =
LC LC1C2
X C2

T1 T1
2
1 æ C1 ö
gm ç1 + ÷
è C2 ø
gm

Direct return from Colpitts oscillator

collector to emitter ICS, UE AMS&RF Functions . October 10, 2023 . Page 11
RF oscillators – LC Architecture

C1
L

X C2

T1

Colpitts oscillator
CMOS differential architecture

Pros : High quality factor Pros : High quality factor

One single inductor Differential output

Cons : Large ratio C1/C2 Cons : Matching of the two LC cells

One terminal output

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Voltage Controlled RF oscillators (VCO)

Need to obtain an adjustable frequency RF oscillation for

channel selection : f = f +k f
LO 0 ch

Frequency value controlled by a voltage

LC VCO

Cvar C0
C L L Cvar (Vcom ) = 1
Vcom
æ Vcom ö2
C2 ç1 - ÷
ç Vdiff ÷
è ø
Cvar

Vcom Use of a varicap diode in the LC cell

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Voltage Controlled RF oscillators (VCO)

VCO mathematical model

dF
w LO = w FR + KVCOVcom =
dt
(
X ( t ) = VLO cos ( F ) = VLO cos w FR t + KVCO ò Vcom dt )
If the control voltage is constant, the frequency is shifted by KVCOVcom
Vcom = V0
X ( t ) = VLO cos ( (w FR + KVCOV0 ) t + f0 )

The VCO is a frequency modulator

Vcom = Vm cos (w m t )
æ K ö
X ( t ) = VLO cos ç w FR t + VCO Vm sin (w m t ) ÷ Rejection of the control voltage
è wm ø HF components

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RF oscillators – Phase noise

Origin : internal noise of components constituting the oscillator

example : amplifier thermal noise (use of a single transistor to minimize)

Main effect : Random deviation of output wave frequency

X ( t ) = VLO cos (w LO t + F n ( t ) ) Fn(t) : phase noise

si F n ( t ) << 1 , X ( t ) » VLO {cos (w LO t ) - F n ( t ) sin (w LO t )}

Frequency domain characterization for RF applications :

Ideal spectrum Real spectrum

æ P ö
Dw L ( Dw ) = 10 log ç n ÷ [ dBc / Hz ]
è PLO ø

wLO wLO
1Hz frequency band

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Spectral characterization

Thus, because of the different noise sources (thermal, 1/f…) the Power Spectral
Density (PSD) spreads around f0

Example (DECT standard) : -97dBc/Hz @ 1,8 MHz

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Phase noise and Jitter

Phase noise and jitter are two manifestations of an unique phenomena : random
fluctuations of the oscillator period.

Phase noise is associated to spectral representation whereas jitter is associated to

time representation of these fluctuations

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Phase noise – Reciprocal mixing
Channel selection HF signal Ideal oscillator
of interest

frequency
wLO

Channel selection Blocker HF signal Actual oscillator

of interest

frequency
wLO

Addition of noise during down-conversion to reception

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 Phase noise – Specification example
Real spectrum of the transmitter Calculation of a phase noise specification
for the RF oscillator :

Bandwidth of interest : fH - fL = 30 kHz

Assumption : Sn(Df) is constant in this band
Sn ( Df ) = S0 [dBc / Hz ]
w1 w2 w What is the maximum value of S0 that guarantees an
Adding noise during up-conversion SNR in the channel of interest greater than 15 dB?
to transmission

PB
Sn(f)

Spurious signal
HF channel
of interest
60 dB

PS
?
fL fH f

Df = 60 kHz
ICS, UE AMS&RF Functions . October 10, 2023 . Page 19
Summary

Digital Transceiver RF Font-end

RF oscillators

PLLs

Indirect frequency synthesis

ICS, UE AMS&RF Functions . October 10, 2023 . Page 20

 PLL – Presentation
Phase Vout Low-pass Vcom
x(t) VCO y(t)
detector Filter

DF = F x - F y
(
y ( t ) = VLO cos w FR t + F y )
Vcom = K DP DF ò
F y = KVCO Vcom dt
Basic Phase Locked Loop

The loop is locked when DF is constant,

x(t)
which corresponds to the equality of the
input and output frequencies.
y(t)
Df w y = w FR + KVCOVcom = w x
Vout Vcom w - w FR
DF = = x
K DP K DP × KVCO
Vcom

PLL waveforms The frequency are exactly equal !

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 PLL – Dynamic behavior
Vout Vcom KVCO
fx K DP GLPF ( p ) fy
p

F y ( p) K GLPF ( p )
Closed loop transfer function: H ( p) = = avec K = K DP KVCO
Fx ( p) p + K GLPF ( p )

1
with first order low-pass filter: GLPF ( p ) = , we obtain a classical second order system:
p
1+
w LPF
w n2
wx Dw H ( p) = 2
p + 2zw n p + w n2
avec w n = w LPF K
wy Dw
1 w LPF
et z =
2 K
Dw
K
DF

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 Charge Pump PLL
I1
QX
S1
Vout
x(t) PFD VCO y(t)
QY
S2 CP Architecture with 3-state
phase/frequency detector and
I2 charge pump circuit
I1 = I 2 = I

x(t)
Waveforms in CPPLL
with wx> wy in closed loop :
y(t)
Vout cons tan t
Df
QX w y = w FR + KVCOVout = w x
DF = F x - F y = 0
QX = QY = 0
Vout
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 Charge Pump PLL
Assuming that the bandwidth of the loop is much lower than the input frequency:

K PFD Vout KVCO

fx fy
p I p
K PFD = F y ( p) K
2p C p H ( p) = = avec K = K PFD KVCO
Fx ( p) p2 + K

Main difference : two poles at zero in open loop

Pros : Maximum extension of the capture range,

Increase of the locking speed,
Zero static phase error (if ideal circuits).

Cons : Instability issue

Vout Vout Vout

CP CP CP
C
R ‘ripple’ ± 2RI R
RC p 3rd order !
z =0 z = K
2
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 CPPLL – Input phase noise filtering
Transfer function of a second-order CPPLL with a stabilization zero :

Vout F y ( p) w n2 æç1 + p w ö÷
æ 1ö KVCO
= 2 è
zø
fx K PFD ç RC p + ÷ fy H ( p) =
è pø p F x ( p ) p + 2zw n p + w n2
ìw n2 = K = K PFD KVCO
ï
avec í 1
ïîw z = RC p
Fy
log
Fx

0 F x = f0 + F n ( t ) Fn(t) : phase noise

F y = f0 + F out ( t )

Slow variations of the phase

noise are reproduced at the output.

w
HF noise is eliminated at the
w p1 wz w p2
output.

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 CPPLL – VCO phase noise filtering
fVCO

æ 1ö Vout KVCO
fx = 0 K PFD ç RC p + ÷ fy
è pø p F y ( p) p2
=
FVCO ( p ) p 2 + 2zw n p + w n2

Fy
log
FVCO

0 FVCO = F n ( t ) Fn(t) : phase noise

F y = F out ( t )

The transfer function is a high-

pass filtering

An increase in the bandwidth of

w p1 w p2 w the PLL decreases the phase noise
of the VCO
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 PLL – Applications
RF signal demodulation
Demodulated output
m
Vcom = cos (w m t )
Phase Low-pass KVCO
FM signal x(t) VCO y(t)
detector Filter
x ( t ) = Vx cos (w FR t + F )
F = m ò a ( t ) dt
a ( t ) = cos (w m t )
The frequency are exactly equal :
æ m ö
x ( t ) = Vx cos ç w FR t + sin (w m t ) ÷ w y = wx
è wm ø
w FR + KVCOVcom = w FR + m cos (w m t )

Important: Loop bandwidth large enough !

Phase-locked loop for FM demodulator

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 PLL – Applications
RF signal demodulation

x ( t ) = Vx éë1 + ma ( t ) ùû cos (w x t ) y ( t ) = VLO cos (w x t )

AM signal x(t) Phase Low-pass y(t)

VCO
detector Filter

VxVLO éë1 + ma ( t ) ùû cos 2 (w x t )

Low-pass
VxVLO Filter Demodulated output
é1 + ma ( t ) ùû éë1 + cos ( 2w x t ) ùû
2 ë Vout =
VxVLO
é1 + ma ( t ) ùû
2 ë

Phase-locked loop for AM coherent demodulator

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 PLL – Applications
Clock recovery

Phase Vout Low-pass Vcom

x(t) VCO y(t)
detector Filter

Manchester
code (biphase)
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
Unipolar RZ
code
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
Differential Important : Phase noise small enough !
Biphase code
(DBP) 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0

Phase-locked loop for clock recovery from an encoded signal

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 PLL - Conclusion

Phase locked loops are key elements in digital communications systems. Their
design and optimization are complex ( trade-off between speed, precision, stability).

Main features are :

Locking and Capture Ranges
Agility (locking speed)
Phase noise
Bandwidth
Settling time

Major application for the RF front end

RF frequency synthesis : RF oscillator, PLL

f LO = f 0 + k f ch Channel selection
ICS, UE AMS&RF Functions . October 10, 2023 . Page 30
Summary

Digital Transceiver RF Font-end

RF oscillators

PLLs

Indirect frequency synthesis

ICS, UE AMS&RF Functions . October 10, 2023 . Page 31

 Frequency multiplication

x(t) H y(t)
y H 1
= =
x 1+ b H b
b

Basic loop system

Vin fin Phase Low-pass

Vout VCO fout
detector Filter

÷M
fF
f out
=M
fin

Voltage amplifier Frequency multiplier

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 Integer Modulus Synthesizer
fref Phase Low-pass fout
VCO
detector Filter
f out = Mf réf = f 0 + kf ch
ML £ M £ MH
f2
÷M f1 f 0 = M L f réf
f ch = f réf
Modulus selection
The reference input frequency must be equal to the channel spacing.

÷M Frequency divider
prescaler Band counter (P>S) by pulse counting
One output cycle occurs at the end of
f1 ÷(N+1)/N ÷P f2 (N + 1) * S + N * (P-S) input cycles.

Modulus reset f1
control ÷S Channel f2 =
NP + S
counter

Channel selection
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 Integer Modulus Synthesizer
fréf Charge fout ÷M
PFD VCO
pump prescaler Band counter

f1 ÷(N+1)/N ÷P f2

÷M
Modulus reset
÷S
control Channel
counter
Modulus selection Channel selection

Main advantage: architecture simplicity

Implementation in RF system : VCO a single die in

prescaler deeply submicronic
Band counter, channel counter, PFD, charge pump CMOS technology

Main drawback:
The reference frequency has a small value.
The bandwidth of PLLs is limited to 1/10 of The bandwidth of the loop is limited!
the input frequency to ensure stability
ex : GSM inter-channel spacing : 200kHz
Settling time 100 µs or more
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 Fractional Modulus Synthesizer
fref Phase Low-pass fout
VCO
detector Filter
prescaler

÷(N+1)/N

y(t) x(t)
Modulus
A*Tout B*Tout control A*Tout B*Tout

Number of pulses during the time (A+B)Tout :

A/(N+1) + B/N Locked loop :
'Average' or equivalent frequency of y(t) : fréf = fout / M
(A/(N+1) + B/N) / ((A+B) Tout) fout = M * fréf
= fout / M
A+ B
M =
A B
Use of a two-modulus +
N +1 N
frequency divider N < M < N +1

ICS, UE AMS&RF Functions . October 10, 2023 . Page 35

Fractional Modulus Synthesizer
fréf Phase Low-pass fout
VCO
detector Filter
prescaler

÷(N+1)/N

Modulus
control
EXAMPLE :
Let's Consider a synthesizer for which the reference frequency is provided by a

?
1MHz oscillator. The expected output frequency is:
f out = f 0 + kf ch

with f0=10 MHz and fch=100kHz for k= 0, 1, 2,…9, 10.

What is the value of N?
What are the minimum possible values for A and B
to address the different channels?

ICS, UE AMS&RF Functions . October 10, 2023 . Page 36