MA3151- MATRICES AND CALCULUS

Simha’s Classes
S.Narasimhan

Eigenvalue and Eigenvectors

Definition
A matrix eigenvalue problem considers the vector equation

AX = λX . . . (1)

Here A is given square matrix , λ an unknown scalar, and x an unknown

vector. In a matrix eigenvalue problem, the task is to determine λ0 s and x0 s
that satisfy (1). The solutions to (1) are given following names:
The λ0 s that (1) are called eigenvalue of A and the corresponding nonzero
x0 that also that satisfy (1) are called eigenvectors of A

Problems in Eigenvalue and Eigenvectors

 
−5 2
1. Find the eigenvalue and eigenvector of the matrix .
2 −2
For Video Explanation Click Here.
solution: The Characteristic equation of A is |A − λI| = 0.

1
 −5 − λ 2
That is, =0
2 −2 − λ
⇒ (−5 − λ) (−2 − λ) − 4 = 0
⇒ 10 + 5λ + 2λ + λ2 − 4 = 0
⇒ λ2 + 7λ + 6 = 0
⇒ (λ + 1) (λ + 6) = 0
⇒ λ = −1 or λ = −6

therefore the eigenvalues are −1, −6.

To find Eigenvector
The eigenvector of A is given by (A − λI) X = 0
  
−5 − λ 2 x1
⇒ =0
2 −2 − λ x2
(−5 − λ) x1 + 2x2 = 0
2x1 + (−2 − λ) x2 = 0

Case (i). λ1 = −1
−4x1 + 2x2 = 0
2x1 − x2 = 0
x1 x2
We get 4x1 = 2x2 ⇒ =
1  2
1
The eigenvectors is X1 =
2
Case (ii). λ2 = −6
x1 + 2x2 = 0
2x1 + 4x2 = 0
x1 x2
We get x1 = −2x2 ⇒ =
−2
 1
−2
The eigenvectors is X1 =
1

2
Problem 2
 
3 −1 1
Find the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of the matrix −1 5 −1.
1 −1 3
For Video Explanation Click Here.
Problem 3
 
0 1 1
Find the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of the matrix 1 0 −1
1 −1 0
For Video Explanation Click Here.
Problem 4
 
6 −6 5
Find the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of the matrix 14 −13 10
7 −6 4
For Video Explanation Click Here.
Problem 5
 
2 −2 2
Find the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of the matrix 1 1 −1
1 3 −1
For Video Explanation Click Here.

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Problem 6
 
2 0 1
Find the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of the matrix 0 2 0
1 0 2
For Video Explanation Click Here.
Problem 7
 
2 2 0
Find the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of the matrix  2 1 1 
−7 2 −3
For Video Explanation Click Here.

Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
”Every Square Matrix satisfies its characteristic equation”

Problem 1
 
1 0 0
If A = 1 0 1, then show that An = An−2 + A2 − I for n ≥ 3 using
0 1 0
Cayley-Hamilton theorem, Also find A50 .

For Video Explanation Click Here.

Problem 2
 
1 2 3
Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem find the inverse of the matrix A = 2 4 5
3 5 6
For Video Explanation Click Here.
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Problem 3
 
2 2 3
Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem find A4 , if A = 2 −1 4 
3 1 −1
For Video Explanation Click Here.

Applications
Stretching of an elastic membrane
Problem 1
1.An elastic membrane in the x1 , x2 plane with boundary circle x21 + x22 = 1
is stretched so that
 a pointP : (x
 1 , x2) goes over into the point Q : (y1 , y2 )
y 5 3 x1
given by y = 1 = Ax = ;
y2 3 5 x2
Find the principal directions. What shape does the boundary circle take
under this deformation.
For Video Explanation Click Here.
solution: We are looking for vectors x such that y = λx. Since y = Ax, we
get, Ax = λx,
Therefore we have to find the eigenvalue and the eigenvector for the matrix
A. The Characteristic equation of A is |A − λI| = 0.

5−λ 3
That is, =0
3 5−λ
⇒ (5 − λ)2 − 9 = 0
⇒ (5 − λ)2 = 9
⇒ 5 − λ = ±3
⇒ 5 − λ = −3 or 5 − λ = 3
⇒ λ = 8 or λ = 2

therefore the eigenvalues are 2,8.

To find Eigenvector

5
The eigenvector of A is given by (A − λI) X = 0
  
5−λ 3 x1
⇒ =0
3 5 − λ x2
(5 − λ) x1 + 3x2 = 0
3x1 + (5 − λ) x2 = 0

Case (ii). λ1 = 2
3x1 + 3x2 = 0
3x1 + 3x2 = 0
x1 x2
We get x1 = −x2 ⇒ =
1  −1
1
The eigen vectors is X1 =
−1
Case (ii). λ2 = 8
−3x1 + 3x2 = 0
3x1 − 3x2 = 0
x1 x2
We get x1 = x2 ⇒ =
1 1
1
The eigen vectors is X1 =
1  
1
When λ1 = 2 the eigenvector is X1 = . This vector make 135 angles
−1
with positive x1 direction.  
1
When λ2 = 8 the eigenvector is X1 = . This vector make 45 angles with
1
positive x1 direction.
The eigenvalues show that in the principal directions the membrane is stretched
by factors 8 and 2 respectively.

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 x2
8

6
Principal direction Principal direction
5

−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x1
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

−7

−8

Problem 2
 
3.0 1.5
2.Given A = in a deformation y = Ax, find the principal direc-
1.5 3.0
tions and corresponding factors of extension or contraction.
solution: We are looking for vectors x such that y = λx. Since y = Ax, we
get, Ax = λx,
Therefore we have to find the eigenvalue and the eigenvector for the matrix
A. The Characteristic equation of A is |A − λI| = 0.

7
 3 − λ 1.5
That is, =0
1.5 3 − λ
⇒ (3 − λ)2 − 2.25 = 0
⇒ (3 − λ)2 = 2.25
⇒ 3 − λ = ±1.5
⇒ 3 − λ = −1.5 or 3 − λ = 1.5
⇒ λ = 4.5 or λ = 1.5

therefore the eigenvalues are 1.5,4.5.

To find Eigenvector
The eigenvector of A is given by (A − λI) X = 0
  
3 − λ 1.5 x1
⇒ =0
1.5 3 − λ x2
(3 − λ) x1 + 1.5x2 = 0
1.5x1 + (3 − λ) x2 = 0

Case (ii). λ1 = 1.5

1, 5x1 + 1.5x2 = 0
1.5x1 + 1.5x2 = 0
x1 x2
We get x1 = −x2 ⇒ =
1  −1
1
The eigenvectors is X1 =
−1
Case (ii). λ2 = 4.5
−1.5x1 + 1.5x2 = 0
1.5x1 − 1.5x2 = 0
x1 x2
We get x1 = x2 ⇒ =
1 1
1
The eigen vectors is X2 =
1 
1
When λ1 = 1.5 the eigenvector is X1 = . This vector make 135 angles
−1
with positive x1 direction.

8
  
1
When λ2 = 8 the eigenvector is X2 = . This vector make 45 angles with
1
positive x1 direction.
The eigenvalues show that in the principal directions the membrane is stretched
by factors 4.5 and 1.5 respectively.
x2
8

6
Principal direction Principal direction
5

−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x1
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

−7

−8

Problem 3
 
2.0 0.4
3.Given A = in a deformation y = Ax, find the principal direc-
0.4 2.0
tions and corresponding factors of extension or contraction.
Solution: We are looking for vectors x such that y = λx. Since y = Ax, we
get, Ax = λx,
Therefore we have to find the eigenvalue and the eigenvector for the matrix

9
A. The Characteristic equation of A is |A − λI| = 0.

2 − λ 0.4
That is, =0
0.4 2 − λ
⇒ (2 − λ)2 − 0.16 = 0
⇒ (2 − λ)2 = 0.16
⇒ 2 − λ = ±0.4
⇒ 2 − λ = −0.4 or 2 − λ = 0.4
⇒ λ = 2.4 or λ = 1.6

therefore the eigenvalues are 1.6,2.4.

To find Eigenvector
The eigenvector of A is given by (A − λI) X = 0
  
2 − λ 0.4 x1
⇒ =0
0.4 2 − λ x2
(2 − λ) x1 + 0.4x2 = 0
0.4x1 + (2 − λ) x2 = 0

Case (ii). λ1 = 1.6

0.4x1 + 0.4x2 = 0
0.4x1 + 0.4x2 = 0
x1 x2
We get x1 = −x2 ⇒ =
1  −1
1
The eigenvectors is X1 =
−1
Case (ii). λ2 = 4.5
−1.5x1 + 1.5x2 = 0
1.5x1 − 1.5x2 = 0
x1 x2
We get x1 = x2 ⇒ =
1 1
1
The eigen vectors is X2 =
1  
1
When λ1 = 1.5 the eigenvector is X1 = . This vector make 135 angles
−1

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with positive x1 direction.  
1
When λ2 = 4.5 the eigenvector is X2 = . This vector make 45 angles
1
with positive x1 direction.
The eigenvalues show that in the principal directions the membrane is stretched
by factors 4.5 and 1.5 respectively.
x2
8

6
Principal direction Principal direction
5

−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x1
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

−7

−8

Problem 4
 √ 
7 6
4.Given A = √ in a deformation y = Ax, find the principal direc-
6 2
tions and corresponding factors of extension or contraction.
For Video Explanation Click Here.
Solution: We are looking for vectors x such that y = λx. Since y = Ax, we

11
get, Ax = λx,
Therefore we have to find the eigenvalue and the eigenvector for the matrix
A. The Characteristic equation of A is |A − λI| = 0.

√
7√−λ 6
That is, =0
6 2−λ
√ 2
⇒ (7 − λ) (2 − λ) − 6 =0
⇒ 14 − 7λ − 2λ + λ2 − 6 = 0
⇒ λ2 − 9λ + 8 = 0
⇒ (λ − 1) (λ − 8) = 0
⇒ λ = 1 or λ = 8

therefore the eigenvalues are 1,8.

To find Eigenvector
The eigenvector of A is given by (A − λI) X = 0
 √  
7√−λ 6 x1
⇒ =0
6 2 − λ x2
√
(7 − λ) x1 + 6x2 = 0
√
6x1 + (2 − λ) x2 = 0

Case (i). λ1 = 1 √
6x1 + 6x2 = 0
√
6x1 + x2 = 0
√ x1 x2
We get 6x1 = − 6x2 ⇒ −1 =
√ 1
 61 
− √6
The eigenvectors is X1 =
1
This vector make angle with positive x1 direction is
  !
−1 x2 −1 1
tan = tan
x1 − √16
√
= − tan−1 6
√
= 180 − tan−1 6 = 112.2

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This vector make 112.2 angles with positive x1 direction.
Case (ii). λ2 = 8
√
−x1 + 6x2 = 0
√
6x1 − 6x2 = 0
√ x1 x2
We get x1 = 6x2 ⇒ = 1
1 √
  6
1
The eigenvectors is X2 = √1 .
6
This vector make angle with positive x1 direction is

√1
  !
x 2 6
tan−1 = tan−1
x1 1
 
−1 1
= tan √
6
√
= 180 − tan−1 6 = 22.2

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This vector make 22.2 angles with positive x1 direction.
x2
8

Principal direction
7

3
Principal direction
2

−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x1
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

−7

−8

Problem 5
 
5 2
5.Given A = in a deformation y = Ax, find the principal directions
2 13
and corresponding factors of extension or contraction.
Solution: We are looking for vectors x such that y = λx. Since y = Ax, we
get, Ax = λx,
Therefore we have to find the eigenvalue and the eigenvector for the matrix
A. The Characteristic equation of A is |A − λI| = 0.

14
 5−λ 2
That is, =0
2 13 − λ
⇒ (5 − λ) (13 − λ) − (2)2 = 0
⇒ 65 − 5λ − 13λ + λ2 − 4 = 0
⇒ λ2 − 18λ +√61 = 0
18 ± 324 − 244
⇒ λ=
√2
18 ± 80
⇒ λ=
2 √
18 ± 4 5
⇒ λ=
2√
⇒ λ=9±2 5
√ √
therefore the eigenvalues are 9 − 2 5, 9 + 2 5.
To find Eigenvector
The eigenvector of A is given by (A − λI) X = 0
  
5−λ 2 x1
⇒ =0
2 13 − λ x2
(5 − λ) x1 + 2x2 = 0
2x1 + (13 − λ) x2 = 0
√
Case (i). λ1 = 9 − 2 5 √ 
−4 + 2 5 x1 + 2x2 = 0
 √ 
2x1 + 4 + 2 5 x2 = 0
√
x1 x2
We get −4 + 2 5 x1 = −2x2 ⇒ =
  1 −4.24
1
The eigenvectors is X1 =
−4.24
This vector make angle with positive x1 direction is
   
−1 x2 −1 −4.24
tan = tan
x1 1
−1
= − tan 4.24
= 180 − tan−1 4.24 = 103.3

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This vector make 166.7
√ angles with positive x1 direction.
Case (ii). λ2 = 9 + 2 5
 √ 
−4 − 2 5 x1 + 2x2 = 0
 √ 
2x1 + −4 − 2 5 x2 = 0

√
x1 x2
We get −4 − 2 5 x1 = −2x2 ⇒ =
  1 0.24
1
The eigenvectors is X2 = .
0.24
This vector make angle with positive x1 direction is
   
−1 x2 −1 0.24
tan = tan
x1 1
−1
= tan 0.24
= 13.5

This vector make 13.5 angles with positive x1 direction.

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