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Cognition:
Problem solving

Problem solving is often regarded as one of the highest forms of thinking. There
are two phases to successful problem solving. First, we need to discover the general
properties of a correct solution. This general solution is an overall idea of what is
required to solve the problem but without specific detail. Once we have a general
solution, we can work on a functional solution with sufficient detail to guide further
action to solve the problem.

1 Steps in the process of problem solving

In the process of problem solving, we need to start by knowing just what the problem
is. We then think of suitable ways of solving it, which we call strategies. Next we
decide on the best solution and finally we evaluate or assess this solution to see
whether it has been effective.

1.1 Identify the problem and define it clearly

Problem solving starts with the recognition that there is a problem and this is
followed by a definition of the problem. The way we recognise and define a problem
influences the way we go about solving it. For example, you may think that you
would like to have a big family, perhaps six children, but then you realise that you do
not earn enough money to provide properly for them. This realisation means that you
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recognise the problem. If you define the problem as not having enough money, then
the solution to your problem would be to find ways of supplementing your income.
However, if you define the problem as placing too many demands on your resources
(that is, your income), then your solution would be to have fewer children so that you
can provide for them properly with your available resources.

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 cognition: problem solving

1.2 Explore various strategies

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Problems can be solved in various ways, one of which may be to apply a set of rules.
For example, you see a man standing next to the freeway looking for a lift. You are
not sure whether you should stop or not. The rules of the road say that hitchhiking
is not allowed on freeways and therefore you do not stop. Another way of problem
solving may mean looking at a task or problem situation in different ways in order to
find a solution. For example, your daughter is unemployed and wants you to buy a
television because she is bored at home. You cannot afford one so you look at other
ways of solving the problem (of boredom), like encouraging her to join a volunteer
programme or to participate in sport. Here are some strategies for problem solving:

1.2.1 Trial and error approach

A trial and error approach to solving a problem is called a mechanical approach,
because it involves applying a set of rules or discovery by rote. Trial and error thinking
involves trying all possibilities more or less randomly. For example, you know that one
of the keys in a bunch fits a particular lock, but you do not know which is the right
one. The trial and error approach would be to try each key one by one, in any order,
until you find it.

1.2.2 Heuristic strategies

If you cannot solve the problem mechanically or by habitual ways of thought;
however, you may need to adopt an approach based on understanding. An
understanding approach to the lock and key problem may involve an examination of
the type of lock and trying only those keys that are likely to fit it. This is an example
of a heuristic strategy, which means that you try the likeliest solution first and reduce
the alternatives that have to be considered. In everyday life, we often use heuristic
strategies to reduce the number of alternative options in solving problems. The
heuristic approach increases the odds of success, but does not guarantee a solution.
Here are some examples of heuristic strategies that can help us to solve problems:
· Try working backwards from the desired goal to the current situation. For
example, you want to buy a pair of shoes that costs R450, but the problem
is that you do not have enough money. You decide that you can save R100
each month by cutting back on other expenditures.
· Identify the way that the current situation differs from your desired goal
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and identify the steps you need to take to reduce the difference. This may
mean that you have to break up your desired goal into several smaller goals
(or sub‑goals), so that you can identify the means to achieve the end goal
or aim. For example, in order to save the money for the shoes, you have to
decide what you can do without. Each month, you may have to cut back on
something and this constitutes a step or sub‑goal towards achieving your
main goal of buying the shoes.

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 a student ' s a - z of psychology

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Adopt an analogical approach by thinking of a similar problem and

considering whether the solution to the similar problem will work for your
present problem. For example, you may remember that in the past you saved
money to help out a family member. Think of what you did then to save
money and see if you can apply the same strategy now.
· Make a list of your assumptions or questions and systematically challenge
or test each one, which may suggest ideas for solving the problem. In the
problem situation described here, your questions may be, for example, ‘Are
the shoes worth R450?’; ‘Can I find similar shoes at a better price?’; ‘Should
I look for other shoes?’; ‘Why do I want these particular shoes?’; and so on.

1.3 Explore possible solutions

Several possible solutions may have emerged from the previous phase of problem
solving and each one needs to be considered. You may need to ask what the
particular solution would bring about or how it would change the problem situation,
what the advantages and disadvantages would be and what the cost of implementing
the solution may be. There may not be definite answers to these questions, but they
should help you consider different ideas and possible solutions. The only way you
can test the effectiveness of a possible solution is by taking some action to try it out.

1.4 Evaluate and learn from the solution

It may happen that each potential solution you try gives rise to other problems, but
again you can deal with each one until you find a satisfactory solution. You have to
assess each solution to find out whether it has solved the problem effectively.

2 Insight
Sometimes an answer to a problem appears suddenly and we wonder why we did
not see it before. This is called gaining insight into a problem. It often happens when
we re‑organise the elements of a problem, selecting those that are relevant and
ignoring those that are not, or selectively combining bits of useful information that
may not seem related at first. Insight also involves the comparison of new problems
with old information, or information about problems that have already been solved
(Coon, 2004).
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3 Restricted thinking
Sometimes we seem to get stuck in our thinking. We cannot find a solution to a
problem or we may be unable to see alternatives. One of the explanations of why we
get stuck is that of mental set or fixation. Fixation is an example of restricted thinking.
Another way of describing it is the tendency to evaluate a problem situation in a
particular way and to stick to that evaluation.

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 cognition: problem solving

Here is an example of restricted thinking: Anna has been told from when she was
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little that it is cruel to keep birds in a cage, so she gets upset whenever she sees a bird
in a cage. Getting upset is the result of a mental set. Sometimes it is cruel to keep
birds in cages, but there are other ways of looking at this situation. Maybe the bird
was injured and by keeping it in a cage, the owner is saving its life because it would
never be able to fend for itself in the wild. And maybe the owner uses the example
of the injured bird to raise awareness of caring for the environment and to improve
the lives of other birds.
The following are four other common barriers to problem solving (Coon, 2004):
1. Emotional barriers. Sometimes we are unable to solve problems because our
emotions get in the way of thinking clearly. For example, the fear of being
embarrassed or of making a mistake may prevent us from trying to solve
problems.
2. Learned barriers. We may think that something can only be done in one way
because that is the way we have learned to do it, but there are other ways of
problem solving in addition to the old ways.
3. Perceptual barriers. Sometimes we tend to see only one aspect of a problem
and ignore others. This can get in the way of solving problems.
4. Cultural barriers. Our cultural values may lead us to believe that reason and
logic are the best means of solving problems and that fantasy and play are
a waste of time. In this way we do not explore the various ways of solving
problems.

Bibliography
Coon, D. 2004. Introduction to psychology. 10th edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Jordaan, W. and Jordaan, J. 1998. People in context. 3rd edition. Johannesburg: Heinemann.
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