Momentum, Impulse, and the Impulse-Momentum Theorem

Linear momentum is the product of a system’s mass and its velocity. In equation form, linear
momentum p is

p=mv.p=mv.

You can see from the equation that momentum is directly proportional to the object’s mass (m)
and velocity (v). Therefore, the greater an object’s mass or the greater its velocity, the greater
its momentum. A large, fast-moving object has greater momentum than a smaller, slower
object.

Momentum is a vector and has the same direction as velocity v. Since mass is a scalar, when
velocity is in a negative direction (i.e., opposite the direction of motion), the momentum will
also be in a negative direction; and when velocity is in a positive direction, momentum will
likewise be in a positive direction. The SI unit for momentum is kg m/s.

Momentum is so important for understanding motion that it was called the quantity of
motion by physicists such as Newton. Force influences momentum, and we can rearrange
Newton’s second law of motion to show the relationship between force and momentum.

Recall our study of Newton’s second law of motion (Fnet = ma). Newton actually stated his
second law of motion in terms of momentum: The net external force equals the change in
momentum of a system divided by the time over which it changes. The change in momentum is
the difference between the final and initial values of momentum.

In equation form, this law is

Fnet=ΔpΔt,Fnet=ΔpΔt,

where Fnet is the net external force, ΔpΔp is the change in momentum, and ΔtΔt is the change
in time.

We can solve for ΔpΔp by rearranging the equation

Fnet=ΔpΔtFnet=ΔpΔt

to be

Δp=FnetΔt.Δp=FnetΔt.
FnetΔtFnetΔt is known as impulse and this equation is known as the impulse-momentum
theorem. From the equation, we see that the impulse equals the average net external force
multiplied by the time this force acts. It is equal to the change in momentum. The effect of a
force on an object depends on how long it acts, as well as the strength of the force. Impulse is a
useful concept because it quantifies the effect of a force. A very large force acting for a short
time can have a great effect on the momentum of an object, such as the force of a racket hitting
a tennis ball. A small force could cause the same change in momentum, but it would have to act
for a much longer time.

Newton’s Second Law in Terms of Momentum

When Newton’s second law is expressed in terms of momentum, it can be used for solving
problems where mass varies, since Δp=Δ(mv)Δp=Δ(mv) . In the more traditional form of the
law that you are used to working with, mass is assumed to be constant. In fact, this traditional
form is a special case of the law, where mass is constant. Fnet=maFnet=ma is actually derived
from the equation:

Fnet=ΔpΔtFnet=ΔpΔt

For the sake of understanding the relationship between Newton’s second law in its two forms,
let’s recreate the derivation of Fnet=maFnet=ma from

Fnet=ΔpΔtFnet=ΔpΔt

by substituting the definitions of acceleration and momentum.

The change in momentum ΔpΔp is given by

Δp=Δ(mv).Δp=Δ(mv).

If the mass of the system is constant, then

Δ(mv)=mΔv.Δ(mv)=mΔv.

By substituting mΔvmΔv for ΔpΔp, Newton’s second law of motion becomes

Fnet=ΔpΔt=mΔvΔtFnet=ΔpΔt=mΔvΔt

for a constant mass.

Because
 ΔvΔt=a,ΔvΔt=a,

we can substitute to get the familiar equation

Fnet=maFnet=ma

when the mass of the system is constant.

TIPS FOR SUCCESS

We just showed how Fnet=maFnet=ma applies only when the mass of the system is constant.
An example of when this formula would not apply would be a moving rocket that burns enough
fuel to significantly change the mass of the rocket. In this case, you can use Newton’s second
law expressed in terms of momentum to account for the changing mass without having to know
anything about the interaction force by the fuel on the rocket.

SNAP LAB
Hand Movement and Impulse

In this activity you will experiment with different types of hand motions to gain an intuitive
understanding of the relationship between force, time, and impulse.

 one ball
 one tub filled with water

Procedure:

1. Try catching a ball while giving with the ball, pulling your hands toward your body.
2. Next, try catching a ball while keeping your hands still.
3. Hit water in a tub with your full palm. Your full palm represents a swimmer doing a belly
flop.
4. After the water has settled, hit the water again by diving your hand with your fingers
first into the water. Your diving hand represents a swimmer doing a dive.
5. Explain what happens in each case and why.

What are some other examples of motions that impulse affects?

a. a football player colliding with another, or a car moving at a constant velocity

b. a car moving at a constant velocity, or an object moving in the projectile motion
c. a car moving at a constant velocity, or a racket hitting a ball
d. a football player colliding with another, or a racket hitting a ball
LINKS TO PHYSICS
Engineering: Saving Lives Using the Concept of Impulse

Cars during the past several decades have gotten much safer. Seat belts play a major role in
automobile safety by preventing people from flying into the windshield in the event of a crash.
Other safety features, such as airbags, are less visible or obvious, but are also effective at
making auto crashes less deadly (see Figure 8.2). Many of these safety features make use of the
concept of impulse from physics. Recall that impulse is the net force multiplied by the duration
of time of the impact. This was expressed mathematically as Δp=FnetΔtΔp=FnetΔt .

Figure 8.2 Vehicles have safety features like airbags and seat belts installed.

Airbags allow the net force on the occupants in the car to act over a much longer time when
there is a sudden stop. The momentum change is the same for an occupant whether an airbag
is deployed or not. But the force that brings the occupant to a stop will be much less if it acts
over a larger time. By rearranging the equation for impulse to solve for
force Fnet=ΔpΔt,Fnet=ΔpΔt, you can see how increasing ΔtΔt while ΔpΔp stays the same will
decrease Fnet. This is another example of an inverse relationship. Similarly, a padded dashboard
increases the time over which the force of impact acts, thereby reducing the force of impact.

Cars today have many plastic components. One advantage of plastics is their lighter weight,
which results in better gas mileage. Another advantage is that a car will crumple in a collision,
especially in the event of a head-on collision. A longer collision time means the force on the
occupants of the car will be less. Deaths during car races decreased dramatically when the rigid
frames of racing cars were replaced with parts that could crumple or collapse in the event of an
accident.
Grasp Check
You may have heard the advice to bend your knees when jumping. In this example, a friend
dares you to jump off of a park bench onto the ground without bending your knees. You, of
course, refuse. Explain to your friend why this would be a foolish thing. Show it using the
impulse-momentum theorem.

a. Bending your knees increases the time of the impact, thus decreasing the force.
b. Bending your knees decreases the time of the impact, thus decreasing the force.
c. Bending your knees increases the time of the impact, thus increasing the force.
d. Bending your knees decreases the time of the impact, thus increasing the force.

Solving Problems Using the Impulse-Momentum Theorem

WORKED EXAMPLE
Calculating Momentum: A Football Player and a Football

(a) Calculate the momentum of a 110 kg football player running at 8 m/s. (b) Compare the
player’s momentum with the momentum of a 0.410 kg football thrown hard at a speed of 25
m/s.

STRATEGY
No information is given about the direction of the football player or the football, so we can
calculate only the magnitude of the momentum, p. (A symbol in italics represents magnitude.)
In both parts of this example, the magnitude of momentum can be calculated directly from the
definition of momentum:

p=mvp=mv
Discussion

Although the ball has greater velocity, the player has a much greater mass. Therefore, the
momentum of the player is about 86 times greater than the momentum of the football.

WORKED EXAMPLE
Calculating Force: Venus Williams’ Racquet

During the 2007 French Open, Venus Williams (Figure 8.3) hit the fastest recorded serve in a
premier women’s match, reaching a speed of 58 m/s (209 km/h). What was the average force
exerted on the 0.057 kg tennis ball by Williams’ racquet? Assume that the ball’s speed just after
impact was 58 m/s, the horizontal velocity before impact is negligible, and that the ball
remained in contact with the racquet for 5 ms (milliseconds).

Figure 8.3 Venus Williams playing in the 2013 US Open (Edwin Martinez, Flickr)

STRATEGY
Recall that Newton’s second law stated in terms of momentum is

Fnet=ΔpΔt.Fnet=ΔpΔt.

As noted above, when mass is constant, the change in momentum is given by

Δp=mΔv=m(vf−vi),Δp=mΔv=m(vf−vi),

where vf is the final velocity and vi is the initial velocity. In this example, the velocity just after
impact and the change in time are given, so after we solve for ΔpΔp, we can
use Fnet=ΔpΔtFnet=ΔpΔt to find the force.

Discussion