A computer system consists of hardware and software components that work together

to perform tasks. The hardware includes the physical parts like the CPU, memory,
storage devices, input/output devices, and networking components. The software
includes the operating system and applications that enable users to interact with the
hardware and perform various functions.
1. CPU: Central Processing Unit - The primary component of a computer responsible for
executing instructions and performing calculations.
2. ROM: Read-Only Memory - Non-volatile memory that stores firmware or essential
system instructions that remain intact even when the computer is powered off.
3. EPROM: Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory - Memory that can be
reprogrammed and erased using ultraviolet light, allowing for updates to firmware.
4. RWM: Read/Write Memory - General term for memory that can be both read from and
written to, often used interchangeably with RAM (Random Access Memory).
5. RAM: Random Access Memory - Volatile memory used by the computer for storing
and quickly accessing data that is actively being used or processed.
6. I/O: Input/Output - Refers to the communication between a computer and external
devices, encompassing both data input and output.
7. PCI: Peripheral Component Interconnect - A standard for connecting various
hardware components like expansion cards to the motherboard.
8. AGP: Accelerated Graphics Port - A type of expansion slot designed specifically for
connecting graphics cards to the motherboard, providing faster data transfer for
graphics processing.
9. CNR: Communication and Networking Riser - A slot on the motherboard for
expansion cards related to communication and networking functions.
10. USB: Universal Serial Bus - A common interface used for connecting various
peripherals, such as external drives, printers, and input devices, providing a
standardized connection for ease of use.
1. Bit: The smallest unit of digital information, representing a binary digit (0 or 1) in
computing.
2. Byte: A group of 8 bits. It is a fundamental unit of storage and commonly represents a
single character of text or a small binary value.
3. Nibble: Half a byte, consisting of 4 bits. Nibbles are sometimes used for compactly
representing hexadecimal values (4 bits per hexadecimal digit).
4. Word: The size of a word can vary depending on the computer architecture, but it
typically refers to the natural unit of data that a CPU processes at one time. Common
word sizes include 16, 32, or 64 bits.
5. Double Word: Also known as a DWORD, it consists of two consecutive words and is
typically 32 bits or 4 bytes in size.
6. Microcontrollers: Integrated circuits that contain a processor core, memory, and
programmable input/output peripherals. Microcontrollers are often used in embedded
systems for specific tasks like controlling electronic devices or appliances.
7. Microcomputer: A complete computer system on a small scale, typically including a
microprocessor (CPU), memory, input/output components, and sometimes storage.
Personal computers are a common example of microcomputers.
In a general-purpose computing system, interrupt processing is a mechanism that
allows the system to respond to external events or internal conditions promptly. Here is
a brief overview of the process:
1. Interrupt Triggering: An interrupt is triggered by an external event (such as user input
or hardware signaling) or an internal condition (like a specific CPU instruction).
2. Interrupt Signal: The triggering event generates an interrupt signal, causing the CPU to
temporarily halt its current execution and switch to the interrupt processing routine.
3. Interrupt Service Routine (ISR): The CPU jumps to a predefined memory location
known as the Interrupt Service Routine. This routine contains the specific instructions
to handle the interrupt.
4. Save Context: Before executing the ISR, the CPU saves the current state of its
registers and program counter. This allows the system to resume normal operation after
handling the interrupt.
5. Interrupt Handling: The ISR executes the necessary actions to respond to the
interrupt, which may involve processing data, updating system status, or handling
external requests.
6. Restore Context: After completing the ISR, the CPU restores the saved context,
allowing it to resume the interrupted program or task seamlessly.
7. Return from Interrupt: The CPU returns to the interrupted program or task, continuing
execution from where it was temporarily halted.
Interrupts are crucial for handling asynchronous events efficiently, ensuring that the
system can respond to various inputs and maintain responsiveness. They are widely
used in operating systems, device drivers, and other components of modern computing
systems.
Computer memory refers to the electronic components that store and retrieve data for
processing by a computer. There are two main types of computer memory: primary (or
main) memory and secondary memory.
Memory is crucial for a computer's functionality, allowing it to store and retrieve data
quickly. RAM provides fast access for the CPU during active tasks, while secondary
memory devices offer larger storage for long-term data retention. The distinction
between volatile (loses data when powered off) and non-volatile (retains data) memory
is important for understanding their respective roles in a computer system.
Bus in Computer:
A bus in a computer system is a communication pathway used to transfer data between
components such as the CPU, memory, and peripherals. It serves as a shared conduit
for transmitting address, data, and control signals, enabling different parts of the
computer to communicate and exchange information.
Types of Bus Arbitration:
Bus arbitration is the process of determining which device on the bus gets control over
it. There are several methods for bus arbitration:
1. Centralized Arbitration:- A central controller manages access to the bus. Devices
request access from the controller, which grants permission based on a
predetermined priority scheme. Common in systems with a single controlling
unit.
2. Distributed Arbitration:- Devices on the bus determine among themselves which one
will get access. Various methods include:
- Priority Schemes: Devices are assigned priorities, and the device with the highest
priority gains control.
-Round Robin: Devices take turns accessing the bus in a predetermined order.
- Random Arbitration: Devices use a random process to contend for bus control.
3. Collision Arbitration:- Similar to distributed arbitration, devices contend for bus
control. In case of a collision (multiple devices requesting simultaneously), a resolution
mechanism is employed, such as retrying after a random delay.
4. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM):- The bus is divided into time slots, and each device
is allocated a specific time during which it can access the bus. TDM is often used in
real-time systems.
5. Token Passing:- Devices pass a token to gain access to the bus. The device holding
the token has the right to use the bus. After completing its operation, the device
releases the token for other devices to use.
The choice of bus arbitration method depends on factors like system architecture,
complexity, and the specific requirements of the computer system. Each method has its
advantages and trade-offs in terms of fairness, efficiency, and ease of implementation.
A pointing device is an input device used to interact with and control a computer's
graphical user interface by moving a cursor or pointer on the screen. It allows users to
navigate, select, and manipulate objects on a display.
Common pointing devices include:
1. Mouse: A handheld device with buttons and a scroll wheel. Movement of the mouse
on a surface translates into movement of the cursor on the screen.
2. Touchpad: Commonly found on laptops, a touch-sensitive surface where users can
move their fingers to control the on-screen pointer. It often includes tap and multi-touch
gestures.
3. Trackball: A stationary device with a ball on its top that can be rotated to move the
cursor. Trackballs are less common but still used in certain applications.
4. Joystick: Primarily used in gaming, joysticks provide a stick that can be tilted or
moved in different directions to control on-screen movement.
5. Stylus/Pen: Used with graphics tablets or touchscreen devices, a stylus allows
precise control for drawing or writing on the screen.
6. Touchscreen: Displays with touch-sensitive surfaces that allow direct interaction by
tapping or dragging on the screen. Common in smartphones, tablets, and interactive
displays.
7. Gesture Recognition: Systems that interpret hand or body movements for controlling
on-screen actions. This can include devices like Microsoft Kinect or cameras with
gesture recognition capabilities.
8. Pointing Stick/TrackPoint: A small, pressure-sensitive device embedded in the
keyboard, often found in certain laptops. Users can control the cursor by applying
pressure in different directions.
Modems (Modulator-Demodulators) are devices that enable digital data to be
transmitted over analog communication channels. There are several types of modems,
each designed for specific applications. Here are four common types:
1. Analog Modem:- Description: Converts digital data from a computer into analog
signals for transmission over analog telephone lines.
- Use Case: Historically used for dial-up internet connections. Now largely obsolete
due to the prevalence of broadband technologies.
2. DSL Modem (Digital Subscriber Line):- Description: Utilizes existing telephone lines to
transmit digital data. Provides faster and more efficient data transfer compared to
analog modems.
- Use Case: Commonly used for broadband internet connections in homes and
businesses.
3. Cable Modem: - Description: Connects to a cable television line to transmit data.
Offers high-speed internet access by utilizing the cable TV infrastructure.
- Use Case: Widely used for broadband internet connections, especially in urban and
suburban areas.
4. Satellite Modem:- Description: Uses satellite communication to transmit and receive
data. Suitable for areas where other types of connectivity are impractical or unavailable.
- Use Case: Commonly employed in remote or rural areas where terrestrial
infrastructure is limited.
These modems facilitate communication by converting digital signals from computers
into a format suitable for transmission over various communication channels. The
choice of modem depends on factors like the available infrastructure, data transfer
requirements, and geographic location. Today, broadband technologies such as DSL
and cable modems are more prevalent for high-speed internet access, while satellite
modems provide connectivity in areas with limited infrastructure.
Computer networks can be classified based on their geographic scope, functional
relationship, and the type of technology they use. Here are the main classifications of
computer networks:
1. Based on Geographic Scope:
- Local Area Network (LAN): Covers a limited geographic area, such as a single building
or a campus. LANs are commonly used for connecting devices within a specific
location.
- Wide Area Network (WAN): Spans a larger geographic area, often connecting LANs
across cities, countries, or even continents. WANs use various communication
technologies, including public and private networks.
- Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Covers a larger geographic area than a LAN but is
smaller than a WAN, typically within a city or a large campus.
2. Based on Functional Relationship:
- Client-Server Network: Clients (user devices) communicate with centralized servers
that provide resources, services, or data. Common in business environments and the
internet.
- Peer-to-Peer Network: All devices in the network have equal status, and each can act
as both a client and a server. Common in smaller networks and file-sharing
environments.
3. Based on Technology:
- Ethernet Network: Uses Ethernet technology for wired connections, often associated
with LANs.
- Wireless Network: Utilizes wireless technologies, such as Wi-Fi, for communication.
Common in both LAN and WAN environments.
- Fiber-Optic Network: Employs fiber-optic cables for high-speed data transmission,
offering advantages in terms of bandwidth and reliability.
4. Based on Topology:
- Bus Network: Devices share a common communication line (bus). Data is sent to all
devices, and only the intended recipient processes it.
- Ring Network: Devices are connected in a circular or ring-like fashion. Data circulates
in one direction.
 - Star Network: All devices are connected to a central hub or switch. Communication
occurs between devices and the central hub.
- Mesh Network: Devices are interconnected, providing multiple paths for data
transmission. Enhances reliability and fault tolerance.

RTL (Register Transfer Language) is a high-level description used to model the operation
of a digital system at the register transfer level. Below are simplified RTL descriptions for
LOAD, ADD, and JNS instructions:
1. LOAD Instruction:-Description: Load a value from memory into a register.
- RTL```
// LOAD R1, [Memory_Address]
R1 <= [Memory_Address];
```
2. ADD Instruction:- Description: Add the contents of two registers and store the result
in a destination register.
- RTL: ```
// ADD R3, R1, R2
R3 <= R1 + R2;
```
3. JNS Instruction:- Description:** Jump to a specified address if the sign bit is not set
(i.e., negative).
- RTL: ```
// JNS Target_Address if Sign_Flag = 0
if (Sign_Flag = 0) then PC <= Target_Address;
```
Note: These RTL descriptions are simplified and serve as a high-level
representation. In practice, the actual RTL may involve additional details, control
signals, and specific register or memory addressing mechanisms based on the
architecture of the processor. The examples above assume a straightforward
one-to-one mapping between instructions and RTL statements for illustrative
purposes.