CE 315 HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD Road transport – is the most practical one, it is

ENGINEERING due to the reason that passengers and goods are

first conveyed through roads and highways
Chap1. Importance of transportation, different before reaching the railway station, the port, or
modes of transportation the airport.
INTRODUCTION
• Transportation plays a fundamental role in our HUMAN FACTORS AFFECTING
modern society, serving as the backbone of TRANSPORTATION
economic, social, and cultural activities. Humans are the main users of roads and
• It encompasses the movement of people, highways. These road users can be classified as
goods, and information from one place to passengers, drivers, pedestrians, etc. This
another, connecting individuals, communities, element is said to be the most complex factor
and nations. since human emotions are unpredictable it
varies from person to person.
IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION
• Economic Importance: Transportation facilitates The following are the human factors that
the movement of goods and services from should be considered.
production centers to consumption areas, Variability– the most complex in dealing with
enabling efficient supply chains and distribution human characteristics such as vision, hearing,
networks. and ability to react in a situation. It also considers
• Social Importance: Transportation connects psychological and physical.
people and communities, enabling social
interactions and cultural exchange. Critical Characteristics–two main types are
• Political Importance: Governments use quantifiable like reaction time and visual acuity
transportation projects and initiatives as tools to and driving and the second one is less
stimulate economic growth, reduce regional quantifiable like the psychological factors,
differences, and garner public support. physical strength, fatigue, and dexterity. the
• Environmental Importance: Promoting quantifiable types are reaction time and visual
sustainable transportation solutions, such can acuity and driving.
help reduce environmental degradation, improve
air quality, and mitigate climate change. a)Reaction Time –it is subjected to a series of
stimuli. It involves a series of stages like
MODES OF TRANSPORTATION perception, intellection, emotion, and volition.
• Road Transportation refers to transportation b)Visual Acuity and Driving –it relates to the
on roadways using vehicles such as cars, buses, clearest vision of a driver. The driver’s vision
trucks, and motorcycles. affects transportation in perceiving the object and
• Rail Transportation involves the movement of traffic control measures.
passengers and goods by train on railway tracks, Walking– Pedestrian traffic includes footpaths,
including long-distance trains, light rail systems, sidewalks, crosswalks, safety zones ,islands, and
and subways. under passes are part of it. Human accessibility
• Air Transportation involves travel by airplanes to a certain distance through walking with safety
and helicopters through the air, enabling long- being considered should not be set aside.
distance and rapid transportation of passengers
and cargo. VEHICLE FACTORS
• Water Transportation refers to transportation Vehicle characteristics should be learned as it is
on water bodies using ships, boats, ferries, or crucially important in designing the road. The ad
cruise ships, facilitating travel across seas, should be able to provide the needs of existing
rivers, and lakes. and expected vehicles. Vehicles vary in size and
the space it takes. It is then, therefore, the road
Chap 2. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD engineer should be able to know the
TRANSPORTATION characteristics of any vehicle and not just the
uncertain ones. Geometric Aspects–Pavement slope, gradient,
right of way, etc. affect transportation in different
Listed below are the vehicle factors that ways.
affect transportation.
Design Vehicles–The dimension of various SCOPE OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
vehicles that alters the road and traffic design are Highway engineering is the type of engineering
width, height, length, rear overhang, and ground that is known as an engineering discipline and
clearance. deals with the design, construction, and
Turning Radius and Turning Path–this factor is maintenance of Highway Roads and Systems,
entirely significant at an urban streets, and as well as parking facilities.
intersection,roundabouts, terminals, and parking Overall planning of routes, financing,
areas. The design and class of the vehicles environmental impact evaluation, and value
influence the minimum turning radius. engineering are the principal points of highway
Visibility– Windscreen, wind screen wipers, door engineering.
pillars, etc. should be ensuring clarity during bad
weather, it should not cover pedestrians, and SCOPE OF TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
during intersection manoeuvres. Traffic Engineering is the field of engineering in
Braking Performance– the main characteristic which it is centered on determining traffic and
of a traffic system is influenced by braking and travel. The study of basic laws is correlated to
deceleration performance such as: (a)Safe traffic law and generation application. It is the
stopping sight distance, (b)Clearance and branch of civil engineering that is focused on
change interval, and (c)Sign placement. enhancing traffic activity on road net work sand
terminals.
ROADFACTORS
Road plays an important role among the three Traffic Engineering helps in providing solutions to
elements. It is crucial because it serves as the the issues and problems that block the process.
path way for trucks, cars, and other known It gives assistance such as in the following:
vehicles in transporting goods and passengers. Traffic calming
The road can be either a dirt or gravel or Traffic signage and markings
concrete road. Traffic signals
Roundabouts
There are six road factors that affect Variable message signing
transportation namely: Pedestrian facilities, management, an
Road Surface–Road roughness, tire wear, accommodations in construction areas
active resistance, noise, light reflection, Bus priority measures
electrostatic properties, etc. are some of the Bicycle facilities
aspects that affect the road surface. Traffic signal design and coordination
Lighting–Road way lighting is important and Transportation and traffic counts/surveys
should be planned according to traffic
information, especially night vehicular accidents, Chap 3. HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND
pedestrian volumes, and accident experience. PLANNING: Importance, classification of
Roughness–the design, construction, and roads, road patterns, planning surveys;
maintenance of a highway system are the factors highway alignment and surveys
that an engineer should be given importance.
Pavementcolors–colored pavements provide INTRODUCTION
more visibility. HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
Night visibility–Night time visibility must be is a specialized field within civil engineering that
improved. The amount of light that is reflected by focuses on the planning, design, construction,
the road’s surface to the driver’s eyes is an operation, and maintenance of roads, highways,
important factor. streets, bridges, and tunnels to ensure safe and
efficient transportation.
  -Phasing road development programs from
HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT considerations of utility and importance as also of
refers to planning and constructing new financial resource.
highways and improving existing highway  -Evolving a financing system compatible with
infrastructure. Highway development is a critical the cost and benefits.
aspect of transportation engineering as it
supports economic growth and ensures efficient CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
transport of goods and people. The roads are generally classified into two
categories, depending on weather they can be
HIGHWAY PLANNING used during different seasons of the year:
is also a basic need for the Highway 1. All-weather Roads
development. It is an essential process that - a road of sufficient construction and
involves examining and addressingtransportation firmness for vehicles and equipment to traverse
needs and issues related to highways in a during normal inclement weather, including
specific area. expected rain, snow, and freezing temperatures.
2. Fair-weather Roads
IMPORTANCE OF HIGHWAY PLANNING -The roads which are accessed only during
Highway planning is crucial for ensuring efficient the fair atmospheric conditions. These roads are
transportation, reducing traffic congestion, and not accessible during heavy rains, cyclones or at
promoting economic development. the time of floods.

It involves analyzing traffic patterns, determining METHODS OF CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS

the need for new highways, and identifying The roads are generally classified based on the
optimal routes. following:
1. To plan a road network for efficient and safe (a) Traffic volume
traffic operation, but a minimum cost. Here, the (b) Load transported or tonnage
cost of construction, maintenance, and renewal (c) Location and function
of pavement layers and the vehicle operation
costs are to be given due construction. URBAN ROADS ARE CLASSIFIED BASED ON
2. To arrive at the road system and lengths of THEIR FUCNTION AND LOCATION
different categories of road which could provide  Expressways—The city roads which are
maximum utility and could be constructed within reserved for motor traffic with full or partial
the available resource during the plan period control access and are provided with grade
under construction. separation at intersections are called
3. To fix up date wise priorities for development expressways. Along expressways, the motor
of each road link based on utility as the main traffic attains very high speeds. Neither the
criterion for phasing the road development loading nor unloading of the goods is permitted
program. on these expressways. Pedestrians too cannot
4. To plan for future requirements and cross the expressways.
improvement of roads in view of anticipated  Arterial streets—Arterial streets aregenerally
development. spaced at less than 15 km in developed business
5. To work out financing systems. centers whereas in less important areas, these
Objectives of Highway Planning may be 8 km apart. Arterial roads are also
 -Planning a highway network for safe, efficient, divided highways with fully or partially controlled
and fast movement of people and goods. access. Parking, loading and unloading are
 -Keeping the overall cost of construction and carefully regulated. Pedestrians are permitted to
maintenance of roads in the network to a cross them at intersection only.
minimum.  Sub-Arterial Streets- The city roads which
 -Planning for future development and provided lower level of travel mobility than
anticipated traffic needs for a specific design arterial streets, are called sub-arterial streets.
period.
Their spacing may vary from 0.5 km in central
business districts to 3 to 5 km in sub-urban Municipal and City Roads (Local Roads)
areas. a. Roads within the Población
 Collector streets—The city roads which are b. Roads that connect to Provincial and National
constructed for collecting and distributing the Road
traffic to and from local streets, and also to c. Roads that provide Inter-Barangay
provide an access to arterial and sub-arterial connections to Major Municipal and
streets, are called collector streets. These are d. City Infrastructure without traversing Provincial
located in residential, business and industrial Roads
areas. These roads are accessible from the Barangay Roads (Local Roads)
buildings along them. Parking restrictions are few a. Other Public Roads (officially turned over)
and that too during peak hours. within the Barangay and not covered in the
 Local streets—The city roads which provide an above definitions.
access to residence, business and other
buildings, are called local streets. The traffic ROAD PATTERNS
carried either originates or terminates along the The main patterns in use in urban areas are:
local streets. Along local streets pedestrians may 1. Grid Iron Pattern -This is also known as
move freely and parking may be permitted rectangular or block pattern and is perhaps the
without any restriction. Roads may also be simplest. The Romans preferred it, as have the
classified based on their use, as classified by the Americans who adopted it in
DPWH for roads in the Philippines: many of their cities. This is easy to set out in
 National Primary Roads - directly connects straight lines and rectangular co- ordinates, and
major cities of at least100,000 people (cities in is suitable for flat terrain. The disadvantages of
the metro not included) this pattern are monotonously long streets and
the inconvenience in traffic operation.
 National Secondary 2. Radial Pattern -In this pattern, roads emanate
a. Directly connects Cities to National Primary from a central focal area, which may be a
Roads, except in Metropolitan Area business centre or an important public building.
b. Directly connects Major Ports and Ferry In order to ease the congestion in the focal area,
Terminals to National Primary Road ring roads are provided. The shape of a ring road
c. Directly connects Major Airports to National may be round, square, or elongated. Based on
Primary Road this, the pattern may be star and grid, or star and
d. Directly connects Tourist Service Centers to circular.
National Primary Roads or other 3. Hexagonal Pattern -The hexagonal pattern
e. Directly connects Cities (not included in the can be modified by dividing the hexagon into six
category of Major Cities) triangle units by link roads; this facilitates travel
f. Directly connects Provincial Capitals within the from one place to any other place in the area in
same Region the minimum possible time, compared to any
g. Directly connects to Major National other pattern. This, in fact, is known as a
Government Infrastructure to National Primary. ‘minimum travel pattern’ and was used in certain
h. Roads or Other National Secondary Roads cities to great advantage.

 National Tertiary -Other existing roads under PLANNING SURVEYS

DPWH which perform a local function Provincial For assessing the road length requirements,
Roads (Local Roads) following studies are made:
a. Connect Cities and Municipalities without 1. Economic Studies -Details of the existing
traversing National Roads facilities, their utility, distribution of the existing
b. Connect National Roads to Barangays through population in the area, population growth trends,
rural areas existing products in the agricultural and industrial
c. Connect to Major Provincial Government sectors, future trends of development in these
Infrastructure sectors, existing communication and education
facilities, and the per capita income are to be
collected.
2. Financial Studies -source of income; Various
financial aspects such as the sources of funding,
estimated revenue from taxes on vehicles, toll
tax, and indirect benefits of raising the living
standards of the people due to the proposed
road network are considered.
3. Traffic or Road Use Studies -Details of the Chap 4. HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT
existing road facilities, traffic volume in vehicles PLANNING: Highway Alignment and Survey
per day, traffic flow patterns, classes of traffic
such as passenger cars, busses and trucks, The position of the center line on the
loads carried, average speeds, anticipated future highway in the ground is called highway
trends of traffic growth, and other traffic-related alignment. Highway alignment includes
studies are to be conducted. horizontal alignment and vertical alignment. The
projection of highway alignment in the horizontal
4. Engineering Studies -These include study of plane is termed as the horizontal alignment and
the topography, soil, road life and special the projection of highway alignment in the vertical
problems, if any, relating to construction, plane is called vertical alignment. Alignment must
drainage and maintenance. be selected in such a way that the overall cost
during construction, operation and maintenance
Factors for obtaining the utility per length of is minimum. Road design outputs are in the form
road are: of following drawings:
1. Population served by the road
2. Productivity served by the road network Plan: Includes centre line, structures, Right of
a) Agricultural product Way (ROW), carriage way, shoulders, side drain.
b) Industrial products
Longitudinal Profile: Soil Type, Depth of cut,
Various steps to be taken to obtain maximum Height of Fill, Side drain (Information on from
utility per length are: which chainage to which chainage), Direction of
1. Population factors or units: since, the area flow in the drain.
under consideration consists of villages and
towns with different population these are grouped Cross Section: Ground Level, Formation Level,
into some convenient population range and some Superelevation, Area of Cutting and Area of
reasoning values of utility units to each range of Filling thus computation of the volume and then
population serve are assigned. cost estimation can be done.
2. Productivity factors or units: The total
agricultural and industrial products served by REQUIREMENTS OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT:
each road system are worked out and the The ideal alignment must have the following
productivity served may be assigned appropriate requirements:
values of utility units per unit weight. •Safe (S) •Easy (E) •Short (S) •Economical
3. Optimum road length;Based on the master (E) •Comfort (C)
plan the targeted road length is fixed for the
country on the basis of area or population and Safe: The alignment need to be safe during
production or both. And the same may be construction, operation and maintenance
taken as a guide to decide the total length of the especially at slopes, embankments and cutting.
road system in each proposal.
Easy: The construction materials if present at the
place of construction makes the construction
easier. Similarly, it should be easy during the
operation of vehicles with easy gradients and Topographical features like a lake or hillock may
curves. require the alignment to be taken around them.
In the case of a big hill the option of constructing
Short: The distance between the initial and final a tunnel through it for maintaining a straight
point need to be short so as to reduce the alignment can considered
construction cost.
4. Geometric Design Aspects
Economical: The alignment should be Factors such as radius of curve, longitudinal
economical during construction, operation, and gradients, sight distances, road intersections,
maintenance. However, if the construction turned design speed, lateral friction, and superelevation
out to be economical, the gradient may not be govern the alignment to a considerable degree;
easy which in turns increases the cost of radii of horizontal curves and longitudinal
operation and maintenance. gradients should facilitate easy maneuvering of
vehicles.
Comfort: The alignment should be fixed such
that it provides comfort to the drivers and the 5. Cross - Drainage Needs
passengers. The alignment should be such that bridges are
located at right angles to the direction of flow of
FACTORS CONTROLLING HIGHWAY the stream or river.
ALIGNMENT:
1. Government Alignment 6. Economic Considerations
As the road project needs a large investment, the Before an alignment is chosen, two or three
government should be clear about the alternative routes may have to be investigated
requirement of the road (when, what, how and and their overall cost - initial outlay and
why to construct). maintenance cost over a design period
compared. The route with the best economy is
2. Obligatory Points then selected.
Obligatory points determine the highway
alignment. They are further divided into positive ENGINEERING SURVEY:
obligatory points and negative obligatory points. Engineering surveys are essential in planning a
The road should not be within the boundary of highway project and determining the best
the country alignment. These surveys analyze various
Positive Obligatory Points: These are factors like terrain, soil conditions, environment,
those points through which the alignment should and existing infrastructure. They provide
pass. accurate data for making informed decisions,
- Existing Road ensuring a safe, feasible, and cost-effective
- Intermediate Town alignment that minimizes risks during
- Bridge site/Existing Bridge construction, operation, and maintenance.
- Mountain
The stages of engineering surveys are:
Negative Obligatory Points: These are MAP STUDY SURVEY
those points through which the alignment should The study of the topographical map is done to
not pass. find out the possible routes of the road.
- Valleys, Ponds
- Religious places
- Conservation areas and restricted zones Following information are obtained from the map
- The road should not be within the study:
boundary of the country • Alignment avoiding valley, ponds, lakes.
• When the road has to carry a row of hills,
mountain pass may be the suitable alternative.
3. Topographic Features • Approximate location of the bridge site.
 ENGINEERING SURVEY
RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY When the selection of final alignment or final
A reconnaissance survey is an initial assessment center-line is done with the help of a planning
of a site to evaluate its suitability for a proposed survey, the next part is to perform an engineering
project. The primary objective of this survey is to survey.
eliminate impractical or unfeasible routes or sites
while identifying more viable options. Engineering surveys consists of three surveys to
be carried out as follows.
Following are the information obtained from the (i) Traffic surveys - In the case of a highway
reconnaissance survey: project, the detail information of traffic is much
• Valley, pond, lakes and other features that were necessary so as to design the road pavement,
not present in the topographical map. fixing the number of traffic lanes, geometric
• A number of cross drainage structures, High design of roads and other economical aspects.
Flood Level (HFL), Natural Ground Level. (ii) Soil and material survey - Soil and material
• Values of the gradient, the length of gradients surveys are many important surveys since the
and radius of the circular curve. earth work related with respect to the major
• Soil type along the routes from field portion of the road cost.
identification tests and observation of the (iii) Drainage surveys- Drainage surveys are
geological features. required mainly for the purpose of design of
• Sources of construction materials. cross drainage structure and survey on drainage
is quite useful in fixing the gradient or grade lien
PRELIMINARY SURVEY of the road.
A preliminary survey is a detailed study of a
project site or route, building upon information FINAL LOCATION AND DETAILED SURVEY
gathered from a previous reconnaissance A final location survey is a detailed and precise
survey. Objective of the survey carried out after preliminary surveys to
Preliminary Survey are listed below: determine the exact alignment, location, and
• To collect necessary physical information and dimensions of a proposed project. A detailed
details of topography, drainage, and soil. survey, also known as a topographic survey, is a
• To compare different proposal in view of the comprehensive survey conducted to gather
requirement of good alignment. precise information about the physical features
• To estimate the quantity of earthwork. and characteristics of a specific area or site.
• To finalize the best alignment.
Objective of the Preliminary Survey are listed
LOCATION SURVEY below:
The detailed examination of the field along the • To establish temporary bench marks
alignment finally recommended during the • To collect information required for:
preliminary survey is called Location survey. -Preparation for working drawings, Preparation of
detailed estimates
Objective of the Location Survey are listed -The design of road & bridges, Preparing
below: specifications and Land Acquisition
(i) The alignment finalized at the design office
after the preliminary survey is to be first located
on the field by establishing the center-line.
(ii) The detailed survey should be carried out for
collecting the information necessary for the
preparation of plans and construction details for
the highway project.
(iii) To determine the cost of the total road
project.
 of these agency the power to govern its
operation.

AASHTO Publications includes:

1. Transportation materials Specifications
and Tests.
2. Specifications for highway bridges.
3. Geometric design standards.
4. Numerous policy statements and guides.

Roads and Highways-Is defined as strips of

land that have been cleared and further improved
for the movement of people and goods.

Road-A road is an identifiable route, way, or path

for the passage of people, vehicles, or animals
between two or more places.

Highway -A main public road, especially one

connecting towns and cities.

Expressway-major arterial divided highway that

features two or more traffic lanes in each
direction, with opposing traffic separated by a
median strip; elimination of grade crossings;
controlled entries and exits; and advanced
designs eliminating steep grades, sharp curves,
and other hazards and inconveniences to driving.

Railway-line that is the commercial organization

responsible for operating a system of
transportation for trains that pull passengers or
freight
Chap 5.DESIGN CRITERIA for HIGHWAYS
and RAILWAYS I. Design Criteria for Highways
1.1 Consistency
Design criteria- consists of a detailed list of • is most important single rule in highway
considerations to be used in negotiating a set of Drivers expect the highway agency to
road and railway standards. provide them with:
1. Clear information and guidance through
TERMS a variety of road signs
AASHTO- stands for American Association of 2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic
State Highway and Transportation Officials.In as well as the road standard
1994, the American Association of State 1.2Design Speed
Highway officials (AASHO) was established as • speed determined for design and
an Association of State Territorial and District of correlation of the physical feature of a
Columbia Highway Department, and the Federal highway
Highway Administration. The name was • It is the maximum speed that can be
expanded in 1973, when the department of maintained over a specified section of the
transportation was integrated into the association highway
meaning AASHO to AASHTO, giving the officials
AASHTO PRACTICE Pavement Width – Minimum of 6.70m for two
 to classify first the highway as Rural or lanes
Urban, then as Freeways, Arterials, Pavement Thickness – Minimum of 280mm (11
Collectors, and Local inches)
 Rural local and collector facilities are then
classified according to its terrain as 1.4 Road Shoulder
flat(level), rolling, or mountainous.  Reserved lane by the verge of a road or
motorway, on the right side of the road.
Minimum recommended design speed  Serves to provide supports asphalt
AASHTO minimum design speed km/hr for
rural collectors and local roads based on
current ADT

According to DPWH Department Order No. 68

Series of 2017:
1. Level Terrain - 60kph
2. Rolling Terrain - 40kph
3. Mountainous Terrain - 30kph pavement, protect the edge of the
pavement from the breakage and provide
extra width on narrow roadways.

Importance
• Place for vehicle to stop
• Accident opportunity
• Structural strength
• Horizontal sight distance
 According to DPWH Department Order
No. 68 Series of 2017 Minimum width is
1.50 meter.
1.3 Cross Section of a Typical Highway
Two lane Rural Highway 1.5 Cross Slope
-7.20 meters wide are required for safe  Slope usually falls in both directions from
clearance between commercial vehicles and is the center line of the two-lane highway
recommended for main Highway. Except where super elevation of curves
directs all water towards the inside.
Collector Roadway -6.00 meters wide surface is  According to DPWH Department Order
acceptable only for lo low volume traffic including No. 68 Series of 2017:
few trucks traveling thereon.  The Minimum Design Standard for
Industry Roads Roadway Cross Slope
Local Rural Roadway -the minimum surface should be 1.50 %.
width is 4.80 meters for a 30 km/hr design speed.
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
Urban Roadway -the minimum design width is
3.60 meters although 3.00 meters allowed where 1.6 CutorFill Slope
space is limited Cut slope -- is the vertical cut adjacent to the
road, where earth is removed to accommodate
According to DPWH Department Order No. 68 the road.
Series of 2017:
Fillslope - formed when excavated material is 1.11 Highway Intersection at Grade
placed on a prepared ground surface to construct Intersection Area - considered part of every
the road subgrade and road bed template. connecting road crossing and turn in movement
occur

1.7

GradeLine
-Longitudinal profile of highway as a measure 1.12 Bicycle Lane
how the center line of the highway rises and fall. • requires separate road for the riders that
-Appears on a profile taken along the road center is entirely separate from the vehicular
line. traffic.
• design speed is 20 to 30 kilometers per
hour for flat section. width is 2.00 meters’
1.8 Right of Way minimum for a 2-way travel.
-The total land area acquired for the construction • grade of the lane is 5% maximum on
of the road way. short distances.
1.13 Poor Road Standards
-According to the Official Gazette of the • If the standard of the road geometry or its
Republic of the Philippines, Executive surface is poor, then it may be
OrderNo.621, s.1980, appropriate to adopt a lower speed limit.
The right of way in meters are the following: The lower speeds compensate for the
-National roads– 20m, minimum width may be hazardous conditions of the road.
reduced to 15 1.14 Road Capacity
-Reserved for roads constructed through • The daily capacity in both directions for a
unpatented public land–60m 7 meters wide carriageway in flat terrain
-Reserved through naturally forested areas– would be about 16,000 vehicles at
120m multiple peak-hour traffic (DPWH
-Atleast one hundred twenty (120) meters Department Order No. 22, Series of
reserved through naturally forested areas of 2022). Maximum number of vehicles,
aesthetic or scientific value which have a reasonable.
• expectation of passing over a given
1.10 Types of Interchange section of a lane or a roadway in one
Types and form of freeway requires selection of direction or in both directions during one
the conformation that is best suited to a particular hour under prevailing road and traffic
situation and demand. conditions.
The functions of freeway interchanges are: DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAYS
-provide separation between two or more traffic
arteries.
-facilitate the easy transfer of vehicles from one
entry to the other or between local roadway and
the freeway.
2.1 Railway Track Gauge - Standard gauge 2.6 BALLAST
1435mm used in England, USA, Canada, REQUIREMENT OF IDEAL BALLAST
Turkey, Persia, and China. • Should be possible to maintain the
required depth of the material.
2.2 Railway Track
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD RAILWAY
TRACK
• The gauge should be correct and uniform.
• The track should be resilient and elastic in
order to absorb the shocks and vibrations
of running trains.
• The track should have good lateral
strength so that it can maintain its stability
despite variations in temperature and • Material for ballast should be of such
other such factors. nature that it grips the sleepers in
position and prevent their horizontal
2.3 Rails movement during passage of train.
REQUIREMENTS FOR AN IDEAL RAIL • Material to be used is ballast should not
SECTION be too rigid but it should be elastic
• The rail should have the most economical in nature.
section consistent with strength, stiffness, • Should not allow the rainwater to
and durability. accumulate but should be able to drain off
• The center of gravity of the rail section the water immediately without
should preferably be very close to the percolating.Should be strong enough a
mid-height of the rail. resistance to abrasion.
• A rail primarily consists of a head, a web,
and a foot, and there should be an Chap 6. GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR
economical and balanced distribution of HIGHWAYS AND RAILWAYS
metal in its various components.
2.4 RAIL JOINT WHAT IS GEOMETRIC DESIGN?
REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL RAIL JOINT The Geometric Design of the roads is the branch
• The ideal rail joint should provide flexibility of highway engineering concerned with the
for the easy replacement of rails. positioning of the physical elements of the
• The initial as well as maintenance costs of roadway according to standards and constraints.
an ideal rail joint should be minimal.
• An ideal rail joint should have the same Proper geometric design will help in the reduction
strength and stiffness as the rails itself. of accidents and their severity. Therefore the
• The joint should provide an adequate objective of geometric design is to provide
expansion gap. optimum efficiency in traffic operation and
maximum safety at reasonable cost. A roadway
• An ideal rail joint should hold both the rail
cross-section as “a vertical of the ground and
ends in their precise location.
roadway at right angels to the centerline of the
2.5 SLEEPERS
roadway, including all elements of a highway or
REQUIREMENT OF SLEEPERS
street from right-of way line”. Along with the
• Initial as well as maintenance cost should vertical alignment and horizontal alignment, the
be minimum. roadway cross-section helps to present a three-
• Weight of the sleeper should be dimensional roadway model.
moderate.
• Sleeper should have sufficient bearing HIGHWAY CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
area. 1. Lane width or highway travel way – the
width of the surfaced road and the no. of lanes
should be adequate to accommodate the type Side slopes are provided on embankments and
and volume of traffic anticipated, the assumed fills to provide stability for earthworks.
design speed of vehicles and in meeting
oncoming vehicle or passing slower ones. TYPES OF SLIDE
Back slope – Slopes back to natural topography
Urban lane width – lane width is normally not are known as back slope.
less than 3.5m. Narrower lanes are used for Fare slope – Slopes down to ditch are called
economic or environmental reasons. fare slope.
Flat slopes are preferred because it
Rural lane width – in rural roads, provide:
recommended lane width is 3.65m to reduce 1. Safe operation
accidents and increase capacity. 2. Decreased road maintenance.

2. Median strip for divided highways - is the Steep Slopes - in cross section of roads erode
element of a divided roadway that separates the badly, require high maintenance cost and slopes
lanes in opposing directions. In order provide be will unsightly.
positive protection against a conflict with
opposing traffic. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Advantages of Median of a road In its simplest description, horizontal alignment of
1. The chance of accidents which might produce a roadway is all about road corners/cornering.
head on collision over a narrow median is Horizontal curves provide a directional transition
reduced. between two straight sections of a roadway. The
2. Headlights glare from opposing traffic is less main concern in designing a horizontal curve is
troublesome. considering the cornering capabilities of the
3. At intersection, a wide median provides refuge vehicle. In connecting two straight roads, the
from crossing traffic and a safe waiting place for most common is using a simple circular curve.
traffic taking turns.
4. Space for roads furniture -Simple, Reverse, Compound and Spiral Curves
5. Storage lanes
VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS
3. Shoulder in Highway Cross Section – In the In order to have smooth vehicle movements on
cross section of roads it is that portion of the the roads, the changes in the gradient should be
roadway between the outer edge of the outer smoothened out by the vertical curves. The
traffic lane and the inside edge of the ditch, vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the
gutter, curb or slope. Shoulders are provided for center line of the road. It consists of grades and
the safe operation and allow the development of vertical curves.
full traffic capacity.
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
4. Road Camber or Cross-Slopes – this The distance that allows a driver to complete a
provides a cross slope, whose road cross section normal pass while that driver can observe that
can be either curved or plane or a combination of there is no potential threat ahead before making
the two. The slope provided to road surface in the pass.
the traverse direction to drain off rainwater from
road surface is called cross-slopes. It Is HIDDEN DIP
introduced in all tangent sections of the roadway The hidden-dip profile occurs on relatively
except at curves where super elevation directs all straight horizontal alignment where the roadway
water toward the inside. profile closely follows a rolling natural ground.
These undesirable profiles contribute to passing
5. Side Slopes in Roadway Cross section – maneuver accidents because the passing driver
The graded area immediately adjacent to the is deceived by the view of the road beyond the
graded roadway shoulder is called side slope. dip free of opposing vehicles.
STEEP GRADES IN INTERSECTON concrete structure. Concrete is generally a blend
Intersections should be carefully situated to avoid of cement, sand & aggregates.
steep profile grades and to ensure adequate
approach site distance. An intersection should FACTORS AFFECTING CONCRETE MIX
not be situated on a short-crest vertical curve, DESIGN
just beyond a s short-crest vertical curve, or on a 1.)Grade designation
sharp horizontal curve. 2.)Type and grade of cement
3.) Maximum nominal size of aggregate
VERTICAL PROFILE 4.)Water-cement ratio
The virtical profile of a road is a longitudinal 5.)Durability
section showing the elevations of the road along 6.)Grading of mixed aggregate
its centerline. It includes all the rise and falls 7.)Workability
(grades) over the length of the road. It typically 8.)High quality control
consists of a straight slopes (grades), vertical
curves (where there is a transition between Types of Mix Design
different slopes), and flat sections. • Nominal concrete mix- The wide use of
concrete as construction materials has led to the
EARTHWORKS use of mixes of fixed proportion, which ensures
Are engineering works created through the adequate strength. These mixes are called
moving and/or processing of massive quantities nominal mixes.
of soil or unformed rock. • Designed concrete mix- The concrete mix
produced under quality control keeping in view
THREE MAIN CATEGORIES OF the strength, durability, and workability is called
EARTHWORKS the design mix.
EMBARKMENTS
Adding soil to level off the ground and allow Advantages of Mix Design
railway lines to pass at an acceptable level. • Consistency and quality control - With the
design mix, the ingredients used in the
SOIL CUTTING production of concrete are selected based on
An excavation that removes ground specific requirements, ensuring that the final
predominantly composed of soil to allow railway product meets the desired specifications.
lines to pass on a level surface • Flexibility - The design mix provides flexibility
in the selection of materials and their proportions.
ROCK CUTTING • Cost savings - The use of a design mix can
nvolves an excavation that removes ground lead to cost savings, as it eliminates the need
predominantly composed of solid rock for trial mixes and reduces waste.
• Increased Strength and Durability - The use
Chap 7. STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF of a design mix ensures that the final product has
RAILWAYS AND PAVEMENTS the desired strength and durability.
• Improved Workability - A design mix can
Railway Structures improve the workability of concrete, making it
- include a wide range of construction designed easier to pour, place, and finish. This can result
to sustain the railway. Track or a building that in reduced labor costs and improved productivity.
houses railway activities. The main purpose of a • Reduced Environmental Impact - it can also
highway pavement is to disperse the applied have a positive impact on the environment. By
vehicle loads to the sub-grade. selecting the right materials and proportions,
waste can be reduced, and the carbon footprint
Mix Design- is a procedure of manufacture of of the production process can be minimized
concrete with an ideal proportion of ingredients to
fulfill the desired strength and sturdiness of the Disadvantages of Mix Design
• Time - Designing a mix takes time, and delays provides additional load distribution and
in the process can impact the overall contributes to the sub-surface drainage.
construction timeline. Concrete Slab - a common structural element of
• Quality Control - Because each mix is unique, modern buildings, consisting of a flat, horizontal
there is a higher risk of variability in the quality of surface made of cast concrete.
the final product. Transverse Joint - is a type of joint that is
• Environmental Impact - Some of the materials perpendicular to the direction of the pavement.
used in design mixes, such as admixtures or Longitudinal Joint - is the interface between
specialized aggregates, may have a higher two adjacent and parallel hot mix asphalt that are
environmental impact than standard ingredients. laid during the construction of a road or
• Road Pavements -refers to the hard surface pavement.
layer that is constructed over the subgrade and
used to provide a durable, stable, and smooth The Effect of Water on Soil Strength
surface for vehicles and pedestrians to travel on. The ability of the soil to resist shearing stresses
and sustain load defines the soil shear strength,
Two Types of Road Pavement and its value is about half of the value of
Flexible Pavements - is a type of pavement that compressive strength.
is designed to be flexible and bend slightly under
traffic loads. It consists of layers of asphalt or Importance of Soil Strength
bituminous material over a subgrade and can be A healthy soil has complex strength
used in a variety of applications. requirements. It wants to be a stable structure to
support
Subgrade- base of all pavement layers. vegetation and a certain level of traffic, and
Subbase Course - it is a layer of material below protect the vast array of pores and fissures.
the base course.
Base Course - it is a layer of materials just How is soil strength affected by water
below the surface of the binder course content?
and it provides additional load distribution and Clay type and content influence strength through
contributes to the sub-surface drainage. their role in cohesion. Water content significantly
Binder Course - has the bulk of the asphalt modifies their cohesion. As water content
concrete structure. Its main function is to increases – cohesion decreases. This is because
distribute the load to the base course. increasing water content causes greater
Surface Course - it is the main layer that bears separation of clay particles (and thus easier
the direct traffic load and generally contains slippage) and further, causes softening of soil
superior-quality materials. cements
Prime Coat - is applied by spreading low viscous
cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface like Methods for Determination of Shear
granular bases on which the binder layer is Strength Parameters
placed. Soil is a combination of different materials that
Seal Coat - is a thin layer with a water-proof include various elements, organic matters,
surface and provides skid resistance. substances, gases, fluids, and so on.
Tack Coat - a little amount of asphalt is applied
to the surface. It is generally an asphalt SOIL TESTING EXAMPLES
emulsion diluted with water. 1. Internal Friction and Cohesion - is the
measure of soil to resist against sliding and will
• Rigid Pavement - is constructed from cement change according to the water content.
concrete or reinforced concrete slabs. Grouted 2. Direct Shear Test - is applying shear force on
concrete roads are in the category of semi-rigid the soil sample in order to cause sliding a part of
pavements. the soil.
Base Course - it is a layer of materials just
below the surface of the binder course and it
3. Triaxial Compression Test - is applying Recycled - Crushed concrete and other recycled
constant lateral pressure and vertical axial material can be used successfully as MSE select
pressure through liquid or gas. backfill.
4. Unconfined Compression Test - is applying Lightweight - In case where the MSE wall must
only vertical axial pressure until the soil sample have a significantly reduced load on the
deforms and fails foundation, lightweight materials can be used
.5. Standard Penetration -is taking out the soil such as lightweight aggregate, low density
sample without distributing it. By this test, we can cellular concrete, and foamed glass Aggregate
get information about the void ratio, water
content, density, strength, and other properties of Benefits of MSE Walls
soil underneath the ground. -Flexibility to accommodate high differential
6. Expansion Test - is the testing of the settlement and several feet of total settlement
expansion of soil before and after mixing water -Bearing pressure is distributed over a wide
with soil sample. foundation area
7. Consolidation Test - is done to determine the -Extreme wall heights can be achieved
bearing capacity of the soil and to approximate -Extreme loads can be carried (bridge abutment
settlement of soil below any construction footings, cranes)
projects. -High resistance to seismic ground movement
8. Field Density Test - The field density test of and other dynamic forces
soil is conducted in the field to know whether the -Free-draining, due to granular backfill and open
specified compaction is achieved or not. panel joints
-Form liners or elaborate murals can customize
Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) - retaining the aesthetics
wall is a composite structure consisting of -Soil reinforcing strips can easily accommodate
alternating layers of compacted backfill and soil obstructions within the MSE backfill volume.
reinforcement elements, fixed to a wall facing. --Very versatile. Special design can allow for
nearly any geometry
Properties of the Three Major Components -Rapid, predictable, and repetitive construction
1. Facing - elements are modular precast -Superior finished wall alignment
concrete panels or wire mesh. Each facing type -Mechanical connection of soil reinforcements to
offers different advantages when considering facing units
criteria such as aesthetics, durability,construction
procedure, and expected settlement. Flexible Geocells for Gravel Stabilization
2. Soil reinforcements - are typically steel or This geotextile-based structure is used to contain
geosynthetic, in the form of strips or ladders. All aggregate, stone, gravel, or soil in order to
soil reinforcement options have unique produce a stable surface for both pedestrian
characteristics for pullout and tensile capacity, and trafficked areas, such as private roads,
corrosion, and durability. walkways, private car parks, golf courses, and
3. Select backfill - allows for reliable artificial sports fields.
construction and performance of the wall, in
which the gradation, plasticity, electrochemical Types of Geocell
properties, and overall durability should be Perforated geocells - have small holes in them
closely analyzed. It can be obtained on site, or that allow water and air to flow through. This type
from a distributor of geocell is best for applications where the soil
needs to be able to breathe, like in a green
.Types of Backfill infrastructure project.
Soil- A wide range of soil properties will meet Non-perforated geocells - have smooth, solid
specifications, however the ideal select backfill is walls and are best for applications where water
open-graded with low plasticity and fines content, needs to be kept out, like in a landfill. The
such as sand or crushed stone. This allows for smooth walls prevent the infiltration of water and
easy compaction and fast drainage. help keep the soil inside the cell.
 as to necessitate the use of an extra engine for
Railway structure - It encompass a wide array pushing the train, it is
of construction intended to support the track itself c) Momentum gradient- is steeper than the
or house railway structure. ruling gradient and can be overcome by a train
Bridge Deck- Portion of a railway bridge that because of the momentum it gathers while
supplies a means of carrying the track rails running on the section.
d) Gradients in station yards - are quite flat due
Two general types of Bridge Deck to the following reasons.
• Open Bridge Deck -the rails are anchored
directly to timber bridge ties supported directly on Grade Compensation on Curves.
the floor system of the superstructure. - Curves provide extra resistance to the
• Ballasted Bridge -the rails are anchored movement of trains. As a result, gradients
directly National to timber track ties supported in are compensated to the following extent on
The curves.
The Geometric Design of a Railway Track a) On BG tracks, 0.04% per degree of the curve
1. Gradients in the track, including grade or 70/R, whichever is minimum.
compensation, rising gradient, and falling b) On MG tracks, 0.03% per degree of curve or
gradient. 52 5/R, whichever is minimum.
2. Curvature of the track, including horizontal and c) On NG tracks, 0.02% per degree of curve or
vertical curves, transition curves, sharpness of 35/R, whichever is minimum where R is the
the curve in terms of radius or degree of the radius of the curve in meters. The gradient of a
curve, can’t or super elevation on curves, etc. curved portion of the section should be flatter
3. Alignment of the track, including straight as than the ruling gradient because of the extra
well as curved alignment. Necessity for resistance offered by the curve.
Geometric Design The need for proper geometric
design of a track arises because of the following Chap 8. Failures, Maintenance, and
considerations Rehabilitation of Transportation
• To ensure the smooth and safe running of Infrastructure
trains.
• To achieve maximum speeds. FAILURE - Construction failures are structural
• To carry heavy axle loads. failures occurring during the course of
• To avoid accidents and derailments due to a construction. These include not only partial or
defective permanent way. total collapse of a structure but also excessive
• To ensure that the track requires least deformations, cracks and misalignments. In
maintenance. terms of the safety of workers, it is partial or total
• For good aesthetics.Gradients are provided to collapse that causes most deaths and injuries.
negotiate the rise or fall in the level of the railway
track. MAINTENANCE - Maintenance is the upkeep of
a) To reach various stations at different property, machinery, systems, and facilities,
elevations. including buildings, utility infrastructure, roads,
b) To follow the natural contours of the ground to and grounds. Maintenance consists of those
the extent possible. activities necessary to keep facilities and
c) To reduce the cost of earthwork. systems operational and in good working order.

The following types of gradients are used on REHABILITATION - Rehabilitation work is the
the railways. interventions that are made on a building through
a) Ruling gradient- is the steepest gradient that the introduction of new elements or installations
exists in a section. in order to improve the building's conditions in
b) Pusher or helper gradient - When the terms of salubrity, habitability, safety, energy
gradient of the ensuing section is so steep efficiency, etc.
COMMON TYPES OF TRANSPORTATION TYPES OF ROAD MAINTENANCE
INFRASTRUCTURES ● Pothole Patching - is completed by cleaning
● ROAD out all the rocks and debris in the pothole and
● RAILWAYS filling it up with patching materials. Pothole
● BRIDGES AND TUNNELS patching is commonplace in cold weather cities,
● PORTS AND SHIP CANALS and the holes must be filled for a temporary fix to
● AIRPORTS RUNWAYS ensure a safe and smooth ride before the road is
eventually repaved.
o ROAD - a long, narrow stretch with a
smoothed or paved surface, made for traveling ● Clearing Pavement - Another part of road
by motor vehicle, carriage, etc., between two or maintenance is making sure that there is nothing
more points; street or highway on the road itself that can be harmful to drivers.
This can be anything from fallen trees to debris
ROADS FAILURE CAUSES that can be dangerous if left on the road. A lot of
o Rutting due to high variation in ambient road clearing can be weather related as well.
temperature
o Uncontrolled heavy axle loads ● Clearing Ditches and Culverts - Ditches and
o Inadequate Stability culvert pipes also need to be cleared for save
o Loss of binding action travel. For ditches on the side of the road,
o Poor Design and Fabrication maintenance crews will usually use a water hose
o Congestion to clear ditches of any unwanted
o Environmental Hazard (Flood, Earthquake etc.) materials.Larger, more cumbersome objects, like
o Accidents tree branches, will need to be removed from
o Poor Maintenance culverts and ditches by hand or machine. Proper
removal allows for ditches and culvert pipes to
TYPES OF ROAD FAILURES CRACKING function properly without any disruption.
● Fatigue Cracking
● Longitudinal Cracking ● Proper Drainage - An additional weather
● Transverse Cracking element that can cause issues for the road is
● Block Cracking flooding. For roads to be prepared for potential
● Slippage Cracking flooding, the proper drainage needs to be in
● Reflective Cracking place. Temporary road closure might also be
● Edge Cracking necessary if the road is too unsafe to drive on.
This is when temporary signs will be put into
SURFACE DEFORMATION place to guide drivers away from the road
● Rutting flooding.
● Corrugations
● Shoving ● Shoulder Grading - The shoulders of roads
● Depressions also need to be maintained regularly. For this
● Swell work to be done, the use of a grader is
necessary. This tactic for the shoulder helps it
DISINTERGRATION become leveled and reshaped. This work is
● Pot Holes usually performed in rural areas on roads with no
● Patches sidewalks. While shoulders are not necessarily
the road itself, they are still an important part that
SURFACE DEFFECTS needs to be preserved.
● Raveling
● Bleeding ● Roadway Lighting - Driving at night can be
● Polishing dangerous, especially on the highway with many
● Delamination cars driving at high speeds. Roadway lighting
makes visibility far easier, and its upkeep cannot
be understated. It’s critical that lights are properly ● CRUSHED HEAD - Crushed head means a
functioning and are repaired quickly if they aren’t. short length of rail, not at a joint, which has
drooped or sagged across the width of the rail
● Traffic Sign and Road Marking Repair - Traffic head to a depth of 3⁄8 inch or more below the
signs and road markings are essential for roads rest of the rail head and 8 inches or more in
and do get damaged from time to time. Whether length. Unlike flattened rail where the depression
from a storm or an accident, damaged signs and is visible on the rail head only, the sagging or
road markings need to be taken care of to drooping is also visible in the head/web fillet
maintain road safety for drivers. A traffic sign area.
repair might mean the installation of a new sign ● TRANSVERSE AND COMPOUND FISSURE -
as well. Road marking repair will also require the This type of detailed fracture entails crack
roadway lines and lane perimeters to be initiation and propagation parallel to the running
repainted if they have faded over time and surface of the rail-head causing horizontal
become difficult to see. separation. At some stages, transverse
separation also occurs as the advancing crack-
ROAD REHABILITATION edge changes planes and crack-growth
● Resurfacing - Over time, roads easily continues in the transverse cross-section.
deteriorate because of all the use they get and
the harsh weather they endure year round, from ● SPLIT HEAD- A progressive fracture may
the snow to the sun. When it gets to a certain occur longitudinally in rails in transverse as well
point, roads will be resurfaced. Perhaps the most as in horizontal planes. In a vertical split,
common method is asphalt overlay. This adds a separation starts along a seam and propagates
new layer to the road that is smooth and vertically through the cross- section. It is easy to
therefore safer to drive on. detect them as dark streaks on the running
surface. Similarly, a horizontal split head is a
● Expansion - Road use continues to grow as longitudinal rupture of the head parallel to the
more people travel on them daily. Certain roads, running surface.
especially highways, are expanded to
accommodate the additional traffic and ● RAIL MISALIGNMENT - The position and
commuters. Traffic congestion is real, but it can direction given in a straight or curve path is
be prevented with some maintenance work. The misaligned, when there is little accuracy in the
expansion of a road means adding more lanes alignment between pairs of components.
to it to increase travel efficiency and improve
traffic flow. ● SQUARE OF ANGULAR BREAKS - Rail
breaks either in vertical or in angular plane.
o RAILWAYS - Railways including high speed
rail, subways and elevated railway such as cable TYPES OF RAILWAYS MAINTENANCE
car. ● BALLAST CHECKING - Ballast is the
foundation which the railroad lies, and its quality
RAILWAYS FAILURE CAUSES has a huge impact on the efficacy and longevity
o Impact of moving loads of the rails. Over time, ballast wears down and
o Effect of acceleration and deceleration becomes rounded. The pieces of ballast then fit
o Defects in manufacture together less easily, reducing the ballast's
o Effect of weather and Temperature effectiveness.
o Design of rail joints
o Frequency of rail renewal ● Lubricating Places such as curves on the side
o Corrosion of the head of the rails - Lubrication is extremely
o Poor Maintenance important in the curves in the railway tracks,
where side cutting of rails often occurs. If the rail
TYPES OF RAILWAYS FAILURES tracks are unlubricated, the longevity of the rails
will suffer, and they will need to be replaced ● Wear/ Abrasion
frequently.
● Tightening of joints and Fittings - To hold EXPANSION JOINT
together the adjoining ends of the rails in the ● Abnormal Spacing
correct position, both in the horizontal & vertical ● Difference in Level
planes. ● Rupture
● Drainage Blockage
RAILWAYS REHABILITATION
● Use of special alloy rails where wear is more DRAIN PIPE MATERIAL DETERIORATION
- At places where, wear of rail is considerable, ● Surface Defect
special alloy steel rails are used. The cost of ● Delamination
such rail is more but considerable reduction of ● Water Leak at Deck
wear of such rails justifies the extra cost.
TYPES OF BRIDGE AND TUNNELS
● Renewal of Rails- Are carried out either due to MAINTENANCE
wear and tear of existing rails or when the latter ● Exposed steel work must be cleaned and
are unable to cope with the increasing quantum repainted - Steel which is to be painted must be
of traffic thoroughly cleaned of all loose mill scale, loose
rust, dirt, and other foreign matter.
o BRIDGES AND TUNNELS
- A Bridge is a structure to cross an open space ● Cleaning and resealing of Deck joint - Cleaning
or gap. Bridges are mostly made for crossing the joints periodically to remove debris and
rivers, valleys, or roads. While a Tunnel is an sealing or replacing defective membranes.
underground passageway, dug through the Power cleaning of the concrete surface prior to
surrounding soil/earth/rock and enclosed except placing the seal improves the adhesion and often
for entrance and exit, commonly at each end. improves performance.

BRIDGE AND TUNNELS FAILURE CAUSES ● Resurfacing of deck

o High variation in ambient temperature - Resurfacing of deck has to be sufficiently robust
o Uncontrolled heavy axle loads to resist transient vehicular loading, maintain
o Inadequate Stability good adhesion to the deck and the surfacing, be
o Effect of seawater/water especially to the resistant to deicing salts and possess long-term
bridge columns durability.
o Inadequate ground Investigation
o Poor Design and Fabrication ● Checking of steel cables for corrosion - Some
o Congestion of Vehicles ways to address bridge cable corrosion include
o Environmental Hazard (Flood, Earthquake, cable replacement, or a technique known as
Tsunami etc.) dehumidification, which helps to arrest corrosion
o Accidents (Car crash, Boat Crash, Train Crash in the main cable anchorages.
etc.)
o Inadequate Support method of excavation ● Checking of supports - Routine
checking’s/inspections are regularly scheduled
TYPES OF BRIDGE AND TUNNELS FAILURES inspections that help to ensure continued safe,
STEEL MATERIALS reliable, and efficient service. These inspections
● Corrosion of Steel are similar in scope to the initial bridge
● Paint Deterioration inspections. Routine tunnel inspections record
● Loose Connection the changes to the tunnel over time and can be
used to help identify trends and predict future life
CONCRETE MATERIALS expectancy of components.
● Collapse
● Spalling BRIDGE AND TUNNELS REHABILITATION
● Damage to guard rail, must be repaired and ● DELAMINATION DAMAGE OF
strengthened - Collision-damaged railings should COMPONENTS - Delamination is a separation
be repaired as soon as possible. Repair should along a plane parallel to a surface, as in the
include upgrading and old bridge railing that has separation of a coating from a substrate or the
been subjected to substantial damage to the layers of a coating from each other or, in the
current operational standard. case of a concrete slab, a horizontal splitting,
cracking, or separation near the upper surface.
● Scour around and under piers and abutments ● SCOURING - Scour occurs when water erodes
should be removed - Total scour at the bridge the sediments that surround the base or support
site is comprised of three components, namely of the structure. Scour is often caused by fast-
the aggradation and degradation, contraction moving water, so scour often occurs during
scour, and the local scour. floods.
● COLLAPSE OF WHARF/ SETTLEMENT OF
● Sealing, patching, filling joints and such - FOUNDATION - RA common cause of
Sealing or filling transverse and longitudinal foundation failure, where cracks develop in the
joints in concrete pavements is an important building and foundation reinforcements can
consideration for long-term pavement corrode. This is usually caused by uneven load
performance. distribution or a change in soil-bearing capacity.
● SEDIMENTATION - The process of particles
o PORTS - A port is a maritime facility which settling to the bottom of a body of water
may comprise one or more wharves where ships
may dock to load and discharge passengers and TYPES OF PORTS AND SHIP CANAL
cargo. Although usually situated on a sea coast, MAINTENANCE
some ports can be miles inland, with access to ● Steel Repair and Painting - Because they are
the sea via river or canal. exposed to salt water and salt water spray, ships
need constant maintenance to prevent serous
o SHIP CANALS - A ship canal is a canal corrosion of the steel from which they are made,
especially intended to accommodate ships used and also repainting.
on the oceans, seas or lakes to which it is ● Implementation of Coating For Corrosion
connected, as opposed to a barge canal Protection - Protective coatings are applied to a
intended to carry barges and other vessels material's surface to create a barrier between the
specifically designed for river and/or canal material and the environment, preventing direct
navigation. contact and reducing the corrosion rate.
● Epoxy Injection Into Small Cracks On Deck
PORTS FAILURE AND SHIP CANALS and Supported Beams - Epoxy injection is an
CAUSES economical method of repairing non-moving
o Poor Design and Fabrication cracks in concrete walls, slabs, columns and
o High Variation in Ambient Temperature piers and is capable of restoring the concrete to
o Effect of seawater to the construction materials its pre-cracked strength.
o Severe Corrosion
o Congestion of Ships PORTS AND SHIP CANAL REHABILITATION
o Environmental Hazard (Flood, Earthquake, ● Subject Rebar’s Replacement and Re-
Tsunami etc.) concreting of Damage Section - Repair of
o Accidents (Boat Crash) concrete and rebar’s is needed from time to time
o Poor Maintenance as the structure gets old due to several reasons.
● Placement of Ant-Scouring Devices - An anti-
TYPES OF PORTS AND SHIP CANAL scour apparatus and method for preventing,
FAILURES reducing or repairing scour in the vicinity of a
● MATERIAL DETERIORATION - The item is structure extending vertically from the floor
subject to one or more of the following defects; beneath a body of moving water.
rusting, rotting, corrosion, decay.
o AIRPORT RUNWAYS -Transformer stations for electric power supply-
- A complex of runways and buildings for the Relay and switch cabinets (including switch
take-off, landing, and maintenance of civil cabinets in sub- stations)-Control cables,
aircraft, with facilities for passengers. monitoring units, control desk
-Secondary power supplies (generators)
AIRPORT RUNWAY CAUSES -Fixed 400 Hz ground power supplies
o Poor Design and Fabrication -Apron floodlighting
o High Variation in Ambient Temperature
o Poor Maintenance ● Maintenance of Pavements
o Degradationo Congestion of Aircrafts -Surface repair
o Environmental Hazard (Flood, Earthquake, -Repair of cracks
Tsunami etc.) -Portland cement concrete pavements
o Accidents - Bituminous pavements
-Repair of joints and cracks
TYPES OF AIRPORTS RUNWAYS FAILURES -Joints in concrete pavements
● CRACKING- It is caused by either repeated -Concrete joint maintenance
loading from traffic, or via temperature (climate) - Joints in bituminous pavements
induced cracking. -Repair of pavement edge damage
● SURAFACE DEFORMATION - Surface - Edge repair
faulting is the earth surface deformation -Corner repair
associated with the relative displacement of -Repair of other pavement surface deficiencies
adjacent parts of the surface crust
● DISINTEGRATION - Disintegration is the ● Sweeping
breakup of a pavement into small pieces that are -Purpose of sweeping
lost with time and traffic. Raveling and potholes -Surface monitoring
are the most common types of disintegration. -Cleaning of surfaces
● SURFACE DEFECTS - When runways are -Purpose of cleaning pavements
poorly paved and can't withstand harsh weather -Removal of rubber deposits
conditions, ruts, frost heaves, potholes, -Fuel and oil removal
depressions and soft spots can occur. ● Removal of Snow and Ice
● RUBBER DEPOSITS - When the wheels of -Procedures for snow removal
landing aircraft impact a runway pavement, they -Surface de-icing
deposit rubber on the pavement surface. -Surface anti-icing
TYPES OF AIRPORTS RUNWAYS
MAINTENANCE ● Drainage
● Maintenance of Visual Aids - Cleaning of slot drains
-Airport Light maintenance -Drain pipes or culverts between surfaces and
-Basic maintenance program for approach, collector basins
runway and taxi way lighting systems - Oil and fuel separators
-Special types of lights -Water hydrants
-Cleaning procedures for lights
-Light measurement ● Maintenance of Unpaved Areas
-Lamp replacement - Maintenance of green areas within strips
-Maintenance of grass on unpaved runways and
● Signs taxiways
-Markings -Maintenance of green areas outside strips
-Treatment of cut grass
● Maintenance of Airport Electrical Systems
-Power cables and distributors in field AIRPORT RUNWAY REHABILITATION
-Transformers and regulators (including standby ● Constructing a Concrete or Asphalt Overlay
units)
- Concrete pavements exhibiting distresses such
as cracking, joint deterioration, spalling, and
joint faulting can be rehabilitated by constructing
a concrete or asphalt overlay. The ‘crack and
seat’ technique is the most prevalent method for
deteriorated concrete pavement rehabilitation

● Rubblisation - Rubblisation is the process of

breaking the existing concrete pavement in-situ
into small interconnected pieces that serve as a
base course for a new asphalt overlay