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AQA A Level Physics Your notes

5.3 Circuits & The Potential Divider

Contents
5.3.1 Resistors in Series & Parallel
5.3.2 Series & Parallel Circuits
5.3.3 Electrical Energy & Power
5.3.4 Potential Divider Circuits

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5.3.1 Resistors in Series & Parallel

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Resistors in Series & Parallel
Resistors in Series
When two or more components are connected in series:
The combined resistance of the components is equal to the sum of individual resistances

Resistors connected in series

To calculate the total resistance of resistors in series:

Worked example
The combined resistance R in the following series circuit is 60 Ω.What is the resistance value of R2?

A. 100 Ω B. 30 Ω C. 20 Ω D. 40 Ω

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Your notes

Resistors in Parallel
When two or component are connected in parallel:
The reciprocal of the combined resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
resistances

Resistors connected in parallel

To calculate the total resistance of resistors in parallel:

This means as more resistors are added, their combined resistance decreases and is, therefore, less
than the resistance of the individual components

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For example, If two resistors of equal resistance are connected in parallel, then the combined
resistance will halve
Your notes
Worked example

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Exam Tip
Your notes
The most common mistake in questions about parallel resistors is to forget to find the reciprocal of RT
(1/RT) instead of RT. Here is a maths tip to rejig your memory on reciprocals:
The reciprocal of a value is 1 / value
For example, the reciprocal of a whole number such as 2 equals ½
Conversely, the reciprocal of ½ is 2
If the number is already a fraction, the numerator and denominator are ‘flipped’ round

The reciprocal of a number is 1 ÷ number

In the case of the resistance R, this becomes 1/R
To get the value of R from 1/R, you must calculate 1 ÷ your answer
You can also use the reciprocal button on your calculator (labelled either x-1 or 1/x, depending on
your calculator)

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5.3.2 Series & Parallel Circuits

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Series & Parallel Circuits
Current
In a series circuit, the current is the same for all components
In a parallel circuit, the current is split across the different branches (or junction). The total current into a
junction must equal the total current out of a junction
The amount of current in each branch depends on the total resistance of the components within
that branch

Worked example
For the circuit below, state the readings of ammeters A1, A2 and A3.

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Potential Difference
In a series circuit, the e.m.f of the power supply is shared amongst all the components in different
amounts, depending on their resistance
In a parallel circuit, the voltage of all the components in each branch is equal to the e.m.f of the power
supply

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Worked example
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For the circuit below, state the readings of the voltmeters V1, V2 and V3.All the lamps and resistors have
the same resistance.

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Your notes

Cells can also be connected in series or parallel

The total voltage of the combined cells can be calculated in the same way as voltage
If the cells are connected in series, the total voltage between the ends of the chain of cells is the
sum of the potential difference across each cell
If the cells are connected in parallel, the total voltage across the arrangement is the same as for
one cell

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Your notes

A summary of the current, voltage and resistance within a series and parallel circuit are summarised
below:
Table of Voltage, Current & Resistance in Series & Parallel Circuits

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Your notes

Exam Tip
The best way to practice these calculations is to understand why you have made a mistake. Common
mistakes are:
Thinking the current is the same through every branch in a parallel circuit
Thinking the voltage is the same through all components in a series circuit
Not taking into account multiple resistors
Not calculating the total resistance using the appropriate parallel or series resistance equation
The sum of the voltages of all the components in a series circuit not adding up to the e.m.f of the
supply
The current into a junction not being equal to the current out of a junction (Kirchoff’s First Law)
Don’t be afraid to annotate circuit diagrams to help with this. The more information you have about all
the components, the easier it is to calculate values that are missing

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Conservation of Charge & Energy

Conservation of Charge Your notes
Charge is never used up or lost in a circuit - this is known as conservation of charge
As a result of this, for current in a parallel circuit:
The sum of the currents entering a junction always equal the sum of the currents out of the
junction
This is sometimes known as Kirchhoff's First Law
In a circuit:
A junction is a point where at least three circuit paths meet
A branch is a path connecting two junctions
If a circuit splits into two branches, then the current before the circuit splits should be equal to the
current after it has split
In the circuit below, I = I1 + I2+ I3, where I represents the current in the circuit before it branches, and I1, I2
and I3 represent the current in the respective three branches:

The current I into the junction is equal to the sum of the currents out of the junction
The charge is conserved on both sides of the junction
In a series circuit, the current is the same through all components

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Your notes

The current is the same at each point in a series circuit

In a parallel circuit, the current divides at the junctions and each branch has a different value
Kirchhoff’s First Law applies at each junction

The current divides at each junction in a parallel circuit

Conservation of Energy
Energy is never used up or lost in a circuit - this is known as conservation of energy

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As a result of this, for voltage in any circuit:

The total e.m.f. in a closed circuit equals the sum of the potential differences across each Your notes
component
This is sometimes known as Kirchhoff's Second Law
Each closed circuit can be treated like a series circuit
Below is a circuit explaining Kirchhoff’s Second Law with the sum of the voltages in the closed series
circuit equal to the total e.m.f:

The sum of the voltages is equal to the total e.m.f from the batteries
In a series circuit, the voltage is split across all components depending on their resistance
The sum of the voltages is equal to the total e.m.f of the power supply
In a parallel circuit, the voltage is the same across each closed loop
The sum of the voltages in each closed circuit loop is equal to the total e.m.f of the power supply:

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Your notes

The sum of the e.m.fs in each closed loop is equal to the total e.m.f of the power supply
A closed-circuit loop acts as its own independent series circuit and each one separates at a junction. A
parallel circuit is made up of two or more of these loops

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Your notes

Each circuit loops acts as a separate, independent series circuit

This makes parallel circuits incredibly useful for home wiring systems
A single power source supplies all lights and appliances with the same voltage
If one light breaks, voltage and current can still flow through for the rest of the lights and
appliances

Exam Tip
Junctions only appear in parallel circuits and as circuits become more complex, it can be confusing as
to which currents are into the junction and which are out.Drawing arrows on the diagram for the current
flow (making sure it’s from positive to negative) at each junction will help with this

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5.3.3 Electrical Energy & Power

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Energy & Power
In mechanics, power P is defined as the rate of doing work
The potential difference is the work done per unit charge
Current is the rate of flow of charge
Therefore, the electrical power is defined as the rate of change of work done:

The work done is the energy transferred so the power is the energy transferred per second in an
electrical component
The power dissipated (produced) by an electrical device can also be written as

Using Ohm's Law V = IR to rearrange for either V or I and substituting into the power equation, means
power can be written in terms of resistance R

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Your notes

This means for a given resistor if the current or voltage doubles the power will be four times as great.
Which equation to use will depend on whether the value of current or voltage has been given in the
question
Rearranging the energy and power equation, the energy can be written as:
E = VIt
Where:
E = energy transferred (J)
V = voltage (V)
I = current (A)
t = time (s)

Worked example
Two lamps are connected in series to a 150 V power supply.

Which statement most accurately describes what happens?A. Both lamps light normally
B. The 15 V lamp blows
C. Only the 41 W lamp lights
D. Both lamps light at less than their normal brightness

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ANSWER: A

Your notes

Exam Tip
You can use the mneumonic “Twinkle Twinkle Little Star, Power equals I squared R” to remember
whether to multiply or divide by resistance in the power equations.When doing calculations involving
electrical power, remember the unit is Watts W, therefore, you should always make sure that the time is
in seconds

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5.3.4 Potential Divider Circuits

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Potential Divider Circuit
When two resistors are connected in series, through Kirchhoff’s Second Law, the potential difference
across the power source is divided between them
Potential dividers are circuits which produce an output voltage as a fraction of its input voltage
Potential dividers have three main purposes:
To provide a variable potential difference
To enable a specific potential difference to be chosen
To split the potential difference of a power source between two or more components
Potential dividers are used widely in volume controls and sensory circuits using LDRs and thermistors
Potential divider circuits are based on the ratio of voltage between components. This is equal to the
ratio of the resistances of the resistors in the diagram below, giving the following equation:

Potential divider diagram and equation

Where:
R2 is the numerator and the resistance of the resistor over Vout

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R1 is the other resistance in series

Vout is the output potential difference
Vin is the input potential difference Your notes
The potential divider equation can also be written:
R1
V out = V in
R1 + R2
Where this time:
R1 is the numerator and the resistance of the resistor over Vout
R2 is the other resistance in series
Whichever notation you use you will obtain the same answer
The numerator has to be the resistance of the resistor over Vout
In the circuit shown above:
The input voltage Vin is applied to the top and bottom of the series resistors
The output voltage Vout is measured from the centre to the bottom of resistor R2
The potential difference V across each resistor depends upon its resistance R:
The resistor with the largest resistance will have a greater potential difference than the other one
from V = IR
If the resistance of one of the resistors is increased, it will get a greater share of the potential
difference, whilst the other resistor will get a smaller share
In potential divider circuits, the p.d across a component is proportional to its resistance from V = IR

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Worked example
Your notes
The circuit is designed to light up a lamp when the input voltage exceed a preset value.
It does this by comparing Vout with a fixed reference voltage of 5.3 V.

Vout is equal to 5.3

Calculate the input voltage Vin.

Answer:

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Always make sure the correct resistance is in the numerator of the potential divider equation. This will
be the resistance of the component you want to find the output voltage of.

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Variable Resistance Components

Variable and sensory resistors are used in potential dividers to vary the output voltage Your notes
This could cause an external component to switch on or off e.g. a heater switching off
automatically when its surroundings are at room temperature
Sensory resistors used are Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs) and thermistors

LDR and thermistor in a potential divider circuit with a fixed resistor R

The voltmeter in both circuits is measuring Vout
Recall that the resistance of an LDR varies with light intensity
The higher the light intensity, the lower the resistance and vice versa
An LDR circuit is often used for street and security lights
The resistance of a thermistor varies with temperature
The hotter the thermistor, the lower the resistance and vice versa
A thermistor circuit is used in fire alarms, ovens and digital thermometers

From Ohm’s law V = IR, the potential difference Vout from a resistor in a potential divider circuit is
proportional to its resistance
If an LDR or thermistor's resistance decreases, the potential difference through it also decreases
If an LDR or thermistor's resistance increases, the potential difference through it also increases

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Since the total p.d of the components must be equal to Vin, if the p.d of the sensory resistor decreases
then the p.d of the other resistor in the circuit must increase and vice versa
Your notes
Worked example
A potential divider consists of a fixed resistor R and a thermistor.

What happens to the p.d through resistor R and the thermistor when the temperature of the thermistor
decreases?

ANSWER: D

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Your notes

Due to Ohm’s Law (V = IR), both the resistor and thermistor are connected in series and have the same
current I
If resistance R increases, the potential difference across the thermistor also increases
In series, the potential difference is shared equally amongst the components. Their sum equals the
e.m.f of the supply (Kirchhoff’s second law)
If the potential difference across the thermistor increases, the potential difference across the
resistance R must decreases, to keep the same overall total e.m.f
This is row D

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